This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: • This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. • A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. • This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. • The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. • When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. Representations of the Cow and Calf in Minoan Art Eleanor Loughlin Ph. D The University of Edinburgh 2000 #' .. '. ::... ,_.) ·..,~ . CONTENTS Acknowledgements Abstract ii Lists of Figures and Plates iii Abbreviations ix Chapter 1: Introduction I Chronology 2 Defining an Approach: Representation and Meaning 3 Chapter 2: Neolithic and Bronze Age Cretan Cattle 12 Wild Cattle 13 'Domestication,: Concept and Definition 13 Osteological and Behavioural Changes in Domesticated Cattle 14 The Domestication ofCattle 16 The Origins ofDomesticated Cattle Milking Motive Power Diverse Production Systems and Priorities Crete: Background 22 The Archaeological Evidence of Cattle on Crete 27 The Origins and Development ofCretan Agriculture The Development ofProduction and Exploitation Strategies Cretan Domestic, Wild and Feral Cattle? The Containment ofAnimals The Role of Cattle in the Cretan Agricultural System 40 Traction: Transportation and Ploughing Milking and Milk Processing The Utilisation of Cattle Faeces Specific Contextual Evidence; Consumption and Ritualistic Practices Recycling and Secondary Usage: Bones Leather, Glue and Fat Linear A and B Texts Conclusion 63 Chapter 3: The Representation of Cows and Calves 69 Introduction 69 The Cow and Calf 70 Faience Plaques Clay Larnakes Ivory Carvings Seals and Sealings Representations of Cows and Calves The Process of Identification: Naturalism 80 Animal Behaviour Pose Types 85 Compositional Factors 86 The Frequency and Types of Filling Motifs 89 Decoration on other Faces 91 Distinguishing Cows and Calves from other Animals Represented with Young 91 Conclusion 99 Chapter 4: Calves and Young Cattle 102 Terminology 102 Seals and Sealings 103 The Process of Identification 106 Three-dimensional Representations of Calves and Young Cattle 112 Behavioural Traits 114 The EM- MM Origins ofthe Image? 119 Conclusion 121 Chapter 5: Interpretations of the Images of Cows, Calves and Young Cattle 122 Minoan Religion 123 Animals in Minoan Art and Religion The Female in Religion The Interpretation of Prehistoric Greek Images of Women The Minoan Goddess? Cows, Calves and Young Cattle in Minoan Art 13 7 Cows, Calves and Young Cattle in the Agricultural Context 143 Agriculture, Religion and Ritual 148 Cows, Calves and Young Cattle: Images ofLife and Death ISO Conclusion 156 Appendix A: Bronze Age representations of(l) Animals suckling 160 (2) calves and young cattle. Appendix B: (I) Animal Pose Types (Younger 1988~ 1993) 164 (2) Cow & Calf Pose Types Appendix C: Variations between CMS and other Description of 166 Calves and Young Cattle. Appendix D: Later Cretan Comparable Evidence 167 Appendix E: Representations of Cattle, Cattle Heads, Bucrania, and 175 Bovine/people in Cretan Glyptic Bibliography 214 Plates (separate wallet) Acknowledgements First and foremost I would like to thank my supervisor, Dr R.L.N. Barber for patiently putting up with my odd ways and proving a constant source of encouragement, enthusiasm and sound advice. I am also grateful to Dr G. Davies and Professor K. Kotsakis for their thoughtful comments and advice. This thesis is based on frrst hand study of the material. This was made possible by a Greek Government Scholarship, an Erasmus Grant, an Edinburgh University Baldwin Brown Scholarship and the generosity of the Thera Foundation. Many thanks also to the organisations and individuals who have made these periods of study both worthwhile and enjoyable, particularly staff and fellow students at Heraklion Museum, the Ashmo1ean Museum, the University of Thessaloniki, the British School at Athens and Villa Ariadne, Knossos. I am also much in debt to Dr D. Coli on, Dr I. Lemos, Dr J. Palaima, Professor E. Peltenberg and Dr N. Wyatt for advice and assistance and in particular, Dr N. Angelopoulou, Dr R. Harte, Dr. L. Morgan, Dr P. Warren, Dr S. Williams and Dr. M. Winder for allowing me to refer their unpublished material. Many thanks to friends in Greece and Britain for invaluable advice, an astounding range of cattle puns and many contributions to what has now become a fine collection of cow memorabilia! I owe much to Alison Johnson. Memories of her unquestioning friendship, generous spirit and determination have kept the whole thing in perspective. I am certain that I would not have started, let alone completed, this thesis without the unening support and encouragement of my family. In particular, I owe my sanity to John who has kept my feet on the ground and proved an endless source of Fortean cow facts. Abstract Research into the depiction of cattle in Minoan Art ha'i concentrated on representations of interaction between men and cattle, in particular, the images of bull sports. This emphasis has detracted from other types of cattle imagery. In this thesis the representation of the cow and calf in Minoan glyptic is assessed. Discussion of representation and meaning are of equal value, as a full understanding of the potential meaning of an image is dependent upon a detailed knowledge of what is represented. Specific anatomical and behavioural details described in the images are therefore compared with known physiological and behavioural characteristics. The Bronze Age representations are found to be very accurate and detailed in their description of the relationship between the cow and calf. Both the aesthetic and social contexts of the image are discussed in detail. The majority of representations of cows and calves are found on seals and sealings. The size, shape and restrictions of the medium as well as the range of potential uses of the stones (administrative, amuletic, jewellery) are considered. Fauna! evidence from Bronze Age Crete and accounts of cattle in Linear B texts confirm the importance of bovines as an integral part of the agricultural system as well as providing evidence of the range of cattle exploited. In discussing the potential meaning of the image, the survey draws on Bronze Age Aegean, Near Eastern and Egyptian evidence and later Greek (in particular Cretan) examples. Evidence from unrelated societies in which the cow is prominent is used as evidence of the diversity of possible meaning. The thesis concludes that it is not possible to categorise the image as specifically religious or secular; the range of potential meanings reflect the importance of the animal in all aspects of Minoan society. Lists of Figures and Plates All figures are referenced in the text in square brackets [fig. ] . Plates, referenced in the text in square brackets and labeled as 'No.' [No.], are found at the end of the thesis (separate wallet). The plates, Nos. I-I67 are images of cows, calves, young cattle and animals suckling young, listed in Appendix A. To avoid confusion, they are given the same number in the text references to plates [No ..... ] and Appendix A. As only those discussed in the text are included as plates, there are gaps in list of plates. Chapter 1 I. I Wall painting, 'La Parisienne', Campstool Fresco, Knossos, LM 11- IllA; from Evans I935:pl. XXXI. I.2 Painted sarcophagus (detail), Ayia Triada, LM IliA; from Long I974:fig. 52. I.3 Lentoid seal, unknown origin, LH IDA (dated stylistically); from CMS VIII77. Chapter 2 2.I Egyptian wall decoration, probably from a 5th Dynasty tomb, Saqqara; Dresden AlbertinwnAeg 75I; from Harpur I985:fig. 8. 2.2 Egyptian wall decoration, Tomb of Ti, Saqqara (c. 2650-2400 BC.); from Amoroso & Jewel1I963:pl. XIV c. 2.3 Egyptian wall decoration, Mastaba of Ptah-hotep 11 and Akhet-hotep, Saqqara;. from Davies 190 I :pi. XVII. 2.4 Uruk cylinder seal, late 4th millennium; from Sherratt I~8I:fig. IO.I2. 2.5 Mesopotamian cylinder seal (La Haye Cylinder Seal); from Amoroso & Jewell I963 :pi. XVb. 2.6 Clay Sealing, Ayia Triada, LM; from AT 60. 2.7 Terracotta Bull Rhyton, Pseira, LM lA; from Guggisberg I996: pl. 37 I-2. 2.8 Clay model of an ass carrying jars, Phaistos, LM (Evans) LM IIIC (Crouwel); from Higgins I967: fig. 153. 2.9 Limestome relief, Ur; from Amoroso & Jewelli963:pl. XVc. 2.IO Egyptian Wall Decoration, Tomb of Kheni, El-Hawawish, 6th Dynasty; from Kanawati I99I : fig. I. 2.1I Three-sided prism seal, Mallia, stonecutter's workshop, MM I - 11; from CMS 112 I 51. 2.I2 Three-sided prism seal, Gonies, MM I -Ill; from CMS 112 224. 2.I3 Shoulder of a black figure Hydria (detail), Attic, 520-5IO BC; from Noble I966: fig. 78. 2.I4 Three sided prism seal, Mallia, stonecutter's workshop, MM I - ll; from CMS II2 178. 2.15 Tondo of a black figure kylix, 7th- 6th Centuries BC; from Burford 1972: fig. I4. 2.I6 Three-sided prism seal, Ayia Charalambos, Lasithi, MM; from CMS VS lA 43. 2.17 Wall painting, 'Shield Frieze', Knossos; from Evans 1930:30 I-8, pl. XXIII. 2.I8 Wall painting, stem cabin (detail) from 'Stem Cabin Fresco', Akrotiri; from Morgan I988:fig. 97. 2.19 Wall painting, Taureador Panel, Knossos; from Evans 1930:fig. 144. Chapter 3 3.1 Faience plaque (fragment), Knossos, MM-LM lA; from Evans I921b:5I2, fig.