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Cina Di Ujung Timur Jawa: Dari Pemegang Kontrak Sampai Bupati Pada Akhir Abad XVIII Hingga Awal Abad XIX

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Cina Di Ujung Timur Jawa: Dari Pemegang Kontrak Sampai Bupati Pada Akhir Abad XVIII Hingga Awal Abad XIX LITERASI Volume 1 No. 2, Desember 2011 Halaman 141 - 154 CINA DI UJUNG TIMUR JAWA: DARI PEMEGANG KONTRAK SAMPAI BUPATI PADA AKHIR ABAD XVIII HINGGA AWAL ABAD XIX CHINESE IN THE EAST FRONTIER OF JAVA: FROM CONTRACT HANDLERS TO REGENT IN THE LATE OF XVIII CENTURY UNTIL THE EARLY OF XIX CENTURY Retno Winarni, Bambang Samsu Badriyanto, dan Edy Burhan Arifin Fakultas Sastra Universitas Jember Pos-el: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Abstrak Orang Cina dianggap sebagai orang asing di Karesidenan Besuki, terlepas bahwa mereka telah bermukim di pesisir utara Jawa, bahkan beberapa dari mereka menjadi penguasa di lahan swasta di wilayah ini. Artikel ini mengidentifikasi dan mendeskripsikan mengapa mereka mampu menjadi penguasa di wilayah ini dari akhir abad ke-18 hingga awal abad ke-19. Masalah yang dibahas adalah hubungan antara penguasa Cina dan pemerintah pribumi serta hubungan mereka dengan masyarakat. Kajian ini menunjukkan bahwa terdapat perbedaan dan persamaan antara pemegang kontrak Cina (tuan tanah) dan penguasa Cina. Mereka dibedakan oleh cara memperoleh lahan luas dan memperoleh kekuasaan. Tuan tanah memiliki hak untuk mengelola lahan luas dengan menyewa atau membeli dari pemerintah kolonial. Sementara, penguasa Cina dipromosikan sebagai kepala wilayah karena jasa mereka kepada pemerintah kolonial. Namun, dalam mengelola distrik sewaan, keduanya memiliki kecenderungan yang sama; memerintah dengan perilaku feodal. Kata kunci: Cina, penguasa, pemerintah, tuan tanah, kolonial. Abstract The Chinese was considered the foreign people in Besuki Residency, despite of they had settled in Java northeast coast, even some had become administrators in the private land of the area. This article identifies and describes why they were able to be the administrators in the area from the end of 18th to the beginning of 19th century. The problems to discuss are the relationship between Chinese administrators and the indigenous government and their relationship to the people. This study shows that there were differences and similarities between Chinese contract handlers (Chinese landlords) and Chinese as administrators. They were differentiated by the way of earning wide land and the way of getting power. The landlords had the right to manage wide land by renting or buying from the colonial government. Meanwhile, Chinese administrators were promoted as the head of area because their merit for colonial government. However, in managing the rented district both of them had similiar tendency; governing by feudal manner from which they considered themselves the owners of the land. Keywords : Chinese, administrator, government, landlord, colonial A. Pendahuluan pen ting sepanjang pantai utara Jawa mulai Etnis Cina yang telah menetap lama di Batavia, Banten, Cirebon, Semarang, Gresik, Jawa mendiami beberapa kota pelabuhan Tuban, Surabaya, Pasuruan, Probolinggo, 141 Vol. 1, No. 2, Desember 2011 dan Besuki (Ujung Timur Jawa) (de dengan panggilan Cina Tumenggung. Se- Jong, 1870:214). Di wilayah Ujung Timur benarnya masih banyak contoh tentang Jawa ini orang-orang Cina tidak hanya orang-orang Cina yang berkecimpung beraktivitas dalam bidang ekonomi dan dalam du nia politik dan pemerintahan. perdagangan, tetapi juga bidang politik Ar tikel ini bertujuan menjawab pertanyaan dan pemerintahan. Mereka ikut ambil mengapa orang-orang Cina berhasil men- bagian dalam pengem ba ngan wilayah jadi penguasa di tanah-tanah partikelir di Ujung Timur Jawa sebagai penguasa. wila yah Ujung Ti mur Jawa pada akhir abad Orang-orang Cina terkadang me nem­­pati ke-18 sampai awal abad ke-19 dan berperan kedudukan-kedu dukan yang mem pu nyai besar dalam ra nah pemerintahan. tanggung jawab besar di dalam pe me- rintahan kerajaan-kerajaan Jawa, se hingga mem­­bentuk perhubungan-per hu bungan B. Cina, Tanah, dan Kuasa: Kerangka de­­ngan puncak tertinggi kaum ningrat Teoretis dan Metode Analisis pen du duk asli. Kasus keluarga Jayaningrat Seperti ditunjukkan Bloch (1976:281), di Pekalongan pada pertengahan pertama pe nguasaan atas sebidang tanah berarti abad kedelapan belas bisa dijadikan acuan. juga me nguasai segala isinya, termasuk Sultan Agung juga telah mengangkat penduduk yang tinggal di atas tanahnya. seorang peda gang Cina sekaligus seorang Di sini ber lang sung proses menguasai abdi dalem di La sem bernama Cik Go dan dikuasai, proses penghambaan Ing untuk menggan tikan kedudukan dan pengabdian yang sangat intensif. majikannya, Bupati La­­sem Singawijaya Penguasaan tanah sebagai unit sosial (Cina-Jawa). Hal ini dila kukan sebagai khas terdapat dalam kehidupan agraris hadiah atas jasa-jasanya selama peperangan pada Abad Pertengahan. Dalam hal ini yang dilakukan Mataram terhadap Sura- terdapat hubungan penguasa tanah dan ba ya (1620-1625). Oleh karena itu, ia diberi petani penggarap. Pola hubungan itu di gelar Jawa, yaitu Tumenggung Mer taguna. Asia Tenggara termasuk di Indonesia oleh Bupati-bupati Lasem yang berikut nya ser- Geertz (1963) dikatakan telah menunjukkan ta daerah-daerah pantai utara yang ber de- kecenderungan eksploitatif; salah satu ciri katan, seperti Tuban, Kudus, Blora, dan utama dari pemerintah kolonial. Inti dari Bojanegara (Rajegwesi), juga berasal da ri pengertian eksploitasi adalah terdapat keturunannya. Mereka belakangan ini teri- se men tara individu, kelompok, atau kat persekutuan, melalui perkawinan de- kelas yang secara tidak adil atau secara ngan keluarga-keluarga Cina peranakan tidak wajar me ngambil keuntungan atas dari daerah pesisir, di samping perkawinan- kerja atau hasil atas kerugian pihak lain per kawinan yang mereka lakukan dengan (Lorwin, 1931:141). Hubungan eksploitatif keluarga-keluarga istana para pangeran yang berlangsung di tanah partikelir Jawa (Pigeud, 1932:124). memengaruhi lembaga tra di sional yang Fenomena tersebut ternyata tidak ha- disebut ikatan feodal. nya terjadi di keraton Mataram, tetapi ju ga Sekalipun ikatan feodal awalnya di- terjadi di wilayah Ujung Timur Jawa, yaitu da sarkan pada kedudukan sosial an- di Kabupaten Besuki dan Kabupaten Pro- ta ra kepala dan rakyat, tidak menutup bolinggo. Di dua daerah ini orang-orang k emungkinan ter jadi pemindahan kekua sa- Cina ke turunan tidak hanya bertindak an feodal atas pen du duk dengan jalan kon- sebagai pe ngu asa tanah partikelir, tetapi juga trak sebagaimana kajian Burger (1977:93- sebagai penguasa daerah dan berperilaku 97). Penjualan tanah oleh Pemerintah layaknya para penguasa Jawa. Misalnya, Daendels kepada orang Cina menimbulkan bupati Cina di Kabupaten Besuki bernama hubungan kontrak di antara kedua pihak Han Mi Joen yang kemudian bergelar tersebut. Akan tetapi, hubungan antara Kyai Tumenggung Suroadiwikrama. Di orang Cina (penguasa ta nah) dengan Kabupaten Probolinggo, Han Kit Ko juga penduduk di atas tanah yang dibeli tetap berpangkat tumenggung dan terkenal merupakan hubungan feodal. Perubahan 142 Cina di Ujung Timur Jawa: Dari Pemegang Kontrak sampai Bupati pada Akhir Abad XVIII hingga Awal Abad XIX Retno Winarni, Bambang Samsu Badriyanto, dan Edy Burhan Arifin dalam hubungan sosial di pe de sa an tidak penyimpangan dari tradisi yang su dah lagi bersifat paternalistik yang memberi ber laku, karena pada saat itu orang-orang perlindungan kepada kliennya. Di atas Cina keturunan berhasil menduduki ja ba- segala-galanya, kekuatan historis yang tan puncak di Karesidenan Besuki, yaitu di besar telah melewati batas-batas subsistensi Be suki dan Probolinggo. Mengapa bisa ter- dan hubungan sosial yang tradisional serta jadi penyimpangan? Apakah ada sumber menggantinya dengan bentuk kontrak. Pe- ke kua saan lain yang bisa mengantarkan nga ruhnya seperti dikemukakan oleh Wolf etnis Cina keturunan menduduki jabatan (1983, 1971:50-66) adalah merampas dari dalam bi rokrasi pemerintahan tersebut? petani konteks kelembagaan tradisional, se- Menurut Nagtegaal (1994:78-79), pe- hing ga mendorong tumbuhnya ketegangan mi sahan antara politik, militer, ekonomi, yang dapat menuju pemberontakan. dan jenis kekuasaan lain hanya cocok Dalam sistem pemerintahan tradisional untuk realitas da lam masyarakat modern berlaku sistem birokrasi tradisional. Biro- yang kompleks. Di kerajaan-kerajaan kra­­si tradisional ini hidup dalam sua- Jawa pada abad XVII dan XVIII, tidak sa na feo da lisme. Dalam suasana feo- dijumpai pemisahan antara elit politik dal ini berlaku orientasi ascriptive yang dan elit ekonomi, hierarki sosial paling men­­dambakan faktor keturunan sebagai atas memegang kekuasaan hampir semua sentral aktivitas bagi dunianya. Hanya aspek kehidupan. Pada kenyataannya, keturunan dari satu trah saja yang berhak kekuasaan politik dan ekonomi mereka be- mendapatkan kedudukan dan pe ra n an nar-benar ada, melembaga, dan tidak ada dalam kerajaan, karena trah me re ka di- is tilah elit ekonomi atau borjuis, sesuai de- anggap sebagai kelompok ter pi lih di an- ngan dasar tingkatan yang spesial dalam tara trah yang lain. Mereka lebih meng- ma sya rakat Jawa. Elit politik adalah juga uta­­makan keberlangsungan genea loginya, elit ekonomi. Oleh karenanya, peneliti mo- yaitu kemur nian keturunan diban ding- dern memandang bahwa kebanyakan bu- kan kemampuan men jalankan tugas pa ti Jawa memiliki komponen kekuasaan (Suhartono, 2001:57). eko nomi. Dengan demikian, kekayaan eko- Dalam sistem feodal ada ketentuan no mi mempunyai akses yang besar dalam bahwa putera bupati yang diangkat mem peroleh kekuasaan. Beberapa bupati menjadi bupati diprioritaskan anak laki- kaya dapat mendominasi sumber-sumber laki keturunan da ri garwa padmi (istri ke kuasaan
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