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This Article Was Originally Published in the Encyclopedia of Inland Waters This article was originally published in the Encyclopedia of Inland Waters published by Elsevier, and the attached copy is provided by Elsevier for the author's benefit and for the benefit of the author's institution, for non- commercial research and educational use including without limitation use in instruction at your institution, sending it to specific colleagues who you know, and providing a copy to your institution’s administrator. All other uses, reproduction and distribution, including without limitation commercial reprints, selling or licensing copies or access, or posting on open internet sites, your personal or institution’s website or repository, are prohibited. For exceptions, permission may be sought for such use through Elsevier's permissions site at: http://www.elsevier.com/locate/permissionusematerial Tockner K, Uehlinger U, Robinson C T, Siber R, Tonolla D and Peter F D. (2009) European Rivers. In: Gene E. Likens, (Editor) Encyclopedia of Inland Waters. volume 3, pp. 366-377 Oxford: Elsevier. Author's personal copy * European Rivers K Tockner, U Uehlinger, C T Robinson, R Siber, D Tonolla, and F D Peter, Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland ã 2009 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Introduction human population is 780 million with an average population density of 69 people per km2. At the Rivers recognize no political boundaries. This is par- catchment scale, the population density ranges from ticularly true for Europe, which has more than 150 <2 people per km2 (Pechora Basin) to 313 people per transboundary rivers. For example, the Danube is the km2 (Rhine Basin). The annual Gross Domestic Prod- 29th longest river globally, yet it flows through 18 uct (GDP; US$/person) ranges over two-orders-of- countries and 10 ecoregions. Further, 8 of the 10 magnitude, from 600$ (Dniester Basin in Moldova) largest catchments in Europe are in the eastern plains to 65 000$ (Aare Basin in Switzerland). Human life of Russia and information on their present status is expectancy ranges from 61 (Ural Basin) to 80 years highly limited. Europe also has a long history in river (river basins in Iceland, Italy, Spain, Sweden, and training with most rivers being severely fragmented, Switzerland). More than 100 languages are spoken channelized, and polluted. Recently, the European across Europe; with the greatest number (27 lan- Union launched an ambitious program called the guages) spoken in the Caucasus region. Water Framework Directive (WFD) that requires a catchment management plan for all major European rivers for achieving ‘good ecological status’ by 2015. In this chapter we provide a comprehensive overview Hydrogeomorphic and Human Legacies of all major European catchments (Figure 1), starting Last Glacial Maximum and Holocene Distribution with the biogeographic setting with an emphasis on of River Networks physiography, hydrology, ecology/biodiversity, and human impacts. Many European rivers have substantially changed in length, catchment area and flow direction over the past 20 000 years. For instance, at the onset of the last Biogeographic Setting glacial maximum about 20 000 year BP, a paleo-river known as the ‘Channel River’ (located between the Europe forms the northwestern physiographic con- present France and Britain) extended across the raised stituent of the larger landmass known as Eurasia. continental margin. Most major rivers in northwest- Europe covers an area of 11.2 million km2 that ern Europe (e.g., Rhine, Meuse, Solent, and Thames) includes the European part of Russia, parts of Kazakh- contributed to its waters. In addition, damming by stan (Ural River Basin), the Caucasus, Armenia, Cyprus, the Fennoscandian ice sheet caused the development and Turkey (Figure 1). Armenia and Cyprus are consid- of southward-flowing melt-water valleys and ice- ered as transcontinental countries; and Turkey is margin spillways running westward. These spillways included because of political and cultural reasons. The collected proglacial waters from rivers east of the average altitude of Europe is 300 m asl compared with Elbe basin that drained into the Channel River. The 600 m asl for North America and 1000 m asl for Asia. Channel River was the largest river system that Only 7% of Europe is above 1000 m asl. Europe has a drained the European continent, thereby affecting highly extensive and deeply penetrating network of the hydrology of much of Europe as well as that of water bodies. Its 117 000 km convoluted coastline coastal ecosystems. facilitated easy access to the interior, and it is this The long-term evolution of European rivers during feature that contributed to the rapid development of the Holocene can be placed into four regional its southern shores along the Mediterranean Sea. categories: 1. Rivers recently developed on areas formerly cov- Cultural and Socioeconomic Setting ered by ice sheets and affected by isostatic uplift; 2. Rivers of the former periglacial zone partly influ- There are distinct cultural, demographic, socioeco- enced by ice sheets; nomic, and political gradients across Europe. Today’s 3. Rivers of the former periglacial zone with lower reaches influenced by eustatic sea-level changes; and * This text is a shortened version of the chapter ‘Introduction to European Rivers’ in Tockner K, Uehlinger U and Robinson CT 4. Rivers of southern Europe within the region of (eds) Rivers of Europe. San Diego: Elsevier/Academic Press (2008). former cold steppe and forest-steppe. 366 Encyclopedia of Inland Waters (2009), vol. 3, pp. 366-377 Author's personal copy Rivers and Streams _ European Rivers 367 ned by D. Tonolla and R. Siber and R. Tonolla D. ned by g Desi 0 250 500 1Ј000 Kilometers Volga Iberian Rhône British and Irish Italian Boreal Uplands Turkey 1. Upper volga 28. Ter 54. Upper Rhône 82. Spey 108. Tagliamento 131. Glomma 146. Tigris 2. Middle volga 29. Ebro 55. Rhône 83. Tay 109. Brenta 132. Numedalslagen 147. Euphrates 3. Lower volga 30. Júcar 56. Ain 84. Tweed 110. Adige 133. Mandalselva 148. Asi 4. Mologa 31. Segura 57. Saone 85. Ouse 111. Po 134. Suldalslagen 149. Ceyhan 5. Sheksna 32. Guadalquivir 58. Isère 86. Trent 112. Sangro 135. Laerdalselva 150. Seyhan 6. Unzha 33. Guadiana 59. Durance 87. Thames 113. Amendolea 136. Stryneelva 151. Göksu 7. Oka 34. Tagus 88. Frome & Piddle 114. Alcantara 137. Jostedola 152. Greater Meander Fennoscandian Shield 8. Sura 35. Mondego 89. Severn 115. Tiber 138. Orkla 153. Smaller Meander 9. Vetluga 36. Duero 60. Neva 90. Wye 116. Arno 154. Gediz 139. Namsen 10. Kama 37. Agüera 61. Kymijoki 91. Mersey 117. Flumendosa 140. Vefsna 155. Sakarya 11. Samara 62. Kiiminkijoki 92. Shannon 156. Kizilirmak 12. Bol’shoi lrgiz Continental Atlantic 63. Koutajoki Western Steppic Baltic and Eastern Continental 157. Yesilirmak 64. Torneälven Balkans 38. Meuse 118. Don 141. Luga 158. Coruh Danube 65. Kalixälven 93. Evros 39. Loire 119. Kuban 142. Narva 159. Terek 66. Luleälven 94. Nestos 13. Upper Danube 40. Charente 120. Dnieper 143. Western Dvina 160. Kura 67. Umeälven 95. Strymon 14. Middle Danube 41. Dordogne 121. Southern Bug 144. Nemunas 161. Aras 68. Indalsälven 96. Axios 15. Lower Danube 42. Garonne 122. Dniester 145. Vistula 97. Aliakmon Ural 16. Delta Danube 43. Adour 69. Dalälven 123. Donets 17. Inn 98. Pinios 162. Ural 18. Morava Rhine Arctic 99. Sperchios Central Highlands and Plains 163. Sakmara 19. Vah 70. Pechora 100. Evrotas 44. Alpine Rhine 124. Oder 164. Ilek 20. Drava 45. High Rhine 71. Mezen 101. Alfeios 125. Elbe 21. Tisza 72. Northern Dvina 102. Acheloos 46. Upper Rhine 126. Weser 22. Sava 73. Onega 103. Arachthos 47. Middle Rhine 127. Skjern 23.Velika Morava 74. Varzuga 104. Aoos 48. Lower Rhine 128. Em 24. Iskar 75. Komagelva 105. Drin 49. Delta Rhine 129. Drawa 25. Olt 76. Tana 106. Neretva 50. Aare 130. Spree 26. Siret 77. Altaelva 107. Kamchia 51. Neckar 27. Prut 52. Main 78. Geithellnaá 53. Moselle 79. Laxá 80. Vestari-Jökulsá 81. Bayelva Figure 1 Spatial distribution of European catchments from 12 different geographic regions and subcatchments from the Volga, Danube, Rhine, Rhone, and Ural Rivers. Source – Tockner K, Uehlinger U, and Robinson CT (eds), Rivers of Europe. San Diego: Elsevier/ Academic Press (2008). Encyclopedia of Inland Waters (2009), vol. 3, pp. 366-377 Author's personal copy 368 Rivers and Streams _ European Rivers catchments (e.g., Amendolea in Italy, Frome and Central European rivers show 3–6 separate alluvial fills that correlate well with stages of glacial advance Piddle in Great Britain, and Sperchios in the Balkans. and treeline lowering in the Alps. In the European Among the major factors influencing water quality lowlands, 2–3 fills are at times recorded, although and quantity at the catchment scale is the change in major lateral channel shifts are more common as a land use intensity. Around 60% of the combined consequence of fluctuations in discharge and sedi- catchment area of the 165 examined rivers has been ment flux. In southern Europe, the tendency towards transformed into cropland and urban area. The pro- braiding has anthropogenic (deforestation and sub- portion of developed area exceeds 90% for Central sequent increases in sediment transport) and natural European and Western Steppic Rivers (Table 1). Over origins(higher flood frequency during the Little Ice 70% of the European population lives in urban areas and the total number of cities with a population Age, 1450–1850). In piedmont zones, the tendency towards braiding was repeated during cooler and >100 000 is >360. moister stages. In the western Siberian river valleys, e.g., the Pechora and Mezen valleys, braided channels probably changed to a more meandering style after the retreat of permafrost and then towards braiding Water Availability, Runoff, and during permafrost advances. Water Stress Water availability, defined as the annual long-term Early and Recent Human Impacts of European average renewable water resource derived from natu- Rivers ral discharge including consumptive water use, shows Deforestation and cultivation of soils were the main a large spatial variation among river basins.
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