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Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne

Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early 10 10

partitions. partitions. transcends these these transcends oeuvre oeuvre Rousseau's Rousseau's another. another. one one

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173 173 Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early

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Origins Origins to to Back Back (1712-78): (1712-78): Rousseau Rousseau Jean-Jacques Jean-Jacques

Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne 174 174 Early French Romanticism 175

mechanical, icy, and "noisy." Transported by the expressivity of Italian music he has just heard, Rousseau's character Saint-Preux will urge his lover Julie to learn this language of the heart: "So abandon forever that boring and lamentable French song that is more like the cries of colic than the transport of passion. Learn to produce those divine sounds inspired by sentiment, the only ones worthy of your voice, the only ones worthy of your heart, and which always carry along with them the charm and fire of sensible temperaments" (Rousseau 1997: 11 0). Originally developed in the Essai sur l'origine des langues (1764), the idea that "Poetry, song, and speech have a common origin" encouraged a return to the original conjunction between music and poetic sentiment, exemplified by Rousseau's own musical prose. For generations, including his own, only Rousseau has been known on a first-name basis. Whereas Montesquieu, Voltaire, Diderot, or Sade's first names seem inconse­ quential and are barely remembered, "Jean-Jacques" is substituted for Rousseau in correspondence as well as past and present criticism. Aside from the practical issue of distinction from his namesake, the then-famous poet Jean-Baptiste Rousseau, the public use of Rousseau's Christian name - by himself and others - has a vast symbolic resonance. It lays the private self in the open, it emblazons subjectivity and intimacy. Samuel Richardson's novels of sentiment had illustrated how the heart led to virtue, thus framing the question of sensitivity as a moral quest towards goodness. In his widely successful epistolary novel, julie ou Ia nouvelle Heloise (with more than 70 editions from 1761 to 1800) Rousseau opens the tortured heart of Saint-Preux, a young tutor in love with his pupil Julie, who eventually obeys her father's choice of a better match. Mter her husband knowingly chooses her former lover to become their children's tutor, Julie's virtue struggles until death to turn thwarted love into friendship. In life as in fiction, Rousseau wanted to study individualities and charac­ ters: Emile ou traite sur /'education details an imaginary boy's mental, emotional, and moral development guided by radically new pedagogical principles based on the free discovery of the world of nature· and the intellect. When Jean-Jacques turned to himself as subject and object of stddy in his autobiographical Confessions, the story of his life became emblematic of how social forces restrict individual freedom. Contrary to those who· distrusted emotion as misleading and believed reason alone to be reliable, Rousseau maintained that emotions reveal truth, that they tell as much as the mind about how to read the inner and exterior worlds. He honored but did not privilege reason. In the name of truth, therefore, feelings were no longer idealized as in L'Astrie, the seventeenth-century pastoral admired by Rousseau, but described in their psychological complexities and piercing force. This liberation of the lyrical self had considerable appeal, particularly among women who turned to sentimental realism to convey their plights in real or imaginary correspondences and novels: Sentiment and nature had long been wedded in poems and pastorals. Allegories of the seasons, symbolic fruit and flowers, idealized landscapes, an enchanted southern countryside, offered an abstract, eternally pleasing (riante) nature severed from reality. As with music and sentiment, Rousseau refused artifice when it came to nature. The wild contrasts of Swiss landscapes beloved since childhood, the rustic pleasures of his

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Period Period Controversial Controversial A A 6-1816: 6-1816: 177 177

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Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne 176 176

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177 177 Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early

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dimension dimension

spiritual spiritual

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when when

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exile. exile. and and

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regime's regime's ancien ancien

the the of of

fight fight political political the the continue continue to to had had generation generation Romantic Romantic

early early

the the

regime, regime,

Napoleon's Napoleon's by by then then Terror, Terror, the the · by by expression expression of of freedom freedom Denied Denied

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generalize generalize and and respond respond to to drive drive his his and and alienation alienation his his via via

reference reference

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generation's generation's · · this became became Rousseau Rousseau exclusively, exclusively, not not but but especially especially

women women To To

destiny. destiny.

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representations representations

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women women

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loved loved

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David David painter painter the the by by immortalized immortalized love love platonic platonic and and beauty beauty of of

icon icon

neoclassic neoclassic the the

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(1791)? (1791)?

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Olympe Olympe

and and (1754-93) (1754-93) Roland Roland Madame Madame Revolution Revolution the the of of martyrs martyrs

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died died and and

correspondence correspondence private private in in torment torment 4 4

her her

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Marianne Marianne

its its Was Was destinies. destinies. symbolic symbolic and and compelling compelling equally equally tween tween

be­ wavered wavered

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chose chose

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after after Napoleon Napoleon of of downfall downfall the the and and Terror, Terror, the the into into Revolution Revolution

Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne 178 178

into into stepping stepping intellectual intellectual female female the the engagie," engagie," "intellectuel/e "intellectuel/e the the of of type type the the inaugurated inaugurated

She She ideas. ideas. bold bold and and progressive progressive most most the the pioneered pioneered but but years years 51 51 only only lived lived Stael Stael

other other the the of of voice voice The The (1766-1817): (1766-1817): de de Staet Staet Germaine Germaine

Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early of of Representatives Representatives Three Three The The

Cromwell. Cromwell. to to preface preface Hugo's Hugo's Victor Victor and and Shakespeare Shakespeare et et Racine Racine

Stendhal's Stendhal's towards towards theory, theory, dramatic dramatic advanced advanced actively actively Diderot, Diderot, predecessor predecessor his his than than

radical radical more more but but by by inspired inspired Mercier, Mercier, Nevertheless, Nevertheless, thinking. thinking. wishful wishful theoretical, theoretical,

namely namely aesthetic, aesthetic, doctrinal doctrinal a a but but remained remained it it Romantics, Romantics, French French early early by by for for called called

lyricism lyricism the the achieved achieved aesthetics aesthetics before before repeatedly, repeatedly, seen seen be be will will As As spectators. spectators. and and

readers readers for for them them spoils spoils that that morality morality heavy-handed heavy-handed their their is is it it today today theses, theses, radical radical

his his of of account account on on plays plays Mercier's Mercier's perform perform not not would would actors actors contemporary contemporary While While

characters. characters. not not conditions, conditions, social social about about dramas dramas realize realize ~o ~o sought sought · Mercier Mercier Schiller, Schiller,

Like Like emotion. emotion. through through goal goal moral moral its its reach reach will will who who people, people, the the for for composed composed

bourgeois" bourgeois" "drame "drame the the advocate advocate to to tradition tradition classical classical French French the the against against turned turned (1773) (1773)

theater theater on on treatise treatise polemical polemical Mercier's Mercier's playwrights. playwrights. over over control control despotic despotic actors' actors'

the the broke broke finally finally which which rights, rights, authors' authors' establishing establishing 32-99) 32-99) (17 (17 Beaumarchais Beaumarchais by by

fostered fostered law law 1791 1791 the the is is this emancipation emancipation this in in date date key key A A bastion. bastion. last last the the tragedies, tragedies,

for for except except accepted accepted well well was was prose prose and and did, did, poets poets than than faster faster and and sooner sooner rules rules

broke broke dramatists dramatists many many although although incremental incremental also also was was theater theater of of evolution evolution The The

anthology). anthology). 1997 1997 Delon's Delon's (see (see tion tion

narra­ over over instantaneity instantaneity privileging privileging poetics poetics new new a a towards towards shift shift the the of of symptomatic symptomatic

poems, poems, "fugitive" "fugitive" shore, shore, for for taste taste the the with with poems, poems, epic, epic, often often voluminous, voluminous, to to reaction reaction

adverse adverse an an also also was was there there scope, scope, and and length length their their for for remarkable remarkable are are works works above above the the

While While 1790). 1790). disir, disir, de de (L'Homme (L'Homme elevation elevation spiritual spiritual match match to to rhythms rhythms new new imagined imagined

(1743-1803) (1743-1803) Saint-Martin Saint-Martin de de Louis-Claude Louis-Claude theosophist theosophist The The themes. themes. elegiac elegiac exotic, exotic,

developed developed (1753-1814) (1753-1814) Parny Parny Evariste Evariste like like poets poets Creole Creole Independence. Independence. American American by by

invigorated invigorated "L'Amerique," "L'Amerique," with with World World New New the the of of myth myth modern modern the the and and "Hermes," "Hermes,"

in in as as myths myths classical classical revived revived (1762-94) (1762-94) Chenier Chenier Andre Andre (1769). (1769). Saisons Saisons Les Les in in

(1716-1803) (1716-1803) Saint-Lambert Saint-Lambert by by Jean-Fran~ois Jean-Fran~ois spearheaded spearheaded nature nature of of poetry poetry descriptive descriptive

the the continued continued (1738-1813) (1738-1813) Delille Delille Jacques Jacques (1782) (1782) Les]ardins Les]ardins With With directions. directions. various various

took took poetry poetry itself, itself, of of search search In In dichotomy. dichotomy. classic/Romantic classic/Romantic simple simple a a to to itself itself lend lend

not not does does profusion profusion poetic poetic this this trend, trend, dominating dominating or or unity unity without without But But production. production.

poetic poetic its its of of variety variety and and abundance abundance the the for for out out period stands stands period the the opinion, opinion, received received to to

contrary contrary and and Paradoxically Paradoxically circumscribed. circumscribed. remained remained and innovations innovations and change, change, resisted resisted

poets poets French French practice practice in in yet yet enthusiasm, enthusiasm, and and musicality musicality to to return return a a advocate advocate to to poetry poetry

and and language language of of origins origins the the studied studied had had theoreticians theoreticians century century mid-eighteenth mid-eighteenth the the

Since Since Romanticism. Romanticism. English English of of poets poets six six central central the the to to figureheads figureheads equivalent equivalent no no with with

new, new, and and old old of of mixture mixture a a styles, styles, and and themes themes of of kaleidoscope kaleidoscope a a is is Empire, Empire, the the to to reign reign

XVI's XVI's Louis Louis of of decade decade last last the the from from period, period, historical historical tumultuous tumultuous this this of of poetry poetry The The

179 179 Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early 180 Fabienne Moore public debate no matter the cost. In detailing obstacles and hardships, Mary Shelley's essay on Stael's life seemed to invite a reading of the destiny of female genius as the quintessential Romantic quest for freedom and acceptance (Shelley 2002). Born in Paris, she was raised a Swiss Protestant like Rousseau, by parents from the high bourgeoisie who lavished on her the finest education. She learnt from her mother's famed Parisian salon in the presence of luminaries such as Diderot and Grimm, and from the tumultuous political career of her famous father, an agent and victim of the revolutionary cause. 5 French, Swiss, or Swedish according to her needs (she married, de convenance, the Swedish Ambassador to Paris from whom she separated in 1797), she breathed cosmopolitanism, inviting an international set of guests to Copper, her residence by Lake Geneva, and spent her life traveling: first to"Jjngland (1793) and Germany (where in 1803-4 she met Goethe and Schiller, and hired August Wilhelm Schlegel as her children's tutor); then Italy (1805) and north-eastern Europe (Vienna, Moscow, St Petersburg, Stockholm in 1812-13), back to England, where she met Byron (1813-14),6 and Italy (1815). Political circumstances repeatedly forced her out of Paris: Copper became a refuge from the Terror, then her headquarters after Napoleon banished her from the capital in 1803, and his police kept harassing her, prompting her flight to Germany. Dix annees d'exil (published posthumously in 1820), "the most simple and interesting of her works" according to Mary Shelley, records a decade spent escaping the wrath of him who "oppressed her because she refused to be his tool" (Shelley 2002: 479). Stael's political independence started early and never swayed: she wrote a plea against the queen's execution, labored for the return of emigres, including Chateau­ briand, then involved herself in parliamentary politics through her friend Constant. Her outspoken letters to Jefferson to press for an American intervention against Napoleon are remarkable examples of her political activism. Napoleon could neither abide her political maneuvering which he deemed dangerous, nor her work, which he read as "anti-French" in its praise of foreigners, or more pointedly in its insulting silence towards the Emperor. The two novels and two major essays that established her reputation as one of Europe's leading femmes de lettres provided a response to the continuing historic upheaval reshaping France, as well as an opening towards foreign national traditions and innovations discovered while in exile. First came De Ia littirature considiree dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales (1800), an ambitious interpretation of literature as the expression of society, deter­ mined by history, geography, and politics. Thus far, traditionalcriticism appraised beauties and defects according to set rules. Stael still believed taste was not arbitrary even when shaped by national variations, but she invoked genius as the ultimate arbitrator. The essay contrasts Northern and Southern literature, the ancients and moderns, opposing Homer, the father of classical poetry,· to Ossian, the origin and representative of the melancholy literature of the North. Northern imagination favors dark imagery, inspiring philosophical self-reflections, reinforced by Christian religion and its emphasis on self-introspection. "In order to characterize the general spirit of each literature," Stael moves from an analysis of Greek and Latin literature to a

Richard- Unlike Unlike 493). 493). 2002: 2002: (Shelley (Shelley courage" courage" moral moral .lesson- needful needful most the the teach teach

not not do do "they "they that that is is novels novels two two the the with with contention contention of of point point main main Shelley's Shelley's Mary Mary

. . 484) 2002: 2002: (Shelley (Shelley trial" trial" the the from from

better better and and wiser wiser rise rise and and lot, lot, common common too too a a endure endure to to enough enough fortitude fortitude or or resignation resignation

find find could could Corinne, Corinne, as as gifted gifted highly highly as as one, one, how how teach teach to to better better were were it it hood, hood,

woman­ of of dignity dignity the the "For "For ending: ending: tragic tragic the the faulted faulted but but agreed agreed Shelley Shelley Mary Mary 4). 4).

223- 1991: 1991: (Byron (Byron all" all" of of rather rather or or country country no no of of and and nation nation one one of of but but is is which which heart, heart,

the the delineating delineating in in true true always always almost but but England- and and Italy Italy about about wrong wrong often often and and

right right sometimes sometimes "is "is Stael Stael that that remarking remarking novel, novel, the the of of translation translation Italian Italian Teresa's Teresa's lover lover

his his annotated annotated even even He He generosity. generosity. creative creative unrewarded unrewarded of of genius, genius, misunderstood misunderstood the the

of of allegory allegory Corinne Corinne an an as as read read Byron Byron (1824). (1824). Improvisatrice Improvisatrice The The in in plot plot Stael's Stael's adapted adapted

who who E. E. Landon Landon Letitia Letitia as as such such L.) L.) authors authors (L. (L. women women galvanized galvanized - dies dies Corinne Corinne

heart-broken heart-broken the the - fate fate tragic tragic a a meets meets she she although although genius, genius, female female of of portrayal portrayal The The

again. again. once once trouble trouble in in Stael Stael got got that that reading reading ideological ideological and and

political political a a for for calling calling nations, nations, three three voice voice gives gives novel novel The The Lucile. Lucile. to to womanhood, womanhood,

traditional traditional and and virtue virtue of of paragon paragon a a for for her her leaves leaves eventually eventually who who Nevil, Nevil, lord, lord,

English English melancholy melancholy a a with with love love in in falls falls Italy, Italy, country, country, adopted adopted her her in in life life free-spirited free-spirited

a a living living improvisations, improvisations, eloquent eloquent her her for for renowned renowned poet, poet, female female beautiful beautiful A A copy. copy.

personal personal a a Jefferson Jefferson sent sent Stael Stael where where America America including including abroad, abroad, and and France France in in success success

immediate immediate with with met met travelogue travelogue l'ltalie. l'ltalie. ou ou This This Corinne Corinne of of well well as as true true is is This This

conventions. conventions. moral moral and and novelistic novelistic for for concern concern the the by by back back held held anachronisms, anachronisms, still still

are are feminism feminism and and Romanticism Romanticism ). ). 3 3 102-5 102-5 1978: 1978: (Gutwirth (Gutwirth character character and and talents talents their their of of

self-abasement self-abasement purposeful purposeful the the is is women women for for need need existential existential an an as as love love of of consequence consequence

cruel cruel the the For For society. society. repressive repressive and and love love oppressive oppressive both both of of clutches clutches the the in in artist artist

woman woman a a as as otherness otherness her her to to voice voice gives gives tale tale tragic tragic Stael's Stael's and Chateaubriand, Chateaubriand, and Byron, Byron,

Goethe, Goethe, Rousseau, Rousseau, of of reading reading her her by by Permeated Permeated . 1820 in in re-edited re-edited was was book book the the when when

7 7

ending ending suicide suicide criticized criticized much the the reversed reversed Stael Stael 128). 128). 1978: 1978: (Gutwirth (Gutwirth public" public" the the

with with successful successful widely widely so so mode, mode, this this Heloise Heloise established established had had Nouvelle Nouvelle La La [Rousseau's] [Rousseau's]

certitude. certitude. moral moral of of tone tone a a in in written written ambiguity ambiguity moral moral of of novel novel a a as as remarkable remarkable

work work "Delphine "Delphine a a is is Germany. Germany. elated elated and and France France scandalized scandalized vows vows monastic monastic break break

or or divorce divorce to to right right the the and and marriage marriage on on views views its its immoralism, immoralism, Delphine's Delphine's perceived perceived

death. death. wife's wife's his his after after war war to to away away run run has has who who lover, lover, her her survive survive than than rather rather suicide suicide

commit commit to to escapes escapes religious religious taking taking into into She She :~ Delphine Delphine vows trap trap and and off off him him marry marry tors tors

Manipula­ propriety. propriety. of of sense sense paralyzing paralyzing a a by by afflicted afflicted is is who who Leonce Leonce distressing distressing ence, ence,

independ­ heedless heedless and and generosity generosity of of acts acts impulsive impulsive with with reputation reputation her her loses loses Delphine Delphine

them. them. separate separate to to conspire conspire mothers mothers but but Leonce, Leonce, fiance, fiance, cousin's cousin's her her with with love love in in falls falls

widow widow young young wealthy wealthy a a 1792, 1792, to to 1790 1790 from from set set letter-novel letter-novel first first long, long, very very her her In In tions. tions.

disquisi­ and and novels novels once once at at condition, condition, women's women's trial trial on on put put l'Italie l'Italie ou ou (1807)- Corinne Corinne

and and Delphine Delphine (1802) (1802) surrogates- Stael's Stael's respects respects many many in in heroines- eponymous eponymous their their

after after Named Named freedom. freedom. and and love love to to obstacles obstacles societal societal around around plot plot their their as as well well as as form form

their their in in traditional traditional remain remain which which novels, novels, her her in in principles principles writing writing new new demonstrate demonstrate

to to seek seek not not did did she she contrast, contrast, By By aesthetic. aesthetic. new new a a base base to to inspiration inspiration of of sources sources

new new France France into into channeling channeling was was l'A//emagne l'A//emagne Stael Stael De De litterature litterature Ia Ia and and De De Through Through

Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne 182 182

freedom. freedom. of of spirit spirit the the art- and and

letters letters politics, politics, in in Protestantism Protestantism is is Romanticism Romanticism that that critics, critics, and and poets poets of of generation generation

new new the the insult insult to to ultra-royalists ultra-royalists the the by by used used later later motto, motto, the the embodied embodied He He ism. ism.

parliamentar­ for for respect respect and and force force by by power power to to opposition opposition his his regimes regimes authoritarian authoritarian

postrevolutionary postrevolutionary of of succession succession a a and and turmoil turmoil political political incredible incredible of of face face the the in in

maintaining maintaining favor, favor, of of out out and and in in falling falling elected, elected, or or nominated nominated when when office office in in serving serving

reli,gion), reli,gion), politics, politics, constitutional constitutional bipartisanship, bipartisanship, elections, elections, press, press, the the of of freedom freedom the the

Terror, Terror, the the (on (on point point turning turning each each at at essays essays key key writirig writirig politics, politics, into into himself himself thrust thrust

Constant Constant sex, sex, her her of of account account on on office office elected elected an an hold hold never never could could Stael Stael While While

name. name. his his in in implied implied constancy constancy the the to to dpposed dpposed ironically ironically so so failing, failing,

own own author's author's the the prevarication, prevarication, their their by by torn torn characters characters of of psychology psychology the the capturing capturing

in in exactness exactness piercing piercing a a achieved achieved prose prose Constant's Constant's Cecile. Cecile. unfinished unfinished the the and and (1816) (1816)

Adolphe Adolphe novels novels short short the the into into life life love love unhappy unhappy his his of of transposition transposition the the was was successful successful

More More come. come. yet yet not not had had time time the the if if as as taste, taste, French French to to bowed bowed ultimately ultimately translation translation

faulty faulty and and abridged, abridged, tame, tame, his his but but action), action), and and space, space, (time, (time, unities unities three three the the

of of principle principle sacrosanct sacrosanct French French the the by by unbound unbound drama drama German German of of power power the the praised praised

preface preface a a (1809), (1809), Wallenstein Wallenstein tragedy tragedy Schiller's Schiller's adapted adapted he he When When practice. practice. of of ahead ahead

was was criticism criticism literary literary his his Stael, Stael, Like Like 1968). 1968). (Balaye (Balaye character character torn torn protagonist's protagonist's

male male the the justifying justifying by by genius genius female female the the of of life life tragic tragic the the to to responding responding slant, slant,

biographical biographical telling telling a a also also but but insight insight of of benefit benefit the the had had l'Ita/ie l'Ita/ie ou ou Corinne Corinne defending defending

1807 1807 in in Publiciste Publiciste for for Le Le wrote wrote he he articles articles enthusiastic enthusiastic The The activism. activism. political political his his as as

well well as as output output literary literary his his shaped shaped Stael Stael with with liaison liaison tormented tormented and and passionate passionate His His

Society. Society. Speculative Speculative the the club, club, debating debating

exclusive exclusive the the in in participated participated he he where where Scotland, Scotland, Edinburgh, Edinburgh, at at years years two two spending spending

eventually eventually Switzerland, Switzerland, and and Belgium, Belgium, Holland, Holland, England, England, in in education education his his received received

He He advocate. advocate. forceful forceful most most the the become become would would he he which which of of liberalism liberalism of of tradition tradition

a a inheriting inheriting Protestant, Protestant, Swiss Swiss a a was was Constant Constant Benjamin Benjamin Stael, Stael, and and Rousseau Rousseau Like Like

politics politics and and love love Of Of (1767-1830): (1767-1830): Constant Constant Benjamin Benjamin

1817. 1817. Day, Day, Bastille Bastille on on died died she she - governor governor Milanese Milanese the the of of words words

the the in in - Revolutionary" Revolutionary" incorrigible incorrigible "an "an end end the the To To emancipation. emancipation. for for plea plea final final a a

in in Stael Stael by by set set fire fire a Italy, Italy, in in battle battle Romantic Romantic the the for for point point departure departure the the marked marked essay essay

provocative provocative short short This This taste. taste. national national to to adaptation adaptation of of habits habits French French with with contrast contrast in in

inspiration" inspiration" with with "exactitude "exactitude combining combining translator, translator, model model the the is is Schlegel Schlegel W. W. A. A. 296). 296).

1861: 1861: (Stael (Stael literature" literature" of of power power executive executive the the really really is is theater theater "for "for theater theater Schiller's Schiller's

and and Shakespeare Shakespeare of of translation translation advocated advocated further further She She mythology. mythology. ancient ancient from from art art

their their free free and and genres genres new new discover discover to to poetry poetry German German and and English English translate translate to to Italians Italians

encouraged encouraged (1816), (1816), traductions traductions des des /'esprit /'esprit De De work, work, last last Stael's Stael's Italy, Italy, in in Published Published

downfall. downfall. their their to to contributes contributes

characters characters the the upon upon forces forces external external . of of weight weight the the tragedies, tragedies, Racinian Racinian and and Greek Greek

of of tradition tradition the the In In end. end. the the to to reason reason their their dominated dominated having having passions passions their their ished, ished,

dimin­ and and crushed crushed die die heroines heroines unhappy unhappy Stael's Stael's Julie, Julie, Rousseau's Rousseau's and and Clarissa Clarissa son's son's

183 183 Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early 184 Fabienne Moore

Chateaubriand (1768-1848): Bard of past times Unlike Stael's childhood, surrounded by a whirlwind of celebrities who inspired and gave free reign to her intellect, Chateaubriand's formative years were pervaded by solitude and gloom, giving free reign to his imagination instead. Chateaubriand grew up in the austere medieval castle of Combourg, surrounded by Brittany's tempestuous ocean,. its forlorn marshes and brooding skies, a witness to the comings and goings of ships and the endless wait for the mariners' return. These leitmotivs struck a chord of recognition when discovered in Ossian. Of all French regionalisms, Brittany's Celtic lore was the closest to the Gaelic bard's invocations. Le Tourneur's complete transla­ tion of Ossian (1777 -84) spurred numerous imitations, indhding Chateaubriand's. Encouraged by his melancholy sister Lucile, inspired by the English poets Thomas Gray, James Thompson, Edward Young, and by Salomon Gessner's Idylls, a morose Chateaubriand tried his hand at poetry, composing from 1784 to 1790 a series of "Tableaux de Ia nature" where nature's beautiful resilience contrasts with the poet's tenuous life. The lyric "I" at the center of these early poems bathes in a Rousseauist reverie. Outgrowing fugitive poetry, Chateaubriand began to envision an epic narrative, "l'epopie de l'homme de Ia nature" but the ambitious fresco on the North-American Indians would not come to life: " I soon realized I lacked true colors, and if I wanted a faithful picture, I, like Homer, had to visit the people I wanted to paint" (Chateaubriand 1996: 65). To justify his aesthetic project of traveling to America, Chateaubriand conceived of a scientific purpose, namely the discovery of the Northwest passage, itself a journey of epic proportion in keeping with his ambitious dreams and boundless self-assurance. Fraught with contradictions and paradoxes, Chateaubriand's encounter with the New World (April1791-January 1792) produced a shock that reverberated throughout his life and writing. Although he visited large cities, the traveler followed his exploratory instinct and spent most of his time in the wilderness ("/e desert''). Instead of the Northwest passage, Chateaubriand discovered a still unspoiled, awe-inspiring nature, home to an indigenous people on the verge of extinction, uprooted and corrupted by settlers and traders - a ruined noble savage. Following his return from America, Chateaubriand spent seven months in France, hastily married, then joined the royalist army of princes in August 1792. Soon wounded and sick, he fled to his uncle's in Jersey, then moved to England in May 1793. Exile had begun: Chateaubriand would return to France only seven years later, in May 1800. In 1797 Chateaubriand published his first work in prose, the Essai sur les revolutions, an enormous and ambitious comparative history of revolutions as cyclic phenomena. The panoramic essay ends unexpectedly with a lyrical final chapter entitled "Nuit chez les sauvages de 1' Amerique" where the author recalls his experience of the sublime. This famous final scene pre-empts the closure of history, by refusing to perceive history as a sealed, apoetical story. Contrary to appearances, the Essai is not f'

poetry. poetry. descriptive descriptive modern modern of of source source the the sublime, sublime, true true nature's nature's revealed revealed ology, ology,

myth­ away away chasing chasing by by religion, religion, Christian Christian furthermore, furthermore, tragedies; tragedies; and and poems poems epic epic

modern modern in in illustrated illustrated conflicts, conflicts, moral moral heightened heightened for for conditions conditions the the created created religion religion

Christian Christian literature. literature. Christian Christian best best the the from from poetique" poetique" "theologie "theologie a a building building poetics, poetics,

Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's of of principles principles essential essential the the formulates formulates Genie Genie The The death. death. mother's mother's

his his hasteq.ed hasteq.ed reportedly reportedly which which Essai, Essai, pessimistic pessimistic impious, impious, the the for for atone atone to to written written

also also was was christianisme christianisme du du Genie Genie the the But But past. past. haunting haunting violent, violent, a a with with lyrics lyrics peaceful peaceful

David's David's contrasting contrasting songs, songs, bard's bard's Gaelic Gaelic the the for for hymns hymns biblical biblical substituted substituted easily easily

and and traditions, traditions, their their and and French French the the between between link link torn torn the the v ' (1802) christianisme christianisme du du

Genie Genie the the with with repair repair to to hoped hoped Chateaubriand Chateaubriand appeasement, appeasement, for for came came time time When When

1835. 1835. in in later later years years 35 35 completed completed eventually eventually was was

Lost Lost Paradise Paradise of of translation translation remarkable remarkable his his England, England, in in Begun Begun bards. bards. of of pantheon pantheon

Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's of of pinnacle pinnacle the the at at him him places places - Fall Fall never-ending never-ending subsequent, subsequent,

humankind's humankind's - prophecies prophecies all all of of tragic tragic most most and and ineluctable, ineluctable, most most the the first, first, the the of of

account account his his and and Genesis, Genesis, religion, religion, Christian Christian of of narrative narrative foundational foundational the recounting recounting

in in success success Milton's Milton's people. people. a a of of destiny destiny and and origins origins the the up up sums sums role, role, this this by by for for called called

music music and and lyrics lyrics interpretive interpretive the the and and role, role, mythopoetic mythopoetic and and sociocultural, sociocultural, historical, historical,

bard's bard's The The work. work. and and life life Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's of of archetype archetype central central the the bard, bard, elegiac elegiac

the the to belongs belongs memories memories these these of of sadness sadness pervasive pervasive the the convey convey to to apt apt voice voice only only The The

survivor. survivor. sole sole its its him him leaving leaving one, one, new new a a begetting begetting without without generation generation own own his his

of of death death the the witnessing witnessing to to him him subjected subjected which which life, life, childless childless yet yet long long exceptionally exceptionally

an an by by compounded compounded was was loss loss of of experience experience early early Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's conquest, conquest, European European

by by triggered triggered tragedy tragedy Indians' Indians' the the of of discovery discovery first-hand first-hand the the to to regime regime ancien ancien the the of of

fall fall the the From From trauma. trauma. historical historical an an of of wake wake the the in in regret regret and and loss loss painful painful similarly similarly

expressed expressed and and France, France, postrevolutionary postrevolutionary to to similar similar ruins ruins and and tombs tombs of of landscape landscape

devastated devastated a a portrayed portrayed Ossian Ossian testify. testify. and and record record to to duty duty survivor's survivor's the the death; death; and and time time

by by erasure erasure of of threat threat the the past; past; the the preserving preserving in in memory memory of of role role crucial crucial the the identity; identity;

one's one's maintaining maintaining and and forging forging in in history history of of importance importance the the immediacy: immediacy: powerful powerful a a

assumed assumed youth, youth, a a as as enjoyecl enjoyecl so so he he which which accents, accents, mournful mournful Ossian's Ossian's Revolution, Revolution, the the of of

aftermath aftermath gory gory the the by by exiled exiled Chateaubriand, Chateaubriand, 25-year-old 25-year-old the the For For Ossian. Ossian. Macpherson's Macpherson's

of of imitator imitator skillful skillful a a Smith, Smith, John John translated translated also also Chateaubriand Chateaubriand society. society. tionary tionary

postrevolu­ France's France's in in many many as as history, history, to to victim victim fallen fallen had had who who those those of of rebellion rebellion

and and sorrow, sorrow, anger, anger, the the conveyed conveyed independence, independence, Welsh Welsh of of spokesman spokesman last last the the 1751), 1751),

Ode, Ode, Pindaric Pindaric A A Bard. Bard. (The (The bard bard defiant defiant Gray's Gray's Thomas Thomas figures. figures. bardic bardic other other to to drawn drawn

was was Chateaubriand Chateaubriand Edwin. Edwin. shepherd shepherd Scottish Scottish the the in in genius-child genius-child the the and and poet poet divine divine

the the combined combined Genius Genius of of Progress Progress the the or or Minstrel, Minstrel, whose whose Beattie Beattie James James lesser-known lesser-known

the the selected selected he he Shakespeare, Shakespeare, and and Young Young to to addition addition In In (1836). (1836). anglaise anglaise litterature litterature

Ia Ia sur sur Essai Essai expanded expanded an an in in grouped grouped later later and and (1802) (1802) France France de de Mercure Mercure the the for for articles articles

of of series series a a in in France France to to return return his his upon upon published published favorites, favorites, personal personal translating translating and and

on on commenting commenting literature, literature, British British into into delved delved also also Chateaubriand Chateaubriand exile, exile, in in While While

consciousness. consciousness. historical historical for, for, need need the the and and of, of, necessity necessity the the with with compatible compatible poetry poetry

a a towards towards gesture gesture a a but but history, history, for for poetry poetry of of an an ~bandonment ~bandonment Muses, Muses, the the to to farewell farewell

185 185 Romanticism Romanticism French French Early Early

during during the the corrupted corrupted Regency Regency years years following following Louis Louis XIV's XIV's death death in in 1715, 1715, the the

called called "Romantic" "Romantic" whose whose inner inner torment torment mirrors mirrors a a society society in in the the grip grip of of crisis. crisis. Set Set

success. success. Atala Atala and and Rene Rene represented represented contrasting contrasting aspects aspects of of the the new new character character later later

The The twin twin stories stories captured captured the the imagination imagination of of Europe Europe and and met met with with phenomenal phenomenal

brother. brother.

sister's sister's religious religious vow-taking vow-taking and and hears hears her her whisper whisper her her criminal criminal passion passion for for her her

convent. convent. The The climactic climactic scene scene occurs occurs as as a a powerless powerless Rene Rene watches watches the the ceremony ceremony of of his his

she she eventually eventually falls falls prey prey to to a a mysterious mysterious ailment, ailment, which which leads leads her her to to withdraw withdraw to to a a

life. life. Amelie Amelie returns returns wheriher wheriher brother's brother's despair despair puts puts him him on on the the brink brink of of suicide, suicide, b~t b~t

Neither Neither traveling traveling abroad abroad gor gor settling settling back back in in France France cures cures his his ennui ennui and and disgust disgust for for

apart apart from from her her under under the the pressure pressure of of ill-defined ill-defined feelings feelings and and inarticulate inarticulate longings. longings.

announcing announcing his his sister sister Amelie's Amelie's death. death. Amelie's Amelie's soulmate soulmate in in childhood, childhood, Rene Rene grows grows

imposed imposed exile, exile, confides confides his his own own unhappy unhappy story, story, a a confession confession triggered triggered by by a a letter letter

Reni, Reni, In In an an older older Chactas Chactas is is now now the the sage sage to to whom whom Rene, Rene, a a Frenchman Frenchman in in self­

massacre massacre perpetrated perpetrated by by the the French. French.

tribe tribe who who inform inform him him that that Chactas Chactas and and Father Father Aubry Aubry perished perished in in the the Louisiana Louisiana

expires. expires. In In the the epilogue epilogue the the narrator narrator encounters encounters the the last last survivors survivors of of the the Natchez Natchez

Aubry Aubry condemns condemns the the promise promise as as invalid invalid and and the the sacrifice sacrifice misguided, misguided, but but Atala Atala

Atala Atala confesses confesses that that she she vowed vowed on on her her mother's mother's deathbed deathbed to to remain remain a a virgin. virgin. Father Father

by by a a secret secret guilt guilt which which forbids forbids A A tala's tala's union union with with Chactas. Chactas. · · Mter Mter poisoning poisoning herself, herself,

European European father father after after the the latter latter was was forced forced to to leave leave her her mother), mother), is is soon soon burdened burdened

initial initial delight delight at at discovering discovering a a common common bond bond (Chactas (Chactas was was adopted adopted by by Atala's Atala's

wilderness, wilderness, eventually eventually reaching reaching the the Catholic Catholic mission mission of of Father Father Aubry. Aubry. The The lovers' lovers'

with with the the prisoner prisoner Chactas Chactas captured captured by by her her Natchez Natchez tribe. tribe. They They escape escape into into the the

creates creates ambiguous, ambiguous, multilayered multilayered narratives. narratives. Atala, Atala, a a christened christened Indian, Indian, falls falls in in love love

of of an an aesthetic aesthetic treatise treatise on on religion, religion, then then autonomous, autonomous, albeit albeit unclassifiable, unclassifiable, stories stories -

complex complex genealogy genealogy - from from two two episodes episodes within within an an epic-like epic-like narrative, narrative, to to illustrations illustrations

unfinished unfinished American American manuscript manuscript Natchez, Natchez, of of eventually eventually Les Les revised revised 25 25 years years later. later. This This

reception reception Ginie. Ginie. of of the the The The original original framework framework of of the the two two stories, stories, however, however, was was the the

the the publication publication Genie, Genie, of of the the and and its its success success paved paved the the way way for for the the enthusiastic enthusiastic

their their originality originality and and showcase showcase his his Atala Atala talent. talent. appeared appeared in in 1801, 1801, a a year year earlier earlier than than

"illustrations" "illustrations" of of his his main main thesis, thesis, then then easily easily extracted extracted them them the the better better promote promote to to

Chateaubriand Chateaubriand inserted inserted Genie Genie in in the the du du christianisme christianisme the the stories stories Atala Atala of of Rene Rene and and as as

the the passions) passions) which which consumes consumes the the self self (Chateaubriand (Chateaubriand 1976b: 1976b: 296-8). 296-8).

Rene Rene will will epitomize epitomize "cet "cet itat itat du du vague vague des des passions" passions" (the (the vagueness vagueness or or "unsettled "unsettled state'.> state'.> of of

discrepancy discrepancy between between over over abundant abundant knowledge knowledge and and lack lack of of experience. experience. The The character character

Chateaubriand Chateaubriand identifies identifies this this disenchantment disenchantment as as a a modern modern phenomenon, phenomenon, born born of of the the

of of redemption. redemption. The The yearning yearning for for an an indefinable indefinable ideal ideal causes causes frustration frustration and and loneliness: loneliness:

Christian Christian genius genius as as predominantly predominantly the the genius genius of of melancholy, melancholy, without without hope hope or or promise promise

of of religious religious faith. faith. In In a a departure departure from from the the Catholic Catholic creed, creed, Chateaubriand Chateaubriand conceived conceived

existential existential angst angst in in the the face face of of topsy-turvy topsy-turvy social social and and moral moral values values and and a a weakening weakening

classified classified as as a a traditionalist. traditionalist. His His deep deep pessimism pessimism is is not not mere mere nostalgia nostalgia but but an an

Notwithstanding Notwithstanding his his celebration celebration of of Christianity, Christianity, Chateaubriand Chateaubriand cannot cannot easily easily be be

186 186 Fabienne Fabienne Moore Moore

qu'il qu'il afriquente: afriquente: le le dassique dassique y y le le domine romantique" romantique" (Chateaubriand (Chateaubriand 1961a: 1961a: I, I, 637).

8 8

the the brink brink of of Romanticism, Romanticism, but but steeped steeped in in Classicism: Classicism: "mon "mon poeme poeme se se ressent ressent des des lieux lieux

Classicism Classicism paradise paradise lost? lost? Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's art art mirrors mirrors his his position position in in letters, letters, poised poised on on

and and Christian Christian martyrdom, martyrdom, both both epic epic poems poems seem seem to to ask: ask: is is Romanticism Romanticism a a Fall? Fall? Is Is

spirit, spirit, a a hesitation hesitation staged staged mise mise as as a a en en abyme: abyme: while while relating relating the the decline decline of of Indian Indian tribes tribes

fundamental fundamental hesitation hesitation between between allegiance allegiance to to the the ancients ancients or or to to the the new new Romantic Romantic

Classicism Classicism and and Romanticism . . Indeed Indeed Les Les Martyrs Martyrs Les Les and and Natchez Natchez are are the the site site of of a a

text, text, the the conflict conflict exploded exploded between between the the epic epic and and the the novel, novel, between between poetry poetry and and prose, prose,

condemned condemned them them to to a a critical critical N~tchez N~tchez purgatory, purgatory, which which has has lasted lasted to to this this day. day. In In each each

An An irreconcilable irreconcilable thefuatic thefuatic and and stylistic stylistic duality duality at at the the core core Les Les of of Martyrs Martyrs Les Les and and

claimed claimed in in his his 1816 1816 diary: diary: "I "I want want to to be be Chateaubriand Chateaubriand or or nothing." nothing."

the the autobiographical autobiographical Memoires Memoires d'outre-tombe d'outre-tombe (1844), (1844), a a 14-year-old 14-year-old Victor Victor Hugo Hugo pro­

1814 1814 until until 1830. 1830. Even Even before before he he recorded recorded his his extraordinary extraordinary life life as as an an epic epic journey journey in in

farewell farewell to to the the muse muse of of poetry poetry and and engaged engaged history history by by becoming becoming a a political political actor actor from from

Mter Mter the the disappointment disappointment Les Les of of Martyrs Martyrs in in 1809, 1809, Chateaubriand Chateaubriand officially officially bade bade

counterparts. counterparts.

ultimately ultimately fall fall victim victim to to their their passion passion and and suffer suffer a a similarly similarly tragic tragic fate fate to to their their male male

Les Les Martyrs) Martyrs) and and Mila Mila (Rene's (Rene's sister..:in-law) sister..:in-law) are are passionate, passionate, proud, proud, resolute, resolute, active, active, yet yet

yet yet a a different different temperament temperament when when of of the the opposite opposite sex: sex: Velleda Velleda (Brittany's (Brittany's last last bard bard in in

them them as as prototypical prototypical antiheroes, antiheroes, and and "Romantic" "Romantic" characters. characters. This This character character assumes assumes

suicidal suicidal passivity, passivity, their their weakening weakening under under the the burden burden of of exile, exile, their their secret secret wounds, wounds, cast cast

The The emotional emotional struggles struggles of of their their respective respective protagonists, protagonists, Eudore Eudore and and Rene, Rene, their their

Christians Christians in in third-century third-century Gaul, Gaul, the the latter latter North-American North-American Indians Indians and and Europeans. Europeans.

Martyrs Martyrs Les Les and and Natchez, Natchez, two two epic epic frescoes frescoes prose, prose, in the the former former opposing opposing pagans pagans and and

ultimate ultimate unhappy unhappy ending. ending. The The Fall Fall is is both both the the premise premise and and the the conclusion conclusion Les Les of of

twilight twilight of of the the Enlightenment), Enlightenment), Chateaubriand Chateaubriand always always contemplated contemplated the the Fall, Fall, the the

Napoleon), Napoleon), tormented tormented by by history's history's fateful fateful turns turns (the (the downfall downfall of of the the Indians, Indians, the the

ones ones to to the the Revolution, Revolution, obsessed obsessed by by ruins ruins of of literary literary and and political political fame fame (Byron, (Byron,

Catastrophe Catastrophe looms looms large large on on Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's horizon: horizon: struck struck by by the the loss loss of of loved loved

echoes echoes in in countless countless modern modern dramas. dramas.

grace grace in in today's today's literary literary cannon. cannon. By By contrast, contrast, Rene's Rene's unbridled unbridled expression expression of of vacuity vacuity

sound sound paradoxically paradoxically stilted stilted to to our our modern modern ears, ears, and and might might explain explain Atala's Atala's fall fall from from

sentences sentences "parter "parter without without conjunctions conjunctions or or coordination, coordination, transcribes transcribes a a sauvage" sauvage" that that

convey convey the the majesty majesty of of the the wilderness wilderness whereas whereas parataxis, parataxis, namely namely short, short, declarative declarative

meant meant to to convey convey their their "primitive" "primitive" voices. voices. Chateaubriand's Chateaubriand's rhythmic, rhythmic, ternary ternary periods periods

between between the the narrator's narrator's descriptive descriptive prose prose and and the the characters' characters' metaphoric metaphoric language language

colonial colonial takeover. takeover. This This hybridity hybridity is is embedded embedded in in the the story's story's odd odd style, style, alternating alternating

foreign, foreign, a a modern, modern, split split subject, subject, "mitisse" "mitisse" a a (half-caste) (half-caste) who who bears bears the the memory memory of of the the

Indian Indian Atala Atala is is alienated alienated like like Rene, Rene, she she commits commits suicide suicide like like Werther, Werther, but but she she is is other, other,

a a defective defective instrument, instrument, a a lyre lyre lacking lacking strings" strings" (Chateaubriand (Chateaubriand 1980: 1980: 80). 80). The The half­

exhaust exhaust his his wanderlust wanderlust without without achieving achieving peace peace of of mind mind or or heart. heart. For For "[t}he "[t}he heart heart is is

European European suffers suffers from from an an agitation agitation without without purpose, purpose, contradictory contradictory impulses impulses that that

narrative narrative in in effect effect recalls recalls the the traumatic traumatic aftermath aftermath of of the the 1789 1789 Revolution. Revolution. Rene Rene the the

Early Early French French Romanticism Romanticism 187 187

(1834). (1834). pays" pays" du du Mal Mal and and d'Oberman" d'Oberman" "Le "Le Stael's Stael's marriage. marriage. the the prohibited prohibited father father his his but but

Vallee Vallee pelerinage: pelerinage: "Les "Les de de Annees Annees La La 9 Liszt, Liszt, 9 love love only only and and first first Gibbon's Gibbon's Edmund Edmund historian historian

' ' Natchez. Natchez. Les Les to to the the been been had had Curchod, Curchod, Suzanne Suzanne mother, mother, Stael's Stael's 5 5

applies applies Martyrs Martyrs equally equally Les Les on on judgment judgment This This 8 8 1809. 1809. in in published published were were

a a 1813. 1813. in in Guibert Guibert de de M. M. Lettres Lettres Her Her correspondence. correspondence.

suicide suicide le le sur sur Reflexions Reflexions her her published published had had Stael Stael 7 7 private private this this knew knew never never 4 4 contemporaries contemporaries Her Her

stein. stein. Chateaubriand. Chateaubriand. to to inferior inferior as as Stael Stael

Franken­ Mary Mary began began Shelley Shelley where where Geneva Geneva describes describes which which 1973), 1973), ([1927] ([1927] Souriau Souriau See See 3 3

Lake Lake of of shores shores the the on on Diodati Diodati Villa Villa the the cxxxiii). cxxxiii). ' ' 1990a:

in in - by by close close staying staying were were they they although although not, not, Le Le Tourneur Tourneur in in Prefaces," Prefaces," des des belle." belle." ("Discours ("Discours

did did Shelleys Shelleys the the but but 1816, 1816, in in Coppet Coppet de de l'epithete l'epithete l'autre, l'autre, que que plus plus pas pas comporte comporte

visited visited later later Byron Byron 1991). 1991). ({1821] ({1821] Byron Byron See See 6 6 ne ne l'une l'une verite: verite: la la comme comme une, une, est est nature nature 2 2 "La "La

Minister. Minister. nance nance otherwise indicated. indicated. otherwise

Fi­ XVI's XVI's Louis Louis was was Necker, Necker, Jacques Jacques father, father, unless unless mine mine are are translations translations all all that that Note Note

NOTES NOTES

them. them. followed followed who who generation generation the the and and creations creations own own their their with with Romantics Romantics

French French early early the the of of rapport rapport conflicted conflicted the the understand understand to to upon upon called called been been sufficiently sufficiently

not not has has versions versions amended amended these these of of confrontation confrontation The The edition. edition. complete complete first first their their

of of view view in in works works his his footnoting footnoting compulsively compulsively was was time, time, same same the the exactly exactly at at briand, briand,

Chateau­ as as just just 1833, 1833, in in novel novel only only and and one one his his down down tone tone and and revise revise to to Senancour Senancour

provoked provoked It It fathers. fathers. its its to to distasteful distasteful fashion fashion mere mere a a sleeve, sleeve, everyone's everyone's on on worn worn then then

by by seemed seemed lyricism lyricism tormented tormented confessional, confessional, original original the the time, time, of of passage passage the the With With

160). 160). 157, 157, 1960: 1960:

(Arnold (Arnold right" right" it it set set to to power power no no had had he he that that Hamlet Hamlet this this of of feeling feeling the the was was joint, joint,

of of out out was was time time the the that that sense sense his his as as deep deep "as "as character: character: tragic tragic Shakespearean Shakespearean essential essential

quint­ the the as as him him casting casting sincerity," sincerity," sad sad and and "austere "austere Senancour's Senancour's praising praising book, book, the the

reviewed reviewed also also and and Obermann, Obermann, of of author author the the to to homage homage in in poems poems fervent fervent two two wrote wrote

10 10

Arnold Arnold Matthew Matthew 1997). 1997). Valley; Valley; [1835) [1835) the the of of (Lily (Lily Vallee Vallee Ia Ia dans dans Lys Lys Le Le particular particular

in in novels, novels, early early Balzac's Balzac's and and Nerval, Nerval, de de Gerard Gerard poet poet the the Liszt, composer composer the the as as

9 9

well well as as (1833), (1833), Ulia Ulia Sand's Sand's and and Volupte(1834) Volupte(1834) novel novel Sainte-Beuve's Sainte-Beuve's inspired inspired briefly. briefly. It It

albeit albeit life, life, to to back back novel novel the the bringing bringing 1840, 1840, and and 1833 1833 Obermann Obermann in in of of editions editions new new for for

prefaces prefaces into into turned turned which which articles articles wrote wrote Sand Sand George George novelist novelist the the and and Sainte-Beuve Sainte-Beuve

critic critic the the before before elapsed elapsed years years Thirty Thirty interests. interests. readers' readers' capture capture failed failed protagonist protagonist to to

lone lone the the of of meditations meditations brooding brooding drawn-out, drawn-out, the the 1804, 1804, Oberman Oberman in in novel novel epistolary epistolary his his

published published Senancour Senancour de de Pivert Pivert Etienne Etienne When When Romantics. Romantics. early early French French the the to to comes comes

it it when when posterity posterity of of ironies ironies the the of of emblematic emblematic case case a a with with end end fitting fitting seems seems It It to to

Romantic Romantic Invisible Invisible The The 1770-1846): 1770-1846): ( ( Senancour Senancour

followers. followers. his his about about divided divided remained remained but but "school," "school," a a begun begun having having

of of aware aware acutely acutely memoirs memoirs his his wrote wrote Chateaubriand Chateaubriand Byron, Byron, and and Stael Stael outliving outliving Long Long

Moore Moore Fabienne Fabienne 188 188

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