ASSEMBLING THE FIGURE: GURUS, SEEKERS AND THE PEDAGOGY OF SELF-TRANSFORMATION A Dissertation Presented to the Faculty of the Graduate School Of Cornell University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy by Yagna Nag Chowdhuri May 2020 i © Yagna Nag Chowdhuri ii ASSEMBLING THE FIGURE: GURUS, SEEKERS AND THE PEDAGOGY OF SELF-TRANFORMATION Yagna Nag Chowdhuri, Ph.D. Cornell University, 2020 This dissertation examines the lives and the worlds generated by three figures namely: Ramana Maharshi (1879-1950), Jiddu Krishnamurti (1895-1986) and Osho (1931-1990). Drawing on religion, anthropology and media studies scholarship, this dissertation takes a unique approach in understanding these figures. Moving away from the established approaches within guru studies, I propose a new mode of analysis: a theory of the figure. A theory of the figure is a broad mode of analysis that enables the study of different relationalities, discourses, media, practices and circulation of ideas. This mode of analysis can be applied to varied contexts to unpack gurus and their worlds. Secondly, it focuses on the methods and ideas that led to the formation of certain practices of self-transformation as given by each of these figures. By taking these three figures as examples, it aims to understand discourses of self-transformation in modern India. Moreover, it focuses on the role of mediation in constructing such discourses. These discourses and their mediations are generated in within a context of transnational encounter between seekers and figures that destabilizes categories of “east” and “west.” The dissertation demonstrates that, by studying the processes by which the figures come into being, new insights on community formation, pedagogy, and circulation of ideas can be gained. In particular by focusing on the role of media in these processes, we can understand how iii transformative experiences are structured by them and vice versa. The dissertation argues that the figure of Ramana is produced within the practices of photography, the act of writing, and the method of self-enquiry (who am I?). The figure of Krishnamurti is produced through dialogic modes of pedagogy and a sonic imagination. Finally, the figure of Osho emerges from the multiple and dispersed archives, the technologies of meditation and a discourse on ‘devices’. iv BIOGRAPHICAL SKETCH Yagna Nag Chowdhuri studied History and Social Sciences at University of Delhi, Tata Institute of Social Sciences and Center for Studies in Social Sciences, Calcutta before coming to Cornell University. She defended her doctoral dissertation in the field of Asian Literature, Religion and Culture at Cornell in 2019. v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This dissertation has been made possible due to the support of an entire community of people. In particular, I am thankful to my committee: Daniel Gold, Anne Blackburn, Lucinda Ramberg and Arnika Fuhrmann for their encouragement and guidance. They looked over many chapter drafts and provided invaluable feedback. There are many people who supported me in conducting fieldwork for this research. It was their stories which inspired and energized me to the think about Ramana, Krishnamurti and Osho. These figures came alive through their stories. Jayantji and Alkaji from the Krishnamurti Foundation of India, cared for me and provided me with valuable contacts and a place to stay. I am thankful to the Ramana ashram community, V.S.Mani and KVS for their generosity and kindness. I am also thankful to the Osho lovers I met at the many retreats. Swami Chaitanya Keerti, Swami Sanjay and Savita Brandt generously shared their stories with me. Spending time with all these people, taught me much about the figures and why they are so loved. My research was supported by grants from the Cornell University Graduate School, Society for the Humanities and the South Asia Program at Cornell. These grants made my research trips to India possible. I also thank the staff of Olin Library for making such a wealth of resources available to graduate students. My deepest thanks to the family I built in Ithaca over the last seven years. I thank the community at The Big Red Barn, which provided the intellectual and emotional space to work and form meaningful relationships. Kris Corda and Jennifer Forbes were great mentors and they look after the well-being of the many graduate students who find themselves lurking around in the barn. Without their presence I would not have been able to complete this dissertation. I am also vi thankful to the caring presence of Kathy Straight and Hannes Maddens from the BRB dining staff, seeing their smiling faces every day, encouraged me to do better. The dissertation would not have been possible without my comrades and companions in this journey. These comrades created home for me. I thank: Asli Menevse, James Ingoldsby, Natasha Bissonauth, Natalie Nesvaderani, Brianna Thompson, Francisco Diaz-Klaassen, Andrew Harding, Anaar Desai-Stephans, Ethan Winn, Athan Geolas, Kaitlin Emmanuel, Ebtisam Mursi, Chris Hesselbein, Sahar Tavakoli, Emiko Stock, Mehmet Ekinci, Erin Routon, Elizabeth Wijaya, Chairat Polmuk, Eileen Vo, Shiv Subramaniam, Yasmine Singh, Carter Higgins, Amanda Denham, Paul McQuade, Michaela Brangan, Sujeet George and Sarandha Jain. Osama Siddiqui’s unconditional love and support, made this dissertation see the finish line. His friendship made me think and write better. Kena Wani’s daily phone calls reminded me that this dissertation was valuable and deserved to be completed. I started this journey with Ammel Sharon, who did not leave my side till the end and ensured that I found confidence in myself. Her companionship formed the basis for my intellectual capacities. My editor, Derek Maxwell Harris graciously did the proofreading within a short notice. I am truly thankful for his hard work. I am also thankful to the support of all my friends from back home in India, who were a constant source of strength. Jeff Mathias spent hours editing, reading drafts, formatting the dissertation and caring for my overall wellbeing. His presence has made this journey meaningful. Meeting him at Cornell is my biggest reward. My sisters have supported me in unimaginable ways and without them I would not be able to come so far. My parents cared for me without understanding what I did for seven years and yet trusted me and let me do it nevertheless. I thank them for their patience. vii Finally, I am eternally grateful to the teachers and gurus in my life whose presence inspired me to pursue questions of pedagogy, gurus and their disciples. Prachidi, Boddhida, Shibajida, Laxmidi, Ritambhara Hebbar and Eduardo Cadava have provided such inspiration. My therapist, yoga and music teachers taught me much about dialogue, listening and learning. This dissertation is dedicated to them. viii TABLE OF CONTENTS Biographical Sketch …………………………………………………………………..v Acknowledgments …………………………………………………………………...vii Table of Contents ………………………………………………………………….....ix List of Figures …………………………………………………………………………x Introduction………………………………………………………………………........1 I. The ‘Figures’ and their Contexts: Ramana, Krishnamurti and Osho…………………………………………………………………….42 II. Envisioning Silence: Photography and the Rise of a New Advaita…………………………………………………………………74 III. Absolute Freedom, Radical Speech, and the Beginning of a Psychological Revolution……………………………………………………………..138 IV. Technologies of Meditation: The Osho Archives and the Making of Dynamic Meditation……………………………………………………………...199 V. Conclusion……………………………………………………………...261 Bibliography…………………………………………………………………….….......267 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2.1 Still From The Razor’s Edge, 1946………………………..........74 Figure 2.2 “Welling Bust” (1946) in Vijaya’s home………………………125 Figure 2.3 “Welling Bust” (1946)………………………………………….125 Figure 2.4 Ramana stamp, issued 1971…………………………………….126 Figure 2.5 Ramana stamp, issued 1998…………………………………….126 Figure 2.6 “Mani Bust” (1930s)……………………………………………127 Figure 2.7: Ramana eating…………………………………………………..127 Figure 2.8 Ramana reclining on the couch in the Old Hall, reading the newspaper………………………………………………………128 Figure 2.9 Ramana reading………………………………………………...128 Figure 2.10: Ramana smiling with umbrella…………………………………129 Figure 2.11: Ramana with umbrella…………………………………....….....129 Figure 2.12: Ramana on his walk to Arunachala……………………........….130 Figure 2.13: “‘Last Day’ of Ramana” (1950)…………………………...…...130 Figure 2.14: Photographer T.N. Krishnaswami with Ramana………………131 Figure 2.15: Ramana with peacock…………………………………………..132 Figure 2.16 Ramana with Lakshmi the cow………………………………....132 Figure 2.17 Ramana with monkey…………………………………………..133 Figure 2.18 Ramana with squirrel…………………………………………...133 Figure 2.19: Ramana with elephant………………………………………......134 Figure 2.20: Arunachala Mountain……………………………………….......134 Figure 2.21: View of Arunachala Mountain from Ashram (2018)……..……135 Figure 2.22: Ramana with important devotees……………………………….136 Figure 2.23: Ramana with important Western devotees…………………......136 Figure 2.24 Ashram entrance (2018)………………………………………..137 Figure 2.25 Ashram hall (2018)……………………………………………..137 Figure 3.1 Krishnamurti, Brockwood Park, Public Meeting (1970)……….138 x Figure 3.2 Dialogue between Krishnamurti and David Shainberg (1983)…193 Figure 3.3 Dialogue between Krishnamurti and Pupul Jayakar (1982)……193 Figure 3.4 Dialogue between Krishnamurti and David Bohm (1983)……..194 Figure 3.5 Krishnamurti, “The Real Revolution – What is Love?” (1966)..194 Figure 3.6 Rishi Valley, school discussion (1978)…………………………195