Chapter IV Relevant Research Done in the Field of

This is an era of Science &Technology. Modern man generally does not accept anything if it is unscientific. When we are discussing ancient science of Yoga in modern times, it is important for us to know what are the scientific findings in the field of Yoga.

Scientific investigations into the nature of universe posed most formidable challenges to certain religious concepts. Science has helped people overcome blind faith.

While commenting on Galileo’s renowned conflict with the Catholic Church, Stephen Hawking, one of the leading physicist of modern times says 1, Galileo was one of the first to argue that man can hope to understand how the world works, and moreover, we can do this by observing the real world.

Scientist like Copernicus, Galileo, Borne had to suffer since their discoveries contradicted the then religious ideas about the solar system.

In ancient India also, there was a notion that during Solar and Lunar eclipse, demons R āhu and Ketu devour the Sun and Moon respectively.

1 Stephen Hawking, A Brief History of Time , paperback edition 1989,p.189

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Hence, scientific attitude is very much important in any investigation. In the field of Yoga also, we come across certain claims which need to be established through scientific verification. For example, Ha ṭhayogaprad īpik ā claims that one who is adept in performing mayur āsana , can digest even a deadly poison (kālakūṭa)2. In such cases scientific research is very important.

However, we must appreciate that the whole field of Spiritual Knowledge can never come under the purview of Science, particularly when it comes to the study of ‘Consciousness’. Stephen Hawking mentions, “Newton’s mechanistic world view influenced the scientific research till the end of 19 th century. The scientists then thought that the universe was completely deterministic”3.

But then, the doctrine of scientific determinism was shattered in 1926 when Werner Heisenberg formulated the ‘Uncertainty Principle’ which has profound implications for the ways in which the world is viewed. It becomes very clear that scientific theories can never provide a complete and definitive description of the reality as Fritjof Kapra puts it,4“Scientists do not deal with truths, they deal with limited and approximate description of reality.”

Before reviewing the various scientific findings in the field of Yoga, we, therefore, note below the limitations of such scientific research.

2H.P, I.31 3 Hawking, op.cit., p.57 4 Fritjof Kapra, The Turning Point,Flamingo,London1984 , p.48

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The secrets of mankind at psychological and spiritual planes have yet not been fully comprehended and studied. As such Svāmī Kuvalay ānanda, the founder of ‘Kaivalyadham’, Lonavla and the pioneer of modern scientific research in the field of Yoga in India, felt that there are insufficient breakthroughs in the field of psychological and spiritual progress commensurate with scientific progress. This is reflected in prevailing societal negativities such as depressions, frustrations, insecurities and lack of confidence.

Svāmī Kuvalay ānanda, in his inaugural issue of ‘Yoga M īmāṁsā’ the journal dedicated to ‘Research in the field of Yoga’ in 1924 had mentioned that, it is difficult to predict the nature and outcome of scientific studies on ‘Yogic Practices’. However, such research will enrich the aspects of Physiology, Psychology, Therapy, Physical Training & Spiritual Science. It will also help unfold answers to some Philosophical questions.

Svāmī Kuvalay ānanda believed that fundamental research on ‘Psychosomatic level process change’ and ‘Bio-Chemical level process change’ due to yogic practices should be emphasized and be a pre- requisite to ‘Applied Research’ in the field of Yoga.

While there have been significant research studies carried out all over the world on the efficacy of yogic practices at physiological (annamayakośa) and psychological level (manomayako śa) and at vital level (prāṇamayako śa), it is mostly aimed at establishing the secondary beneficial aspects of ha ṭhayogicpractices of cleansing process ( ṣaṭkarma - s), postures ( āsana -s), breath control techniques ( prāṇāyāma ) etc.

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Similarly, significant research work has also been carried out in the fields of techniques such as Transcendental Meditation, Vipassan ā, Zen meditation practices etc.

There has been comparatively less work carried out by way of scientific research on the ūtra -s of Patañjali per se.

The probable reasons that come to mind for such a scenario developing is the fact that the Haṭhayoga practices such as mentioned above, and meditation techniques verifiably demonstrate the positive effects at physiological level such as - a) General sense of bodily good health i.e. stability, steadiness, lightness, flexibility etc. b) Toning of Neuromuscular systems c) Positive effects on Endocrinal Systems leading to their improved secretions d) Therapeutic aspects ofprevention and cure in modern day lifestyle induced psychosomatic disorders such as Asthma, Diabetes Mellitus, Insomnia, Hyperacidity, Obesity, Hypertension etc. e) Possibility of corrections to functional disordersand at Psychological level such as - i) Improved breathing pattern leading to calming down mind ii) Reduction in emotional disturbances iii) Improved concentration iv) Improved memory v) Obtaining body mind balance (homeostasis)

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vi) Sense of relaxation, peace, equanimity, tranquility and happiness.

However, PātañjalaYogas ūtra -s have practically not mentioned any of the above either as objectives or outcomes of yogic practices. The aspect of PātañjalaYogas ūtra -s dealing with higher attainments (through sādhan ā)such as supernatural powers ( siddhi -s) and attainment of various stages of sam āpatti -s and finally leading to kaivalya perhaps should have been a matter of intense research. The apparent fact that it is not so, may be ascribed to - a) The research works carried out on varioushaṭhayogic practices and meditational practices such as Transcendental Meditation, Vipassan ā, Yoganidr ā etc. areseemed to be done in isolation. b) PātañjalaYogas ūtra -s, by their very cogent, rational, systematic and sequential step by step approach to achieve kaivalya , requires an integrated approach to research on definite specific paths of the channels of consciousness as part of main system, its subsystems and the methods of sādhan ā. This however relates to the spiritual progress through sādhan āof an individual seeker and his emancipation. c) Thus, a piecemeal approach to research (research on individual practices) without reference to the larger picture is likely to be fraught with erroneous outcomes or conclusions. d) The experiences of the practitioners at the heightened consciousness and awareness levels are ineffable and indescribable. There are no known scientific parameters to measure and confirm higher

287 state such as sam ādhi state. Thus, any research where a researcher plays a role of only an observer of a meditator (observed), cannot fully comprehend the experience of the person undergoing the experience. e) On the other hand, a person, who has no previous experience in techniques of meditation, if undertakes a research on the subject by participating in the meditation, it is likely to have a subjective bias. f) While it has been proved scientifically that during meditational practices, the brain wave patterns can vary vastly and can be changed volitionally, just because a meditator can produce alpha or delta waves at will, does not mean that he/she is enlightened. The change in the brain waves is still a phenomenon of the central nervous system and the cerebrum, which are products of the prak ṛti . As such it does not prove or disprove the fact of kaivalya state (realized and liberated state). g) The present scientific stage can only indicate what it is capable of measuring. Therefore, the neurophysiological correlates of meditation practices may not be necessary indications of spiritual progress but are only indicative of change in brain functions at will. They may be treated as indirect evidence only.

If we take into consideration that, a) Swāmī Vivek ānanda’s thought, “Yoga should not remain only a thought movement but should be made socially relevant.” b) Sw āmī Aurobindo’ s statement 5 that

5 Mehta Rohit, The Miracle of Descent, R. N. Amin Publishers, Ahmedabad, 1973, p.20

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All Yoga in its nature is a new birth, it is a birth out of ordinary, the mentalized material life of man, into higher spiritual consciousness. So, Yoga is a Spiritual mutation.

Then in the modern context, the stressful society that we live in today, the effort should be to establish through research the efficacy of yogic practices for betterment of society at large, be it even only on physiological (annamayakośa) and psychological levels (manomayakośa) initially instead of merely for the benefit of a small population of individual seekers. Only through sustained and proven benefits of the yogic practices at these levels, a large section of society will progress in higher planes of spirituality in its spiritual quest.

Notwithstanding the above, in this chapter, important aspects of following relevant research work carried out by eminent institutions/persons in the field of Yoga and textual references of various attainments of eminent Yog ī-s, are discussed.

1)Scientific research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM Siddhi Program. 2) Research on Yoganidr ā Technique of Paramaha ṁsa Svāmī Saty ānanda Sarasvat ī, Founder, Bihar School of Yoga. 3) Research carried out on Brain Mapping of SvāmīVeda Bh ārat īand others. 4) Research carried out on Osho’s Dynamic meditation 5)Ancient Scriptural evidences of siddhi -s attained by Yog ī-s. 6) Scientific Research work carried out by Kaivalyadham, Lonavla on prāṇāyāma techniques.

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1) Summary of Scientific Research on Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation and TM-Siddhi Program. 6

Scientific research carried out on the Transcendental Meditation (TM) and TM-Siddhi program(which is derived from yogas ūtra -s of Patañjali) of MaharishiMahesh Yogi is one of the largest type of research work carried out to develop human potential.The studies on TM span across five continents, in more than 25 countries, over 350 scientific studies in over 160 independent universities and institutions. The studies are published in more than 100 leading scientific journals. The studies and results thereof have revealed that the TM concept benefits physiological, psychological, sociological and ecological spheres of everyday life. The tools used in the research such as meta-analysis have found a high degree of consistency of the results.

Research conducted around the world has documented that TM program is effective for all cultural and ethnic groups, across age groups, spanning full range of socio-economic levels and intellectual abilities.

The body of research is unique in the extent of cross validation. Dr. David Orme-Johnson, the Dean of Research, Maharishi International University has explained that the findings are validated by many different types of physiological, psychological and sociological measures. For example:

6https://www.mum.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/orme-johnson.pdf., p. 210-11 ,16 August 2017

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TM Meditation and TM-Siddhi Program decreases Stress is validated by

1)Physiological changes such as decreased cortisol, decreased muscle tension, normalization of blood pressure, increased autonomic stability, increased EEG coherence.

2)Variety of Psychological changes indicated through decreased stress, decreased anxiety and depression, decreased post-traumatic stress syndrome, increased self-actualization.

3)Sociological changes demonstrated by decreased hostility, increased family harmony, reduction in criminal behavior in incarcerated felons.

4)Studies have found that at ecological level, reduction of stress in meditating individuals creates an influence of harmony in the environment (subjectively it has been our very normal experience that at the places where intense meditation practices are performed such as Yoga āś rama-s, Meditation centers of Vipassan ā, a certain harmonious and tranquil atmosphere prevails which is deeply relaxing and spiritually elevating even for those who are not participating in the there). According to Mahesh Yogi, individual peace is a prerequisite for world peace.Scientists have named this phenomenon as the ‘Maharishi Effect’ .7 It is found that even 1% of the population practicing the TM technique, or the square root of one per cent practicing the more advanced TM-siddhi program, improves the quality of life as indicated by such changes as reduced crime in larger society.

7https://www.mum.edu/pdf_msvs/v06/orme-johnson.pdf &https://www.mum.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/orme-johnson.pdf:--Journal of Modern Science and Vedic Science, p. 217 ,16 August 2017

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A) There are over 500 studies conducted and they are published in six volumes. The bibliography is available to access through gopher://info.miu.edu/. The overall research findings are categorized as Physiological, Psychological, Sociological and Ecological and are discussed below in summarized way. 8

B) Physiological Benefits Science, American Journal of Physiology, American in 1970-72 (Papers 1,3 & 4) have published original landmark research on the physiological correlates of Maharishi Mahesh Yogi’s Transcendental Meditation Technique. The research established that the TM technique generates a state of restful alertness. During the practice, the physiology becomes deeply rested as indicated by - i) Significant reduction in respiration ii) Reduction in minute ventilation, tidal volume and blood lactate iii) Significant Increase in basal skin resistance. The physiology is alert rather than asleep as indicated by increased abundance of alpha waves in the EEG.

The researchers concluded that restful alertness is a fourth major state of consciousness, termed Transcendental Consciousness, which is physiologically different than waking ( jāgṛti), dreaming ( svapna ) and deep sleep ( nidr ā).

In very important research on TM, researchers have found that through regular practice of TM, technique, physiology becomes more relaxed outside of meditation as well. Baseline levels of respiration rate, heart

8https://www.mum.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/orme-johnson-1.pdf p.62,18 th sept 2017

292 rate plasma lactate, and skin resistances are lower. The autonomic nervous system becomes more stable, integrated and adaptable, indicated by the increased ability to recover rapidly from the effects of stress. Brain functioning becomes more orderly, as indicated by growth of physiological correlates of creativity and intelligence such as shorter latencies of cognitive evoked potentials, faster paired H-reflexes, increased EEG coherence.

Medical researchers have found that people practicing TM techniques have reduction in important cardio vascular risk factors such as high blood pressure and serum cholesterol.

C) Psychological Benefits 9 Research has established that TM and TM-Siddhi program increases broad comprehension, improves ability to focus sharply. Through regular practice, the physiology becomes habituated to sustain the experience of restful alertness at all times which is the best means to reducing anxiety, depression and anger. TM consciousness, the experience of one’s higher sense of self becomes a stable internal frame of reference and provides unshakable sense of self even during dynamic activity. Meditators though being able to see another person’s perspective, are not easily swayed by social pressure to act in a wrongful manner. They tend to perceive the world more positively and holistically.

Creativity increases as measured by tests of verbal and pictorial fluency, flexibility and originality. Perception becomes accurate and less driven by preconceptions and misconceptions. It also helps in improving basic

9https://www.mum.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/orme-johnson-1.pdf, p.63,17 th Sept 2017

293 memory. In school, children practicing TM are observed with significant improvement in basic skills of mathematics, reading and language study.

In high-school and graduate students and adults practising TM increases IQ scores compared to non-meditating control groups over the same period. A ten-year longitudinal study following meditating college students after their graduation found significant increase in holistic measures of self-development compared to control groups across three US universities matched for age and gender. The meditators reached higher levels of moral reasoning, autonomy and integration.

In a nutshell, Maharishi’s TM is found to be is very effective in ability to fully develop unique potential of the individual for self-actualization. The persons become more self-sufficient, more spontaneous, more productive capable of warm interpersonal relationships.

D) Sociological Benefits 10 A quantitative review of 198 studies found that Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation program is the most effective means of preventing and treating drug and alcohol abuse. In a study of transient, chronic alcoholics it was found that the technique produced a 65% abstinence rate and another study of high school and college drug users in a rehabilitation center found an 89% reduction in drug usage. A study of war veterans with post-traumatic adjustment problems found that Maharishi’s Transcendental Meditation technique produced significant decreases in emotional numbness, alcohol consumption, family problems, insomnia, and overall post-traumatic stress disorder, in comparison to

10 https://www.mum.edu/wp-content/uploads/2014/07/orme-johnson-1.pdf, 16 sept 2017

294 controls receiving psychotherapy. These techniques are also very effective in prison rehabilitation.

E) Ecological Benefits Maharishi has brought to light that the most important single ecological consideration is a pervasive field of collective consciousness - the collective influence of the consciousness of individuals that comprise a society. Stressed individuals create an atmosphere of stress in collective consciousness that reciprocally affects the thinking and actions of every individual in that system. Maharishi maintains that crime, drug abuse, armed conflict, and other problems of society are more than just the problem of individual criminals, drug users, and conflicting factions in society. Such problems are more fundamentally symptoms of stress in collective consciousness. Maharishi has introduced a new theoretical understanding of society, which concludes that the only practical way to handle large-scale problems is to approach them holistically by creating coherence in collective consciousness.Maharishi has estimated that 1% of the population practicing his Transcendental Meditation technique and as few as the square root of 1% collectively practicing his Transcendental Meditation and TM-Siddhi program would be enough to create an influence of coherence in collective consciousness capable of neutralizing the stresses that are the root cause of social problems.

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2) Research on Yoganidr ā Technique of Paramaha ṁsa Sv āmī Saty ānanda Sarasvati, Founder, Bihar School of Yoga.

The aspect of nidr ā (conventionally known as sleep) has been dealt by Patañjali as one of the five vṛtti -s (modifications of the mind).

• ।I.10

We observe that of the three distinct and fundamental states of human consciousness i.e. a) Wakeful State ( jāgṛati), b) Deep Sleeping State (su ṣupti ) and c) Dream State ( svapna ), the first one is perhaps the most understood whereas the remaining two have been relatively less understood and therefore have been matter of research interest. Modern researchers have been able to determine many of the psycho- physiological functions and characteristics of sleep. The fourth level of consciousness tur īya state is associated with higher level of evolution of consciousness usually attainable by yog ī-s. Each of these states has been corelated with distinct patterns of electrical activity in the brain. This is summarized in table 1 below 11 .

11 Satyananda SaraswatiSv āmī, Yoganidr ā, Yoga Publications Trust, Bihar, 1998, p.171

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Stage State of Psychological Brainwave Realm of Consciousness Dimension Pattern Experience 1 Awake Conscious Beta Sensory mind (13-20 cps) awareness, external knowledge. Dream Subconscious Theta Release of mind (4-7 cps) Emotions, suppressed fears and desires 3 Deep Sleep Unconscious Delta Awakening mind (0-4cps) of instincts and primitive drives 4 Tur īya/ Yoganidr ā Superconscious Alpha Deep mind, (8-12 cps) relaxation, Hypnogogic visionary borderline states, between awake conscious and sleep dreaming,

Patañjali has termed nidr ā (sleep) as vṛtti where there is total absence of ‘experience’. In the wakeful and dream state the experiences are through the sense organs. That is why one experiences the emotions of love, fear etc. even during the dream state and are acknowledged through intense pleasure or of sweating of the body organs respectively.

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Deep Sleep is a natural and regularly occurring condition of generalized rest and relaxation of the body and mind. Sleep however differs from wakeful and dream state in that it is characterized by the absence of conscious thought, sensation or movement. We can say that it is naturally occurring form of praty āhāra (sense withdrawal). The person in Sleep state is completely detached from sense perceptions and thus cannot recollect happenings during this state after he wakes up. The only aspect that is recollected is that ‘there is nothing that can be recollected’ Scientifically speaking, the brain wave patterns during the Wakeful and dream state are quite similar and are completely different from the brain wave patters observed in the sleep state.

There is some similarity in sleep state and sam ādhi state. In both these states, there is absence of external stimuli. There are no perceptions happening through sense organs. The only difference in these two states is the ‘awareness’. In sleep state there is no awareness, whereas sam ādhi state is full of ‘awareness’. Svāmī Satyananda says that, In the sleep state there is predominance of tamas and this can be characterized by ‘extra-sensorial’ awareness. When the consciousness disassociates itself from both the sensory organs and motor organs, contact between the sensory/motor cortex of the brain and the external world is gradually lost. As this occurs, consciousness is progressively withdrawn and redirected internally towards its source.12

During this period, the sense modalities are disengaged systematically in a fixed sequence as the awareness is internally directed towards the

12 Satyananda SaraswatiSv āmī,op. cit. , p.169

298 deeper levels of the mind. The sense of smell (olfaction) is the first sense to disengage. As per śā stra , this corresponds to mūlādh āracakra and the Earth tattva. It is followed by taste (gestation), corresponding to sv ādhi ṣṭ hānacakra and the water tattva. After taste, visual capacity, which is the tanm ātr ā of ma ṇipuracakra disengages. Thereafter the touch sensation corresponding to an āhatacakra and air element and finally hearing sensation corresponding to vi śuddhicakra and space element also disengages.

Patañjali has also advocated meditation on sleep as a means of cittapras ādana or purification of the mind stuff. svaPnainad`a&anaalambanaM vaa |I.38

Patañjalisays that the knowledge obtained in dreams and sleep can be used to purify the mind.

There can be extra sensorial knowledge obtained during the dream state is now well known. There have been instances of scientists discovering scientific phenomenon in their dreams, the problems of which they could not derive solutions during intense thinking and efforts in the wakeful state. For example, Scientist August Kekule 13 was unsuccessfully trying to formulate the atomic structure of Benzene molecule. He eventually found it during the state of day dreaming. On similar lines many a yog ī-s have gained extra sensorial knowledge and have used it for cittapras ādana .Patañjali says that there is absence of experience during deep sleep. However, the puru ṣa who is the experiencer (seer) is still awake even during the sleep and it is possible to cognize this

13 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/August_Kekul%C3%A9,15 Sept,2017

299 puruṣaduring deep sleep. This state, which is a borderline state of consciousness between su ṣupti (deep sleep) and tur īya (super consciousness) is termed as yoganidr ā by Sv āmī Saty ānanda Sarasvat ī, the Founder of Bihar School of Yoga and the inventor of yoganidr āpractice. He explains 14 difference between the waking State and dreaming State as - there is an important band of awareness and experience which is known as ‘Hypnogogic State’ This is a transient state and usually does not last more than a few minutes. This state is characterized by alpha waves (7-12 cps). It is accompanied by deep and progressive relaxation and release of muscular and postural tensions throughout the physical body, and by loss of awareness of the external environment. As the waking state of reality dissolves, the dreaming state of experience replaces it. Yoganidr ā occurs at this threshold of sense consciousness and sleep consciousness. It is entered by learning to extend the duration of the short hypnogogic state which precedes normal sleep. In yoganidr ā, the brain is introverted, while maintaining a degree of external awareness by listening to and mentally following a series of instructions.

During the practice of yoganidr ā, periodic bursts of alpha waves are interspersed between alternating periods of beta and theta predominance. Thus, the consciousness is poised on the borderline between wakefulness and sleep for an extended period of time fluctuating cyclically between extroversion and introversion. By remaining aware and alert in the alpha predominant state between these two, a profound experience of total relaxation is achieved. It is a doorway to higher states of consciousness.

14 Satyananda SaraswatiSv āmī, op. cit ., p.172

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The ultimate outcome of yoganidr āis total harmony and integration between all levels of consciousness. One who perfects the yoganidr ā technique, transcends the three initial states of awareness, entering into fourth unitive state beyond individual consciousness - a merging with the universal consciousness. In spiritual terms we can term it as ‘liberation’ or ‘God realization’ but in yogic terms, we can say that it is total mind in operation.

Normally, we live in solely within the restricted domain of the conscious mind. We are unaware of the deeper needs, capacities and attributes of our mind. As such we are unable to tap into vast resources of knowledge residing within us. We are unable to understand all levels of human consciousness. This is the root cause of our misery. Yoganidr āis a means of contacting the source of self-knowledge and inspiration lying within us. This is termed as cittapras ādana by Patañjali.

Experimental evidence of the existence of the fourth state of consciousness, which is unified and transcendental, whose portal lies in the yoganidr āstate was first recorded at the Menninger Foundation, USA in 1977.15

Under the direction of Dr. Elmer Green, Svāmī R āma, an Indian Yog ī who progressively relaxed his entire physical, mental and emotional structure in yoganidr ā, while his brain wave patterns were recorded by EEG under laboratory conditions. Svāmī R āma demonstrated the capacity

15 Green E.E., <>, ‘The Varieties of Healing Experience- Exploring Psychic Phenomena in Healing’, Academy of Parapsychology and Medicine, Stanford University, 1971

301 to entervarious states of consciousness at will, evidenced by remarkable changes in the electrical activity of his brain.

During the experiment in the laboratory, Svāmī R āma first entered into yoganidr ā, producing 70% alpha wave discharge for a predetermined 5 minutes, simply by imagining a blue sky with occasional drifting of white clouds. Next, he entered a stage of dreaming sleep accompanied by slower theta waves for subsequent five minutes. He described this state as noisy and unpleasant. He attained it by ‘stilling the conscious mind and bringing forth the subconscious. In this state, he had the internal experience of desires, ambitions, memories and past images in archetypal form arising sequentially from the subconscious and unconscious with a rush, each archetype occupying his whole awareness. Lastly, Svāmī R āma entered the state of (unconscious) deep sleep, as verified by the pattern of slow rhythm delta waves. He remained perfectly aware throughout the experiment period which was evidenced by his recollection of various events and questions that were asked of him during the deep delta wave sleep, while his body slept snoring quietly. Such remarkable mastery over fluctuating patterns of consciousness had not previously been demonstrated under strict laboratory conditions. The capacity to remain consciously aware while producing delta waves and experiencing deep sleep is one of the indications of the superconscious state ( tur īya ). This is the ultimate state of yoganidr āin which the conventional barriers between waking, dreaming and deep sleep are removed, revealing simultaneous operation of conscious, subconscious and unconscious mind. The result is a single enlightened state of consciousness and a perfectly integrated and relaxed personality.

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Sv āmī Saty ānanda further explains the state of super consciousness. 16 This state is now recognized and defined as a physiological reality. Now research in parapsychology, psi phenomena and psychotronics is providing experimental evidence that ‘the universal mind’, a single underlying matrix of consciousness, does in fact exist.

The superconscious or universal mind is realized progressively as the barriers separating the three distinct forms of awareness are removed by practices such as yoganidr āor meditation. The individual mind is then illumined, revealing the entire superconscious dimension. This process of illumination of the total mind is the real meaning of liberation, self- realization, mok ṣa or sam ādhi as Patañjali espouses.

3) Research carried out on Brain Mapping of Sv āmī Veda Bh ārat īand others. Svāmī Veda Bh ārat ī (Disciple of Svāmī R āma of the Himalayas) was born into a Sanskrit speaking family and raised in the centuries old Sanskrit tradition. From a very young age, Svāmī Veda Bh ārat īhas impressed the audiences with the depth of his knowledge and intuition in the Veda-s and Patañjali’s Yogas ūtra -s. He is M.A. from University of London and D.Lit. from Netherlands. He was initiated in the highest paths of Meditation and Yoga by his master, the celebrated yog ī, Svāmī Rāma of the Himalayas.

Svāmī Veda Bh ārat ī, has illustrated his own experiences as a subject of research work in the field of ‘Brain Mapping in Pathology and

16 Satyananda SaraswatiSv āmī, op. cit., p.177-78

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Meditation’ 17 He says, it is well known that many of the brain wave phenomena seen and observed in meditation are similar or parallel to those observed in brain pathologies such as... a) Delta waves, among others, signifies a state of coma or impending death. b) Theta waves common in children, is seen as indicative of brain damage in the adults. c) Alpha waves may be induced under the influence of certain narcotics and drugs. d) High beta waves may indicate a very scattered mind without focus.

Svāmī Veda Bh ārat ī, himself was a subject of research in a laboratory in Denver, Colorado USA, wherein in July 2005,he was subjected to neuropathological tests 18 when he demonstrated 11 meditation methods in 50 minutes. It was concluded that, some of the points that help differentiate between the symptoms of neuro-pathology and meditation are - 1) Change in brain wave pattern is volitional. 2) The change in brain wave pattern can be induced by going deeper in the same meditation method or 3) Changing a meditation method or point of focus.

During 2004, Svāmī Veda Bh ārat ī was again a subject of research in ‘Institute of Noetic Sciences, California, USA’ wherein he participated in a series of informal experiments conducted in the ‘Consciousness research laboratory’ and it was reported that -

17 Veda BharatiSv āmī,Future Directions of Scientific Research in Meditation , SRSG Publications, Hrishikesh, p.17-18 18 Ibid ., p.31-33

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1) Delta waves are produced in full consciousness so that the conversations carried on in the same room as the yog ī producing the delta brain waves may be reported verbatim. 2) Theta waves indicate controlled but enhanced creativity through relaxed concentration. 3) Alpha waves will be totally under the practitioner’s control and employed for implementing the principle of ‘inaction in action’. 4) High Beta and Gamma waves indicate deep concentration on a high frequency mentally repetitive thought, such as a .

Svāmī Veda Bh ārat ī however also has some words of caution in relation to the research on brain wave mapping and the conclusions that are derived from it. While developing the research models, one should not fall into the trap of - a) Thinking that Yoga is only a system of therapies and b) Forgetting that ‘Yoga is sam ādhi’ as per Vy āsabh āṣya I.1

The events occurring at neuro physiological level cannot be a conclusive evidence of self-realization or a measure of spiritual progress but only prove that the brain functions can be controlled through application of will, the experiential tradition strongly points to the fact, verified by the neuroscience that - a) Success in practices like cittapras ādana (PYS I.33) are brought about by spiritual states and do effect sāttvika changes in the psychology. b) Neurological indices may be accepted as indirect evidence of spiritual progress.

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4)Scientific Research work carried out by Kaivalyadham, Lonavla on Pr āṇāyāma Techniques. Karambelkar in his paper on ‘The Position of Yoga as a Science Today’ 19 says that each school of Yoga has its own hypothesis, theories and methods of practical training for self-development.

Svam ī Kuvalay ānanda explains in article ‘ Pr āṇāyāma in Yogas ūtra and Vy āsabh āṣya’ 20 that Patañjali gives four types of prāṇāyāma in second pāda and one type in first pāda . Ha ṭhayogaprad īpik ā by Svam ī Sv ātm ārāma gives eight types of pr āṇāyāma . But these eight types differ from Patañjali’s types because of technique of recaka and pūraka , and not because of kumbhaka . Patañjali has covered all pr āṇāyāma -s in ābhyantara . Patañjali does not explain the word Sa ṅkhy ā which is one of the three tests to be applied for checking progress of pr āṇāyāma . However, Vy āsa says, how this test of saṅkhy ā is to be applied to the three types of pr āṇāyāma .

Vy āsa means to say,21 that a fair kumbhaka should be equal to particular number of time units to be counted in one breath. Generally, one exhalation and one inhalation take four seconds and is equal to one mātr ā. ButVy āsa does notmention the time units in specific as he knew that every individual will have different vital capacity and so the time units will differ. An experienced teacher should guide a student and slowly the student should gain mastery in perfecting 80 kumbhaka -s

19 Karambelkar, Article in Yoga Mimamsa (The position of Yoga as ascience Today) - paper at seminar in Kaivalyadham on 4.10.1964, p.8, 20 Yoga Mimamsa , vol. VI, No.3, Dec. 1956, Editorial notes,paper on ‘ in yogasūtra-s and Vy āsa-bh āṣya , Published by Kaivalya Dham, Lonavla, p.181-2 21 Ibid.,p225-258 306 normally. Most other later commentaries have mentioned specific time units. The chanting of mantra or visualizing a deity is also part of time measure for pr āṇāyāma . The time unit by Vy āsa is also not engaging and distracting sādhaka only in counting. It is four seconds and not just blinking of eyes.

Though Patañjali has not used the word kumbhaka , most commentators agree that Patañjali in the context of sūtra II.49,50 and 51 means kumbhaka (retention of breath) when he talks of pr āṇāyāma .

Patañjali has laid qualitative tests for pr āṇāyāma in sūtra II.50,52 and 53. They are – 1. Kumbhaka must become increasingly prolonged. 2. It must be easier to practice. 3. It must step by step decrease darkness preventing illumination. 4. It must render mind capable of concentration.

According to Vy āsa, kāla is a quantitative measure, iyatt ā of the time units in the form of kṣaṇa.( kṣaṇa is one fourth of blinking of eye as per Vācaspati). So one needs to mark duration of one round and the number of rounds to measure kāla . Similarly, de śa is space where activity of kumbhaka can be examined. There is sensation like ant travelling on the body after one practices kumbhaka for a long period. The space in which you get this sensation is also de śa.

The commentators on Vy āsabh āṣya feel that sa ṅkhy ā(measured by mātr ā- s) and kāla . (measured by blowing of conches) are both measurements of time.This is the difference between commentaries on PātañjalaYogas ūtra -s and Vy āsabh āṣya .In a nutshell,

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1. Patañjali means pr āṇāyāma as kumbhaka only. 2. He refers to four types of kumbhaka as a) External b) Internal c) Kevala occurring in midst of sahitakumbhaka . 3. KevalaKumbhaka is brought about by single effort of will. 4. Progress in pr āṇāyāma is to be judged by applying all the three tests of de śa, kāla and sa ṅkhy ā. 5. When examined under the three tests, pr āṇāyāma becomes prolonged and light to bear.

5)Research carried out on Osho’s Dynamic Meditation –

Meditation – J. Krishnamurthy says, ‘meditation is a state of choiceless awareness’. In the East,Buddhist meditation such as Vipassan ā, Zazen, Chinese Qi Gong and Yoga have long been practiced whereas meditation practices in the West include mind-body techniques such as relaxation response,mindfulness meditation and paced respiration, Transcendental Meditation etc.Many of these techniques are surprisingly similar, such as sitting in a comfortable position with eye’s closed,repeating a word or phrase silently to one’s self awareness of one’s breathing, relaxing one’s muscles.

According to Osho, the essence of meditation is just witnessing the body, mind and feelings without judgement. Further he adds the modern man today of eastern or western origin has changed so much that new methods are needed to calm him down. Chaotic methods are required because the modern man is restless and chaotic. One of the techniques is Osho’s Dynamic Meditation.

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Active / Dynamic Meditation - Active / dynamic meditation refers to any meditation technique which does not have one’s body assuming a static posture. Although they are many, dynamic meditation method introduced by Osho is one of the most popular active mediation techniques. He said that if people are repressed, psychologically, are carrying a lot of burden, then they need catharsis. Hence, dynamic meditation is just to help them clean the place.

Osho said,he employed Western psychotherapy as a means of preparing for meditation – A way to become aware of one’s mental and emotional hang-ups-and also introduced his own ‘active meditation’ techniques, characterized by alternating stages of physical activity and silence.

Dynamic meditation lasts 1 hour and is in five stages. It can be done alone, and will be even more powerful if it is done with others. It is an individual experience, so you should remain oblivious of others around you and keep your eyes closed throughout, preferably using a blindfold. It is best to have an empty stomach and wear loose, comfortable clothing.It should be preferably done at sunrise.

First Stage: 10 mins. Breathe chaotically through the nose, concentrating always on exhalation. The body will take care of the inhalation. The breath should move deeply into the lungs. Be as fast as you can in your breathing, making sure the breathing stays deep. Do this as fast and as hard as you possibly can- And then a little harder, until you literally become the breathing. Use your natural body movements to help you to build up your energy. Feel it building up, but do not let go during the first stage.

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Second Stage: 10 mins. Explode! Express everything that needs to be thrown out. Go totally mad. Scream, shout, cry, jump, shake, dance, sing, laugh; throw yourself around. Hold nothing back; keep your whole body moving. A little acting often helps to get you started. Never allow your mind to interfere with what is happening. Be a total, be whole hearted.

Third Stage: 10 mins. With raised arms, jump up and down shouting the mantra, “Hoo! Hoo!” as deeply as possible. Each time you land, on the flats of your feet, let the sound hammer deep. Give all you have; exhaust yourself totally.

Fourth Stage: 15 mins. Stop! Freeze wherever you are, in whatever position you find yourself. Do not arrange the body in any way. A cough, a movement - anything will dissipate the energy flow, and the effort will be lost. Be a witness to everything that is happening to you.

Fifth Stage: 15 mins. Celebrate through dance, expressing your gratitude toward the whole. Carry your happiness with you throughout the day.

Research on Dynamic Meditation - Although meditation has been practiced for centuries, only recently the effects of meditation have been studied widely within the scientific community, albeit challenges in research methodology.

Osho claims that the dynamic meditation can be done by individuals.

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1) Anuj Bansal,Mittal and Seth, 22 have conducted research to investigate the effects of 21 days of Osho dynamic meditation on serum cortisol levels. This study indicated that,significant reduction in plasma cortisol levels(stress maker) occurred when participants were tested after 21 days of dynamic meditation.This suggests that Osho dynamic meditation provides anti-stress effects. Therefore, a regular practice of dynamic meditation could be recommended as healing intervention for the amelioration of stress and stress related physical and mental disorders.

2) Naved Iqbal,Singh Archana,Aleem and Bano 23 conducted research on 60 subjects(30 each in experimental and 30 in control) for 21 days dynamic meditation. Dynamic meditation provides the mediator an opportunity to catharsis and purify his mind and body which is according to Osho is essential to gain the meditative state of mind. Thus, this purification of mind and body helps the individual to wash out his mind from anxiety. Dynamic meditation technique used in this study was found to control anxiety of the subjects.

3)Dr. Avni Vyas, 24 conducted research study on 7-day participation of 41

22 Web:-http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5198312 Journal of clinical and diagnostic research-issn-0973-709x,published online 2016, Nov 1. 23 Web:-http:/researchgate.net/profile/Naved–Iqbal/312120198 http://www.iahrw.com/index.php/home/journal_details/19#list—Indian journal of Health and wellbeing,2014-Effects of dynamic meditation on Anxiety. 24 http://oshomeditationstudio.com/osho-dymamic -meditation- research-- 2012/3 ,sept 2017.

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subjects and found statistically significant decrease in traits such as anger, temperament, anger expression and increase in anger control.

4) Omelyaneko V. I. 25 worked on 20 dancers of age 40-50 years,3 hours twice a week for a year. These methods proved pedagogical effect for sports ballroom dances training of senior category dancers.

6)Research on prayer:

There are over 1200 studies about the people who have a committed religious faith and are more likely to enjoy better/good health. 26 A committed religious faith also called as Intrinsic Faith is defined in terms of regular attendance to one’s place of worship, regular reading of scriptures etc. Extrinsic faith applies to people who profess some religious application, but does not practice in committed daily manner. People with extrinsic faith along with atheist and agnostics have been shown by research to have Power health. Studies have shown benefits in praying for sick 393 patients suffering from heart disease were randomly assigned to two groups. One group was prayed for by a group outside hospital, while the control group was not prayed for. None of the patients knew whether they had people praying for them. It was shown that recovery of those who were prayed for, was much better. Another study

25 http:/www.Figshre.com/articles/dymnaic-meditation-in-sports-dances/894390,10 TH Sept,2017 26 Duke Johnson, Optimal Heath Revolution ,Manjul Publishing House, Bhopal, 2010 (2009) , p 158-159. 312 of 990 patients showed similar results. The increased longevity is attributed to Intrinsic Faith by some.

7)Ancient Scriptural evidences of siddhi -s attained by yog ī-s. There have been numerous references to various siddhi -sattained by saints, seers and enlightened souls in various historical spiritual texts in India. To sight an example in the context of third pāda of Patañjali, i.e. vibh ūtip āda , it will be appropriate to mention the super normal powers that Śaṅkar ācārya was bestowed with.

Śāṅkaradigvijaya - the depiction of traditional life of Śaṅkar ācārya by Mādhava Vidyāra ṇya is perhaps the most authentic of the biographies on the life of Śaṅkar ācārya. 27

The verses 1-13 of canto VIII of Śāṅkaradigvijaya have references of Śaṅkara meeting and confronting Ma ṇḍ ana Mi śra in the debates on philosophy. Ma ṇḍ ana Mi śra was also known by other names such as ‘Oomveka’ and ‘Vi śvarupa’. However, he was known as Ma ṇḍ ana Mi śra among scholars. He was a resident of Mahi ṣmat ī.Ma ṇḍ ana Mi śra was a confirmed follower of Vedic ritualism. He was also famous for his learning and noble qualities. Śaṅkar ācārya is said to have visited Ma ṇḍ ana in Mahiṣmat ī from Pray āga through the skies . When he reached Ma ṇḍ ana’s house, Ma ṇḍ ana was washing the feet of great sages Vy āsa and Jaimin ī, whom he had brought there by the power of his tapas to grace a śrāddha occasion that he was performing.Ma ṇḍ ana was quite annoyed that Śaṅkara, though a sa ṁny āsin , was without a śikh ā (tuft of

27 TapasyanandaSvam ī(Tr.), ‘ Śāṅkaradigvijayaby M ādhava Vidy āra ṇya’ , Sri Ramakrishna Math, Chennai,2008, p. viii-xv

313 head hair) and upav īta (sacred hair) and started abusively questioning Śaṅkara.

At this point the great ṛṣ i-s intervened, 28 and it was agreed that a great debate in the presence of will be held between Ma ṇḍ ana and Śaṅkara, and the one who loses the debate will become the disciple of the victor. It was proposed by the ṛṣ i-s that the umpire for the debate will be Ubhaya Bh ārat ī, the learned wife of Ma ṇḍ ana (in fact she was ‘Sarasvat ī incarnate’). Śaṅkara’s only objective in life was to spread the teachings of Ved ānta everywhere as the true gospel for men to follow for attainment of salvation.

In the debate Śaṅkara’s proposition was to establish the tenets of Ved ānta Philosophy, i.e., brahman the Existence-Consciousness-Bliss-Absolute is the ultimate truth. It is He who appears as the entire world of multiplicity owing to ignorance just as a shell appears as a piece of silver. Just as when the illusion is dispelled the silver is sublated by and dissolved into its substratum, the shell, so also, when ignorance is erased, the whole world is sublated and dissolved into its substratum, brahman , which is the same as one’s ātman . This is supreme knowledge as also mok ṣa (liberation) and it brings about cessation of future births.

On the other hand,Ma ṇḍ ana’s proposition was ‘Ved ānta or Upani ṣad-s cannot be a proof of a subject-objectless pure consciousness, unoriginated and infinite for words can reveal only objects which are originated entities, but never a pure subject-objectless consciousness, which does not form an effect’. Thus, the non Ved āntic part of Veda-s, dealing with

28 Ibid ., p.85, canto VIII (32-38)

314 such effects produced by works, is the real śabdapram āṇa. In the light of it, actions alone constitute the steps leading to mok ṣa and embodied beings have to perform action ( karma ) till the end of their lives.

An intense debate thereafter followed between the two on the topics such as – 1. Identity of ātman-brahman 2.Alternative interpretation of tat tvam asi 3.Meditation on tat tvam asi 4.Doctrine of Unity contradicting perception 5. God and the Absolute etc.

In the end, Ubhaya Bh ārat ī, the umpire gave the verdict and declared Śaṅkara as the winner of the debate and Ma ṇḍ ana to accept sa ṁny āsa and be the disciple of Śaṅkara. However, since she was the betterhalf of Ma ṇḍ ana, Śaṅkara must enter into debate with her and defeat her also. An intense debate between Ubhaya Bh ārat ī and Śaṅkara ensued lasting 17 days. At the end of it, Ubhaya Bh ārat ī knowing that Śaṅkara took to ascetic life since childhood and observing continence surely will not know science of love between sexes. She asked him to discuss with her the science and art of love between sexes ( kusum āstra śā stram ) and enumerate its forms and expressions. How does it vary in the sexes during bright and dark fortnights? At this Śaṅkara, requested for a month’s time to answer the questions. This he did to protect his sa ṁny āsadharma since though he had some theoretical knowledge of the subject, lacked practical experience of the same.

In Canto IX, verses 73-78 of Śāṅkaradigvijaya , there is mention that Śaṅkar ācārya, along with his disciples, thereafter left Mahiṣmat ī by air

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(power to move in subtle body). In transit they spotted the body of a dead king Amaruka who had more than 100 wives of exquisite beauty.

In canto IX, verses 101-109, Śaṅkara is described to have entered the body of the dead king ( this is the siddhi of parak āyāprave śa). He left his gross body with his disciples to guard it and shifted his subtle body into the gross body of the dead king. This was temporarily done in order to gain the mastery over sexual love through experience. In canto X, verses 11-18, there is the description of Śaṅkar ācārya having indulged into practical experience of art of love through the gross body of the King.

In canto X, verses 56-60, Śaṅkar ācārya after having experienced the art of love through another gross body is said to have abandoned the gross body of the king, and travelled in his own subtle bodythrough air and enlivens his original gross body preserved and guarded by his disciples. He thereafter defeats Ubhaya Bh ārat ī in the debate on the art of love. (canto X, verses 61-72)

It therefore establishes that the supernormal powers or siddhi -s as indicated by Patañjali have been experienced first-hand by yog ī-s and seers as an outcome of their sādhan ā.

The incident in the life of Saint Jñ āne śvarais also indicative of supernormal powers.He along with his brothers Niv ṛttin ātha and Sop āna and sister Mukt ābāī were once sitting on a wall, soaking in the early morning sun rays. C āngadeva Mah ārāja, a yog ī was coming to meet saint Jñ āne śvara after hearing about his prowess at a very young age.Cāngadeva Mah ārāja had a bloated ego. To prove his superiority, he

316 was coming with a large entourage. He was riding a tiger and with a live snake in his hand.

When Jñ āne śvara saw this spectacle, he decided to meet Cāngadeva Mah ārāja at the boundary of their village. He commanded the wall on which they were sitting to start moving. At his command, the wall with four people sitting on top of it is said to have moved and reached the boundary of the village. This was an outcome of his supernormal powers attained through his sādhan ā.Cāngadeva Mah ārāja, seeing this miracle of sorts, realized his mistakes, alighted from the tiger and surrendered his ego at the feet of saint Jñ āne śvara and thereafter became his disciple.

Saint R āmd āsa, the author of classic scriptures such as Dāsabodha, has also penned Mārutistotra 29 in praise of Hanum ān, the great disciple of Lord R āma. Therein he says aṇup āson ī brahm āṇḍā eva ḍhā(power to enlarge from the atom state to the infinite universe state) . These are similar to siddhi -s of aṇim ā and laghim ā described by Patañjali.

In ‘Ramaraksha Stotra, ‘ manojavam m ārutatulyavegam’… (the power of mind to travel at the speed of the wind) has been mentioned.

29 Ramdasa, Marutistotra 317