The Limits of Consociationalism (As a Method of Conflict Management)

CEU eTD Collection In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts in T B M HE ELGIUM AND Department of International Relations and European Studies ETHOD OF L IMITS OF IMITS International Relations and European Studies European and Relations International Supervisor: Professor Erin Kristin Jenne Central European University European Central C C Budapest, Hungary C ONFLICT Adrien Elleboudt Adrien ANADA AS 14,660 Words ONSOCIATIONALISM Submitted to Submitted 2007 By M C ANAGEMENT RUCIAL T ( ESTS AS A ): CEU eTD Collection fix the problems they created. fix they problems the put such institutions in place to begin with, because there is little or even nothing to do later to shouldconcludesnot pursue It thatstates their arelikely road. to tendencies of groups ethnic separatist in are place, institutions consociational once that itargues Further, limiting them. of instead fragmentation ethnic further of become causes can often systems of consociational internal factors that demonstrate to Thisthesisattempt literature. inthe cases consociational successful consideredas arewidely Canada, which and Belgium crucial-cases, two tests Abstract The thesis offers a critique on consociationalism as a method of ethnic integration. It integration. of ethnic as amethod consociationalism on acritique The thesisoffers i CEU eTD Collection and disponibility. I wouldalsoliketo thank Academic Writingmy professor, RobinBellers, hisoptimism for encouragements, aswell for herthoughtful advices. I wouldliketo thank professor my and supervisor ErinJennefor her enthusiasmand Acknowledgments ii CEU eTD Collection Bibliography...... 49 ...... 46 Conclusion Chapter 4. Cases...... 21 Chapter 3. Research Design...... 14 Chapter ...... 13 2. Argument Chapter 1. Literature Review – Theoretical Framework...... 4 Introduction...... 1 iii ...... Table of Contents ii Acknowledgments ...... i Abstract...... Table ofContents 4.3. Comparative ...... 39 evaluation 4.2. Canada and its “coming together” system...... 29 4.1. Belgium and its “holding together” system...... 21 3.2. Methodology...... 18 3.1. Case Selection...... 14 1.3. Contribution to the debate...... 11 1.2. The consociational ...... 5 debate 1.1. Consociationalism...... 4 4.2.2. History of ethnic mobilization in Canada...... 30 4.2.1. The 1867 British North America Act and the ...... 29 federal option 4.1.2. History of ethnic mobilization in Belgium...... 23 4.1.1. Belgium in 1830: The choice for unitarythe model and the threeBelgian cleavages ...... 21 iii CEU eTD Collection Amoretti, (eds.) 3 areferendum make after very been to Quebec has secession close Quebec andFlanders areboth hosting nationalist strong movements. separatist and In 1995, instance, For countries. both of stability the threaten which lines, division problematic most and strongest basisarethe a territorial with cleavages Ethnic institutions. consociationalist fragmentation which are stilltobelimitedprocesses, by ethnic are supposed undergoing federal 2 Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies’ (London, Ontario,November 9-10, 2002), p.13. Post-Conflict : Democracy to Power-Sharing on ‘From Conference at the bepresented to paper Working 1 highly andthe “Canadian “peaceful, democratic” (…) tendencieshaveremained separatist » histories « consociational « » undisputed is relatively ideal-cases as perceived are they that fact the Moreover, system. political their in practices consociational introduced have both who Canada, and Belgium consociationalism, to demonstrate its shortcomings. systems and on unsuccessful in its toargue favor, stories successful on concentrated practices of conditions conductive to their success. Therefore, the case-studies around consociational societies in tostabilize as validmethods fragmented presence arrangements consociational the failures inhas sufferedmajor societies. Thoughit in ethnic divided groups accommodate ethnically Eastern Europe, Middle EastIntroduction and Africa, several scholars persist to consider Richard, Simeon, « Canada. Federalism, Language, and Regional Conflict », in Nancy, Bermeo and Ugo M., and Bermeo Nancy, in », Conflict Regional and Language, Federalism, «Canada. Simeon, Richard, Brendan, O’Leary, «An iron law of nationalism and federation? A (neo-Diceyian) theory of the necessity of a John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) as a Method of Ethnic Conflict Regulation », Staatsvolk However, despite the progressive elaboration of such systems, Belgium Canada and Belgium such systems, of elaboration progressive the despite However, Hence, I decided in this thesis to test two supposedly successful cases of twosuccessful supposedly test to indecidedthesis this Hence, I to method been indecades has a successful as seen the last theory The consociational Federalism and Territorial Cleavages 1 , and of consociational rescue », in », rescue of consociational , and in the literature, since has been recognized that both countries share countries both that recognized been has since literature, inthe 2 . Nations and Nationalism , (Baltimore, MD, John Hopkins Press, 2004), p. 93. 1 , (2001 : 7/3), p. 291. 3 . Even though Quebec though Even . CEU eTD Collection my research design, which is composed of on the one hand the justification of my case my of justification the hand one the on of composed is which design, research my Idevelop the In Idetailmyargument. third chapter, secondchapter, the consociationalism. In of opponents school to Lijphart the opposes that debate the outlining ethnofederalism, laterare incannot created. one fix problems they the place, institutions consociational once that appears it importantly, More cases. both in fragmentation leading veto) arefurtherautonomy,minority coalition,grand to ethnic proportionality and movement separatism toward variable).(my dependent similar for wereresponsible variable) my independent institutions, (consociational factors similar see whether these to ofagreement method comparative the use I fragmentation. whether their consociational institutions andpractices could be the causes of their ethnic consociationalism. of features internal institutions, and practices consociational in these find types. Therefore, I argue that the most important cause of such ongoing fragmentation is to success’ in the literature on the field, they largely fit their qualification as ideal consociational possess most of the Canada and Belgium consociational that Knowing thereof. reasons search for the to need we cases, both conditions that have decision-makers. Flemish among present beenstrongly remain themes separatist that emphazisedshowing asBelgian a for wishes ‘conductive their evoking publicly are politicians moderate certain to that extent an such to evolved has movement Flemish the Belgium, In management. conflict leaves several question marks in terms of the ability of consociationalism to provide a genuine 4 civility” remarkable with a conducted unity debate Ibid. , p. 116. In the first chapter, Imake a review on the relevant literature on consociationalism and group (among characteristics main of consociational three the arethat My findings In order to support my argument, Iwill test both cases –Belgium and Canada-, and see If linguistic cleavageshave predominant until–and remained in problematic-today 2 4 , such fragmentation process remains and remains process fragmentation such , con federation, CEU eTD Collection crucial-cases Belgium and Canada with my argument, using the method of of method agreement. using the my with argument, Canada and Belgium crucial-cases two the Itest chapter, last and fourth the In mymethodology. of other the on and selection, 3 CEU eTD Collection (Apr. 1979 : 31/3), p. 325. 10 Quarterly 9 Journal of Political Science and compromise of mechanisms of consisting developed, are systems consociational resources political and/or » economic 8 University,Occasional Papers n°29 (Cambridge, 1972). political cleavages or ascross-cutting aswell consensus social lacking subcultures, antagonistic ideologically instability: in result would consociationalism, without which, ingredients the all possess usually which in polities implemented is It government. into minorities incorporate to fail which models, majoritarian fragmented politieshave that territorially subcultures. distinct in existing stability the explain to attempt an thus is Consociationalism communities. « terms cultural and/or religious,societies nationalistic, divided linguistic, distinct to » refer The societies. polarizes whichethnically make of outbidding, ethnic and also grievances, use may behave as competitors with other leaders of subcultures, give priority to their own are proneto« produc[ing] volatile and of politics types unstable governance » 7 6 » effects present« that divisions theirbetween subcultures, cleavages immobilizing unstabilizing and « By by sharp are divided culture political that fragmented societies to refers Lijphart », 5 a stableinto democracy culture political » fragmented ademocracy a with turn designed to 1.1. Consociationalism Chapter 1. Literature Review – Theoretical Framework Gordon E., Cannon, « Consociationalism vs. Control : Canada as a Casestudy », in Hans, Keman, « Political Stability in Divided Societies : A Rational-Institutional Explanation », in Eric, Nordlinger, Arend, Lijphart, « Consociational Democracy », in Ibid. Ian, Lustick, « Stability inDeeply Divided Societies : Consociationalism versus Control », in , p. 212. Originally, the consociational model has been imagined as an alternative to alternative an as imagined been has model consociational the Originally, Arend Lijphart hasArend Lijphart as« defined consociational a democracy governmentby elite cartel , (Mar. 1982 : 35/1), p. 50. 6 . Indeed, due to their greater ethnic divisiveness, these « these ethnic divisiveness, divided societies deeply to theirgreater » . Indeed,due Conflict Regulation in Deeply Divided Societies , (1999 : 34/2), p. 249. 10 . In order to avoid clashes and limit tensions, limit and clashes avoid to order In . World Politics 4 9 , and which compete « social,compete which and , important for , Center for International Affairs, Harvard Affairs, International for Center , , (Jan., 1969 : 21/2), p.216. The Western Political 8 , whereleaders World Politics, Australian 5 7 . CEU eTD Collection 16 17 Affairs « Federalism, Federal Political Systems and Federations in », Federations and Systems Political Federal Federalism, « 15 117-37. Will, Kymlicka, State :the new politics of nationalism in Quebec, Catalonia and Scotland Multinationalism and Federalism Hechter, 14 work ? », Faculty Research Working Papers Series (Cambridge, MA, Harvard University, February 2005), p. 4. 13 of segments its all inclusion can onlybe the through realized leaders ideasignificant stakeholders, the bind is to them constitutional to agreements possibility of dual or multiple overlapping national loyalties. national overlapping multiple or dual of possibility in a nationalunique loyalty whobelieve federalists, ofnational assimilation objectives and/or integrationist a rejection of » factions all among consensus widest « the achieve to trying level, elite the at power share will state divide societies isbyinstituting apoliticalin arrangement which withincompeting groups a integration. Proponents of consociationalism effectiveness of ethnofederalism to solve or prevent ethnic conflicts, as well as promote ethnic the on « focuses the debate the school precisely, More Lijphart opponents. its and » debate consociational 1.2. The operate they which » within arena political « the of perpetuation the to key element of consociational models is the cooperation between elites, who are committed 12 Governance », (Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden, 2001), p. 71. 11 segments major the of elites the by implemented and promoted accommodation Samuel, Issacharoff, «Constitutionalizing Democracy in Fractured Societies », in John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) as a Method of Ethnic Conflict Regulation », Pippa, Norris, « Stable democracy and good governance (...), Contemporary academics who support ethnofederalism/consociationalism are numerous : a.o., Michael, Pippa, Norris, «Stable democracy goodand governance in divided societies :Do power-sharing institutions Ian, Lustick, « Stability in Deeply Divided Societies (...) », Joseph G., Jabbra, and Nancy W., Jabbra, « Consociational Democracy in Lebanon : A Flawed System of , (Fall 2004 : 58/1),p. 88. Consociationalism has been the subject of an intense debate between authors close to close authors between debate intense an of subject the been has Consociationalism Containing Nationalism 15 . Further, they argue that the legitimacy of a state with a deeply divided society divided with a deeply state of a legitimacy the that they argue . Further, Politics in theVernacular , (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2000);Juan J., Linz, , (Working, Paper, 1997 : 103), p. 29-30 ; Michael, Keating, 17 . Indeed, proponents of consociationalism believe in the believe consociationalism of proponents Indeed, . , (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 2001) ; Ronald L., Watts, 14 5 argue that the only way to stabilize deeply to way only the arguethat op. cit. Annual Review of Political Science op. cit. , p. 334. , p. 2. 16 , (London,MacMillan Press,1996) ; . Thisvision isby accompanied Journal of International 12 Democracy, . By making all making . By Nations against the , (1998 : 1),pp. 11 . Thus, the Thus, . 13 . CEU eTD Collection 22 21 Power Prevent or Encourage It ? », in ?», It orEncourage Prevent Power 20 19 Multiethnic Societies 18 Institutions in Ethnically Divided Societies’ (London, Ontario,November 9-10, 2002), p.7. Post-Conflict : Democracy to Power-Sharing on‘From Conference at the bepresented to paper Working of stake minority vital the are at interests issues where majority,and voting usually consists in hasa special quorum, which be incertain to reached of minorities the interests service ofpublicdistribution funds and positions) civil protect vital veto; minority the to concern them solely ; proportionality for allocating political representation (and thus fair attribution of group groups ethnic important most coalition the autonomy of meaning segments, ; significant all of » to the subcultures, in order to let them deal with issues that specification of » specification consequences of of plurality accommodate the subidentities. necessary to followers are difficult to alter in the short run run short in the alter» to difficult are followers down ethnic engineering relies on the assumption that « habits, sentiments and loyalties of the » loyalty for reasons « and voice promote hand, other the on exit and for », « any impetus limit hand one the effects of majority rule and thus alleviate the fears negative the of minimize the least minorities.at or avoid to is aim The Theseautonomy. features group as well as wouldmechanisms on participation levels at all decision-making; of by also, theirvital interests areprotected veto a higher feel due moreto to andguaranteed confident, groups secessionistpotentially Donald, Horowitz, Donald L., Horowitz, Ian, Lustick, Dan, Miodownik and Roy J. Eidelson, «Secessionism inMulticultural States : Does Sharing Arend, Lijphart, « Power-SharingThe Approach», in Joseph Montville (ed.), Ibid., p. 495. Lijphart’s consociationalism relies on four crucial elements: government by a « a grand by government elements: crucial four on relies consociationalism Lijphart’s An argument against the consociational model is that it suffers an « suffersit an isthat model consociational the against An argument inadequate The advantages of such systems seem numerous. Consociationalism encourages Consociationalism seemnumerous. systems of such The advantages , (Lenxington, MA, LenxingtonBooks, 1990), pp. 494-495. op. cit. Ethnic Groups Conflictin 20 to the state. The argument that conflict is best contained through top- through contained best is conflict that argument The state. the to , p. 570. 18 . Such veto is needed to avoid outvoting or overruling by the by overruling or outvoting avoid to needed is veto Such . 22 American Political Science Review , which can be (un)intended,(un)desired or depending on the , (Berkeley, CA, University of California Press, 2000), p. 569. 6 21 , and thus that the action of the elites is 19 . , (May , 2004 :98/2), p. 210. Conflict and Peacemaking in CEU eTD Collection op. cit. Jabbra, and Nancy W., Jabbra, « Consociational Democracy in Lebanon : A Flawed System of Governance », 27 Oxford,and Berghahn, 2003), p.31. 26 groups withingroups societies.divided ethnic of thedynamics influence thatseverely features in many casesinternal exist there of Turkey for the first andexample, Cyprusof and Lebanon Syriaconsociations have been made fragile dueand to the involvement Israel for interference outside » theto second 25 unity minority can since funds andother institutionseasier be types of support tothe channeled of that more autonomy more likely the a minority is obtains, support external tobeforthcoming, the that argued has Cornell Svante extent. a certain to autonomy group as well as institutions Withof ethnic groups. implementation the a consociational obtain of system, groups ethnic separatist tendencies can support that ethnofederations on environment of regional effectthe External factors as external well internal factors. as 24 23 « These each case. conditions to environmental particular conditions from » result can be that many appliedcannot to becauseof precisely consequences unintended cases, thisenvironmental in evolve.Inotherwords, has system model which the conditions to For an overview of the external factors that have threatened Lebanon’s stability, please refer to : Joseph G., Joseph : to refer please stability, Lebanon’s threatened have that factors external the of overview an For Stefan, Wolff, Stefan, Arend, Lijphart, « The Power-Sharing Approach », Approach Power-Sharing «The Lijphart, Arend, Svante E., Cornell, « Autonomy as a Source of Conflict (...) », Idem. 25 (2001), pp. 80-83. , consociational systems have been seen, on the contrary, as « particularly vulnerable « as particularly contrary, the on seen, been have systems consociational , Although Lijphart considers that external threats are factors that promote internal promote that factors are threats external that considers Lijphart Although Consociationalist theorists have often been criticized for ignoring or minimizing the 24 . Disputed Territories :The Transnational Dynamics of Ethnic Conflict Settlement 26 , the latter altering the balances of power within the state. For op. cit. op. 7 , p. 498. , p. op. cit. , p. 256. 27 . In addition to these factors, , (New , (New York 23 refer to CEU eTD Collection Dennis, Austin (eds.), 33 32 54/7), p. 1105. increases that group’s cohesion and group’s increases that « statingthat group titular the identity of separate the promoting and institutionalizing card » the ethnic « feel to arecongruentwith leaders playthen ethnic because encouraged lines, federal borders 31 strategy » » any price for concessions extract« will with highestthe to possible have consociationalism,subgroups argued that tend the increases differences inter-group » accentuate « and identification ethnic encourage in power-sharing Skeptics societies arrangements ethnically alsoargue divided that » nations new [for] «incubator an creates hence and claims, separatist around mobilization 30 (Standford, CA, Stanford University Press, 1993), p. 87. 29 World Politics 28 « others: (among resources political and bureaucratic institutions statelike one thing, devolution groups the toregionallyof power offer concentrated them the Internal factors promoting inter-elite cooperation, diminish popular interaction between the segments, and segments, the between interaction popular diminish cooperation, inter-elite promoting in succeed they if models, consociational that observed even have Some group(s). minority andcooperate, this holds morefor leaders even of majoritythe leaders towards group of (the) Richard, Bellamy, « Dealing with Difference : FourModels of Pluralist Politics », in Michael, O’Neill and Svante E., Cornell, « Autonomy as a Source of Conflict (...) », Henry E., Hale, and Rein, Taagepera, “Russia: Consolidation or Collapse?”, in Joseph, Siegle and Patrick, O’Mahony, Ronald G., Suny, « The Revenge of the Past : Nationalism, Revolution and the Collapse of the Soviet Union », Svante E., Cornell, « Autonomy as a Source of Conflict :Caucasian Conflicts in Theoretical Perspective », in The internal factors that limit the effectiveness of consociationalism are multiple. For multiple. are consociationalism of limit effectiveness the that factors The internal Opponents of ethnofederalism also argue that such system lacks incentives for elites to elites for incentives lacks system such that argue also ethnofederalism of Opponents , paper prepared forUSAID’s Office of Democracy Governanceand (2006), p. 7. , (2002 : 54/2), p. 254. capacity 31 when they seek for popularity. Svante Cornell resumed these claims by claims these resumed Cornell Svante popularity. for seek they when Democracy and Cultural Diversity of that group to act group to thatof » 33 and will constantly press for further autonomy. further for press constantly will and Assessing the merits of decentralization as a conflict mitigation willingness 32 . Moreover, opponents to ethnofederal systems ethnofederal to opponents Moreover, . 8 , (Oxford University Press, 2000) p. 209. to act, and establishing to political institutions op. cit. , p. 252. Europe-Asia Studies 30 , especially once 28 ») for mass for ») , (2002: 29 . CEU eTD Collection 34 largestregion the second wholedoes the population than percent moreof country’s » « orthat majority population the of absolute contains20 an least that region makesat up tendencies increased for separatist solidarity, providing opportunities hence reduceinter-segmental 36 World Politics 35 40 39 38 37 responsive to core region demands than to theirs to than core region demands to responsive more bewill government central the that groups smaller among fears can exacerbate sufficient people and system, offeredby possesses ethnic with an ethnodeferal advantages core the region, coupled resources to organize a potential rival claim to sovereignty « a of presence region ethnic inthe core » societies divided ethnically in tensions group » group « to tries [core] critical most government ofthis defection central whenthe avert especially dispersed, and thus which cannot control federal units cannot or dispersed,provinces thus which and with consociational systems to accommodate minorities, which are smallerin number or inability states the of concerns consociationalism claim against Another government. central and ethnic between the group increases core the andalsobut social)rivalry the and political economical, broadly: (taken resources for state competition interethnic fuels and reinforces because ofthe high costs of the elaboration of such asystem, as well as due to the democratic region live.where they concerned the of in ofstability terms a threat represent accommodate, to which aredifficult Richard, Bellamy, Henry E., Hale, « Divided We Stand : Institutional Sources of Ethnofederal State Survival and Collapse », in John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », Ibid. Idem. Ibid. Ibid. , p. 169. , p. 175. , p. 173. More precisely, certain authors have argued that ethnofederalism is likely to create likely to is ethnofederalism that have argued authors precisely, certain More Others have also argued against consociationalism, as Rabushka and Shepsle have, Shepsle and Rabushka as consociationalism, against argued also have Others 39 . From a different angle, one could argue that consociational accommodation consociational that argue could one angle, a different . From 34 , (2004 : 56/2), p. 169. . op. cit. , p. 209. op. cit. 9 , p.8. 38 . This can happen even and perhaps and even happen can This . 40 . Hence, these minorities, 35 37 , thatis, a . Also, it Also, . 36 . This . CEU eTD Collection 44 43 42 European University Press, 1995), p. 177. Plurality : Problem orSolution », inSukumar, Periwal (ed.), (Columbus, OH, Merill, 1972). For a critique of the two latter, see Hans, van Amersfoort, « Institutional 41 consideration into takes when one However, group. ethnic leaders of each different among the onceagain,competition generates, becauseitfactor, be adivisive can coalition of grand each other with competition in constant are subunits because ethnic cooperation,mainly inter-group a brakeon serve as often groups demonstrated, groups are rarely represented by a single set of leaders, and the divisions within characteristics of representation and group autonomy. Indeed, as Donald Horowitz has lack achallenge andAlso, represents toconsociational of this uniqueleadership concrete always not united are elites their because consociationalism, through accommodated easily less be therefore may subgroups Linguistic cohesion. such possess always not do example, developed hierarchies, with a distinctleadership.Ethnicities based only for language,on leadership organization and requires acertain unity and cohesion theincludingwithin existing subgroups, aclear necessarily satisfy the demands of their own groups. reach butthese(meaning, not could toaconsensus among all ethnic choices groups), satisfy make allgroups havea genuinedestined choices eliteswould to democracy. to These to a threat represent in secrecy elites dealing that arguing cooperation, inter-elite on emphasis authors this criticize two the secondobjection, the Regarding inter-ethnic cooperation. contributegroups more andto these investments, such incould in asymmetry instability result ethnic larger that mean would it proportionality, of implementation the With be effective. to systems important investmentsrequire since the whole model needs a plurality institutionsof a top-bottom deficitinherentto approach Donald, Horowitz, Donald, Horowitz, Arend, Lijphart, Arend, Alvin, Rabushka, and Kenneth A., Shepsle, Finally, it has been pointed out that consociationalism, in order to be effective, to in order consociationalism, that out pointed been has it Finally, DemocracyPlural in Societies op. cit. op. cit. , p. 574. , p. 574. 42 . Usually, groups with religious or ideological bases possess bases ideological or religious with groups Usually, . Politics inPluralSocieties: A Theory ofDemocratic Instability 44 , (New Haven, Yale University Press, 1977), p. 25. . Further, Horowitz points out that even the concept even that out points Horowitz Further, . 41 . Concerning the first objection, consociational 10 Notions of Nationalism , (Budapest, Central 43 . CEU eTD Collection Secessionism ? », in Secessionism 47 46 45 the dominantgroups promotes « « of that concept region argued ethnic the been has institutional core it », we can observe an ongoing process of « cultural fragmentation « fragmentation » of cultural process ongoing an we canobserve cases consociationalism, mostof successful in supposedly even ideathat demonstrating the thedebate to 1.3. Contribution ethnicaccommodate in groups deeply societies,divided andensure to stability. to extreme the difficulty demonstrate multiple, and are integration- ethnic promoting dominates.group united,is and consequently, likelytopromote disunitythe ethnofederationthe of such that be is dominantinstitutionally likelyto group the that argueautonomy, reasonably one could acertain degree of groups provideethnic is to objectives of consociationalism of core the settings. fragmentation, ideal leading with also be to meaning casescould even that considering such assumptions, lessoptimistic with systems ideal-cases of consociational or successful approach and Middle Africa) East Europe, Eastern and Central from cases (mostly shortcomings its highlight to examples unsuccessful have used detractors whileits cases), Western (mostly of advantages ethnofederalism the justify to cases successful on analyses their based have models of such proponents bias. Thus, from greatly selection suffers onconsociationalism scholarship the because Dawn, Brancati, « Decentralization : Fueling the Fire or Dampening the Flames of Ethnic Conflict and Conflict ofEthnic Flames the Dampening or Fire the Fueling : « Decentralization Brancati, Dawn, Arend, Lijphart, « Consociational Democracy », Democracy «Consociational Lijphart, Arend, Henry E., Hale, « Divided We Stand (...) », My contribute inthis is tothedebateobjective paper to outlinedby above In sum, internal factors undermining the theory of consociationalism -as a theory International Organization unity 47 . Consequently, rare are the authors who have tried to tried have who authors the are rare Consequently, . of the ethnofederations they dominate » dominate they ethnofederations the of op. cit. , (Summer 2006 60),: p.653. op. cit. , p. 192. 11 , p. 220. 46 . This analysis is important is analysis . This 45 . But since one since But . disunity of CEU eTD Collection 48 federations multi-national » of success the conductive« (...) to the possessing conditions of ethnofederalism, successful cases declared as havebeenoften cases both my Indeed, foranalyze. seemthemost suitable they because as conductiveidentified by Lijphart to success. These casesincludeBelgium and Canada, modelmostexamine in ethnic conditions effects fit closely of casesthatthis the on relations ideal situation of the two countries in terms of consociationalism. of in terms countries two the of situation ideal reinforce the that andCanada- by Belgium -enjoyed conditions other are but there conditions, John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », To construct a « crucial-test » for the effectiveness of consociationalism, I therefore op. cit. 48 . Arend Lijphart has identified several of these of several has identified . ArendLijphart 12 , p. 16. See also Pippa, Norris, op. cit. , p. 11. CEU eTD Collection 49 ideal-cases. in less consociationalism to consociationalism in these ideal-cases, one has then all the more reason to doubt efficacy of consensus a viablepolitical into from » turning] and Canada. I want to figure out what is about such systems that prevent « societal conflict[s can states nothing these do later tofix institutions these created. problems the is there begin in because to with, put suchinstitutions place shouldnot is states that thereof, lesson policy The tendency. fragmentation the reverse to impossible practically becomes it implemented, is consociationalism once words, other In reversed. is autonomy minority or pursue likely their whetherlater minority is road, autonomy appease to increased subgroups to are tendencies in place,separatist are institutions consociational once that argue I similar way, consociational system that paradoxically produce fragmentation and promote separatism. On a itself. model consociational the in their consociational results, what makes me think that there must be severe shortcomings in Canada closely fit the consociational ideal-type, they however show continuous fragmentation and Belgium If fragmentation. cultural limit hence and cooperation inter-ethnic facilitate are designed veto to autonomy,andminority proportionality group coalition, Grand societies. circumventseparatist tendencies by inaccommodating ethnicgroups ethnically divided Chapter 2. Argument Hans, Keman, « Political Stability in Divided Societies (...) », To test this argument, I compare two ideal-types of ideal-types models,Belgium I compare of consociational two argument, To test this of the internal features are there that demonstrate is my to objective thesis, In this meant to which are provide tools is system to a of consociational objective The core 13 49 . If fragmentation can be seen to be linked op. cit., p. 265. CEU eTD Collection 52 51 « The « The Power-Sharing Approach », Lijphart, Arend, means. by no success guarantee not do factors these that meaning helpful, but rather approaches, 50 compromise a viable to system is ofaccommodation consociational existence of traditions the prior and contributing element ninth the finally, ; negotiations facilitating small, stays groups of number the that attributes eighth, ; autonomy group of implementation the facilitates it because loyalties groups, ethnic of ethnic particularistic concentration geographical the seventh, ; dangers that promote internal unity ; sixth, the existence of overarching loyalties prevailing on processes decision-making external complex avoid of to existence population,the fifth, ; successare to favorable small elements Other a relatively fourth, system. : consociational size and with faira balance of power among them are more likely to conduct to a successful a majority isethnic group afavorable factor for stability. with Third, ethnic groups a similar theabsence of Second, groups. among ethnic differences largeno socio-economic if thereare state consociational Selection 3.1. Case Chapter 3.Research Design oblige the Prime Minister to constitute a government with seven Francophones and seven and Francophones seven with government a constitute to Minister Prime the oblige Belgium at the governmental level that are called ‘the parity of the Council of Ministers’, in minority Francophone given the to special example provisions are fair.there For relatively that whichgroups, aresmall is balance innumber. betweenethnic relatively The of power groups ethnic for concentrated Canada),million geographically inhabitants for Belgium and 32.5 instance,of For them. both enjoy a relatively small population inhabitants (roughly 10 million Arend, Lijphart, « The Power-Sharing Approach », Approach Power-Sharing «The Lijphart, Arend, Lijphart insists on the fact that these factors are not decisive nor sufficient for the success of power-sharing of success the for sufficient nor decisive not are factors these that fact the on insists Lijphart Ibid. , p. 498. Lijphart identified nine –helpful nine identified Lijphart If Belgium and Canada do not fit all these nine criteria’s, both states still match several 52 . 51 . First, a state withis. First, morelikely bestable agreements power-sharing to op. cit. , p. 498. 50 op. cit. op. - factors conductive to a well-functioning conductive- factors to 14 , p. 497. , p. CEU eTD Collection 56 55 « Federalism (Federation) (...) », 54 elites. the between cooperation is the consociationalism of key the since important is very this and structures, of ethnofederal tothe have establishment ethnic consented of differentgroups the system to a federalization, designed to « together hold» to designed a federalization, to system aunitary from a transformation underwent « Belgium colonies, together come distinct » of from the emerged that federation is a Canada Indeed, while Union). Soviet the Nigeria, or beenhave imposed–bytheir (suchdominantby or group structures federal empire- an as 53 » ministers Francophone and Anglophone both contain should cabinets federal that « the understanding informal by illustrated is power of balance in the fairness this Canada, In ministers. Flemish-speaking « holding together federation « » together holding « a federation experienced Canada together system. ethnofederal coming a Belgium » and federations. national rights, the development of a stable and sustainable democratic –and authentic –and democratic of thedevelopmenta stableand sustainable rights, individual basic of promotion the ensure to able been have countries both and law, of rule the based on are systems both political Moreover, citizens. living fortheir standardof reasonable enjoy states economical a providingadvantageous systems capableof federal Thetwo units. and the central authorities between the aswell competencies sharingethnic of the group, the plurality accommodating systems implemented have Canada and Belgium attention. deserve elements of identities, with constitutional settings guaranteeing the attributes of each John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », By opposition to so-calledthe ‘pseudo-federations’, like the Soviet UnionYugoslavia. or See John, McGarry, Arend, Lijphart, « The Power-Sharing Approach », Approach Power-Sharing «The Lijphart, Arend, Idem. Also, none of these countries has been forced to accept the implementation of an of implementation the accept to forced been has countries these of none Also, Beyond the conditions described by Lijphart, several observations about further about observations several Lijphart, by described conditions the Beyond 53 . op. cit. 55 , on the contrary of many multi-national federations which , p.12. op. cit. op. cit. op. 15 , p. 13. , p. 496. , p. 56 its different communities. Leaders communities. its different 54 - multi- - CEU eTD Collection Gordon E.,Cannon,« Consociationalism vs. Control (...)», 59 58 International & Comparative Law match a perfect model represent consociational system Canadian political argued that the and the Goinggovernments. further the Lijphart, than consociational Presthus even Robert theorist elected bytheBritish-styled electoral (Westminster) system,single-party produces which it lacks the principle of joint rule by a coalition of political parties, because federal Council Ministers. of governments are consociational characteristic of grand coalition is ensured by the parity at the level of the 57 bein case, present. to as absenthowever seem Canadian the Lijphart by seen were which characteristics, main four consociational the certain of because even harm interests their seem to latter if the proposal, of a legislative executive- Parliamentary level: three quarters of a linguistic group can ask for the reconsideration -by the at the veto-right aspecific minority obtained Francophone the Further, representation. Communities (group autonomy). Also, the Belgian electoral system is a proportional delegationthe linguisticcultural and French,to the of matters Flemishand Germanophone level. central at the arepresentation guaranteeing by center, the from minorities of exclusion the avoid hence and groups, ethnic for shared-rule self-rule combining in at aim Thesesystem a federal attributes rights. veto and minority in culture, autonomy proportionality, ethnic the coalition), (grand power-sharing executive them a genuine consociational system. Such systems, we mentioned, guarantees a crosscutting providedattributes self-government totheiralso but respective ethnic groups, haveassured Robert, Presthus, Arend, Lijphart, Arend, Neal A., Carter, « Complexity as a Shock Absorber: the Belgian Social Cube », in 59 Lijphart has described Canada as a « semi-consociational democracy democracy « » a as Canada semi-consociational has described Lijphart The Belgian Constitution formally contains power-sharing principles, as for example importantly, More in havecentral not Canadagovernments and Belgium only , and thus that Canada is fully consociational. Such approach seem to be pertinent, to seem approach Such consociational. fully is Canada that thus and , DemocracyPlural in Societies Elite Accomodation inCanadian Politics , (2002:8/3), p. 16. , op. cit. op. 16 , p. 119. op. cit. , (Cambridge University 1973),Press, quoted by , p. 53. ILSA Journal of 58 57 , arguing that . Finally, the Finally, . and CEU eTD Collection 66 65 64 http://archiv.ub.uni-marburg.de/sum/84/sum84-6.html Forschung,(Marburg, Schriften der Universitätsbibliothek Marburg, 1998 : 84), note 3.3.1. URL : 61 Nationalism 63 60 itself party thegoverning place within takes interests goal common a on work to » differences aside their put minded individuals from an political array of [, cultural] and religiousbackgrounds, willing to 62 ministers Francophone and Anglophone ofboth be composed in Canadian sincepolitics, have political actors agreedthatfederal informally cabinets should implicit made is rule joint of principle The etc.). grievances, political of existence expression, consensus a shares » that elite « a of existence the to is unified yearsdue national hundred past overthe stability relative in the House of Commons system inelection Francophonein forthe » endsup,sum,representation aquasi-proportional vote plurality district member « The single in Quebec. concentrated territorially is minority by Francophone the fact that the model, facilitated are electoral Westminster under the the federal cabinets. The action of the « the of action The cabinets. federal the and Bilingualism on Commission Royal consociationalthe proportionality,theory, has been andinformallyprogressively in admitted vital decisions interests concerning Canadians of Francophone asLijphartbut, quorums havebeen argues, thereexist established, aninformal over veto special system. No onamajoritarian based is largely system since Canadian theveto, whole largely linguistic autonomy assured hasinstance, a for Quebec, its respective subgroups. to self-government degree of important Arend, Lijphart, Arend, Arend, Lijphart, « The Power-Sharing Approach », Approach Power-Sharing «The Lijphart, Arend, Martin, Hering, « Consociational Democracy in Canada », Martin, Hering, « Consociational Democracy in Canada », in Ahornblätter. Marburger Beitrage Kanada-zur Arend, Lijphart, « The Power-Sharing Approach », Approach Power-Sharing «The Lijphart, Arend, James, Kennedy, «A Switzerland of the north ? The Gordon E., Cannon, « Consociationalism vs. Control (...) », Indeed, the ‘grand coalition’ featureIndeed, hasbeen by the ‘grand of« coalition’ a coalition assured independent- Beyond the consociational characteristic of grand coalition, Canada also provides an provides also Canada coalition, grand of characteristic consociational the Beyond (2004 : 10/4), p.506. DemocracyPlural in Societies 64 . 62 on common political values (rule of law, freedom of freedom law, of (rule values political common on 65 . However, Canada does not have a formal minority formal a have not does Canada However, . , op. cit. op. op. cit. op. op. cit. op. . 17 Nationalistes , p. 125. , p. 496. , p. , p. 496. , p. op. cit. op. cit. 61 . It has been admitted that Canada’s that has been admitted . It , note 3.3.1. note , and a bi-national Canada », in », Canada bi-national a and , p. 52. 60 . The accommodation of ethnic of . Theaccommodation 66 63 . The fourth core element of . Such madearrangements, Nations and CEU eTD Collection 70 Handbook of Political Science Vol. 7: Strategies of Inquiry 69 is an effective method of conflict management. method of conflict is an effective itpass if must theory the that asatest serve can which thus and theory, the to apply perfectly proposed » that to model” science its asapolitical codification preceded Canada] [in practice of consociationalism “the this by that affirming resumed KennedyThe scholarinterestingly James character. andconsociational possessedseveral features since 1867,strengthening its consociational experienced Also,Canadahadalready Arend Lijphart. identified by model as consociational of asone described beenlargely has implemented. became recommendations Commission’s the once century, thetwentieth of decades 68 1963 and destinated to inquire and establish reports on the state of bilingualism and biculturalism in Canada. 67 « as seen be can Both case-studies crucial Canada. and Belgium between » method, 3.2. Methodology section. following the consociational democracies fail to block further fragmentation, argument that I elaborate in characteristics of the many possesses second service civil » the concerning Biculturalism confidence in the theory’s validity, or, conversely, or, validity, theory’s the in confidence « meaning that theory, case[s] consociational Harry, Eckstein, “Case Study and Theory in Political Science”, in F. Greenstein and N. Polsby (eds.), James, Kennedy, The « Royal Commissionon Bilingualism and Biculturalism »was a royal Canadian Commission, created in Ibid. , p. 119. 68 In sum, Belgium and Canada fit, to a large extent, the consociational model. The first The methodology that I am going to use in the following chapter is the comparative . However, my aim is to demonstrate that even with favorable conditions, favorable with even that demonstrate is to my aim However, . op. cit. 70 . In other words, acrucial . Inother words, isideal-type,case study is meantto which the , p.504. the examples of consociational democracy, while the 67 has strengthened this tendency in the three last three the in tendency this strengthened has 18 must closely fit (Reading, MA, Addison-Wesley, 1975), p. 117 and must not fit the conditions leading to a genuine equally well any any rule contrary equally well a theory if one is to have 69 for CEU eTD Collection October17-19, 1997). on Case Study Methods, BelferWorkshop Center Foundation for Science MacArthur at the and presented International paper », Research Affairs Study inCase (BSCIA), Tracing Process « (HarvardGeorge, University, 72 University of CaliforniaPress, 1989), p.65. 71 » interest of phenomenon the of is thecause agree instances the inwhichall the circumstance then incommon, circumstances moreinstances of a phenomenon investigation haveunder several onlyone possibleof causal inare less thanideal. that better any perform cases itto expect cannot we then cases, possible best the in even fails consociationalism of theory meet all the conditionspractically that andCanada- incases –Belgium two theory will consociational the I that test identified by Lijphart as ideal for consociationalism to work. If the starts around the 1960s. In Belgium, this period shows the beginning of the shows thebeginningBelgian of aroundthe1960s. period Belgium, this starts In processesthe of institutional changes in both countries over the most relevant period that trace thatcan impactItherefore Belgian on politics. andhave Canadian factors ade-unifying domestic which arethe istodiscover in My case over time. objective of each separatism generalize cases. toother able to be I will then types, consociational are quasi-ideal cases both since and consociationalism, by beissue circumvented to issupposed signs of this separatism,Canada show although and Belgium that demonstrate can I If theory. consociational of validity the test to generally, a more tendencies, impact separatist on institutions of consociational establishment the what extent see to be to able cases, Iwill two tothe method such applying By are different. factors variable) separatisminboth (my other cases, while toward movement many dependent as consociational institutions (my variables)independent were responsible for similar For an overview about the process-tracing method, please refer to : Andrew, Bennett, and Alexander L., Alexander and Bennett, :Andrew, to refer please method, process-tracing the about overview an For Charles, Ragin, In order to proceed, Iwill use the method of agreement. Under this method, «if two or a « myconstructsupport I To argument, crucial-test » ofconsociationalism,meaning More precisely, I will use the « process-tracing » « process-tracing the use will I precisely, More TheComparative Method: Moving Beyond Qualitativeand Quantitative Srategies 71 . In other words, I want to see whether similar factors such factors see whether similar Iwant to words, . Inother 19 72 (qualitative) method to track causes totrack method (qualitative) , (Berkeley, CEU eTD Collection would go on wouldproceed goon important linguisticto to reforms in country.the who Trudeau minister of Canada Pierre of andelection prime the grievances Francophone politics, when divisions strong visions between appeared, of increasing state the of in shiftmarkedby Canadian important an is this Canada, decade In importance (linguistic). andanincreasing of thirdparties the national separation of cleavage’s federalization, political 20 CEU eTD Collection 73 together” “holding its and Belgium 4.1. roots in institutional reforms. separatism in each case. Correspondingly myto argument, Iargue that these causeshave their of causes the track to method process-tracing I use the proceed, to order In systems. political Canadian- and –Belgian both to common are which institutions, consociational fragmentation: further for responsible most asbeingthe Iestimate that factors isolate the I agreement, comparison of provoking factors the inBelgium separatism and Using Canada. methodof the myThen, Iintroduce mainin argument which a third section (4.3.), consists in the might cause This historical factors variousthat possible separatism. allowslocating overview situationthe ethnic relationsof prior1960s political to important the turns inboth countries. my mayunderstand readerof the sothat thesis countries, inboth cleavages of ethnic evolution institutions should not be created in the first place. such argue that beto Iwill able is it case,then If the fragmentation. for ethnic responsible are countries in these institutions consociational and consociationalism of implementation Chapter 4.Cases of Flanders as Dutch-speaking allresidents treats State and Belgian the all Nowadays, residents establish. in to Wallonia hard is concentration as Francophones. regional and groups See ethnic : of David M., Rayside, « The 74 percent of Francophones and a small percent of of asmallpercentGerman-speakers and Francophones percent of Belgian cleavages The unitarymodelandthethree 4.1.1. Belgiumin1830: choiceforthe John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », Since questions about the language beenhave deleted from populationcensuses since 1947, a valid mapping In the two first sections (4.1. and 4.2.), I see whether the carefully to andCanada- –Belgium crucial cases I two test chapter, In this contextualize and retrace the The ethnic distribution of Belgium comprises 58 percent of 41 of Dutch-speakers, 58 percent comprises Belgium of The ethnic distribution op. cit. 21 , p. 12. 73 system 74 . The history of Belgium is Belgium of history The . CEU eTD Collection Ethnic Conflict »,in Conflict Ethnic 77 multiethnic challenge 76 Politics Consociation and Vertical Pluralism in the Netherlands Revisited : A EuropeanView well, since », in Wallonia, in the South, is strongly associated with Socialism. Michael, Whintle,the north, « Pillarisation, is strongly associated with Catholicism. The class cleavage denotes acertain form of territoriality as 75 of Political Science Impact of Linguistic the Cleavage on the « Governing » Parties of Belgium and Canada », in elites economical and political among dominant time that at was language French the wasseen logical. Moreover, as state of a unitary choice the identity: Belgian common a of the strengthening (1830)accelerated independence for BelgianRevolution the Second, Belgium had to adopt the European model of a strong state, as its European neighbors. modifying theEuropean equilibrium 1815ViennaCongress. the establishedTherefore, during itsee independencebecause European didnot asapositivewas thing, Belgian powers unitary model hadbeenthat in force since 1830. the replacing transformation, federal of Belgium’s core the is at of conflict source latter twentieth century From The until 1960s.then became third predominant. on, the cleavage the dominated the nineteenth century, class conflict until from it replaced beginningof the the in intensity acquired its country,the statehood 1830. Thereligious sinceBelgium concerns on irrespectively of territoriality country, the spreadthroughout being ones andclass basis, thereligious people aterritorial on andFrench-speaking/Flemish-speaking. However, thelatter is the only divides one that rich/workers clerical/anti-clerical, threecleavages: of evolution the through usually analyzed of a majority of the Belgian population established only the as language, official though the Flemishlanguage was motherthe tongue was reserved for the elite- and thus elections could not offer (or require) any relevant James A., Dunn Jr., « The Revisionof the Constitution in Belgium : A Study in the Institutionalizationof Alexander, Murphy, «Belgium’s Regional Divergence: Along the Road to Federation », in in Flanders, since ofterritoriality form a certain however has non-territorial, although cleavage, religious The , (2000 : 23/3), p.148. The choice of modelunitary in 1830 wasthe result of factors. First several of all, the , (1978, : 11/1), p.62, note 3. The Western Political Quarterly ThePolitical Western , Graham Smith (ed.), (Longman Group Limited, 1995), p. 79. 75 . All three divisions have had an impact with avariable with impact an had have divisions three All . 77 . Finally, the universal suffrage was absent -the vote , (1974 : 27/1),p. 144. 22 West European Canadian Journal Federalism : the 76 , and was CEU eTD Collection benefit of one or two extra votes. extra two or of one benefit 79 Federalism and Territorial Cleavages 78 makeDutch-speakers useof to political vote) gaveto opportunity the 1919: one man,one Finally, introductionthe of weighted universal « forenter agenuineterritorial furtherincentivescourse to and(…) conflict provided » this bilingualism in Brussels. became divided Language thusheavily between regulated, regions in on, laws 1930s,asecond the linguistic in of round developed unilinguism Flanders and imposed asymmetrical bilingualism,with aWallonia unilingual bilingual.and Flanders Later all higherlinguistic spheresof administration.public The lawsof nineteenth the century while promising betweenFlemishequality and French,in was practice, in thelatter dominant industry.laws withits linguistic andweak agriculture wereatthe Second, odds textile reality: and industries its heavysteel andon whileFlanders much territory, was dependenton poorer coal of development the to due growing economically was Wallonia Francophone The north. a Dutch-speaking and –Francophone- south the between disequilibrium economic an to led movement. aFlemish of development the to leading grievances, However,existent. periodlinguistic 1850-1945saw of the for development the grounds non- were Flanders from claims separatist history, Belgium’s of years twenty first the During 4.1.2.1. From 1830to1945 Belgium 4.1.2. Historyof mobilizationin ethnic and the unitary model implemented.was even afederal was not all considered, option reasons, For census. these linguistic population ‘Weighted’ means that certain categories of the population (with properties, university degrees, etc.) could etc.) degrees, university properties, (with population ofthe categories certain that means ‘Weighted’ Liesbet, Hooghe, « Belgium : Hollowing the Center », inNancy, Bermeo and Ugo M., Amoretti, (eds.) Several factors were at the source of such development. First of all, industrialization all, of First development. of such source atthe were factors Several The history in has ethnic mobilization of Belgium stages. different evolved trough , (Baltimore,MD, John Hopkins Press, 2004), p.58. 23 79 suffrage in became1893 (which in universal 78 . CEU eTD Collection 83 82 81 80 issues. linguistic from starting grievances, Brusselsaround Francophone land-property dominance belonging in Flanders,areas traditionally to especially censusesshowed by laws.Indeed,these introduced these census, population new ten-year polarized werethus identities Both basis. socio-economical to attached identity a regional developed were twofold: the Flemish movementgained in political power country the Walloniaand Flanders modernization industrial growing industries moving whilelight importance, out were of region,the andonthe handother onehandon the losing theeconomical dependence onheavyindustries,Walloon which were were this of reasons The Wallonia. in than in Flanders important more history- Belgian in the time - first the becamefor per capita regional product Thegross overtheNorth. South of the political one. First of all, the early 1960s experienced a turn between the economic dominance growth of the Flemish the facilitated factors important several Once again, -religion class-. and two other the over movement and its transformation from a cultural4.1.2.1. From 1945tothe1960s stand to a genuine contention intensificationand of againstdemands the cultural dominant minority. further thewayfor opened factors these Together, in state. the advantage numerical their « transformed prior linguistic claims into territorial claims » claims territorial into claims linguistic prior « transformed laws develop eliteherself. importantly, andDutch-speaking to these More affirm David M., Rayside, Liesbet, Hooghe, Liesbet, Alexander, Murphy, Liesbet, Hooghe, Liesbet, The post Second WorldThe postSecond War sawlinguistic period andcultural takepriority cleavages Secondly, the implementation of linguisticSecondly,a laws implementation gave the thepossibility 1930s the of to 81 , but on differentlevels. 83 op. cit. op. cit. . This increased the Flemish resentment and reinforced their territorial op. cit. op. cit. , pp. 58-59. , p. 57. , p. 67. , p. 84. 80 . The consequences of this economical reversal 24 82 , due to the consequences of the CEU eTD Collection Belgian QuestionRoyal 88 87 cleavages. School Question, giving asresulta more obvious overlapping of religiousthe andlinguistic tensions inWallonia vote the remained after Flanders toanational many advantage of contributed positive decisively majority (57%), voted with level: 72% ininvoted ifthepopulation Flandersfavorof King,Walloonsthe and respectivelyregional the at results different gave Question’ ‘Royal the about referendum the of results 58% and 52% against the return of the King. If the numerical majority of the population voted in favor of the Belgian king King Léopoldfirst IIIon throne,the bya resolved inpopular referendum a 1950,when of return the contested the issue concerned first The “School Pact”. by the cleavage religious 86 schools. Catholic and demonstrations pushed differentthe leaders to signPact a in 1958, which ensured state-financingthe of public movements among the side massive of creating the Catholic of schools, opposition financing the (Social-Catholic concerning laws adopted Party Liberals and and the Church). Socialists the The extent government, of the 85 Belgian’s surrender, instead of leaving the country with the government in exile. monarch and Germanthe occupation, especially aboutKing’s the decision to remain in Belgium after the (Socialists), from 1945 to 1951. The debate emerged from differing perceptions about the link between the 84 became much more visible, « emphasizing the regional duality » public schools « issuesschool question concernedmid-1950s » that financingthe overof the andof Catholic year nextthe his an infavorof sonBaudouin. TheSchool put end tumultuous atthe Pact resolving « the of issues » even wereboth « is though Questions that, linguisticinhibiting discussion onpurely the For adeeperinsight regarding the RoyalQuestion, please referto:Ramon, Arango, James A., Dunn Jr., the ruling Once 1954. in Catholics of the defeat electoral the after emerged Question’ ‘School The The ‘RoyalQuestion’,opposed proponents of King’s the return (Catholics and Liberals) to opponentstheir Idem. Finally, three last elements contributed to the rise of linguistic movements: the movements: linguistic of rise the to contributed elements last three Finally, 86 , the linguistic contrast between a Catholic Flanders and a Socialist Wallonia a Socialist and Flanders Catholic a between contrast linguistic the , 85 . The interesting conclusion that can be drawn about the School and Royal and School the about be drawn can that conclusion interesting The . op. cit. , (Baltimore, MD, John Hopkins Press, 1961). Question Royale , p.146. » (the Royal Question) and the neutralization of the of neutralization the and Question) Royal (the » 88 25 . A similar linguistic pattern occurred with the 84 , and followed by his abdication 87 of the country. Indeed, the Leopold III and the Bruxellois CEU eTD Collection 90 89 federalization. for state way the paved fragmentation Belgian Insum, societal the character. economical on linguisticcultural, territorial and andaWalloonian identity grounds, with a socio- based identity Flemish a strong to identity a pan-Belgian from coming fragmentation, identity anddecentralization. forpower political their claims increased and therefore matters, strictly regional to shifted newparties or transformed these des Francophones as the created, were parties regional several Moreover, parties. national within political the wings between ethnic opposition existing strong creating economicfrombe social and viewed tendedproblems to of ethnicproblem prism the the » branches, Flemish and Francophone. The reason for that was that « Belgium’sdistinct two into (…) political, divided progressively became Socialist) and Liberal (Catholic, families shift « Flemish major in a called occurred, parties, political the of level the At sides. both on minorities linguistic leaving bilingually Dutch-French Brussels area (in 1963): unilingually French-speakingDutch-speaking, andGerman-speaking areas,andthe linguistic laws,refining andhardening unilinguism territorial by languagecreating four areas new adopted Parliament Belgian the 1960s, early the During divisions. the institutionalize 1954), the 1954), James A., Dunn Jr., Liesbet, Hooghe, Liesbet, Due to these numerous societal and state factors, Belgium developed a reputation for Facing agrowing societal linguistic cleavage, Belgian the authorities began to Rassemblement Wallon op. cit. (Democratic Front of the Francophones, 1964). The concerns of each of each of concerns The 1964). Francophones, the of Front (Democratic op. cit. , p. 59. , p.150. splitsing (Walloonian Gathering, 1965) andthe Gathering, 1965) (Walloonian 89 » (separation). The three main national political national main three The (separation). » . Consequently, a linguistic border waserected, . Consequently, border a linguistic 26 Volksunie (People’s Union –Flemish-, Union (People’s Front Démocratique 90 , CEU eTD Collection The reform The reform further defined the also objectives. cultural- and -linguistic their to policies necessary the implement and launch to This time, the reform This independent reform the time, provided executive the an powerto as linguistic parity at the level of the Council of level Ministers Council of at the of parity the as linguistic Walloonian minority obtained several inconsociational guarantees such federalinstitutions, the Moreover, grievances. Wallonian the to accordingly created, were affairs economic Also, matters. cultural and linguistic over authority bodiesinstitutions and Flemishhave the legislativethat obtained These power grievances. group estimate a decision dangerous for their community. their for dangerous decision a estimate group linguistic of a 3/4 if anappeal foreseeing », «alarmbel the called mechanism protection ofa creation the as well 94 from equal competences with the two biggercommunities. 93 92 91 had intoBelgian to accountwhenstate take thefederalization launching of country.the the that difference issues, socio-economic Wallonia on issuesand cultural on polarized 1960s, was asking for autonomy in economic-related matters. To simplify, Flanders was 1950s- in the crisis economic deep experienced Wallonia since movement, Walloonian The linguistic, claiming foracultural autonomy recognitionthe and for Flemishlanguage.of the and cultural essentially was movement Flemish The issues. different from evolved and born were identities both Indeed, different. very were grievances their and Walloons, and Flemish demandsof tothe correspond to ithas because wasmade complex, process the beginning, reforms reforms Belgianfederal The 4.1.2.3. Also, they obtained the creation of linguistic groups in the benefit to Chamber 1983 of until Representatives wait to had but and in the established, Senate,also been as has community Germanophone cultural Athird case. Belgian the approaching when » reforms «institutional as indicated often are reforms constitutional The Alexander, Murphy, Belgium’s federalization Belgium’swas by federalization strengthened of round a second inreforms, 1980. Hence, two Hence, Federalization in Belgium fourthrough occurred In first1970, the of formed round reforms thebasis federalization.of From very the 92 : 1970,1980,1988-89 and 1993. 93 op. cit. cultural , p. 84-88. , p. Communities regional were established (French and Flemish) to satisfy level (which deals with economic matters). The matters). economic with deals (which level 27 three Regions 94 . 91 main rounds of constitutional dealing essentially with Communities , in order , CEU eTD Collection Brussels, both Brussels, by majority composed both Francophonesa Wallonia 98%forof (around and 85% French the (fusion), experience step in the institutionalization evenanimportant limited, was State, of the powers sovereign werecore which competencies, Affairs Foreign governmental of oftransfer This the Communities). the for fragmentation.cultural/linguistic Finally,treaties in the limited frame of their respectiveon competencies (economicalthe for the Regions, and contrary concludeinternational to institutions sixfederated to the of right the gave reform the practically, the Flemish Constitution: Belgian the Article 1of by modifying state, unitary the to an end it since put significant, “Belgium is a Federal Statepolicies. their made up of theCommunities six federated units (3 andCommunities Regions”. and 3 Regions), More which was necessary to implement Walloon established institutions the of Brussels-Capital the provided by federalization. the economical), they managed tofortify autonomy,their group consociational the with tools cultural matters, and institutionswith havingseparate institution two dealing of (instead of creation a single With the grievances. to their itgavemore strength alsobecause but their of their of organs legislative) and (executive the fused then Flemishs the Interestingly, andcivilianfacilities). example,transport linked(for territory matters to negociators of this reform attributed to the The last federal reform in was negociated 1993. This reform was very symbolically In 1988-89, the federal government lauchedIn federal1988-89, the government institutional a third reform. This reform Region Region . Thisfusion notimportant was only because itstrengthened theFlemish unit, . Such transfed was institutionalizing a growing gap between Wallonia wasinstitutionalizing. Suchtransfed gap and agrowing Community started to transfer part of its competencies to the 28 Regions Region legislative and executive powers in powers executive and legislative , and gaveafinancial autonomy to Community with the ones the with CEU eTD Collection 95 1830 (BNAA)America1867 of Act languages speaking other them) 7percent and in mostinhabitants,for 26percent concentrated Francophones Quebec of of (geographically 4.2.1. The America Actandthe 1867 BritishNorth federal option 4.2. Canada and its “coming together” parallels between Belgium and Canada will be emphasized in a third sectionThe (4.3.). democracy. a consociational implement to paths different took countries both that show will also section this However, fragmentations. ethnic similar have undergone and ethnicity relations is not Thefollowingminority that willshow veto. thein Canadian section (4.2.) ethnic experience so different from consociational GrandCoalition, proportionality, autonomy and theory (See 3.1.): group the Belgian one. Both countries have similar both patternsRegions, creating an asymmetry between a united Flanders and a divided French group. from Francophones between of divisions were there that meant it words, other In Brussels). for 98 Rayside, M., David procent. 13 others and procent 27 Francophones while immigrant origin. When considering the 1971 census, English (mother tongue) speakers represent 60 procent, the fact that a part of these ‘English-speakers’ do not have English as their mother tongue, because they are from96 because the British possessions were divided in distinct politico-administrative units; the units; politico-administrative distinct in divided were possessions British the because the BNAA, the Canadian of time adoption of the the for unity. At need and wasagreat there continent the characterized plurality was the result of two cleavages. The first was regional, 97 John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », Belgium was created in 1830. Actually, this distributionuses the criterion« the language most spoken at home », which consequently hinder Collin H., Williams, 98 . In Canada, a colonial link with London was still in place; also, a plurality of identities The distribution of ethnic groups in Canada comprises 67 percent of inCanada ethnicThe 67percentof English-speaking groups of comprises distribution the of four characteristics the thus respected reforms constitutional The four op. cit., p.32. 97 , which is very different from the Belgian Constitution of Constitution Belgian the from different very is which , op. cit. 29 96 . Canada was founded under the British North British the under founded was Canada . , p. 12. 95 system op. cit. , p. 62, note 3. CEU eTD Collection 100 and theEvolution of Canadian Federalism] 99 structure federal ina common integration their insist upon and seek than rather them, of of each confederation linking and ethno-linguistic groups and colonies, should development assistthe approaches, bea should that Canada by more Thismoderate vision state. was challenged progressive of downsizing loyaltiesparticular andan evolution a unitary toward Canadian The first Canadianways. Primein different Act the interpreting Minister, were scholars and Politicians BNAA. John the of adoption A. MacDonald, saw the document as predictingfragmentation in a common state. However, the diversity issuethe was far from resolved with the Canadians. French second was an linguisticoverlapping of ethnic, andreligious differences between English and strongly influenced by risethe of imperialism,British the while languageFrench continues to identities. national of compartmentalization territorial favor would that State Canadian the of vision a developed French-Canadians result, As a protections. BNAA legislative of weaknesses the the Quebec, dueto outside declined language English and Francophone.4.2.2.1. From 1897to1945 DuringCanada 4.2.2. Historyof mobilizationin ethnic the second part of the nineteenthprovincial againstquasi-federalism.resistance strong to view Thelater due prevail would nevertheless his federalism of opponents. century, thebeginning French Richard, Simeon and Ian, Robinson, Idem. The federal The federal option was seenasthus tointegrate a thisway doubleidentity From the beginning of the twentieth century, the English-Canadian nationalism is nationalism English-Canadian the century, twentieth the of beginning the From Until subnationalisms, SecondWorldriseitsthe War, Canada the two experienced of 99 100 . In sum, the foundation of the Canadian State was controversial from the from controversial was State Canadian the of foundation the sum, In . , balancing between the quasi-federalism of MacDonald and the more classical L’Etat, la société et l’évolution du fédéralisme canadien [State, Society , (Ottawa, Approvisionnements et Services Canada, 1990), p. 23. 30 CEU eTD Collection Commission royale suréconomique l’union et les perspectives dedéveloppement au Canada, 1986), p. 37. politiques dusexe, del’ethnie etdela langue au Canada » 101 Firmly anticlerical, antinationalistic the andmodernist, newspaper offered radical critiques Secretary State). of (future Pelletier andGérard Minister) Canadian (future Prime Trudeau Elliott Pierre were newspaper influent this of members office editorial main and members founding The ethnicities. between differences respect however, identity, which would, Quebec firmly in believed 1960s.inauthors 1950sand the Its the possibility of a pancanadian in influent newspaper very Libre’, ‘Cité thepolitical around itself appeared anddeveloped two conceptionviews, clerical conservative, his to reaction In place. taking was Duplessis Maurice Minister of ownthe transformations. its nationalexperiencing also was Francophones) of majority overwhelming an has (which Quebec A growing disagreementidentity over the religiouscametheir Anglophone orFrancophonepolicies ties,to to redefine the Canadian societal project. light. of Quebec matter no Canadians, elementspushed these together, Put since1931. Prime beenobtained already Thehad independence formal first though even London, from distanciation identity and cultural stream,further a operate to started Canada hand, other the society. On in Canadian integrated the antinationalist,be to needed who immigrants of influx massive a as well as period), interwar in the started already which (influence in Canada influence American cultural of the sawtherise period order » « late-1960s the triggered which Canadian occurred, symbolic the of transformation 4.2.2.2. From 1945to1968 and exclusive increasingly territorialized. decline in outsideprovinces of Quebec. In both sum, nationalisms became progressively Raymond, Breton, « Le multiculturalisme et le développement national au Canada », in 101 Similarly, other developmentsSimilarly, thedivisionbetween Indeed, ethnic accentuated other groups. changes significant after, years twenty than more for and 1945 from However, . Several factors were at the source of such evolution. On the one hand, this post-war 31 , Alan, Cairns, Alan, Cynthia,and Williams (eds.), (Ottawa, Les dimensions CEU eTD Collection 103 http://www.accessmylibrary.com/coms2/summary_0286-28723815_ITM 1970 », (American Society of Church History, 2000). URL : 102 modernizingOnce liberals intheprovincialgovernment, agitate for started andto Quebec suppression itsfor was nationalism, firstwhile latter the modernizingdefending defended a the population. This neonationalistfrom stream differentwas thus antinationalistthe since one, Francophone the issuesof socio-economical specific the remedy to powerableto only the forQuebec, as aninterventionist Francophones. problems the Theyadvocated solution of to theonly was such nationalism that nationalism,arguing Quebec a progressive develop faith common instead religious a of of state the language power and the » « was movement this Alsoanticlerical, andprotected. economic, based upon be promoted Canadian identity was Quebec, andits therefore civic,linguistic and cultural identities had to policies. federal Canadian by taken orientation political in the transformations important Revolution Tranquille Quebec society.against the Duplessis government policies and against the influence of the Catholic Church on Its influence was such that much of its ideas were at the core of the http://journalrespublika.iquebec.com/actualit%8E.html running theboth newspaper Gérard Filion, were Twoemblematiceconomical of figuresconcerns. Andréthis movement, and Laurendeau pursue notdid want this to societal project,matchnot which did their political and by women students Intellectuals,and workers, Duplessis’government. values promoted the this Daniel, Moreau, « La Souveraineté, unessai », in Michel, Gavreau, « From Rechristianization to Contestation : Catholic Values and Quebec Society, 1931- neo These both streams led to the election of the liberals in 1960, headed by Jean by in1960,headed Lesage. Jean liberals election the of ledtothe Thesestreams both of French- the core the idea that the defended neonationalistic, stream, The second -nationalism was a growing contention, during the 1950s, against the conservative the against 1950s, the during contention, growing a was -nationalism 103 . (Quiet Revolution) of the 1960s in Quebec, revolution which led in which (Quiet 1960s to Quebec, Revolution)the revolution of ResPublika 32 Devoir (Undated) (Duty) in started 1950s, to (Duty) and the . URL : 102 . The origin of CEU eTD Collection 22 104 bemust reason but emotion federalism be cannot mainspring of resort, the last » « nation realize that « inmust basedon the people » words, rationality his own Following». « promotionthe ofa forpleaded division. toward He therefore dangerous path juridical a basis for state, the meaningnation the making the nation-state, the whole. Heconsidered (Canadian) broader in a beincorporated to ought that amereparticularism as nationalism) Francophone as (such nationalism considering universalism, advocated Trudeau sixties, the In of deep changes: he would goon to have ahuge influenceonfuture developments of Canada. 4.2.2.3. From 1968:Pierre Trudeauand Elliott his reforms federal influence of autonomist and sovereignist tendencies. andby action strengthened and they theQuebec, culture.quasi-citizenship Further, the of language identity,baseda distinct on aseparate promote to tended Francophones-Quebecers (for example, new the Canadian flag in andanthem, On 1965). adopted otherthe hand, symbols Canadian new in belief and London, to attachment nationalism), English stronger the English-Canadian majority was dividedbetween weak regionalisms (and consequently faced in 1960s the a peakin internal onboth maindivisions, ethnicsides. On one the hand, 1968 is fragmentation. system managingfarfrom Canadian ably the was that Canada ethnic arguments. neonationalist on based Quebec, asovereign for movement a growing was there meantime, autonomy.the In greater juridical nation, entity would encompass different groups and allow for peaceful cohabitation, federalismTrudeau, is,must and remain, aproductof reason in politics. Therefore, this 3 . Pierre E., Trudeau, Pierre E., « Federalism »,Theories Nationalism (eds.),Wayne, and Karmis Norman inDimitrios, and : of A (PalgraveFederalism p. 2005), reader, MacMillan, In 1968, Pierre Trudeau became the Prime Minister of Canada, inaugurating aperiod of Canada, Minister Prime the became In 1968,Pierre Trudeau creation from in beperiod the about 1867until of state Whatcan time the concluded 33 104 . For CEU eTD Collection Amerindian issue. wanted Amerindians an collectiveenlarged autonomy, White butthe Paper on the the“White Paper” adopted government Trudeau’s second, For the introducing. was document the that power of distribution new the and content its on opposition and butit Liberties, wouldnot be implemented before early the 1980s, duetoprovincial Rights Individual on a Charter of Constitution Canadian the in introduction the of consisted first The policies. identity major new three creating by federalism, Canadian the of reform corresponded tohis pancanadian From objectives. endthe 1960s,Trudeauinitiatedthe of a hehislaunchedCanada, (and his severalpoliciesgovernment) during that tenure of Minister hePrime became Once action. by hispolitical light to brought were personnality andstandardtraditions living of can from be andinternal attack external protected strife » institutions,sacred culture, thattheirlanguage, federal state framework of the only the within He synthesized his position by stating that « the whole citizenry must bemade to feel that itis shiftin loyalties, popular from traditional affiliationssubgroup (pan-)Canadian tothe nation. a pancanadian acceptedvalues,universally on nationalism, and promote grounded tried to 105 unattractive » group separatist make imageof a any to « nationalism a of promotion defend the to started nationalism, and to inherent power of the existence the He admitted be circumvented. completely not could bynationalism generated emotions the realizing that states. multinational in caseof the theirstability, especially whichareundermining with considerations, emotional areembedded regimes regionalist or totalitarian Indeed, other state. multinational a govern meansmost to rational model because was the such federalism with was bestaccomplished 107 106 Ibid. Ibid., Idem. , p.222. Trudeau wasTrudeau individualista rationalist, and universalist, features and his of these However, during his mandate as MP (from 1965) he changed his point of view,his heof mandate However, asMP1965) changed duringpoint his (from pp. 222-223. at the federal level at thefederal 34 » 105 , that could have a sufficient appeal « appeal sufficient as have a could , that 106 . Consequently, toupholdhe started 107 . CEU eTD Collection of power,decision-making in Canada, http://www.canadianheritage.gc.ca/offlangoff/perspectives/english/languages/contexte.html contribution ». Website of Departmentthe of Canadian Heritage. (Canada, 2007). URL : groups to the cultural enrichment of Canada and the measures that should be taken to safeguard that equal partnership between twothe founding races, taking into theaccount contribution madeby otherthe ethnic Canada and to recommend what steps should be taken todevelop the Canadian Confederationon the basis of an 109 CPSA Papers, by Ravi,de Costa, “States, identities and extinguishmentthe of Indigenous title: A contrustivist Approach”, in 110 108 that biculturalism a policy of defending rather indeed were Quebecers tendencies. separatist at federal protected the level could makelanguage bethat was individual matter wantedto them, an clearthat Trudeau belinguisticnot completely wouldwith cleavage congruent one. Byseparating cultural the makeintention herebiculturalism distinctconcepts, sothat the bilingualismand wasto two underlying The minorities. Francophone and Anglophone of development the promote andthem a particular to French status toprotect English official,equal languages, with as and inbiculturalism Canada” “toreceived inquire upon mission existingintothe the of bilingualism and report and state Biculturalism” in1963by (RCBB). The Commission, established federalgovernment, the and Bilingualism on Commission “Royal the of work the on based languages, official movement” nationalist Indian the of catalyst powerful most “single the became Paper the and instantly rised claims Amerindian the of intensity The later. years two abandonned was policy the that weresuch suppression the of consequences the But of Quebecers. havewould nationalistthat the avoidcause status and collective them enlarged served giving trying to practically, was ideal. apancanadian Trudeau More andintegrate theirclaims ethnic up give to Amerindians force to was policy such of vision underlying The citizens. Canadian simply suppressed theirprevious collective byaimingat rights their in transformation genuine The Commission had to « inquire into and report upon the existing state of bilingualism and biculturalism in Sally M. Weaver, Pierre E., Trudeau, Pierre E., « », Federalism Nationalism and In 1969, Canadian the adopted parliament the identity third policy,was alaw which on (Canadian Political Science Association, 2006), p. 8. Making Canadian Indian policy: the hidden agenda 1968-1970 109 110 . The main objective of such law was to promote the use of . Once again, this policy was a political tactic toescape Quebec op. cit.op. 9 (Toronto, Buffalo, University of Toronto Press, 1981), p. 171, quoted 171, p. 1981), Press, Toronto of University Buffalo, (Toronto, , p.22 3 . 35 , in Studies in thestructure 108 . CEU eTD Collection development of ethnocultural fulldevelopment andhelp overcome of them ethnocultural toparticipation to groups barriers support thecultural ofthe policy “to Willwas purpose Kymlicka, the According to inparticipation Canadian society all of Canada's people,of regardless theirof background” encourage full the provide to andservices to “designed multiculturalism programs of was policy The bilingualism. of policy recent the and RCBB the of action the criticizing intensely Canadians of non-Francophone/Anglophone origin (so-called “neo-Canadians”), who were of Whitethe Paper and The bilingual policies. newpolicyaccommodate wereintended to of despitetendencies andindividualist failures the government, increasingly the universalist obligations. their burden to considered asan additional which were bilingual policies, of character these dispute the national and to rights more discrimination positive ask for began to Italian origin) and Asian, German, Ukrainian, from populations immigrant were (who Canadians” “ethnic such policies asfor discriminatory language their own and culture. Correspondingly, these judged citizens andnon-Anglophone As in non-Francophone a result, lower East. than the much wasnumerically population Francophone of the country, the itself.part In thewestern develop whichbilingualism, in wasalready implemented awidespread of Quebec promotion afederal a obtaining forasymmetry special status Canada Quebec),notaboutthe (meaning to were aiming atgainingin autonomy even or sovereignty. were Francophones concerned about wererising. Quebecers claims separatist and explosive, situation 1960swasalready the of http://www.pch.gc.ca/progs/multi/reports/ann01-2002/part1_e.cfm 112 111 nationalism in Quebec not matching their expectations. insiston woulddistinct existencethe two of a cultures bilingualism than policy of was that Website Department of the of CanadianHeritage. (Canada, 2007) URL: Collin H., Williams, Later on,thegovernmentcreated apolicy multiculturalism showingof (1971), strengthening of effecthad the in bilingualismCanada of promotion the However, op. cit. op. 111 , p. 38. and provoking resentments in Western Canada. In Quebec, the Quebec, In Canada. Western in resentments provoking and 36 112 . CEU eTD Collection promoting equality among allindividuals nomatter their origin multiculturalism recognitionopposingon offounding was contrary the and cultures officialtwo languages, and thusimplicitly theirfoundingrecognize character, supplementary of ground ambiguity. whilebilingualism Indeed, would existence admitthe of multiculturalism wasfollowing amuch stronger universalist path bilingualism,than creating a diversity promotes tendslatter tosupportabi-national policy thewhile the culture. Further, of former the because bilingualism, of principles the with in contradiction is multiculturalism recognized Frenchand English official asbeingthe two Canadian languages. However, problem. Multiculturalism was implemented within a bilingual framework, since this policy are encouraged “to keep members “tokeep from are encouraged their mainstream”the apart communities, generatingintoethnic their This regroupment ghettos. leaders takesplace since immigrant aform between has separatism of created ethnic multiculturalism argued that 115 Canadian Penguin Books, 1994),and Richard, Gwyn, ascribingindividualmore membersrights to of variousthese ethnic groups. was it since policy, individualist an essentially was Multiculturalism tolerant. universally Canada was that (immigrants) newcomers guarantee to was away multiculturalism Canadian identity andby avoid assimilationism, ethnic promoting diversity. Similarly, 116 114 kymlicka1198.cfm Humanities ans Social Sciences, (Nov. 23, 1998). URL : 113 languages.” andgroups to assist new Canadiansleast inacquiring at of one Canada's official creative andinterchange allin among society, topromote encounters Canadian ethnocultural Will,Kymlicka, « The Theory and Practice (...) », Guy, Rocher, See forexample Neil, Bissoondath, Will, Kymlicka, « The Theory and Practice of CanadianMulticulturalism », Canadian Federationfor the multiculturalism bilingualism aconceptual and of posed Similarly, combination the Once again, had policy this and unintended undesired consequences. Some authors , (Toronto, McLelland and Stewart, 1995). 113 Themeaning of make wasthis to ofthe ethnic pluralism a feature key of the Le Québec enMutation Selling Illusions: The Cult ofMulticulturalism in Canada , (Montréal, Hurtubise, 1973), p. 100. Nationalism Without Walls: The Unbearable Lightness of Being op. cit. 37 http://www.fedcan.ca/francais/fromold/breakfast- 116 . 115 . , (Toronto, 114 CEU eTD Collection provincial pancanadianprovincial and the ideals of the concerns Trudeau. Minister Prime Francophones aspirations, between between establishand diversity, unity balance astable to failed pancanadianism of policies that shows experience Canadian The opposed. strongly andwasthus Francophones the for asnegative was perceived Pancanadianism provinces. separatist tendencies of Quebecers, and division created among the English majority in other previous principle of proportionality. importantly were discontented on andmore individual collectivewhich primacy the rights, weredisapprovingrights of with the provincialchanges, but ended in failure. Provincial opposition was mostly coming from larger provinces, equality policy,accept constitutional the to push Quebecers (1992) tried to andMeech Charlottetown (1987) whichof Agreement The illegitimate. as wasthem considered thus and replacing amendments constitutional these the of adoption the to consent not did Quebecers that fact the to due was opposition Francophone governmental Francophonemain of tothe andprovincial oppositions policies. The reason the pancanadianism, the consequences were disastrous. The adoption of the Charter served fuelto begovernment means to bestthe minimizing of Quebec separatism pursuantto previousthe policies on bilingualism multiculturalism.and Believedby Trudeau’s be Also,federalism grantedlaw aspecial bydenyingany to thisprovince confirmed status. an asymmetrical andrejected theprovinces of equality the affirmed Charter The government. important.most Itcorresponded tothe direction by taken previousthe federalreformshis of on Individual ThisCharter Rightswas andLiberties was one Trudeau’s adopted. project of In sum, the homogenizing increased of federal autonomistTrudeau policies and the lines. In 1982, the furtherfragmentation alongled ethnofederal to 1980s The early 38 CEU eTD Collection 117 degree of asymmetry, Quebecershaveobtainedaconsiderable The federal)(or government. political made organization, which importantconcessionsable them toobtain from central the Flandersthe issue. Thesemovements have progressively acquired strength and a genuine strong movements,have Francophonefor withseparatist the issueandFlemish two Quebec countries have similar patterns of ethnicity and aquite similarhistory ethnicof tensions. Both evaluation 4.3. Comparative by itinerary taken fragmentation similar. remains ethnic the but accommodate that differentgroups, their paths to ethnic Canada Belgium took and that show also will I cleavages. ethnic their of evolution in the similarities respects many in I will explain that these two countries, that are quasi ideal-types consociationalism,of possess andEnglish-speakers. Francophones between linguistic cleavage of the lines the along principally thecountry, of stability the threaten conflictual identities still represents aburdenCanada, for andthis difficulty to continues Nowadays, accommodation the objectives plurality of this of groups. ethnic these of Canadians). Governmental policies support of Amerindian Quebecers, populations andcultural minorities so-calledthe (of neo- were sometimes and even obtain the not did policies these However, conflict. reduce consistently to able oftenbeen have going at the odds of the meaning thatthrough “a range broad of inprovincial diversity and policy”politics Richard, Simeon, Richard, Canada presents thus many comparable features with Belgium. Firstof both all, In followingthe section, Iwill both casesput –Canadaintocomparison. andBelgium- regionalism, of in terms successful relatively were policies governmental Canadian op. cit. , p.116. 39 117 , they CEU eTD Collection 120 119 118 political party systems have experienced “the triumph of regionalism” Belgium or the multiculturalism policy in Canada). in Consequently, Questions bothSchool and contemporary Royal the (See issue principal the not was language where least cleavage has variousentered tensions, evenif hadthese little todowith language at issues, or andmade language hasthelinguisticcleavage all cleavages. Thelinguistic dominating other between Such territory overlapping linguisticgroups. of concentration geographic increasing languages expressed byan of hasbeen dominant ethnic a territorialization conflicts, less from claims linguistic of result The latter. the for English and former the for French dealing with autonomy from federalthe institutions (See 4.3.). autonomy linguistic matters with cultural inof greater communities and creation the cultural country of the rest the of systems tax and legislative separate with 1999), pp. 217-244, quoted by Richard,Simeon, State of the Federation 1998-1999.How Canadians Connect, ethnic following groups, “holding atogether” aiming byinstutitionalizing atpreservingtheBelgian unity andaccommodating differences was federalization Belgian The project. political a coherent than rather mean of pacification, a seen in was Belgium Ethnofederalization Canada. with thecase vision, aswas clear general a of outcome the not were reforms institutional Belgian the Indeed, differently. fragmentation problem approached the of it Belgian the appears that government Canadian experience, consociational approach led to the recognition and institutionalization of the characteristics of characteristics of the institutionalization and recognition ledtothe approach consociational meant ethnic to accommodate groups project federal one, on the contrary of the Canadian system which was the outcome of a political John, McGarry,« Federalism (Federation) (...) », Brian, Tanguay,“Canada’s Political Parties in the 1990s”, in Harvey,Lazar and Tom, McIntosh (eds.), Idem. Similarly, language Belgium a dominantand havegrown Canada with and elite, However, when the Belgian consociational evolution is put into perspective with the into perspectivewith is evolution put consociational Belgian However, whenthe op. cit. op. op. cit. 40 , p. 101. 120 since the beginning. , p. 12. path transforming the unitary state into a (Montreal, McGill-Queen’s University Press, University McGill-Queen’s (Montreal, 118 Moreover, the Belgian 119 . Flandershas obtained in 1960s-1970s. the The CEU eTD Collection stability of ethnofederations, because it creates ties that lower the incentives for separatism. lower incentives the that ties creates it because of ethnofederations, stability Iargue being such increasingly separately. that governed foris Now, the solidarity primordial it solidarities, linguistic certainly ethnicare because inter-group groups, downsized groups of immediately amplify tendencies separatist did not such devolution genuine power of stronger if we consider theFlemish issue, both Community and were havefused. If Region in of favor a strengthening ofCommunitiesis And and Regions. such evenstatement perhaps institutions in federal the of goaweakening of direction the transfers these reversely. Indeed, level, not federated from the in federal to the Belgium such always occurred transfers that knowing also and a spill-over model of the on function they that if weaccept separatism, promote that factors effective one of most probably the And are transfers these sector. to claim for atransfer (from the federal to the federated level) of competencies in the transport started Region Walloon the of field, government the intheeconomic competencies important neofunctionalist effect of spill-over. For example, once the Walloon Region obtained toclaimlinguistic groups for in competencies sectors,creating cognate of asort respective the to incentives gave autonomy of level such of attribution The units. these to autonomy group rights important andhence gave state, of the competencies sovereign several further fragmentation. for seemingly responsible immediately movementscreated of disapproval.support or supplementary Two wereelements itcleavage, has been observed complexity it the that 4 of the wassuchthatdidrounds not peaking identity Prime with MinisterTrudeau’s policies of 1960s-1970s. the identity, state-national upper an of promotion acontinuous than rather entities, territorial the On onethe hand, progressive devolution power the federatedof unitsto emptied linguistic the on reforms institutional Belgian the of impact the considers one When 41 CEU eTD Collection that the attachment to the Belgian identity is rather low, compared to regional ties regional to low, compared rather is identity Belgian the to attachment the that fragmentation:further the lack of promotion of a pan-Belgian identity. have shown Surveys separate identity of the titular group increases that group’s cohesion and the and “institutionalizing promoting Cornell identity.Andargued, Svante again,as substate toreinforce their tools Quebecersprovided significant language, has education to and culture autonomy inthefieldof group important attribution rights the andlanguage), of culture direction progressively possessed statelike institutions statelike possessed progressively they since tendencies, favorished their separatist has toQuebecers rights autonomy from federal the government. are in the even stronger position of core ethnic group, and hence, can obtain more concessions 124 121 pursue them in model.a consociational is And becausethis Flemish-speakers that Flanders, which is acore ethnic group Also, the Belgian devolution of power increased the atmosphere of confrontation http://www.ulb.ac.be/philo/cec/pages/D_zconf_nov2002_resnick.html conference given at the Free University of Brussels], Multinational States”, in 126 125 government to« avert tries defection of mostthis critical group » [core] is thedemands such government morelikely respond to of group to central that argument Hale’s take and ethnic region” is “core a Flanders that consider we can for other. Furthermore, the of beconflict sidecan one source from a grievance Consequently, grievancesthe both are of Flemish andWalloon attached groups differentissues. to 123 122 David M., Rayside, Philip, Resnick, “Recognition & Ressentiment: On Accommodating National Differences within Svante E., Cornell, « Autonomy as a Source of Conflict (…), Ibid. Idem. Idem. , p. 252. On the other hand, a second factor can be pointed out as being partly responsible for responsible partly being as out pointed be can factor second a hand, other the On Put into comparison with the Canadian case, it seems striking that the attribution of 124 . Also, as for the Belgian case (particularly on the Flemish issue, closely related to related closely issue, Flemish the on (particularly case Belgian the for as Also, . op. cit. Notes pour une conférence prononcée àl’Université Librede Bruxelles [Notes for a , p. 82. and (ULB, Centre d’études Canadiennes, Nov. 2002). URL: 42 123 which has separatist tendencies, is more likely is more tendencies, whichhasseparatist , increasing their op. cit. , p. 254. capacity 122 willingness . I would. I then argue especially to act in this act to know 121 toact” that they , because ifthe 125 126 . . CEU eTD Collection 128 127 strength for duetothe isprobably all the of them. This of popular remains issue “autonomy” the in Flanders, parties political between divisions political strong ifthere are even is that of this in The reason Flanders. parties) mostof political of the (meaning thegoals political general separatist tendency of autonomist and growingobserve a exist division within subunitsthese often there and that arerarely united subgroups of leaders the that fact by the be challenged can thisNow, behavior. argument of competitive this negativeconsequences the destabilizing lowerin to in tomake societies, order grand pleaded elites divided deeply coalitions these for advocating for elite cooperation as key element for consociationalism to work. He therefore behaviormutual and thus further aggravate and political instability”tensions tendencies. for separatist partly are also responsible asif of looks itthem certain features, consociational other three the take now we Canada. If in and in Belgium fragmentation, to related strongly is autonomy, group consociationalism, fragmentation. identity it experiencesince differs inboth cases similar that of agreement, this issue is method the to probablyAccordingly secession. Quebec on 1995referendum led the to that Quebecers not as relevant in terms theseparatist of tendencies counter haveobviously failed to PrimeMinister Trudeau of the causes of fragmentation,by developed notcontrary. Thepolicies the necessarily on fragmentation, does downsize identity national-federal of a promotion the usthat shows experience Canadian the However, of of elections, political other are autonomistparties stronger adopting toreconquer objectives part in Since itanimportant conquered independence. of Flemishelectorate lastthe couple the Flemish acomplete for advocates which party nationalist-regionalist and far-right Donald, Horowitz, Democracy”, “Consociational Lijphart, Arend, Lijphart himself Lijphart“leaders may of argued that rival subcultures engage in competitive of main features institutional here,one that of Until Iargued four the op. cit. , p. 574. 128 . If we take a look at the Belgian experience, we can op. cit., op. 43 pp. 211-212 Vlaams Belang (Flemish Interest), (Flemish 127 when CEU eTD Collection important issue.formallyargued, Quebec possessnot important butasLijphart suchtool, Quebecers do “alarmbel” vetoagreement, we can conclude that ithas has not really provoked further separatism. In Belgium, the been used one time only of facilitators separatism coalition, hence,can asinstitutional be designed by Francophonestatement holds thusfor grand the coalition principle. Both proportionality and grand MP’s, for a relativelyAnd such berepresented. likely to are again, once tendencies, more separatist and that thus, low is proportionality, there effective an canarguethatone federal atthe government, ministers Anglophone and Francophone have to rule informal is this there since Also, Parliament. federal atthe be represented to opinions separatist more for theability thus facts, in the of proportionality part acertain allows system majoritarian the concentrated, geographically since are itseems that Quebecers But of Quebecers. tendencies separatist strong Canadian experience shows that their majoritarian system has not been able to diminish the couldhave been escaped and theirthus ideasunderrepresented. However, alook at the such parties system, With amajoritarian issues. more separatist toward discourse political the partiesitfederal level,toberepresentednationalist as far-rightallows well, toshift thus and atthe be represented to all segments allows if proportionality canarguethat one issue”, “autonomist the with example Belgian our at Back fragmentation. in avoiding difficulties well. as if a grand coalition is not likely to provoke separatist tendencies, it is not likely even issues Thus, still strong. autonomist remain federal atthe Flemish-speakers government, to lower them and Francophones including coalition grand a with even Hence, electorate. lost their of part On the contrary, if we test the minority veto characteristic with the method of method the with characteristic veto minority the if wetest contrary, On the some presents of proportionality characteristic consociational way,On asimilar the 44 CEU eTD Collection really fuels separatist tendencies. separatist fuels really 129 on certain issues veto aninformal has Arend, Lijphart, Arend, DemocracyPlural in Societies 129 . Thus itremains argue minority difficult to that veto , op. cit. op. 45 , p. 125. CEU eTD Collection institutions 1'Etat belge », in », belge 1'Etat 130 resentment through but languagetheir and culture. for was pushing further the asymmetry. considered thatthelatter They only protect remedy to in andmulticulturalism of policies bilingualism the Quebecers haverejected Therefore, English-speaking since frustrations policies among1867 hasledto Canadian-Francophones. of domination centennial the However, ethnic the groups. plurality of and asymmetry identity policies aimingataccommodating have ethnicgroups) control beenmade to the (mostly pancanadian several attempts InCanada, further fragmentation. ethnic prevent not does systems) of concociational features (internal institutions and practices consociational Conclusion 131 Bruxelles, 1989), p.108. identity by todeal suchcleavages,Irealizedthat states policiesboth adopted with subsequent tothe look a closer by country,in and taking each ethnic cleavages evolution of andgroups further reasonably ethnic fragmentation.prevent Butbyanalyzing the historical theiraccommodate ethnic to able cases, consociational as successful declared many times have beenso Both of consociationalism. characteristics fit the a large both they to extent central tothe state. loyalties institutional by constrainednecessary they were not because Francophones, and Flemishs between thedivision accentuate arrangements, federal Hugues, Dumont, «Etat, Nation,et Constitution. De la théorie du droit public aux conditions de viabilité de Alexander, Murphy, In Belgium, on the contrary, decision-makers have supported asymmetrical tendencies, of introduction the that demonstrated have cases Belgian and Canadian The As I demonstrated, Canada and Belgium are crucial-cases of consociationalism, since of consociationalism, are crucial-cases Canadaand Belgium As Idemonstrated, 131 130 cloisonnement againsttheFrench domination country,of Flandersthe could, undersuch . Indeed, with on the one hand strong economic growth and on the other the on and growth economic strong hand one the on with Indeed, . Belgitude et crise de l'Etat belge, op. cit. , p. 80. (dividing up), without demanding genuine loyalties to the central Hugues Dumont, (ed.) (Facultés universitaires Saint-Louis, 46 CEU eTD Collection Quebecers have used such tool to strengthen their autonomy, even in areas that were not thatwere in areas even their autonomy, strengthen to such tool used Quebecers have thecontrary, autonomy.On of group efforts consociational the nomatter path separatist its pursue to hasbeenable InCanada, Quebec government. central Belgian to the relation Flemish the consciousness of not only theirnumerical advantage, but also of their particular to by its of providing character autonomy, separatist the Flandersincreases characteristic of tools communities to pursue to their separatist tendencies.InBelgium, “core ethnic the group” supplementary is giving obviously Canada, shareand Belgium that feature consociational maincommon the autonomy, Group fragmentation. further linkto characteristics on fragmentation, which occurred in both cases. method and approach did “comingtogether” notcruciallyimpact the pan-Canadian together” “holding Belgian the that I demonstrated Indeed, consociationalism. to itineraries different consociationalism. to approaches had different States institutions (independentvariable) andfragmentation variable),(dependent both although consociational between thecausallinkwas able method, totrace I Withsuch agreement. of method the with be tested to ideal comparison their made tendencies, fragmentation democracy. And this difference between Belgium and Canada, in parallel to their both interestingly having differentapproaches two led that themadopting aconsociational going on. To support my argument, I used the example itself. thetheory to test of these twoconsequently and theory, countries,consociational the to related closely are) (and were which policies, which were testcases.I thus their to is fragmentationdecided inthisthesis inthe two still deepening With the crucial test of both cases, I discovered that three of the main consociational had both states fact that neutralize the was able to I of agreement, method With the still is fragmentation further consociationalism, of ideal-types in even that I argued 47 CEU eTD Collection 132 rights autonomy their of provisions constitutional initial the to related directly there is nothing to do later to fix the problems these institutions created. because begin with, to in place institutions put such not should states is that thereof lesson policy The its objectives. initial of attheodds goes theory the of effective practice the that maybemore had strikingly, thatthe theory and shortcomings, serious cases,demonstrated I can be not corrected. that consequences can haveunintended or becan reversed not that a process trigger in place,they are institutions consociational once that I argue Consequently, models. consociational successful most supposedly the possess who in even those societies, individed ethnically fragmentation further ethnic for catalysts consequences. fragmentation with again, enter governmental possibility for opinions to and separatist policies parliamentary debates, the let characteristics consociational two These Canada. and in Belgium fragmentation melting fragmentation further and cementinter-ethnic the of solidarities. to leading entities, tothefederated inevitably federal state from the competencies transfers of cases, one can observe an effect of unilateral “spill-over” of ethnic group grievances and Richard, Simeon, Richard, My contribution to the literature in the field is that by operating a crucial test of two even often, or sometimes, are consociational practices that In sum,I demonstrated identity of causes also are coalition grand and proportionality together, Put op. cit. , p.116. 48 132 . 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