The African Methodist Episcopal Church and What It Means to Be Children of God and Children of Ham

Home , Henry McNeal Turner, Joseph Crane Hartzell, Richard Allen (bishop), William Taylor (bishop)

Notes

Introduction

1. Francis Herman Gow of South Africa was consecrated as the 74th bishop of the church in 1956, and Harold Ben Senatle, also of South Africa, was consecrated as the 102nd bishop in 1984. 2. Stephen Ward Angell, Bishop Henry McNeal Turner and African- American Religion in the South (Knoxville: The University of Tennessee Press, 2000), 142. 3. Ibid., 147.

1 Rhetoric of Identity: The African Methodist Episcopal Church and What It Means to be Children of God and Children of Ham

1. Molefi Kete Asante, The Afrocentric Idea (Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press, 1998), 28. 2. Ibid., 28. 3. Ibid., 27–28. 4. For an informed discussion of England’s entry into the transatlantic trade in human cargo, see Harry Kelsey’s Sir John Hawkins: Queen Elizabeth’s Slave Trader (New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2003). Kelsey provides details of the initial compromises made between religious sensibilities and economic advancement with the former giving sway to the latter. See also, Nick Hazlewood’s The Queen’s Slave Trader: John Hawkyns, Elizabeth I, and the Trafficking in Human Souls (New York: HarperCollins, 2004). 5. Although heathen and pagan have been used interchangeably to refer to peoples or nations that worship myriad deities, I settle on the definition offered by Sylvester A. Johnson, who states that heathens are those who do not exclusively worship the Christian God. 158 Notes

6. Michael A. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks: The Transformation of African Identities in the Colonial and Antebellum South (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1998), 260–61. 7. Albert J. Raboteau, Slave Religion: The “Invisible Institution” in the Antebellum South (New York: Oxford University Press, 1978), 126. 8. Asante, The Afrocentric Idea, 28. 9. Raboteau, Slave Religion, 126. 10. Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks, 10. 11. Asante, The Afrocentric Idea, 34–36. 12. Richard Allen, The Life Experience and Gospel Labors of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (New York: Abingdon Press, 1960), 24. 13. Asante, The Afrocentric Idea, 10. 14. Dexter B. Gordon, Black Identity: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Nineteenth- Century Black Nationalism (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003), 37. 15. Ibid., 12. 16. Mark A. Noll, American Evangelical Christianity: An Introduction (Malden, MA: Blackwell Publishers, 2001), 10. 17. Ibid., 12. 18. Kenneth J. Collins, The Evangelical Moment: The Promise of an American Religion (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2005), 41. Both Collins and Noll iterate that nineteenth-century evangelicalism adhered to no grand meta-narrative of what it meant to be evangelical, no paradigmatic evangelical statements. Yet, the centrality of the Bible, belief in Christ’s atoning work, conversion, and the need to go out and make disciples of all people, consistently held sway in the rhetoric of the times. 19. Donald G. Mathews, Religion in the Old South (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1977), 31. 20. Wilbur Fisk, The Calvinistic Controversy (1837), quoted in Sourcebook of American Methodism, ed. Frederick A. Norwood (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1982). 21. Wilbur Fisk, “A Sermon on John 4:24,” Methodist Quarterly Review 7 (1824), 88–90. 22. Nehemiah Curnock, The Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, A.M., vol. 6 (London: Epworth Press, 1909–1916), 117. 23. John Wesley, Explanatory Notes Upon the New Testament (London: Boyer 1755), Preface, ¶ 10. 24. Albert C. Outler, ed., The Works of John Wesley: The Sermons, vols. 1–4 (Nashville, TN: Abingdon, 1984), 1:105. 25. Ben Witherington III, “Praeparatio Evangelii: The Theological Roots of Wesley’s View of Evangelism,” in Theology and Evangelism in the Wesleyan Heritage, ed. James C. Logan (Nashville, TN: Kingswood Books, 1994), 55. Notes 159

26. Regarding whether the earth orbits the sun, Wesley settled on a helio- centered perspective despite the earth-centered view of the Bible. In A Survey of the Wisdom of God in Creation: or a Compendium of Natural Philosophy, he claimed that “as for those scriptural expressions which seem to contradict the earth’s motion, this general answer may be made to them all, that the scriptures were never intended to instruct us in philosophy, or astronomy; and therefore, on those subjects, expressions are not always to be taken in the literal sense, but for the most part accommo- dated to the common apprehension of mankind.” At least on the limited subjects of astronomy and philosophy Wesley willingly conceded that the Bible cannot be interpreted in a literal, inerrant sense. It would be reason- able to conclude that if Wesley knew or became aware of other scientific discoveries that contradicted literal interpretations of the Bible he per- haps would have acquiesced to science. See Wesley Center Online, http: //wesley.nnu.edu/john-wesley/a-compendium-of-natural-philosophy. 27. Collins, The Evangelical Moment, 72. 28. J. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact and Common Sense; or, a Rational Demonstration of Man’s Corrupt and Lost Estate (New York: N. Bang and J. Emory, 1826), 164. 29. Nathan Bangs, “Letter from Nathan Bangs to Laban Clark, 18 Jan. 1808,” in Sourcebook of American Methodism, ed. Norwood, 302. 30. Collins, The Evangelical Moment, 47. 31. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact, 161. 32. James Morison, The Way of Salvation; or, the question, “What Must I do to be Saved?” Answered (London: Thompson Ward & Co., 1843), 4–5. 33. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact, 159. 34. Ibid., 159. 35. The Journal of John Smith, ed. Lawrence F. Sherwood, quoted in Sourcebook of American Methodism, ed. Norwood, 175. 36. Henry Boehm, Reminiscences, Historical and Biographical, of Sixty- Four Years in the Ministry, ed. Joseph B. Wakely (New York: Carlton & Porter, 1866), 206–7. 37. A. P. Mead, Manna in the Wilderness, quoted in Sourcebook of American Methodism, ed. Norwood, 193. 38. Ibid., 194. 39. John Deschner, Wesley’s Christology: An Interpretation (Dallas, TX: Southern Methodist University Press, 1960), 72. 40. The Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, vol. 1, ed. Curnock, 470–71. 41. Umphrey Lee, John Wesley and Modern Religion (Nashville, TN: Cokesbury Press, 1936) Lee states that in a poignant statement to his brother Charles, Wesley expressed severe doubts about his salvation. In a letter he wrote in 1766, Wesley stated, “I do not love God. I never did. Therefore I never believed in the Christian sense of the word . . . I never had any other evidence of the eternal or invisible world than I have now; and that is none at all . . . I want all the world to come to him whom I know 160 Notes

not,” 92–93. Despite these doubts, Wesley continued to preach Jesus and those who followed in his footsteps did the same. The nineteenth-century American Wesleyan did not focus on Wesley’s later doubts, but hearkened to his Aldersgate experience as a model for knowing Jesus. They built upon that religious experience to proselytize the world. 42. The Journal of the Rev. John Wesley, vol. 1, ed. Curnock, 475–76. 43. Collins, The Evangelical Moment, 47. 44. Morison, The Way of Salvation, 4–5, 16. 45. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact, 160. 46. James Craig Holte, The Conversion Experience in America: A Sourcebook on Religious Conversion Autobiography (New York: Greenwood Press, 1992), x. 47. Ibid., xii. 48. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact, 167–68. 49. Wesley’s Standard Sermons, ed. Edward Sugden, vol. 1 (London: The Epworth Press, 1921) 301. 50. “The Memoirs of Charles Grandison Finney,” quoted in Holte, The Conversion Experience in America, 104. 51. “Children of the Forest,” American Tract Society, Tract 245. 52. “The Lost Nation,” 2nd Annual Report of The American Tract Society, 1827, 32. 53. Charles Grandison Finney, Lectures on Revivals of Religion, 6th ed. (New York: Leavitt, Lord & Co, 1835), 190. 54. Mathews, Religion in the Old South, 44. 55. Fletcher, Appeal to Matter of Fact, 158, 156. 56. Mathews, Religion in the Old South, 67. 57. See generally, Raboteau, Slave Religion; Gomez, Exchanging Our Country Marks; Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002); Robert Hood, Begrimed and Black: Christian Traditions on Blacks and Blackness (Minneapolis, MN: Fortress Press, 1994). 58. Thomas Virgil Peterson, Ham and Japheth: The Mythic World of Whites in the Antebellum South (Metuchen, NJ: The Scarecrow Press, 1978). 59. David M. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham: Race And Slavery in Early Judaism, Christianity, and Islam (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 2003), 150. 60. Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans ed. and trans. R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 675–76. 61. Goldenberg, The Curse of Ham, 158. 62. Ibid., 149. 63. Peterson, Ham and Japheth, 7. 64. Ibid., 13. 65. Steven Gero, “The Legend of the Fourth Son of Noah,” Harvard Theological Review 73 (1980), 322. Notes 161

66. Louis Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, vol. 1, trans. Henrietta Szold (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society of America, 1968), 80. 67. Jack P. Lewis, A Study of the Interpretation of Noah and the Flood in Jewish and Christian Literaturee (Leiden, Netherlands: E. J. Brill, 1968), 98. 68. Robert Graves and Raphael Patai, Hebrew Myths: The Book of Genesis (New York: Greenwich House, 1983), 121. 69. Ginzberg, The Legends of the Jews, 80. 70. Gomes Eanes de Azurara, Chronicle of the Discovery and Conquest of Guinea, quoted in Werner Sollors, Neither Black nor White yet Both: Thematic Explorations of Interracial Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997), 93. 71. Josiah Priest, Slavery as It Relates to the Negro or African Race (1843; reprint, New York: Arno, 1977), quoted in Sollors, Neither Black nor White, 98–99. 72. Priest, Slavery as It Relates, 33. 73. Ibid. 74. Stephen R. Haynes, Noah’s Curse: The Biblical Justification of American Slavery (New York: Oxford University Press, 2002). 75. Peterson, Ham and Japheth, 23. 76. John Hope Franklin, The Militant South: 1800–1861(Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1956), 34–35. 77. Kenneth Greenberg, Honor and Slavery: Lies, Duels, Noses, Masks, Dressing as a Woman, Gifts, Strangers, Humanitarianism, Death, Slave Rebellions, the Proslavery Argument, Baseball, Hunting, and Gambling in the Old South (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1996), 14. 78. Peterson, Ham and Japheth, 144–45. 79. Ibid., 145. 80. James A. Sloan, The Great Question Answered; or, Is Slavery a Sin in Itself (Per Se) Answered According to the Teaching of the Scriptures (Memphis, TN: Hutton, Gallaway, 1857), 66. 81. John Bell Robinson, Pictures of Slavery and Anti-Slavery. Advantages of Negro Slavery and the Benefits of Negro Freedom. Morally, Socially, and Politically Consideredd (Philadelphia: 1863), 22. 82. Sylvester A. Johnson, The Myth of Ham in Nineteenth-Century American Christianity: Race, Heathens, and the People of God (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 5. 83. Ibid., 47. 84. Ibid., 48–49. 85. Ibid., 11. 86. Robert Hood, Begrimed and Black, 29. 87. Ibid., 28–29. 88. Plato, Phaedrus trans. Alexander Nehamas and Paul Woodruff (Indianapolis, IN: Hackett Publishing, 1995), 44. 89. Hood, Begrimed and Black, 30. 162 Notes

90. Ibid., 38–39. 91. Ibid., 73. 92. Ibid., 90. 93. Johnson, The Myth of Ham, 7, 9. 94. Ibid. 11. 95. Ibid., 19.

2 It Is Salvation We Want: The Path to Spiritual Redemption and Social Uplift

1. W. H. Prince, “The Responsibility of the Individual Christian for the Salvation of Men,” The A.M.E. Church Review 23, no. 1 (July 1906), 50. 2. Ibid., 52. 3. Ibid., 50. 4. Ibid. 5. Ibid., 51. 6. Ibid. 7. Ibid. 8. Richard Allen, The Life Experience and Gospel Labors of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1960), 29–30. 9. Ibid., 30. 10. Eileen Southern, “Musical Practices in Black Churches of Philadelphia and New York, ca. 1800–1844,” Journal of the American Musicological Society 30, no. 2 (Summer 1977), 300. 11. Ibid., 302. J. Roland Braithwaite also posits that later AMEC hymnals moved away from the camp meeting songs. In an introduction to a 1987 edition of Allen’s hymnal, Braithwaite states that in the first pub- lished hymn book after the AMEC denomination formed, most of the camp meeting songs had been removed in favor of “more accepted and respected main stream hymns instead.” 12. Allen, Gospel Labors, 15. 13. Carol V. R. George, Segregated Sabbaths: Richard Allen and the Emergence of Independent Black Churches, 1760–1840 (New York: Oxford University Press, 1973), 25. 14. Roger Robins, “Vernacular American Culture: Methodists, Camp Meetings, and Social Respectability,” Religion and American Culture 4, no. 2. (Summer 1994), 170. 15. Richard A llen, A Collection of Hymns and Spiritual Songs Selected from Various Authors by Richard Allen, African Minister (Philadelphia, PA: Mother Bethel African Methodist Episcopal Church, 1987), 104–5. 16. Ibid., 29. Notes 163

17. Ibid., 109. 18. Ibid., xi. 19. Robins, “Vernacular American Culture,” 169. 20. Ibid., 169–70. 21. Charles A. Johnson, “Camp Meeting Hymnody,” American Quarterly 4, no. 2 (Summer 1952), 110. 22. Ibid., 113. 23. Eileen Southern, “Hymnals of the Black Church,” The Journal of the Interdenominational Theological Seminary 14, nos. 1 and 2 (Fall 1986– Spring 1987), 127. 24. Cited in Jon Michael Spencer, “The Hymnody of the African Methodist Episcopal Church,” American Music 8, no. 3 (Autumn 1990), 277–78. 25. Latricia Darlene Edwards Scriven, “The Motif of Redemption in the Nineteenth Century Educational Philosophy of the African Methodist Episcopal Church,” PhD dissertation (Purdue University, 2003), 9. 26. Ibid., 6. 27. Ibid., 7. 28. Ibid., 8. 29. Ibid., 32. 30. Prince, “The Responsibility of the Individual Christian,” 52. 31. Ibid. 32. Ibid., 51. 33. E. Moore, J. C. Corbin, B. K Sampson, and Daniel B. Williams, “Education for the Masses: A Symposium,” The A.M.E. Church Review 9, no. 2 (October 1892), 132–33. 34. Ibid., 135. 35. Ibid., 148. 36. Ralph C. Watkins, “The Institutionalization of the African Methodist Episcopal Church,” PhD dissertation (University of Pittsburgh), 128. 37. Bishop Daniel Alexander Payne, Recollection of Seventy Years (New York: Arno Press, 1968), 221. 38. Ibid. 39. Daniel Alexander Payne, The Semi-Centenary and the Retrospection of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Baltimore, MD: Sherwood & Co., 1866), 49–50. 40. Ibid., 65. 41. Ibid. 42. Ibid., 55–56. 43. Katharine D. Tillman, “Negro Superstition,” The A.M.E. Church Review 15, no. 3 (January 1899), 748. 44. Ibid., 749. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Yvonne P. Chireau, Black Magic: Religion and the African American Conjuring Tradition (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2003), 77. 164 Notes

48. Ibid., 14. 49. Ibid., 12. 50. Tillman, “Negro Superstition,” 749. 51. Payne, Recollection of Seventy Years, 254. 52. Ibid., 255–56. 53. Ibid., 256. 54. Quoted in Daniel Alexander Payne, History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Nashville, TN: AMEC Sunday School Union, 1998), 148. 55. Ibid. 56. Quoted in Payne, Semi-Centenary, 80. 57. Ibid. 58. Payne, History of the African Methodist Episcopal Church, 466–67. 59. E. Goodelle Highgate, “Work in Mississippi,” The Christian Recorderr, January 16, 1869, n.p. 60. “Let the Word African Remain in Our Church Title,” The Christian Recorderr (December 17, 1870), n.p.

3 Saving the Heathen: The AMEC and Its Africanist Discourse

1. Benjamin Tucker Tanner, “A Prayer to Jesu,” The A.M.E Church Review 7, no. 4 (April 1891), 392. 2. Sylvester A. Johnson, The Myth of Ham in Nineteenth-Century American Christianity: Race, Heathens, and the People of Godd (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 57. 3. Ibid., 6. 4. Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 85. 5. Ibid., 87. 6. Rev. H. C. C. Astwood, “Shall the Name of the African Methodist Episcopal Church be Changed to That of the Allen Methodist Episcopal Church?” A.M.E. Church Review 4 (January 1888), 319. 7. Ibid. 8. Quoted in Sterling Stuckey, Slave Culture: Nationalist Theory and the Foundation of Black America (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987), 236. 9. Rev. J. T. Jenifer, “Why I Am an African Methodist,” A.M.E. Church Review 7 (January 1891), 287. 10. Ibid. 11. L. M. Hagood, The Colored Man in the Methodist Episcopal Church (New York: Hunt & Eaton, 1890), 62. 12. Ibid., 73. Notes 165

13. Ibid., 73–74. 14. Ibid., 72. 15. Jenifer, “Why I Am an African Methodist,” 287. 16. W. B. Derrick, “Proclamation, Office of Home and Foreign Missionary Society, African Methodist Episcopal Church,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 2 (February 1893), n.p. 17. Johnson, The Myth of Ham, 11. 18. Jay Douglass Green, “Africa Rediviva: Northern Methodism and the Task of African Redemption, 1885–1910,” PhD dissertation (Kent State University: 1998), 22. 19. Ibid., 22. 20. Annual Missionary Report of the Methodist Episcopal Church (Methodist Episcopal Church, 1897), 26. 21. Quoted in Gospel in All Lands (June 1896), 339. 22. Central Christian Advocate (January 6, 1906). 23. Speech by Joseph C. Hartzell on the occasion of a dinner for Mr. W. H. Milton, G.MG. administrator of Southern Rhodesia, August 7, 1902. (Papers of Joseph Crane Hartzell, Drew University, Madison, NJ). 24. Green, “Africa Rediviva,” 240. 25. Ibid., 244. 26. E. W. S. Hammond, “What Afro-Americans Owe to Africa,” The Africa News (November 1893), 12. 27. Green, “Africa Rediviva,” 246. 28. William Taylor, “Self-Supporting Missions in Africa,” in Africa and the American Negro: Addresses and Proceedings of the Congress on Africa, ed. J. W. E. Bowen (Miami, FL: Mnemosyne Publishing, 1969), 157. 29. Alexander Crummell, “Civilization as a Collateral and Indispensable Instrumentality in Planting the Christian Church in Africa,” in Africa and the American Negro , ed. Bowen, 119. 30. Ibid., 121. 31. E. W. S. Hammond, “Africa’s Relation to Christian Civilization,” in Africa and the American Negro, ed. Bowen, 207. 32. Ibid., 208. 33. Crummell, “Civilization as a Collateral,” 119. 34. Hammond, “Africa’s Relation to Christian Civilization,” 208. 35. W. H. H. Butler, “Report of Committee on Missions,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 1, (January 1893), n.p. 36. Ibid. 37. J. J. Coker, “A Letter From Africa: Wants of the Heathen—Duty of the Church,” Voice of Mission 3, no. 2 (February 1895), n.p. 38. Ibid. 39. “From Heathenism to Christianity: Gospel Progress Among a Heathen Tribe in Western Africa,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 3 (March 1893), n.p. 40. Ibid. 166 Notes

41. Johnson, The Myth of Ham, 111. 42. Ibid., 9. 43. H. G. Potter, “The Two Africas,” Voice of Mission 2, no. 6 (June 1894), n.p. 44. Ibid. 45. Ibid. 46. Ibid. 47. Johnson, The Myth of Ham, 74. 48. Ibid., 75. 49. “Africa and Prophecy: Bishop Holly’s Great Letter to Dr. Smith,” Voice of Mission 4, no. 10 (October 1896), n.p. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. Ibid. 53. Ibid. 54. Ibid. 55. Ibid. 56. Henry McNeal Turner, “The American Negro and his Fatherland,” in Africa and the American Negro, ed. Bowen, 195. 57. “The Dark Man and the Dark Continent: A Chat with a Negro Bishop,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 5 (May 1893), n.p. 58. Turner, “The American Negro and his Fatherland,” 195. 59. “Bishop Turner: Atlanta’s Colored Bishop Talks About African Emi- gration,” Voice of Mission 2, no. 9 (September 1894), n.p. 60. Ibid. 61. Alfred Lee Ridgel, Africa and African Methodism (Atlanta, GA: Frank- lin Printing and Publishing. 1896), 38. 62. Ibid., 63. 63. Ibid., 52. 64. Ibid., 45–46. 65. Ibid., 56. 66. Ibid., 52. 67. Ibid., 50. 68. Ibid., 51. 69. “Bishop Turner: Atlanta’s Colored Bishop,” n.p. 70. Ibid. 71. Ibid. 72. Ridgel, Africa and African Methodism, 43. 73. Ibid. 74. Henry McNeal Turner, “Why Don’t You Go to Heaven?” Voice of Mission 2, no. 6 (June 1894), n.p. 75. Ibid. 76. Ibid. 77. Ibid. Notes 167

78. “Dr. C. S. Smith Says that Bishop H. M. Turner Should Not Go to Africa at This Time,” Voice of Mission 3, no. 2 (February 1895), n.p. 79. “The Dark Man and the Dark Continent,” n.p. 80. “Bishop Turner: Atlanta’s Colored Bishop,” n.p. 81. “Direct Communication with Africa Established: The African International Commercial and Migration Society Headquarters,” Voice of Mission 2, no. 3 (March 1894), n.p. A similar pronouncement and acceptance by Turner can be found in a later issue of the VOM. In an addendum to its inaugural solicitation offering passage from America to Africa, the society called Liberia “The garden spot of tropical Africa..” If Turner had any misgivings about the motives of the society, he did not voice them. See “Liberia is Now the Centre of Attraction,” Voice of Mission 3, no 1 (January 1895), n.p. 82. H. M. Turner, “Home of the Blacks: Liberia the Place for the Negro to Nationalize Himself,” Voice of Mission 3, no. 3 (March 1895), n.p. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid. 87. Plessy v. Ferguson, 163 U.S. 537 (1896). 88. Henry McNeal Turner, “What the future AME Church Will Be and Do,” Voice of Mission 2, no. 6 (June 1894), n.p. 89. Henry McNeal Turner, African Letters (Nashville, TN: Publishing House AMEC Sunday School Union, 1893), 55. 90. Ibid. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid. 93. Ibid., 56.

4 Africa for Christ: The Voice of Mission and African Redemption

1. Henry McNeal Turner, “Our Sentiments,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 6 (June 1897), n.p. 2. From the time that the first African was forcibly brought from the African continent to the shores of the Americas, their identities have been problematic. Variously referred to as Africans, Negroes, colored, African Americans, Afro-Americans, people of color and other names, the descendents of the Africans have struggled with identity. Within a broader context, many descendents of Africa exist within the diaspora; they too exist in a world of amorphous identity. 3. Augustine, The City of God against the Pagans, ed. and trans. R. W. Dyson (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998), 694–96. 168 Notes

4. W. B. Derrick, “Proclamation: Office of Home and Foreign Missionary Society, African Methodist Episcopal Church,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 2 (February 1893), n.p. 5. Sylvester Johnson, The Myth of Ham in Nineteenth-Century American Christianity: Race, Heathens, and the People of Godd (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 11. 6. “Will the A.M.E. Church Play Her Part in the Redemption of Africa?” Voice of Mission 4, no. 12 (December 1896), n.p. 7. Carrie Belle Lee, “The Future of Africa,” Voice of Mission 7, no. 7 (July 1899), n.p. 8. Rev. James M. Dwane, “A Native South African Writes of his Conversion Experience from ‘heathenism’ to Christianity,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 12 (December 1897), n.p. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 11. Ibid. 12. E. Mayfield Boyle, “A Native African Boy Represents His Country in Alabama,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 6 (June 1897), n.p. 13. Henry McNeal Turner, “Editorial,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 5 (May 1897), n.p. 14. H. B. Parks, “Redemption of Africa: The American Negro’s Burden,” Voice of Mission 7, no. 9 (September 1899), n.p. 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. J. J. Coker, “A Letter From Africa: Wants of the Heathen—Duty of the Church,” Voice of Mission 3, no. 2 (February 1895), n.p. 20. Alexander Crummell, “Civilization as a Collateral and Indispensable Instrumentality in Planting the Christian Church in Africa,” in Africa and the American Negro: Addresses and Proceedings of the Congress on Africa, ed. J. W. E. Bowen (Miami, FL: Mnemosyne Publishing, 1969), 119. 21. Henry McNeal Turner, “The American Negro and his Fatherland,” in Africa and the American Negro, ed. Bowen, 195. 22. Ibid. 23. “The Dark Man and the Dark Continent: A Chat with a Negro Bishop,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 5 (May 1893), n.p. 24. “Bishop Turner: Atlanta’s Colored Bishop Talks About African Emigration,” Voice of Mission 2, no. 9 (September 1894), n.p. 25. Ibid. 26. Annie Weeks, “Africa For Christ,” Voice of Mission 4, No. 7 (July 1896), n.p. 27. Ibid. Notes 169

28. Ibid. 29. “Grandeur of Missionary Work,” Voice of Mission 5, No. 4 (April 1897), n.p. 30. Rev. Mark Christian Hayford, “Christian Mission Work in West Africa: Lecture Delivered to The Young Men’s Christian Association in London, August 16, 1895,” Voice of Mission 4, no. 2 (February 1896), n.p. 31. Ibid. 32. W. H. H. Butler, “Report of Committee on Missions,” Voice of Mission 1, no. 1, (January 1893), n.p. 33. Ibid. 34. Johnson, The Myth of Ham, 74. 35. Ibid., 75. 36. Rev. A. H. Hill, “A Colored Statesman as Well as a Divine, Speaks,” Voice of Mission 4, no. 9 (September 1896), n.p. 37. Ibid. 38. Plessy v. Ferguson, 136 U.S. 537 (1896). 39. Ibid. 40. Alfred Lee Ridgel, Africa and African Methodism (Atlanta, GA: Franklin Printing and Publishing. 1896), 38. 41. Ibid., 63. 42. Ibid., 52. 43. Ibid., 45–46. 44. Ibid., 56. 45. Alfred Lee Ridgel, “Should Afro-Americans Return to Africa?” Voice of Mission 4, no. 3 (March 1896), n.p. 46. Ibid. 47. Ibid. 48. Ibid. 49. “Rev. Holbrook writhes under the Cudgel of Lady Marie Duchatellier,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 4 (April 1897), n.p. 50. Ibid. 51. Ibid. 52. “Lady Duchatellier Goes For Rev. Holbrook,” Voice of Mission 5, no. 7 (July 1897), n.p. 53. Ibid.

5 We Have Been Believers: Revisiting AMEC Rhetoric of Evangelical Christianity

1. Charles H. Long, Significations: Signs, Symbols, and Images in the Interpretation of Religion (Aurora, CO: The Davies Group, 1995), 92. 2. Ibid., 94. 170 Notes

3. Charles Colcock Jones, Religious Instruction of the Negroes: An Address before the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church, at Augusta, Ga., December 10, 1861 (Richmond, VA: Presbyterian Committee of Publication, 1862), 3. 4. Ibid., 10. 5. Ibid. 6. Ibid., 12. 7. Ibid., 25. 8. William Colbert, “Journal,” in Sourcebook of American Methodism, ed. Frederick A. Norwood (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1982), 200. 9. Jay Douglass Green, “Africa Rediviva: Northern Methodism and the Task of African Redemption, 1885–1910” (PhD dissertation, Kent State University, 1998), 22. 10. Ibid., 43. 11. Charles H. Wesley, Richard Allen: Apostle of Freedom (Washington, DC: The Associated Publishers, 1935), 61. 12. Ibid., 67. 13. Ibid., 64. 14. Ibid., 65–66. 15. Richard Allen, The Life Experience and Gospel Labors of the Rt. Rev. Richard Allen (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1960), 29. 16. Wesley, Richard Allen, 71. 17. Allen, The Life Experience, 30. 18. Philip West, “Christology as Ideology,” Theology 88 (November 1985), 429. 19. Ibid., 431. 20. B. F. Lee, “The Causes of the Success of Methodism,” in Proceedings, Sermons, Essays, and A ddresses of t he Centennial Methodist Conference, eds. H. K. Carroll, W. P Harrison, and J. H. Bayliss (New York: Phillips and Hunt, 1885), 194. 21. L. M. Dunton, “A Christian View of Race Relations,” Gospel in All Lands (April 1896), 162. 22. Green, “Africa Rediviva,” 126. 23. Patrick Rael, Black Identity and Black Protest in the Antebellum North (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2002), 87. 24. The Methodist Episcopal Church, North, treated all of its African members as second-class citizens in its liturgical practices. Allen et al., after months of repeated abuse, decided to leave St. George’s MEC in Philadelphia. Wallace D. Best suggests that Allen’s group staged the walkout in order to spur the African Christians to find a more hospi- table place of worship. On at least one other occasion Allen attempted to gather a sufficient number of his African brothers and sisters to leave St. George’s; however, it was not until 1787 that circumstances dictated a walkout. See Wallace D. Best, “Richard Allen and the Rise of Bethel Notes 171

AME Church,” A.M.E. Church Review 120, no. 393 (January–March 2004), 25. Also, soon after the walkout at St. George’s, a group of Africans staged a walkout from a Methodist Episcopal Church in New York. They too felt the sting of second-class citizenship in liturgical practices and decided to form their own denomination that eventually became the African Methodist Episcopal Church, Zion. 25. Allen, The Life Experience, 25. 26. Rael, Black Identity, 87. 27. Allen, The Life Experience, 30. 28. Ibid., 40. 29. Ibid., 42. 30. Green, “Africa Rediviva,” 10. 31. Ibid., 240. 32. Ibid., 246–47. 33. Earl Conrad, The Invention of the Negro (New York: Paul S. Eriksson, 1966). 34. Sylvester Johnson, The Myth of Ham in Nineteenth-Century American Christianity: Race, Heathens, and the People of Godd (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2004), 5. 35. Henry McNeal Turner, “The American Negro and His Fatherland,” in Africa and the American Negro: Addresses and Proceedings of the Congress on Africa, ed. J. W. E. Bowen (Miami, FL: Mnemosyne Publishing, 1969), 195. 36. Henry McNeal Turner, African Letters (Nashville, TN: Publishing House A. M. E. Sunday School Union, 1893), 55. 37. Ibid. 38. Ibid., 61. 39. Ibid., 72. 40. Joseph Crane Hartzell, “The Division of the Dark Continent,” in Africa and the American Negro, ed. Bowen, 57. 41. Delores S. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness: The Challenge of Womanist God-Talk (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1993), 210. By mainline, Williams means Baptist, Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian, and Lutheran churches. While she focuses primarily on these Protestant denominations, she also characterizes Catholicism as mainline. 42. Ibid., 216. 43. Ibid. 44. Ibid., 217. 45. The Doctrines and Discipline of the African Methodist Episcopal Church (Brooklyn, NY: Piercy & Reed, 1840), 14. 46. A Form of Discipline for the Ministers, Preachers of the Methodist Episcopal Church in America (Elizabethtown, MD: Shepard Kollock, 1788), 51. The MEC adopted this original form of discipline at the 1784 Baltimore Conference, or what has been more commonly referred to as 172 Notes

the “Christmas Conference,” at which American Methodism had its beginnings. Thomas Coke and Francis Asbury presided over this semi- nal conference. By his own account, Richard Allen also attended this Conference. 47. John Veneer, An Exposition on the Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion of the Church of Englandd (London: printed for C. Rivington, 1725), 12. 48. James H. Cone, God of the Oppressed, rev. ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1999), 83. 49. Ibid., 84. 50. Ibid., 94. 51. Ibid., 95. 52. Ngindu Mushete, “The History of Theology in Africa: From Polemics to Critical Irenics,” in African Theology En Route, ed. Kofi Appiah-Kubi and Sergio Torres (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1979), 29. 53. Ibid., 24. 54. Josiah Ulysses Young III, Dogged Strength within the Veil: Africana Spirituality and the Mysterious Love of God (Harrisburg, PA: Trinity Press International, 2003), 3. 55. Kelly Brown Douglas, What’s Faith Got to Do with It?: Black Bodies / Christian Souls (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2005), 145. 56. Henry McNeal Turner. “What the Future AME Church Will Be and Do.” Voice of Mission 2, no. 6. (June 1894), n.p. 57. Throughout the nineteenth century, periodic internal struggles took place when the denomination critiqued its use of African in its denominational name. Some members of the AMEC suggested that the name be changed to Allen Methodist Episcopal Church in honor of Richard Allen. Others argued that since the church had its genesis and initial growth on American soil, the name should be American Methodist Episcopal Church. Both groups relied upon the underlying presumption that African evoked an idea of inferiority, an idea of cultural inferiority. Many other voices weighed in favoring the retention of the African name. 58. Dexter B. Gordon, Black Identity: Rhetoric, Ideology, and Nineteenth- Century Black Nationalism (Carbondale: Southern Illinois University Press, 2003), 4. 59. Josiah Ulysses Young III, A Pan-African Theology: Providence and the Legacies of the Ancestors (Trenton, NJ: African World Press, 1992), 104. 60. Ibid. 61. James H. Cone, God of the Oppressed, rev. ed. (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1997), 43. 62. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness, 162. 63. Ibid., 217. 64. Young, A Pan-African Theology, 108. 65. Ibid., 114. Notes 173

66. Ibid. 67. Ibid., 135. 68. James H. Cone, Risks of Faith: The Emergence of a Black Theology of Liberation, 1968–1998 (Boston: Beacon Press, 1999), 32. 69. Gwinyai H. Muzorewa, The Origins and Development of African Theology (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 1985), 92. 70. John S. Pobee, Toward an African Theology (Nashville, TN: Abingdon Press, 1979), 81–82. 71. Ibid., 85. 72. A. H. Meys, “African Mission Work,” Voice of Mission 3, no. 9 (September 1895), n.p. 73. Young, Dogged Strength Within the Veil, 31. 74. Young, A Pan-African Theology, 110. Young discusses the historical roots of black religion in which he contrasts the religious hermeneu- tics of James Cone and Charles Long. Cone, though a liberation theo- logian, is “too Eurocentric” in thought. Long, centering his analysis on the “opacity of black religion,” argues that Africa cannot be ignored in black American religious formation. Because of Africa’s centrality in the religious development of its progeny in America, the land and its people should be privileged in constructing religious language. 75. Ibid., 156. 76. Williams, Sisters in the Wilderness, 162. 77. Ibid. 78. Ibid. 79. Ibid. 80. Ibid., 164. 81. Ibid. 82. Ibid., 165. 83. Ibid. 84. Ibid. 85. Ibid. 86. Ibid., 166. 87. Matt. 27:27–31, NRSV. 88. Young, A Pan-African Theology, 158. 89. Ibid., 156. 90. C. Eric Lincoln and Lawrence H. Mamiya, The Black Church in the African American Experience (Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1990). 2. 91. Ibid. 92. Ibid., 4. 93. Cone, Risks of Faith, 134. 94. Charles Nyamiti, Studies in African Christian Theology: Jesus Christ, the Ancestor of Humankind: Methodological and Trinitarian Foundations, vol. 1 (Nairobi: CUEA Publications, 2005), 68–69. 174 Notes

95. Nyamiti, Jesus Christ, the Ancestorr, vol. 2, 9. 96. Ibid., 12. 97. Ibid., 10. 98. Nyamiti, Jesus Christ, the Ancestorr, vol. 1, 69. 99. These various ways of speaking of Jesus as ancestor can be found in Nyamiti, Jesus Christ, the Ancestorr, which contextualizes Jesus as ancestor in light of the dogmatic formulations of Nicea and Chalcedon. Bibliography

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Africa humanity, 93–116 AMEC missionaries in, 67–8 orderliness of, 122 Bible and, 75 as property, 120 for Christ, 108–9 as savages, 120 civilizing of, 76–7. See also uplift sins of, 133 Dark Continent of, 76 African Christians greatness of, 75 radical, 66 hymn about, 93 rich history of, 35 idea of, 67, 130 self reliance of, 66 life in, 101 African cosmologies, 3, 4, 5, 152 as mission field, 67, 89, 90, 98, and Protestant Christianity, 5 99, 107 Africana spirituality, 145, 172n54 name in poem, 58–60 Africanist discourse of AMEC, xiii, redemption of, 70 61–91 return to, 80 Aldersgate, 16. See also John Wesley rhetoric of, 67, 119. See also and assurance of salvation rhetoric Allen, Richard, bishop, xiii, 6, as trope, 67 39–46, 65, 66, 77, 96, 112, women missionaries for, 108 123, 127, 133, 134, 142, African 158n12, 162nn8, 12, 13, 14, in AMEC name, 58, 62–3, 64, 16, 170nn11, 15, 16, 17, 24, 66, 106, 139, 146, 155, 171nn25, 27, 172n46 164nn61, 6, 172n57 in denominational name, 58, 64, definition of, 58, 100, 167n2 172n57 disdain for, in name, 63, 64, 66 FAS and, 123–5 emigration, 72, 80, 82–8, 98, hymnal and, 41, 42 104, 106, 107, 110–17, 123, hymns and, 41, 42 150, 166n59, 168n24 militaristic metaphors in, 44 heathenism of, 68–91, 97, 99, Methodism and, 40, 65 101–4, 109–10, 112, 113, redemption and, 40–1 119, 132, 133, 138, 143, scripture and, 143 165n39, 168n8. See also Allen Methodist Episcopal Church. Ham, Hamitic myth See Allen 188 Index

Allen Mission Station, 73 black churches and, 134 AMEC definition of, 69 Africanist discourse of. See Africanist Hartzell and, 69 discourse of AMEC heathenism and, 143 doctrines of, xii model citizens of, 123 missionary zeal of, 81 benevolent societies, 19 and rhetoric of heathenism. Bible See heathenism American society and, 30 split with MEC, 66 authority of, 8, 9, 10–2, 138, 143: America for Wesley, 11, 159n26 as New Jerusalem, 32 salvation and, 30, 158n18 American Bible Society, 19 bishops, African ix American Education Society, 19 bishops, northern, in south, ix: American Tract Society, 19, 20, opposition to, by southern 160n51–2 bishops, ix–x and conversion narratives, 20–1 black magic, 54, 163n48. See also Angell, Stephen Ward, 157n2 hoodoo; Granny Ball; voodoo Anglican Church, 15–16, 40 black women, oppression of, 134 worship in, 16 and Jesus, 146–7 anti-Semitism, 78 blackness Arminius, Jacobus, 9 as bad, 29, 31–4, 152, 160n57 Articles of Religion, 139, 172n47 dread and, 33 Asante, Molefi, 2, 4, 6, 7, 157n1, self identity, 70 158nn8, 11, 13 sexuality and, 33–4 and hierarchical discourse, 6 as symbol, 120, 121, 138, 152, See also rhetoric of domination 157n57. See also Hamitic Asbury, Francis, 172n46 myth; whiteness Astwood, H.C.C., 64, 65, 67, Boehm, Henry, 159n36 164n6. See also Hagood Bowen, J.W.E., 165n28, 166n56, atonement, 10, 13–18, 20, 95 168nn20, 21, 171nn35, 40 atonement theories, 16, 141, 142, 147 Boyle, E. Mayfield, 102, 168n12 Augustine, 26, 27, 94–6, 160n60, 167n3 Braithwaite, J. Roland, 162n12 awakenings, religious, 3, 9, 14, 23, Brown, J.M. 24, 124. See also revivals Christian Heraldd and, 56–7 educated clergy and, 52 Baltimore Annual Conference of Oberlin Institute, 52 1843, 51, 107, 171n46 Butler, W.H.H., 72–3, 110–11, Bangs, Nathan, 12, 159n29 165n35, 169n32 and salvation, 13 and scripture, 12, 13 Cain, Richard H., bishop, ix, x Bayliss, J.H., 170n20 Calvin, John, 9, 10, 12, 158n20 Beecher, Henry Ward, 122–3 and God, 147 Benevolent Empire, 69, 122, 123, and Scripture, 12 125, 126, 127, 129, 130, Camp meetings. See also revivals 133, 134, 137, 139, 143–53 and conversions, xiii, 42 Index 189

as Methodist signature, 42, 96, Greek intellectuals and, 32 162n15 Romans and, 33–4 and millennialism, 24 See also blackness, whiteness and salvation rhetoric, 42–7 commercial salvation. See Prince nature of, 15 Cone, James, 136–7, 140–3, 153, songs of, 41, 42–7, 162n12, 172nn48, 61, 173nn68, 74, 93 163n22 Congress on Africa, 71, 79, 165n28, Carroll, H.K., 170n20 168n20, 171n35 Chalcedon, 153, 174n99 Conrad, Earl, 171n33 character formation, 50 conversion experience, xiii, 18–22 Cheeseman, J. James, 83–4 and conduct, 21 Chireau, Yvonne P. egalitarian nature of, 19 and voodoo, 54, 163n48 and egalitarianism, 22, 23 Christ, doctrine of, xiv, 134 and family life, 21 Christian Herald, 56, 57 and hymns, 41–2 Christian Recorder, 57–8 of illiterates, 19 Christianity and civilization, 68, 71, legitimacy of, 21 72, 74–6, 79, 80, 87, 89–91, narratives of, 19 100, 102–6, 111–12, 122, and Paul, 18 125, 127, 131, 132, 138, 150, process of, 19 165nn29, 31, 33, 34, 168n20 signs of, 18 Christmas Conference, 172n46 Cooper, Ezekiel, 41 Christologies, 125, 135–44, Corbin, J.C., 163n34 159n39, 170n18 cross ideologies of, 125 resurrection and the, 148 circuit rider, 15 salvation and the, 13, 61, 95, 96, civilization, of Africa, x. See also 98, 146 Christianity and civilization surrogacy and the, 147 civilization and salvation, x, xiii, theology of the, 125–6, 129, 142, 49, 57, 65, 68, 71, 119, 147, 148, 149 120–1, 126 crucible of conversion, 19, 42, 44, Clark, Laban, 12, 159n29 46, 95 and reason, 12 Crummell, Alexander, 71, 72, 105, clergy education, 51, 52, 53, 57 165n29, 168n20 Collection of Spiritual Songs and Curnock, Nehemiah, 158n22, Hymns, A, 41 159n40, 160n42 Coke, Thomas, 172n46 Coker, J.J., 73–4, 105, 165n37, Daniels, David Rwhynica, Jr., 168n19 bishop, ix Colbert, William, 122, 170n8 Dark Continent, 68, 69, 71, 75, 76, Collins, Kenneth, 12, 13, 16, 26, 80, 82, 100, 145, 166n57, 158n18, 159n27, 160n43 167n79, 168n23, 171n40. Collins, R. (Rev.), 51 See also Africa; MEC as color aesthetic benevolent overseer of, 69 Christians and, 34 David and Goliath, 151 190 Index deAzurara, Gomes Eanes, 161n70 egalitarianism of, 22 Derrick, W.B., 67, 68, 99, 165n16, language of, xi 168n4 orthodoxy of, xi Deschner, John, bishop, 16 types of, 9, 10 and Jesus, 16, 159n39 Wesleyan, 9–10. Discipline, Book off, 51, 128, 135 See also rhetoric Methodist, 35, 39, 45, 46, 47, evangelization, by AMEC, xii 142, 171 Explanatory Notes Upon the New discourse, 4, 5, 6, 62, 70, 127–34, 137 Testament, 11, 158n22 dominant, and rituals, 6 double predestination, 10 Ferguson. See Plessy v. Ferguson Douglas, Kelly Brown, 138 filial respect, 30–1 and Platonized Christianity, 138, Finney, Charles Grandison, 20, 21, 172n55 160n50 Duchatellier, Marie, 116, 169nn49, 52 and conversion, 20, 21 Dunton, L.M., 126, 170n21 Fisk, Wilbur, 10, 11, Dwane, James M., 101–2, 168n8 158nn20, 21 Dyson, R.W., 160n60, 167n3 Fletcher, John, 12, 14, 15, 17, 19, 159nn28, 31, 33, 160nn45, education. See clergy education 48, 55 educational salvation, 49–50. and conversion, 19 See also Prince and Jesus, 14, 17, 19 Edwards, Jonathan, 141 Franklin, John Hope, 161n76 egalitarianism, 25 Free African Society (FAS), 40, salvation and, 25 123–4, 128 Egypt, x, 71, 75–7, 81, 113, 150 frontier enslaved Africans camp meetings and, 46 as commodities, 263 literal and symbolic, 46 conversion of, 3, 24, 79, 121, 122 humanity of, 23 Gaines, Kevin, 47 religious instruction of, 3 George, Carol, 42, 162n14 souls of, 2, 23, 25 Gero, Steven, 160n65 spiritual status of, 3 Ginzberg, Louis, 161nn66, 69 work of, 2 Goldenberg, David, 26, 160n59 enslavement, 40, 81–2 Gomez, Michael, 3, 5, 158nn6, 10, as necessary evil, 25, 27, 29, 30, 160n57 62, 79, 87, 105–6, 114–15, Gordon, Dexter B., 7, 139, 158n14, 131. See also Hamitic myth 172n58 Ethiopia, x, 75–9, 111, 112, Gospel Labors, 127. See also 113, 150 Richard Allen Ethiopianism, 76–7, 79, 111 Gow, Francis Herman, 157n1 and civilization, 111 Granny Ball, 54 evangelicalism Graves, Robert, 161n68 beliefs of, 8, 9, 15, 24, 151, Great Awakening(s), 3, 15 158n18 Second, 24 Index 191

Green, Jay Douglass, 69, 122 heathenism, x, xiii, 61–91 and Benevolent Empire, 122, 125, and African American 165nn18, 24, 170n9 evangelicals, 72, 132 and heathens, 69 and African continent, xiii, 71, Greenberg, Kenneth, 161n77 165n39 definition of, 32, 132, 157n5 Hagood, L.M., 65, 66, 164n11 Ham and, 35, 75. See also Ham and MEC support of blacks/ rhetoric of, 68–91 Africans, 65, 66 heaven, way to, 11, 42, 62, 85, 144, Hall, James D.S., 57 152, 166n74 Ham Hegel, G.W.F., 150 appearance, 70 Highgate, E. Goodelle, 164n60 Augustine and, 26, 27 Hill, A.H., 111–12, 169n36 children of, xii–xiii, 22–36, Hogarth, George, 56 61: and children of God, Holbrook, R.C., 115–16, 36, 60, 62 169nn49, 52 curse of, 22, 29, 160nn59, 61 anti-emigration stance of, 116 degeneracy of, 70 Holly, James T., bishop, 77–8, enslavement and, 27, 28, 62 166n49 heathenism and, 72 Holte, James in hymn, 61 and conversion, 18, 160n46 inferiority of, 31 Hood, Robert, 32, 33 myth of. See Hamitic myth color aesthetic and, 33, Philo and, 26 161nn86, 89 physiognomy and, 28 Hoodoo, 54 race and, 31, 62, 144 Honor, 30 sexual sin of, 27, 28, 29 man of, 30 Hamitic myth, x–xiii, 26, 70, in nineteenth-century culture, 30 97, 144 plantation life and, 30 and evangelicalism, 36 human cargo, 157n4 and Genesis, 26 hymnal and race, 34 African Methodist Pocket Hymn and rationale for enslavement, xi, Book (1818), 46 62. See enslavement Allen and, 46–7 Hammond, E.W.S., 70, 71, 72, Methodist Pocket Hymn Book 165nn26, 31, 34 (1807), 46 Harrison, W.P., 170n20 hymns, 41 Hartzell, Joseph Crane, bishop, Allen and, 41 69–70, 165n23, 171n40 camp meetings and, 41–2, 42–5 Hawkins, Sir John, 157n4 conversion experience and, 41–2, Hayford, Mark Christian, 109–10, 43, 44 169n30 language of, 138 Haynes, Stephen, 29, 161n74 preaching and, 41–2 Hazlewood, Nick, 157 salvation and, 41–2. See also heathen. See heathenism Braithwaite 192 Index identity, 1–36, 61, 64, 70, 112, 117, justice, 17, 37, 48, 116, 150 134, 141, 147–8, 151, 158n14, Justin Martyr, 26 160n57, 164n4, 167n2, 170n23, 171n26, 172n58 Kawimbe, Paul Jones Mulenga, performance, 35, 139 bishop, ix inferiority Kelsey, Harry, 157n4 myths of, 32, 55, 82, 94, 114, 118, 172n57 language. See rhetoric Islam, 132–3 Lee, B.F., 126, 170n20 and heathenism, 132, 160n59 Lee, Carrie Belle, 100, 168n7 Israelites, Ancient Lee, Umphrey, 159n41 Euro-Americans as, 62 Lewis, Jack P., 161n67 Lewton, Mary, 52 Japheth, 26, 27, 31, 35, 61, 77, 78, educated ministry and, 52 91, 94, 95, 96, 117, 160n58, Liberia, 83–4, 87, 88, 89, 113, 160n63, 161n75 167nn81, 82 Jenifer, J.T., 64–7, 164n9, 165n15 Lincoln, C. Eric, 152, 173n90 and Allen Methodist Episcopal literature, evangelical, 19 Church, 64–5 Logan, James C., 158n25 Jesus Long, Charles H., 119, 170n1 as ancestor, xiv, 140, 142, Luther, Martin, 16 146–51, 153, 155, 172n59, and Epistle to the Romans, 16 173n94, 174nn95, 98, 99 Lynch, James, 57, 58 and black women, 146–9 taking gospel to the South, 58 as new Adam, 154 and Toussaint L’Ouverture, 58 as mediator, 16 as the Christ, and AMEC, xiv, Mamiya, Lawrence H., 152, 146, 153 173n90 as savior, 13, 17 Mather, Cotton, 141 suffering of, 129 Mathews, Donald G., 158n19, Jews 160nn54, 56 and blasphemy against Holy Mead, A.P., 159n37 Spirit, 78 Merriam, H.C., 74 Johnson, Charles A., 46, 163n22 Messiah, Wilfred Jacobus, bishop, ix Johnson, Sylvester, 31, 32, 34, 75, Meys, A.H., 145, 173n72 111, 112, 157n5 Middle Passage, 145 myth of Ham and, 31, 32, 34–5, and Jesus, 145 61–2, 68–9, 75–7, 99–100, Milton, W.H., 176n23 131, 157n5, 161n82, 162n93, mission stations 164n2, 165n17, 166n41, building, 105 166n47, 168n5, 169n34, missionaryactivity 171n34. See also Ethiopianism financial support of, 73–4 Jones, Absalom, 77, 123–4, 127 and mercantilism, 78 Jones, Charles Colock, 120–1, Moore, E. 170n3 education and, 49–50, 163n34 Index 193

Morrison, James, 13–14, 159n32, “The Education of the Ministry,” 160n44 (letters), 51 and salvation, 14 heathenish band and, 55 and sin, 17 and South Carolina Mushete, Ngindu, 137, 172n52 Conference, 57 Muzorewa, Gwinyai H., 144, 173n69 Peterson, Thomas Virgil, 25, 29, 160nn58, 63, Native Americans, 103 161nn75, 78 negro sacred history, 130–1, 154 Philadelphia, 31, 40, 124, 128, 151, Nehamas, Alexander, 161n88 162n11, 170n24 new birth. See conversion meeting of MEC (1861), 1–8, 22, experience 35, 36 New Negro, 4 physical salvation. See Prince and participation in the life of the Plato, 32, 33, 161n88 church, 6–7 and moral superiority, 33 Nicene Creed, 144, 153, 174n99 Platonized Christianity, 138 Niebuhr, Reinhold, 141 Plessy vs. Ferguson, 112, 167n87, Noah, 26–8, 30, 31, 35, 94, 97, 169n38 160n65, 161nn67, 74 Pobee, John S., 144, 173n70 curse of, 29, 72, 94. See also Potter, H. G., 75 Hamitic myth and two Africas, 75, 166n43 honor and, 31 preaching and race, 61–2 African Americans in shame and, 30 Philadelphia, 6 Noll, Mark, 8–9, 158nn16, 18 at camp meetings, 15, 41, 49, 89 Norwood, 158n20, 159nn35, 37, fervor, 96 170n8 itinerant, 15, 58 Nyamiti, Charles, 153, 154, Methodist, 40, 129 173n94, 174n95–9 salvation, 49, 85, 120 Priest, Josiah, 28–9, 161nn71, 72 Ogden, Schubert, 141 and Ham, 28, 29 Outler, Albert C., 158n24 Prince, W.H., 37 salvation and, 37–8, 49, 162n1, Parks, H.B., 103–4, 168n14 163n31 Patai, Raphael, 161n68 Printing paternalism of conversion narratives, 18–20 of AMEC to Africans, xii of AMEC to southern Africans, Raboteau, Albert, 3, 4, 158nn7, 9, xii, 126–7 160n57 Payne, Daniel Alexander, bishop, racial other, 34 ix–x, 51, 52, 55, 57, 163nn38, racism 40, 164nn52, 57, 58 American, toward Africans, clergy education and, 51, 53 72, 81, 114, 115. See also “The Education of the Ministry,” blackness; Hamitic myth; (essays), 51 whiteness 194 Index

Rael, Patrick, 62–3, 127–8, 133, in Liberia, 81, 113–14 160n57, 164n4, 170n23, opposition to enslavement, 114–15 171n26 Robins, Roger, 42, 163n20 redemption Robinson, John Bell of Africa, 70, 72, 82, 85, 93, myth of Ham and, 31, 162n80 98, 100, 102, 103, 126, 130, 131, 132, 165n18, Sampson, B.K., 163n34 168nn6, 14, 170n9. See also and character formation, 50 Benevolent Empire salvation, and civilization. of black women, 147 See civilization and salvation personal, 14, 37–57, 70, 86, hymns of, 43, 44 130, 148 salvation, Methodist evangelical, physical, 40 10, 39, 48, 49 religious ecstasy, 42 scripture, 11–13, 17, 125, 137, revivals, 9, 14, 24, 25, 45, 89, 102, 143–4, 151, 159n26, 161n80. 160n53. See also camp See also Bible meetings; Finney; Great Scrivins, Latricia, 47, 163n26 Awakening segregation. See Plessy vs. Ferguson rhetoric of benevolent empire. Senatle, Harold Ben, 157n1 See Benevolent Empire Shem, 26, 31, 61, 77, 94–6, 117 rhetoric of Christian instruction, 122 Sherwood, Lawrence F., 159n35 rhetoric of civilization, 119–20 Sisters in the Wilderness, 134 rhetoric of domination, 7 slavery rhetoric of empire, 129. See also justification of, 161n74, 161nn77, Benevolent Empire 80, 81, 82. See also rhetoric of equality, 7 Benevolent Empire rhetoric of enslavement, 25 Slavery as It Relates to the rhetoric of heathenism, 68–91, Negro, 28 119ff. See also Hamitic myth Sloan, James A., 161n80 rhetoric of identification, AMEC, Smith, Dr., 166n49 iii, 7–8, 36, 67, 139 Smith, John, 15, 159n35 schizophrenic, 35 social uplift rhetoric of salvation, AMEC, xiii, as part of salvation, xiii. See also 22, 42–60, 152 rhetoric of uplift and rhetoric of spiritual and social redemption equality, 8 Sollors, Werner, 161n70 rhetoric of uplift and redemption, Spencer, Jon Michael, 163n25 37–60, 71, 76, 77, 102, 105, Southern, Eileen, 41, 46, 162nn11, 111, 126, 128, 131–2 12, 163n24 definition of, 47–8 St. George’s Methodist Episcopal rhetoric of warfare, 42–3 Church, 40, 127–8, 170n24 rhetoric of Wesleyan evangelicalism, Stuckey, Sterling, 164n8 8, 119–55 suffering, 72, 81, 113, 141, 146 Ridgel, Alfred Lee, 80–3, 113–15, servant, Jesus as, 13, 14, 17, 19, 166nn61, 72, 169nn40, 45 125–6, 129, 146 Index 195

Sugden, Edward, 160n49 Wakely, Joseph B., 159n36 superiority Watkins, Ralph C., 50, 163n37 myths of, 33 Weeks, Annie, 107–8, 168n26 superstitions, 53 Wesley, Charles H., 159n41, Szold, Henrietta, 161n66 170nn11, 16 and Allen, 170n11 Tanner, Benjamin Tucker, 64, 164n1 and FAS, 123–4 Taylor, William, bishop, 70, 71, Wesley, John, 158nn23, 25, 165n28 159nn26, 39, 40, 41, The Lost Nation, 21 160n42 theology of liberation, 141–2, and Aldersgate, 16, 160n41 173n68 and assurance of salvation, 16, Tillman, Katherine T., 53–4, 159n41 163n44, 164n51 and authority of Bible, 10–12, Granny Ball and, 54 159n26 Lack of education and, 53, 54 and Jesus, 16 Turner, Henry McNeal, and science, 12, 159n26 bishop, ix, x, 72–3, 79, and sin, 96 80, 84–91, 93, 105, 111, Wesleyan quadrilateral, 12 119, 131–2, 138, 144, 157, West, Philip, 125–6, 140, 170n18 166n74, 167nn78, 81, 1. white man’s burden, 70 See also uplift whiteness, 31–4, 138, 152 and Cheeseman, 83 as divine, 31–2, 33, 34 and Ethiopianism, 79 as symbol, 32–3, 120 and heathenism, 132 Plato and, 33. See also and hymns, 138 blackness and language, 138 Whitfield, George, 15 and return to Africa, 80, 83, as preacher, 15 106–7, 110, 111, 112, Williams, Daniel B., 163n34 166nn56–60, 167n82, Williams, Delores, 134–6, 168nn21, 24, 171n35 141–2, 146, 147, 148–9, and slavery, 80, 145 154, 171n41, 172n62, and superiority of Christianity, 133 172n76 and Voice of Mission, 98, 103, 167n1 Witherington, Ben, III, 11, 158n25 Woodruff, Paul, 161n88 uplift. See civilizing; Rhetoric of worship uplift and redemption Anglican, 39 Methodist, 39: Richard Allen Veneer, John, 172n47 and, 39 Voice of Mission (VOM), 72–80, 84, 87, 89, 98–117, 167n81 Young, Josiah Ulysses, and African emigration, 110–11 138–50, 172nn54, 59, Voodoo, 53 173nn73, 74, 88