Heliolatry in the Hebrew Bible: an Investigation Into Yahweh's Original Nature a Thesis Submitted in Conformity with the Requi

HELIOLATRY IN THE HEBREW BIBLE: AN INVESTIGATION INTO YAHWEH’S ORIGINAL NATURE

A THESIS SUBMITTED IN CONFORMITY WITH THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY

BY DANIEL SARLO AUGUST 11, 2019 iv

ABSTRACT

This dissertation is an historical investigation of the ancient Israelite god, Yahweh, that seeks to determine his original nature. The author evaluates a range of scholarly proposals, presents and examines numerous passages that span the chronology of the HB, and culminates with a case study of one of the oldest texts in the HB—Deuteronomy 33:2–3,.

Refuting the most recent scholarly consensus, that Yahweh was at first a minor storm god, it is argued that he was a very typical ANE solar deity. Since in the ANE the solar deity was the central god of the pantheon and head of the divine council, the implication is that Yahweh was an extremely significant god from the beginning or, at least, by the time the United

Monarchy was established, which is the terminus ante quem established by the textual evidence from ancient Israel.

ABBREVIATIONS

Language Abbreviations:

Akk. Akkadian Arab. Arabic Aram. Aramaic Eg. Egyptian Grk. Greek Heb. Hebrew (Biblical Hebrew) Hur. Hurrian IE Indo-European NWS Northwest Semitic PSem. Proto-Semitic Sem. Semitic Soq. Soqotri Sum. Sumerian Ug. Ugaritic

Technical Abbreviations:

adj. adjective adv. adverb aka. also known as ANE Ancient Near East BCE before the common era c. approximately (Latin: circa) col. colon CS common, singular CP common, plural

vi cf. compare (Latin: confer) diss. dissertation e.g. for example (Latin: exempli gratia) ed(s). editor(s), edited by, edition esp. especially et al. and others (Latin: et alii) etc. and so forth (Latin: et cetera) FP feminine, plural FS feminine, singular Fig(s). Figure(s) ff. and following (Latin: folios) GN geographical name HB Hebrew Bible i.e. that is (Latin: id est) incl. including km. kilometres lit. literally mi. miles MP masculine, plural MS masculine, singular MT Masoretic Text Mt. Mount n. noun PN proper name p(p). page(s) trans. translator v(v). verse(s) vb. verb vol(s). volume(s)

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Primary Source Abbreviations:

1 Sam 1 Samuel 2 Sam 2 Samuel 1 Kgs 1 Kings 2 Kgs 2 Kings 1 Chr 1 Chronicles 2 Chr 2 Chronicles Amos Amos BD Book of the Dead CT Coffin Text Col Colossians Dan Daniel Deut Deuteronomy EN Enki and Ninhursag EE Enuma Elish EG Epic of Gilgamesh Exod Exodus Ezek Ezekiel Gen Genesis Hab Habakkuk Hos Hosea Isa Isaiah Jer Jeremiah Job Job Joel Joel Jon Jonah Josh Joshua Judg Judges Lev Leviticus Mal Malachi Matt Matthew Mic Micah

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Nah Nahum Neh Nehemiah Num Numbers Obad Obadiah Ps(s) Psalm(s) Prov Proverbs PT Pyramid Texts Ruth Ruth Qoh Qoheleth SP Samaritan Pentateuch Sir Sirach (Ben Sira) Zech Zechariah Zeph Zephaniah

Secondary Source Abbreviations:

ADPV Abhandlungen des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins ALASP Abhandlungen zur Literatur Alt-Syrien-Palästinas und Mesopotamiens ATANT Abhandlungen zur Theologie des Alten und Neuen Testaments AOTC Abingdon Old Testament Commentaries ASJ Acta Sumerologica AUU Acta Universitatis Upsaliensis AAT Ägypten und Altes Testament AZG Die ägyptische und die zoroastrische Glaubenslehre ATD Das Alte Testament Deutsch AOAT Alter Orient und Altes Testament AJSL American Journal of Semitic Languages and Literatures ALHR American Lectures on the History of Religions ASEST Analekten für das Studium der exegetischen und systematischen Theologie AB Anchor Bible AYB Anchor Yale Bible

ABD Anchor Bible Dictionary. Edited by David Noel Freedman. 6 vols. New York: Doubleday, 1992 ANET Ancient Near Eastern Texts Relating to the Old Testament. Edited by James B. Pritchard. 3rd ed. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1969 AntOr Antiguo Oriente Ant Antiquity ApOTC Apollos Old Testament Commentary AAE Arabian Archaeology and Epigraphy AEL An Arabic-English Lexicon. By Edward William Lane. 8 vols. London: Williams & Norgate, 1863 ATSAT Arbeiten zu Text und Sprache im Alten Testament ABG Arbeiten zur Bibel und ihrer Geschichte AGJU Arbeiten zur Geschichte des antiken Judentums und des Urchristentums AfO Archiv für Orientforschung ARG Archiv für Religionsgeschichte AR Archiv für Religionswissenschaft ArOr Archív orientální AuOr Aula Orientalis AuOrSup Aula Orientalis Supplementa ANVAO Avhandlinger utgitt av det Norske videnskaps-akademi i Oslo BaM Baghdader Mitteilungen BCOTWP Baker Commentary on the Old Testament Wisdom and Psalms BZABR Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für altorientische and biblische Rechtsgeschichte BZAW Beihefte zur Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft BVB Beiträge zum verstehen der Bibel BzA Beiträge zur Altertumskunde BWANT Beiträge zur Wissenschaft vom Alten und Neuen Testament BBVO Berliner Beiträge zum Vorderen Orient BTZ Berliner Theologische Zeitschrift BibTS Bibbia e Terra Santa BK Bibel und Kirche BT The Bible Translator BHQ Biblia Hebraica Quinta Bib Biblica

BibOr Biblica et Orientalia BJSUCSD Biblical and Judaic Studies from the University of California, San Diego BA Biblical Archaeologist BibInt Biblical Interpretation BIS Biblical Interpretation Series BibSem The Biblical Seminar BW The Biblical World BETL Bibliotheca Ephemeridum Theologicarum Lovaniensium BdeP Bibliothèque de la Pléiade BdE Bibliothèque d’étude BSac Bibliotheca Sacra BibB Biblische Beiträge BN Biblische Notizen BZ Biblische Zeitschrift BKAT Biblischer Kommentar, Altes Testament BlAR Blackwell Ancient Religions BHAW Blackwell History of the Ancient World BOT De Boeken van het Oude Testament BBB Bonner biblische Beiträge BEC Books on Egypt and Chaldaea BOREAS BOREAS: Münstersche Beiträge zur Archäologie BAT Die Botschaft des Alten Testaments BTCB Brazos Theological Commentary on the Bible BRLJ Brill Reference Library of Judaism BARIS British Archaeological Reports, International Series BFER British and Foreign Evangelical Review BEHJ Bulletin des études historiques juives BASOR Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research BASORSup Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Supplementary Studies BCSBS Bulletin of the Canadian Society of Biblical Studies BCSMS Bulletin of the Canadian Society for Mesopotamian Studies BIOSCS Bulletin of the International Organization for Septuagint and Cognate Studies

BSOAS Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies BurHM Buried History Monograph BBK By-Paths of Bible Knowledge CBC Cambridge Bible Commentary CBSC Cambridge Bible for Schools and Colleges CNI Carsten Niebuhr Institute of Ancient Near Eastern Studies CH Carta Handbook CBQ Catholic Biblical Quarterly CBQMS Catholic Biblical Quarterly Monograph Series CAD The Assyrian Dictionary of the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. Edited by Miguel Civil et al. Chicago: Oriental Institute, 1964– 2010 CFTL Clark’s Foreign Theological Library CL Cognitive Linguistics CF Collectanea friburgensia CHS Commentary on the Holy Scriptures CDA2 Concise Dictionary of Akkadian. Edited by Jeremy Black, Andrew George, and Nicholas Postgate. Second Edition. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz, 2000 ConBOT Coniectanea Biblica: Old Testament Series CR Contemporary Review CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium CHANE Culture and History of the Ancient Near East CM Cuneiform Monographs DDAH Debates and Documents in Ancient History DLZ Deutsche Literaturzeitung DCH Dictionary of Classical Hebrew. Edited by David J. A. Clines. 9 vols. Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press, 1993–2014 DDD Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Edited by Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, and Pieter W. van der Horst. Leiden: Brill, 1995 DUL A Dictionary of the Ugaritic Language in the Alphabetic Tradition. Edited by Gregorio del Olmo Lete and Joaquín Sanmartín. Translated by W. G. E. Watson. 2 vols. Leiden: Brill, 2004 DJD Discoveries in the Judaean Desert DTUT Dissertationes theologiae universitatis Tartuensis

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DMOA Documenta et Monumenta Orientis Antiqui EB Echter Bibel ETL Ephemerides Theologicae Lovanienses ErIsr Eretz-Israel EdF Erträge der Forschung EPJS Essential Papers on Jewish Studies EstBib Estudios Bíblicos EDE Etymological Dictionary of Egyptian. By Gábor Takács. 3 vols. HdO 48. Leiden: Brill, 1999–2007 EJS European Journal of Sociology EvT Evangelische Theologie EdH L’évolution de l’humanité EuZ Exegese in unserer Zeit: Kontextuelle Bibelinterpretation EB The Expositor’s Bible ExpTim The Expository Times FIOTL Formation and Interpretation of Old Testament Literature FOTL Forms of the Old Testament Literature FF Forschungen und Fortschritte FAT Forschungen zum Alten Testament FARG Forschungen zur Anthropologie und Religionsgeschichte FRLANT Forschungen zur Religion und Literatur des Alten und Neuen Testaments FThSt Freiburger theologische Studien GM Geuthner Manuels GDBS Gorgias Dissertations, Biblical Studies GUS Gorgias Ugaritic Studies GHKAT Göttingen Handkommentar zum Alten Testament GTW Grundriss der theologischen Wissenschaften GAT Grundrisse zum Alten Testament BWGG Het Handboek: Bibliotheek van wetenschappelijke Geschriften over den Godsdienst HdO Handbuch der Orientalisk (Handbook of Oriental Studies) HKAW Handbuch der klassischen Altertumswissenschaft HAT Handbuch zum Alten Testament HAG Handbücher der alten Geschichte

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HKAT Handkommentar zum Alten Testament HSM Harvard Semitic Monographs HSS Harvard Semitic Studies HTR Harvard Theological Review HAL Hebräisches und aramäisches Lexikon zum Alten Testament. By Ludwig Koehler, Walter Baumgartner, and Johann J. Stamm. 3rd ed. 5 vols. Leiden: Brill, 1967–1995 HBSP Hebrew Bible in Social Perspective HS Hebrew Studies HUCA Hebrew Union College Annual HSAT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten Testaments HSANT Die Heilige Schrift des Alten und Neuen Testamentes HeilStud Heiligenkreuzer Studien HFT Helps for Translators HBL The Heritage of Biblical Israel Hermeneia Hermeneia—A Critical and Historical Commentary on the Bible HBK Herders Bibelkommentar: Die Heilige Schrift für das Leben erklärt HThKAT Herders theologischer Kommentar zum Alten Testament HvTSt Hervormde teologiese studies HibLec The Hibbert Lectures HANE/M History of the Ancient Near East/Monographs HS Horae Soederblomianae HBT Horizons in Biblical Theology IJS IJS Studies in Judaica: Conference Proceedings of the Institute of Jewish Studies, University College London ICC International Critical Commentary IJSR International Journal of Sanskrit Research ITC International Theological Commentary IB Interpreter’s Bible. Edited by George A. Buttrick et al. 12 vols. New York: Abingdon, 1951–1957 Iraq Iraq IER Irish Ecclesiastical Record INR Israel Numismatic Research JEOL Jaarbericht Ex oriente lux

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JPT Jahrbücher für protestantische Theologie JQ Jerusalem Quarterly JPSTC Jewish Publication Society Torah Commentary JQR Jewish Quarterly Review JLCRS Jordan Lectures in Comparative Religion Series JSSEA Journal for the Study of Egyptian Antiquities JSem Journal for Semitics JSS Journal of Semitic Studies JSOT Journal for the Study of the Old Testament JSOTSup Journal for the Study of the Old Testament Supplement Series JSP Journal for the Study of the Pseudepigrapha JAF Journal of American Folklore JAC Journal of Ancient Civilizations JANER Journal of Ancient Near Eastern Religions JBL Journal of Biblical Literature JCS Journal of Cuneiform Studies JHS Journal of Hebrew Scriptures JIES Journal of Indo-European Studies JJP Journal of Juristic Papyrology JNES Journal of Near Eastern Studies JNSL Journal of Northwest Semitic Languages JRH Journal of Religious History JAOS Journal of the American Oriental Society JARCE Journal of the American Research Center in Egypt JANES Journal of the Ancient Near Eastern Society JPOS Journal of the Palestine Oriental Society JRAS Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society JTS Journal of Theological Studies Judaism Judaism: A Quarterly Journal of Jewish Life and Thought KZ Kartell-Zeitung: Organ des Eisenacher Kartells akademisch-theologischer Vereine K&D Keil, Carl Friedrich and Franz Delitzsch. Biblical Commentary on the Old Testament. Translated by James Martin et al. 25 vols. Edinburgh, 1857–1878

KTU Die keilalphabetischen Texte aus Ugarit. Edited by Manfried Dietrich, Oswald Loretz, and Joaquín Sanmartín. AOAT 24. Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchener, 1976. KST Kohlhammer Studienbücher Theologie KSAGSW Kolloquium der schweizerischen Akademie der Geistes- und Sozialwissenschaften KAT Kommentar zum Alten Testament KBANT Kommentare und Beiträge zum Alten und Neuen Testament Kontakte Kontakte: Beiträge zum religiösen Zeitgespräch KVHS Korte verklaring der Heilige Schrift Kottabos Kottabos: A College Miscellany KEL Kregel Exegetical Library KAW Kulturgeschichte der antiken Welt KB Kulturgeschichtliche Bibliothek KHC Kurzer Hand-Commentar zum Alten Testament KEHAT Kurzgefasstes exegetisches Handbuch zum Alten Testament KKHSANT Kurzgefasster Kommentar zu den Heiligen Schriften Alten und Neuen Testaments Language Language: Journal of the Linguistic Society of America LangDiss Language Dissertations LD Lectio Divina Leqach Leqach: Mitteilungen und Beiträge LNM Les livres du nouveau monde LHBOTS The Library of Hebrew Bible/Old Testament Studies LSAWS Linguistic Studies in Ancient West Semitic LCL Loeb Classic Library MH Magic in History MQ Mankind Quarterly WA D. Martin Luthers Werke: Kritische Gesammtausgabe Melammu Melammu Symposia MC Mesopotamian Civilizations MMAS The Metropolitan Museum of Art Symposia MRS Mission de Ras Shamra MR Modern Review

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Mus Muséon: Revue d’études orientales NedTT Nederlands theologisch tijdschrift NEchtB Neue Echter Bibel NThG Neue Theologische Grundrisse NAC New American Commentary NCB New Century Bible NETS A New English Translation of the Septuagint. Edited by Albert Pietersma and Benjamin G. Wright. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007 NICOT New International Commentary on the Old Testament NIB The New Interpreter’s Bible. Edited by Leander E. Keck. 12 vols. Nashville: Abingdon, 1994–2004 NRSV New Revised Standard Version. National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. 1989 NUS Newsletter for Ugaritic Studies NC The Nineteenth Century Numen Numen: International Review for the History of Religions OPSNKF Occasional Publications of the Samuel Noah Kramer Fund OTE Old Testament Essays OTL Old Testament Library OTM Old Testament Message OTS Oudtestamentische Studiën/Old Testament Studies OBO Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis OBO.SA Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis, Series Archaeologica OrAnt Oriens Antiquus OIS Oriental Institute Seminars OrNS Orientalia: Nova Series OBC Orientalia biblica et christiana OLA Orientalia Lovaniensia Anelecta OLP Orientalia Lovaniensia Periodica ORA Orientalische Religionen in der Antike OLZ Orientalistische Literaturzeitung OLB Orte und Landschaften der Bibel ÖBS Österreichische biblische Studien OBT Overtures to Biblical Theology

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OECS Oxford Early Christian Studies OJA Oxford Journal of Archaeology PJ Palästina-Jahrbuch PEFQS Palestine Exploration Fund Quarterly Statement PEQ Palestine Exploration Quarterly PMIRC Penn Museum International Research Conferences PK Pentateuch-Kommentar PHSC Perspectives on Hebrew Scriptures and Its Contexts PTMS Pittsburgh Theological Monograph Series POuT De Prediking van het Oude Testament PSJCO Princeton Symposium on Judaism and Christian Origins PTSDSSP Princeton Theological Seminary Dead Sea Scrolls Project PAAJR Proceedings of the American Academy for Jewish Research PAPS Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society PEGLMBS Proceedings of the Eastern Great Lakes and Midwest Biblical Societies PSBA Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology Proof Prooftexts: A Journal of Jewish Literary History PA Psychologische Abhandlungen PEANES Publications in Egyptology and Ancient Near Eastern Studies PCERNYU Publications of the Center for Ebla Research at New York University PPFBR Publications of the Perry Foundation for Biblical Research QD Quaestiones Disputatae QMHSS Quantitative Methods in the Humanities and Social Sciences ROT Reading the Old Testament RlA Reallexikon der Assyriologie RM Die Religionen der Menschheit Rel Religions RendMor Rendiconti, Classe di scienze morali, storiche e filologiche (Rendiconti Morali) RSV Revised Standard Version. National Council of the Churches of Christ in the USA. 1952 RB Revue biblique RCHL Revue critique d’histoire et de littérature RA Revue d’assyriologie et d’archéologie orientale

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RHR Revue de l’histoire des religions RTP Revue de théologie et de philosophie RevQ Revue de Qumran RES Revue des études sémitiques RSO Rivista degli studi orientali RHAW Routledge History of the Ancient World SBJ La Sainte Bible de Jérusalem SGVSGTR Sammlung gemeinverständlicher Vorträge und Schriften aus dem Gebiet der Theologie und Religionsgeschichte SG Sammlung Göschen STL Sammlung theologischer Lehrbücher SamT Sammlung Töpelmann SWRT Sämmtliche Werke zur Religion und Theologie SJOT Scandinavian Journal of the Old Testament SAT Die Schriften des Alten Testaments SchLBA Schweich Lectures on Biblical Archaeology SD Scripta et documenta Semeia Semeia Sem Semitica STS Semitic Texts and Studies SNVAO Skrifter utgitt av det Norske videnskaps-akademi i Oslo SHBC Smyth & Helwys Bible Commentary SOTSMS Society for the Old Testament Study Monograph Series SBLAB Society of Biblical Literature Academia Biblica SBLANEM Society of Biblical Literature Ancient Near East Monographs SBLDS Society of Biblical Literature Dissertation Series SBLWAW Society of Biblical Literature Writings from the Ancient World SB Sources bibliques SEAL Sources of Early Akkadian Literature. Michael P. Streck and Nathan Wasserman. Accessible online at http://www.seal.uni-leipzig.de/ Sphinx Sphinx SAACT State Archives of Assyria Cuneiform Texts SAAS State Archives of Assyria Studies StudBib Studia Biblica

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StudBT Studia biblica et theologica SMSR Studi e materiali di storia delle religioni SEL Studi epigrafici e linguistici sul Vicino Oriente antico SVTP Studia in Veteris Testamenti Pseudepigrapha StOr Studia Orientalia StPhoen Studia Phoenicia StPohl Studia Pohl: Series maior SSN Studia Semitica Neerlandica SAK Studien zur altägyptischen Kultur SGKA Studien zur Geschichte und Kultur des Altertums SBT Studies in Biblial Theology SSLL Studies in Semitic Languages and Linguistics SHCANE Studies in the History and Culture of the Ancient Near East SHR Studies in the History of Religions StGen Studium generale SBS Stuttgarter Bibelstudien JSJSup Supplements to the Journal for the Study of Judaism VTSup Supplements to Vetus Testamentum SEA Svensk exegetisk årsbok Syria Syria TC TC: A Journal of Biblical Textual Criticism TA Tel Aviv THB The Text of the Hebrew Bible TBN Themes in Biblical Narrative TDOT Theological Dictionary of the Old Testament. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck and Helmer Ringgren. Translated by John T. Willis et al. 15 vols. Grand Rapids: Eerdmans, 1974–2006 ThRev Theological Review TGl Theologie und Glaube ThT Theologisch tijdschrift TJ Theologische Jahrbücher ThSt Theologische Studiën TZ Theologische Zeitschrift

ThWAT Theologisches Wörterbuch zum Alten Testament. Edited by G. Johannes Botterweck, Helmer Ringgren, and Heinz-Josef Fabry. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 1970– TAPS Transactions of the American Philosophical Society TynBul Tyndale Bulletin TOTC Tyndale Old Testament Commentaries UF Ugarit-Forschungen UBL Ugaritisch-biblische Literatur UTB Uni-Taschenbücher UCOP University of Cambridge Oriental Publications UCOIP University of Chicago Oriental Institute Publications UUA Uppsala universitets Årsskrift VKVAW Verhandelingen van de Koninklijke Vlaamse Academie voor Wetenschappen, Letteren en Schone Kunsten van België VWGTh Veröffentlichungen der wissenschaftlichen Gesellschaft für Theologie VT Vetus Testamentum VSAO Völker und Staaten des Alten Orients VG De voornaamste godsdiensten WTJ Westminster Theological Journal WO Die Welte des Orients WSEAWA Wilbour Studies in Egypt and Ancient Western Asia WMANT Wissenschaftliche Monographien zum Alten und Neuen Testament WUNT Wissenschaftliche Untersuchungen zum Neuen Testament WBC Word Biblical Commentary WELL Works upon the English Language and Literature ZDMG Zeitschrift der deutschen morgenländischen Gesellschaft ZDPV Zeitschrift des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins ZAH Zeitschrift für Althebräistik ZA Zeitschrift für Assyriologie ZAW Zeitschrift für die alttestamentliche Wissenschaft ZTK Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche ZVS Zeitschrift für Völkerpsychologie und Sprachwissenschaft ZBKAT Zürcher Bibelkommentare, Altes Testament

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