Bridgewater Review
Volume 28 | Issue 1 Article 7
Jun-2009 What Type of American Are You?: Universal, Cultural, Civic, and Commercial Accounts of American Identity Jordan B. Barkalow Bridgewater State College, [email protected]
Recommended Citation Barkalow, Jordan B. (2009). What Type of American Are You?: Universal, Cultural, Civic, and Commercial Accounts of American Identity. Bridgewater Review, 28(1), 7-10. Available at: http://vc.bridgew.edu/br_rev/vol28/iss1/7
This item is available as part of Virtual Commons, the open-access institutional repository of Bridgewater State University, Bridgewater, Massachusetts. What Type of American Are You? Universal, Cultural, Civic, and Commercial Accounts of American Identity Jordon B. Barkalow
The Constitution of the United States is characterized, standings of what it means to be an American and these to a considerable degree, by ambiguity. This is evident in understandings shape their positions of key issues of the debate over the extent of the President’s implied public policy. powers. Specifically, does the “take care clause” (Article This is readily evident in the differing answers II, Section 3) allow the President to circumvent the Republicans and Democrats give with regard to immi- system of checks and balances and the Bill of Rights in gration. Democratic proponents argue that immigra- the name of national security? While this question has tion: reinvigorates American institutions and values by garnered most of our attention in the aftermath of returning Americans to their first principles; is a boon September 11th, it is only one of a number of important to the American economy; does not lower wages; and constitutional ambiguities. keeps prices down across the economy. Republican One of the least considered and misunderstood ambigui- critics of immigration see it as a threat to the American ties concerns the question of what it means to be an economy and social order. Immigrants are perceived American citizen. Article I, Section 2 of the as taking jobs from American citizens because of their Constitution provides that one of the qualifications for willingness to accept lower wages and below-standard being a member of the House is to be a citizen of the working conditions. The courts, according to immigra- United States for seven years. Senators (Article I, tion critics, have rendered the distinction between Section 3) must be citizens for nine years and the citizen and alien meaningless by interpreting the equal- President (Article II, Section 1) must be a natural-born ity and due process clauses of the U.S. Constitution citizen. While the Constitution is clear that the status too broadly. of citizenship is a necessary requirement for holding As the example of immigration attitudes shows, how national office, it says nothing about what it means to we define what it means to be an American has signifi- be an American citizen. Even when one considers the cant political implications. Employing the concept of first formal statement of American citizenship in the nationalism, which is defined as the cultural, linguistic, Constitution, the Fourteenth Amendment only provides economic, and political dimensions of identity that that “All persons born or naturalized in the United allow members of society to feel that they belong, this States and subject to the jurisdiction thereof, are citi- article provides an overview of the four competing zens of the United States and of the state where they understandings of what it means to be an American and reside.” Beyond specifying the mechanisms by which the challenge to these interpretations. As shown below, one becomes a citizen, the Fourteenth Amendment does universal nationalism emphasizes the universal quality little to help provide an answer to the question of American political principles while cultural national- Republican Vice-Presidential candidate Sarah Palin ism defines American-ness in terms of an Anglo- offered her thoughts on what it means to be an Protestant cultural heritage. Civic nationalism, on the American while speaking in Greensboro, North other hand, finds meaning in the social and political Carolina during the 2008 presidential election. practices that develop the civic capacities of American According to Palin, states like North Carolina, which citizenship whereas commercial nationalism focuses on have historically voted Republican, constitute “the real the productive capacities of Americans as the key to the America” because the people who live there are more development of a flourishing commercial empire. This patriotic and “pro-American” than those who live in article concludes with an overview of the primary other states. Leaving aside the obvious political implica- challenge posed to the four accounts of American na- tions of Palin’s comments, the connection she makes tional identity. between the principles and values of the Republican Universal Nationalism Party and Americanism reminds us that the political The universal understanding of American national battles between Republicans and Democrats are more identity sees America as a nation founded on a discreet than just posturing for electoral purposes. Republicans and Democrats have different and competing under-
Bridgewater Review June 2009 7 what type of american are you? jordon B. Barkalow challenge challenge the view of a gradual unfolding and expand identity arguments. make two First, primary they Critics of the universal account of national American universal nationalism. understanding of that liberalism ultimately informs antagonistic. are solidarity Itnecessarily is the revised goal of protecting individual rights and social achieving rejectliberalism revised the proposition that that the dence and love of liberty. Arguments in favor of the ity, curiosity, pru industry,vigilance, truthfulness, civility, liberality, justice, courage, endurance, human of desires. Desires of wouldthis type include self-denial, traits forare necessary what they consider higher types of the liberal tradition recognition that character certain On the other hand, some infind key textsand authors societies together and antagonistic to human excellence. tion of character, hostile to human bonds that hold tional account of is liberalism indifferent to the cultiva Focusing on self-preservation and prosperity, the tradi avoiding the worst ratherthe best. than realizing hand, the traditional view of focuses liberalism on howasking one is to understand On liberalism. one But even political thinking. American here, one is left figuresand textsare essential toany understanding of is tionalism consistent with the idea that key liberal The connection between and liberalism universal na als prevail. toliberalism one where the rights equal of individu all distinctions gone, can moveAmerica from an imperfect absorbsindividualism and displaces them. With group gressive of elimination group distinctions over time as tic. Creed The argument American assumes the pro tion suggests that the Creed is inherently individualis The Creed’s emphasis on freedom, rights, and participa these are Liberty, Life, and the pursuit of Happiness.” Creator with unalienable thatcertain Rights, among are created that equal, they are endowed by their where it is written “that menall D principles is held to be the clearest expression of these courage civic involvement. The and rights, minority and en and advance freedom personal cal structures that both secure that consist of rights and politi emphasizes universal principles A De Tocqueville’s articulated in Alexis Initially tradition, the Creed. American lated in the form of a political universal principles are articu set of political principles. The merica eclaration of , the Creed American I ndependence D emocracy in ------of Scripture. and individual’s abilities to respond to the commands of private property, but in terms of the community’s terms of commercial prosperity or increased enjoyment Thus, progress is definedby cultural nationalism notin the Lord is a continuous process and a habitual lifestyle. the Lord. According to in Scripture, the walking path of to imitate the life of in by Christ the walking path of means a This thatought good Americans all Christian. cultural nationalists equate good citizenship with being role of religion. as Seeing America a New Jerusalem, forces to manage conflict. Ofcentral importanceis the role sary and social, of governmental religious, familial, Instead, cultural nationalism argues that it is the neces society.ethnic principles can manage the invitedconflict by a multi their counterparts, thatuniversalist shared political possible. Cultural nationalists do not believe, as do attachment to the nation that makes free government tural homogeneity for necessary the emotional political two are thought to have the effect of creating the cul Consequences onebelieved toAmericans. and unify over time. Second, elements of the common culture are identity even when the salience of this identity varies standing of culture American is central to American to haveconsequences. First, this underthree primary traditions. The found cultural similarities here are said guage, and Protestant British Christianity political tance are the centrality of the common lan English cultural heritage.Anglo-Protestant Of critical impor America’sCultural nationalism affirms distinctively C means to be an American. geneity required to have sense a of meaningful what it political principles cannot provide the requisite homo Ultimately, critics that maintain attachment to abstract N ultural ationalism American nationalism. American of distinctions group-based in underestimate the endurance national American identity universal understanding of shows that proponents of a America twentieth-century status in nineteenth- and ofism. Analysis citizenship with the focus on individual A second criticism takes issue and immunities of citizenship. ofdenial the rights, privileges the persistent restriction and can be understood in terms of citizenship Instead, American ing of citizenship. American
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- A problem with the Anglo-Protestant cultural argu- ism serves as the most politically robust understanding ment is that it subsumes several smaller, more contro- of American national identity. versial arguments. Critics challenge the proposition that Commercial Nationalism a national culture in the ethno-linguistic and religious It is an open question whether or not the American sense is necessary for the formation of a successful Founders were committed to the active theory of citi- democratic polity. They also challenge the assumption zenship that fosters the development of civic virtue. that the Anglo-Protestant culture is uniquely norma- The Founders did not refer to government created by tively good. Finally, critics doubt that the religious the U.S. Constitution as a civic republic; they referred to portion is a genuinely positive force in American na- it as a commercial republic. Proponents of civic nation- tional life. Altogether, critics contend that closer inspec- alism, universal nationalism and cultural nationalism, tion of these arguments and a more accurate reading of do not give the commercial quality of the American American history undermine the argument that republic the attention it deserves. For example, their American democracy owes its existence to its ethno- analysis of the admission and incorporation of immi- linguistic and religious traditions. grants into the polity relegates commercial concerns to Civic Nationalism a relatively minor role when compared to larger political Civic nationalism holds out an alternative means for concerns. Thus, commercial considerations play almost transcending the ethnocultural and linguistic differ- no role in structuring America’s national identity. If we ences that characterize America’s multicultural society. take the commercial vision of America’s future serious- Advocates of civic nationalism argue that it is the capac- ly, the argument for commercial nationalism concludes ity for change and self-criticism that helps to explain that American national the longevity of the American republic. identity, at its core, focuses on industry and In place of adherence to universal political principles or the individual’s capacity sharing in a distinctly European cultural and political to contribute to the heritage, civic nationalism maintains that the develop- creation of a flourishing, ment of civic capacities allows Americans to engage and commercial empire. shape their national identity. The development of civic capacities is not an end in itself. Instead, civic national- Instead of being con- ism requires Americans, through civic participation, to nected by reasoned shape their own national identity. Requiring Americans attachment to abstract to shape their own self-understanding ensures that political principles, a Americans will defend what they collectively value common cultural and against the cultural, political and economic forces religious heritage or civic thought to undermine these values. activity, commercial Ellis Island. nationalism holds that Americans are held together as a The emphasis on civic participation or self-governance people by the spirit of commerce. Guided by a belief in requires citizens to understand the political principles the centrality of financial reward for one’s toils, com- that make free government possible. In short, the civic mercial nationalism maintains that it is the responsibil- nationalism requires civic virtue, which suggests a ity of government to pursue policies that multiply the similarity between civic nationalism and classical re- range of economic opportunities available to Americans. publican political thought. Classical republicanism is Freed from the rigorous political responsibilities of civic characterized by the themes of mixed government and, nationalism and the social, cultural, and religious re- more important for the question of national identity, strictions of cultural nationalism, commercial national- active citizen participation by equal and independent ism concludes that the defining characteristic of what it citizens. Following Aristotle, proponents of the civic means to be an American is in the pursuit of gain. understanding of American national identity argue that it is only possible to fully develop as person through Challenge and Discussion political participation. This leads proponents of this Despite their differences, the competing interpretations interpretation to find the fundamental meaning of of what it means to be an American must respond to a what it means to be an American in a particular inter- common challenge—they lack coherence. Instead of a pretation of the American Revolution. The Revolution, core set of American principles or a progressive logic to accordingly, is seen as an act of civic participation that its development, American national identity may best kept the American colonies from being corrupted. be understood as emerging from a series of incoherent Pointing backward to classical republicanism and its compromises. Thus, what it means to be an American is commitment to public liberty and virtue, civic national-
Bridgewater Review June 2009 9 what type of american are you? jordon B. Barkalow necessary encouragementnecessary and education that made civic of civic In virtue. this sense, women were providing the republican and, virtue in as general, serving guardians their sons, husbandsdisciplining to the standards of republic American and by their families raising virtuous erhood. According to womenthis doctrine, served the is importance the particular notion of republican moth is This not to say that women had no political role. Of and their husbands. women needed to be protected from both the world ture masked the far more serious assumption that consistent with the great bond of union, family cover of the husband’s control over his wife’s property was tion. Justified,in part, by the belief that the extension independence believed to be unfit forpoliticalparticipa were rendered dependent and without the requisite of Nowtheir marriage. void of any property, women property of their wives into their control during the life bands in this position, they were allowed to absorb the wives and the political community. By placing hus law tradition that interposes husbands between their One such example is coverture. Coverture is a common practices used to deny women status.equal were not used to remove some of the and social legal problematic is the fact that the Revolution’s principles in terms equality of voting and holding office.More the former, women were not granted the promise of promise of political and equality. social With regard to Revolution’s universal principles the failed to fulfill of national American identity point out that the ancestors.” Critics of a single, coherent understanding and be more generous and favorable to them than your “the making new code of laws…remember the ladies requests Adams that those given the responsibility for onAdams the eve of independence, American Abigail Writing to her African-Americans. husband John challenge is This poignant particularly for women and requirement of equality. America’s democratic legacy and democracy’s moral tity above,discussed it can be said that they betray all in the four understandings of national American iden is American given legal, equal or social economic status ordained by God. To the extent that not every unique people and part of a political community special used toby Americans justify the belief that we are a ring power because history in they American have been The of denial statusequal on these bases has had recur natural or ascribed, such as race, ethnicity, and gender. on justify inequality characteristics that are said to be incoherent are mixture a set of ideas that attempt to however, only part of the picture. In addition to this nature, the good and the ends of government. is, This because of their assumptions differing about human cial understandings that are antagonistic to one another a of mixture the cultural, universal, civic, and commer
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------as as a mosaic. posit American that the is term American best seen coherent understanding of what it means to be an that is America a democratic society, critics of a single, cratic, political culture. perhaps Assuming, incorrectly, tual traditions that constitute the popular, more demo identity lies in the of discovery another set of - intellec coherentarching, understandings of national American the lives daily ofthe challenge toAmericans, the over Focusing on the arguments and axioms that informed laborers, women, slaves, and Native Americans. tion of the Founders American to include ordinary tive of scholarship in this area is to expand the defini or American members of groups. dispossessed An objec- national identity above,discussed and the average ings the inform four competing visions of American differentdamentally for the educated elite, whose writ founding and what it means to be is an American fun one’s attention to the possibility that the American The examples ofcall women and African-Americans Founders. American racist beliefs thought to many characterize of the ment that both explicitly and implicitly embodied the Constitution could once be seen as a proslavery docu economic Fromorganization. this perspective, the tax in an attempt to make slavery an unviable mode of second, Congress was prevented from using its power to was used to benefitdirectly slave holdersand in the the firstcase, the power ofthe national government from products taxing produced through slave labor. In ban on federal taxation of exports prevents Congress tions could be used to suppress slave rebellions and the empowering Congress to suppress domestic insurrec Constitution have the same effect. For example, clauses legislation.ery Indirectly, provisions certain in the political leverage in national politics to defeat anti-slav of protecting slavery and the giving South the necessary the fugitive slave clause are alleged toall have the effect electoral votes received clause) from the andthree-fifths in presidential elections as a result of the increased toral slave-holding College states(giving an advantage clause, fifths the slave-trade 1808 provision,the elec - Constitution adopted. as originally Explicitly, the three- is both Americans explicit and implicit in the U.S. The ofdenial basic, rights fundamental to African status ued toof marginalize women in America. however, the notion of republican motherhood contin nationalism possible. From the perspective of women, Political Science and —Jordon B. Barkalow is Associate Director of the Honors Assistant Professor of Center.
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