BURKERT, Walter — Griechen Und Der Orient. Von Homer Bis Zu Den
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239 BIBLIOTHECA ORIENTALIS LXI N° 1-2, januari-april 2004 240 ental and Greek myths, rituals, etc., considered to be loans. In a number of articles he continued his investigations. These articles have now been collected as a separate part of his Kleine Schriften. The year 2003 also saw the publication of a book summarizing his insights, written for the general pub- lic. Both books are reviewed here. Among Orientalists, the reactions to Burkert’s work have always been minimal. We first give a summary of his articles as reprinted in Kleine Schriften II. In the first chapter he studies the myth “The Descent of Ishtar to the Netherworld” and the AtraÌa- sis myth. Both follow a pattern of traditional tales discovered by Propp. The myth has its own first meaning (“konnotativ”) but in later periods it is applied to new situations, for exam- ple in a ritual (“denotativ”). He identifies as the heroes in this myth the assinnu (and similar people). To Burkert they are shamans, although shamans were no more known in Mesopotamia (6). This view is new. AtraÌasis is like the trickster, compare Prometheus, and we see the pattern of the three deeds to be performed by the hero (8 f.). The Baby- lonian Creation and Flood stories conflate several traditional elements, like the need of a sacrifice in creation (9 f.). This view is new. We observe here “das Ineinander von Erzäh- lung, Spekulation und Ritual; eben dies ist Mythos” (12). The second chapter is a quick survey of the migration of gods in the Mediterranean, from the earliest periods to the latest. The Nude Goddess and the Smiting God (this is the image of a particular divinity expressing aggressive power) are found in the Near East and among the Greeks (23, 46); in Egypt introduced as Qudshu and Resheph (23). Aphrodite is from the East, the Dionysus cult was influenced by Osiris and the views on afterlife in Egypt (21-26). The age of Homer is Orientalizing but the Mother Goddess and Adonis are not found in Homer (24 f.). We observe a migration from East to West. Apollo as god of oracles was adopted from the Greeks by Etruscans and Romans. “At any rate, the multi- cultural, multilingual cult of the Hittites seems to recur in Republican Rome” (27). Hellenistic syncretism is clear from the Nimrud Dagh monuments (28), Mithras en Isis migrated. This paper concludes with an evaluation of religious toler- ance (29 f.). A paper written in Italian begins with a description of “sensational” new discoveries in the Bronze Age (38 f.). In the Iron Age, many Oriental traces are found in Greece, most important was the alphabet, following the route Al Mina — Euboea — Ischia, and Burkert suggests a cultural koine of Syrians, Hittites and Greeks (40). An example is the persis- tence of Mt. Casius as the mountain of the weather god (40, VARIA cf. 59 f.). The method in comparison should be that of Herodotus (41). Etymology of words and names helps. As to religion: (1) Myth: a combat with a dragon is a known motif; BURKERT, Walter — Griechen und der Orient. Von Homer in the Greek world the hero is Heracles. Influences of Enuma bis zu den Magiern. Verlag C.H. Beck, München, 2003. Elish are visible in Homer, e.g., the assembly of the gods (20,5 cm, 176). ISBN 3-406-50247-4. / 19,90. (44). (2) Ritual: this is less easy; there are differences in the eating of sacrifices by priests, the building of temples (or BURKERT, Walter — Kleine Schriften II: Orientalia. = not), the statues. Herodotus mentions syncretism (Egypt) and Hypomnemata, Suppl.-Reihe Band 2, II. Vandenhoeck travelling “missionaries” intermediated (46 f.). & Ruprecht, Göttingen, 2003. (24 cm, VIII, 298). ISBN Chapter 4, “Oriental and Greek Mythology: The Meet- 3-525-25271-4; ISSN 1610-9147. / 49,90. ing of Parallels”, explains why myths can migrate although Walter Burkert wrote in 1984 the book Die oriental- they are linked to specific localities (49). We have to dis- isierende Epoche in der griechischen Religion und Literatur tinguish between their connotative (a) and denotative (b) (hereafter: Or. Ep.) which had such an impact that later on meanings: (a) a myth as a tale, following “motifs” like a it was translated into English, as The Orientalizing Revolu- “quest” or “combat”; (b) myth in an application; it tion (1992). There, he pointed out similarities between Ori- migrates, transforming the tale into a myth, depending on 241 BOEKBESPREKINGEN — VARIA 242 particular situations (50). Our knowledge of Oriental myths sopravvivenza di motivi sciamanici in questi casi” (83 f.). is fragmentary (51). There were two periods of cultural con- What distinguishes Gilgamesh and Heracles from a shaman tacts: the 13-14th century (Bronze Age), and the 8-7th cen- is that they use physical force (85). The conclusion of these tury (Iron Age). Burkert now compares the Babylonian god comparisons is: “Temi così simili, di fatto varianti della Ninurta (Ningirsu) with Heracles, in tales of the “quest” and stessa tematica carratteristica che si spiegano mutualmente” “combat” type. They have the (twelve) labours in common (85). To me, this looks like circular reasoning. (53) but the conquered monsters, etc., are quite different (54). Chapter 6 follows the motif of the impregnation of a rock Ninurta can be compared with the Hittite weather god, Zeus, by male seed resulting in a strong hero, attested in Asia the planet Kronos / Saturn, Melqart, Santas, Nergal, and the Minor: in the Ullikumi myth, via an old myth about Agdis- problem is “a surplus of interrelations”. Both are culture tis told by Arnobius, to a tale in the Caucasus (87-95). heroes (56). The seven-headed serpent (hydra) must be Ori- Well written is “Götterspiel und Götterburlesque in alto- ental (56 f.). The second comparison made in this chapter is rientalischen und griechischen Mythen”, a vivid picture of between Oriental (notably Hurrian, but also Babylonian Greek gods at play. At the time of creation, Marduk played Enuma Elish) cosmogonic myths and Hesiod. The Hurrian and Yahweh played with Leviathan (99). Burlesque in the myth “Kingship in Heaven”, relating the castration and swal- Orient: the insulted Ishtar in the Gilgamesh Epic has her par- lowing of parts, was taken over by the Greeks, but when? allel in the mistreated Aphrodite in the Iliad (V), and the sur- (58). There is a “family of related texts”: in “The Song of vey of unlucky lovers of Ishtar parallels a list of women loved Ullikummi” the dethroned Kumarbi takes revenge and the by Zeus (111). Is all this burlesque? Burkert even comes up story corresponds to the fight between Zeus and Typhon who with a passage from the Edda talking of “scorn” (112). The assemble at Mt. Casius. In “The myth of Illuyankas”, AtraÌasis myth is discussed because laughter once overcomes Illuyankas is pictured as a snake, like Typhon (59). Another the god Enki: he is the “trickster” (113). Here, Burkert’s motif in Phoenician and Greek myths are the four kings in starting point is wrong: in the difficult passage “laughter ate heaven preceding Uranos (Hesiod); Burkert compares the him”, H. Hirsch translates “das lächerliche Hin und Her Phoenician Elioun with the Anatolian Alala (60). For the machte ihn fertig”; in his article “Über das Lachen der Göt- “structural resemblance of Hesiod’s Theogony to the Baby- ter”, Studies F.R. Kraus (1982) 115. Note that there is no lonian epic of creation” he refers to an unpublished disserta- humour in the Odyssey (115). tion by G Steiner (60). Here, “we begin to hear a many- The next chapter compares Greek and Oriental symposia. voiced interplay of (…) texts, all of which seem to have some The Oriental marzeah, translated thiasos in the Greek Septu- connection with Hesiod” (61). The newly found Derveni aginta, was a symposium (121-3). A survey of symposia of papyrus (Orphic theogony) also speaks of castration / swal- gods and drinking bouts of humans is given (123-126); the lowing, and four kings (61 f.). As to ritual: antitheses were story of Esther at the Persian court and Samson is given spe- enacted at the New Year festivals; in healing rituals cos- cial attention; the riddle given by Samson at his marriage mogonies were confirmed by reciting incantations (63). “Itin- symposium looks like the Greek contest, agon, and fits the erant magicians or charismatics” brought the myths to the Philistines, a western Sea People (128). Remark: the Baby- West (64). The third comparison is in iconography: the three- lonian contest between the Date Palm and the Tamarisk also persons combat on seals, etc. They may reflect the combat takes place during a meal (naptanu, line 10). It is suggested myth (Gilgamesh) but in the case of Perseus and Gorgo it is that kinaidoi were present at symposia; Akkadian sinnisanu; rather an initiation myth. The Gorgo head is apotropaic, like a new interpretation (125). That men “bind together” when the Lamashtu and Pazuzu amulets. A Cyprian seal shows the drinking, both in the Hammurabi Code and in Plato’s heroes fighting with the monster turning their heads away. Timaeus, is to me no serious parallel (126). Greeks were Perseus liberating Andromeda reflects a Canaanite myth (67). reclining at banquets, as Assurbanipal did, and Amos 6:7 Another chapter in Italian studies Heracles. In daily life, speaks about these couches (130). Hebrew liskah, a drinking he is seen as helper (74), in mythology he is a real culture hall in the temple, sounds like Greek lesche, a similar room. hero (76). He brought civilisation everywhere on earth and Its origin may lie in a ritual where one reclined outdoors on Greek colonisation followed (76).