Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM Series Editors: Professor Nancy H. Hornberger, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, USA and Professor Colin Baker, University of Wales, Bangor, Wales, UK Other Books in the Series At War With Diversity: US Language Policy in an Age of Anxiety James Crawford Bilingual Education and Social Change Rebecca Freeman Curriculum Related Assessment, Cummins and Bilingual Children Tony Cline and Norah Frederickson (eds) English in Europe: The Acquisition of a Third Language Jasone Cenoz and Ulrike Jessner (eds) Japanese Children Abroad: Cultural, Educational and Language Issues Asako Yamada-Yamamoto and Brian Richards (eds) Language Minority Students in the Mainstream Classroom Angela L. Carrasquillo and Vivian Rodriguez Languages in America: A Pluralist View Susan J. Dicker Learning English at School: Identity, Social Relations and Classroom Practice Kelleen Toohey Language, Power and Pedagogy: Bilingual Children in the Crossfire Jim Cummins Language Revitalization Processes and Prospects Kendall A. King The Languages of Israel: Policy, Ideology and Practice Bernard Spolsky and Elana Shohamy Reflections on Multiliterate Lives Diane Belcher and Ulla Connor (eds) The Sociopolitics of English Language Teaching Joan Kelly Hall and William G. Eggington (eds) Studies in Japanese Bilingualism Mary Goebel Noguchi and Sandra Fotos (eds) Teaching and Learning in Multicultural Schools Elizabeth Coelho Teaching Science to Language Minority Students Judith W. Rosenthal Working with Bilingual Children M.K. Verma, K.P. Corrigan and S. Firth (eds) Young Bilingual Children in Nursery School Linda Thompson Other Books of Interest Beyond Bilingualism: Multilingualism and Multilingual Education Jasone Cenoz and Fred Genesee (eds) The Care and Education of Young Bilinguals Colin Baker Encyclopedia of Bilingualism and Bilingual Education Colin Baker and Sylvia Prys Jones Please contact us for the latest book information: Multilingual Matters, Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon, BS21 7HH, England http://www.multilingual-matters.com BILINGUAL EDUCATION AND BILINGUALISM 27 Series Editors: Nancy Hornberger and Colin Baker Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism Third Edition Colin Baker MULTILINGUAL MATTERS LTD Clevedon • Buffalo • Toronto • Sydney Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Baker, Colin. Foundations of Bilingual Education and Bilingualism/Colin Baker, 3rd edn. Bilingual Education and Bilingualism: 27. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Education, Bilingual. 2. Education, Bilingual–Great Britain. 3. Bilingualism. 4. Bilingualism–Great Britain. I. Title. II. Series. LC3715.B35 2001 370.117–dc21 00-050072 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library. ISBN 1-85359-524-1 (hbk) ISBN 1-85359-523-3 (pbk) Multilingual Matters Ltd UK: Frankfurt Lodge, Clevedon Hall, Victoria Road, Clevedon BS21 7HH. USA: UTP, 2250 Military Road, Tonawanda, NY 14150, USA. Canada: UTP, 5201 Dufferin Street, North York, Ontario M3H 5T8, Canada. Australia: P.O. Box 586, Artarmon, NSW, Australia. Copyright © 2001 Colin Baker. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without permission in writing from the publisher. Printed and bound in Great Britain by Biddles Ltd. Contents Introduction . vii Acknowledgements. xi Chapter 1 Bilingualism: Definitions and Distinctions . 1 Chapter 2 The Measurement of Bilingualism . 17 Chapter 3 Languages in Society . 42 Chapter 4 Language Revival and Revitalization. 67 Chapter 5 The Development of Bilingualism . 85 Chapter 6 Second Language Acquisition and Learning . 109 Chapter 7 Bilingualism and Cognition . 134 Chapter 8 Cognitive Theories of Bilingualism and the Curriculum . 162 Chapter 9 An Introduction to Bilingual Education. 181 Chapter 10 Bilingual Education for Bilingualism and Biliteracy. 203 Chapter 11 The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education . 228 Chapter 12 The Effectiveness of Bilingual Education: The United States Debate . 244 Chapter 13 Language Development and Language Allocation in Bilingual Education . 268 Chapter 14 Bilingual Schooling Issues: Underachievement, Assessment and Special Needs . 295 Chapter 15 Literacy in Minority Language and Multicultural Societies . 318 Chapter 16 Literacy and Biliteracy in the Classroom . 341 Chapter 17 Immersion Classrooms . 356 Chapter 18 The Politics of Bilingualism. 366 Chapter 19 Multiculturalism and Anti-Racism . 401 Chapter 20 Bilingualism in the Modern World . 416 Conceptual Map. 438 Bibliography . 439 Index . 474 v FOUNDATIONS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION CONTENTS Introduction This book is intended as an introduction to bilingual education and bilingualism. Written from a cross-disciplinary perspective, the book covers a wide range of topics: individual and societal concepts in minority and majority languages; child- hood developmental perspectives; general bilingual education issues, bilingual and second language classrooms, and political and multicultural perspectives. Bilingualism relates to, for example, use of two communication systems, identity and personality, thinking, social organization and culture. All of these are encapsu- lated in this book. In compiling the second and third editions, increasingly tough decisions had to be made as to what to include and exclude, what to present in detail and what to summarize, what assumptions to explore and what to take ‘as read’. I have often been asked: ‘Why don’t you put Chapter X earlier?’ I agree, everything should be earlier. The Introductions to the two sections explain the order of the book. Other frequently asked questions are ‘Why don’t you expand on Y?’; Why don’t you leave out Z because it is irrelevant to me?’ and Why can’t we have an edition just for our region?’. What follows are some explanations of the nature of the third edition. An attempt is made to balance the psychological and the sociological, the macro education issues and the micro classroom issues, the linguistic and the sociopolitical, and to balance discussion at individual and societal levels. An attempt is made to be inclusive of the major international concerns in bilingualism and bilingual education. Faced with the social and political problems that surround bilinguals, students will find in this book an attempt to analyze constructively those problems and recognize the positive values and virtues in a future bilingual and multicultural world. This book starts with wide, macro issues, and then funnels down to specific, micro issues. Definitional, sociological and psychological issues provide the foundation. Discussions of bilingual education and bilingual classrooms are built on that essential foundation. However, the book is more than a cross-disciplinary foundation with a series of education layers built on top. Within the boundaries of clarity in writing style and readable structuring, explicit inter-connections are made between chapters. A simple concept map of these inter-connections is given in an Appendix. This conceptual map will, for most, only make sense after reading the whole book. The map also provides the instructor with a simplified but integrated plan of the book. It is an attempt to avoid the compartmentalization that sometimes results from reading discrete chapters, to show how themes link together into an integrated whole. vii FOUNDATIONS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION INTRODUCTION viii FOUNDATIONS OF BILINGUAL EDUCATION In writing the book, a constant challenge has been ‘From whose perspective?’ There are majority mainstream viewpoints, relatively advantaged minority language viewpoints and various disadvantaged minority language viewpoints. There are left-wing and right-wing politics, activist and constructivist ideas. The book attempts to represent a variety of viewpoints and beliefs. Where possible, multiple perspectives are shared. Readers and reviewers have kindly pointed out some of the hidden and implicit assumptions made, and kindly provided alterna- tive viewpoints that I have tried to represent faithfully in the text. Where there are conclusions and dominating perspectives, I alone stand responsible. Another issue has concerned generalization and contextualization. The book was written for an international audience to reflect ideas that transcend national boundaries. The book attempts to locate issues of international generalizability. Unfortunately, space limits discussion of a variety of regional and national language situations. There are other writings that will provide necessary contextualization (e.g. Baker & Jones, 1998). Where particular situations have been discussed (e.g. US debates), it is often because of the thoroughness of documenta- tion and the depth of analysis in the surrounding literature. Where bilingual situations are discussed, by inference this will usually include multilingual situa- tions. In this book, multilinguals are often implied in the use of the term ‘bilinguals’. In an attempt to make the contents of this book relevant to a variety of contexts and regions, various chapters focus on integrating theories. From one individual research study, it is usually impossible to generalize. A study from Europe may say little about North America. Results on six-year-olds may say nothing about sixteen- or sixty-year-olds. Research on middle-class children speaking French and English in a dual language school may say little or nothing about children