Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego (English text without illustrations) Béat Arnold Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues Part Three ARNOLD Béat, 2017. Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego (English text without illustrations). Le Locle, Editions G d’Encre (Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues, Part Three, PDF). Translated by Jane Davis Note: the English translation of the text is without figures (for the latter, see the original version in French). It can be downloaded free of charge from: https://www.alphil.com/index.php/alphil-diffusion/le-tour-du-monde-en-80-pirogues/les-canoes-en- ecorce-d-amerique-du-sud-de-l-amazonie-a-la-terre-de-feu.html Recommended method for quoting the original version: ARNOLD Béat, 2017. Les canoës en écorce d’Amérique du Sud : de l’Amazonie à la Terre de Feu. Le Locle, Editions G d’Encre (Le tour du monde en 80 pirogues, fascicule 3). ISBN 978-2-940501-73-1 © 2017, Béat Arnold (CH-2074 Marin-Epagnier) and the Institutions for their respective original documents Distributed by Éditions Alphil, Neuchâtel www.alphil.ch Printing: Gasser Media SA, Le Locle Béat Arnold, 2017. Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego (English text without illustrations). 1 Contents 00 Foreword 05 South America: a remarkable nautical space 06 Ygat, igáripé, attamanmad, aată, cascara, pakasse, yikchibitiri etc.: bark-canoes of Amazonia and the Guianas 14 Terminology issues 16 Towards a typology of bark-canoes of Amazonia and the Guianas 16 Distribution of canoe types 20 Cultural and dynamic divisions of territorial occupation 21 The canoes of Amazonia and the Guianas 23 Simple bark-canoes with raised or lowered sides 23 Canoes with one folded end 24 Canoes with apical lashings 28 Canoes with pressed and tied ends 30 Woodskin type canoes 31 Bark and structural diversity 46 Paxiuba or palmboats 47 The stipe or false trunk of the palm tree 49 Palmboats 49 The anan and yeni canoes of Tierra del Fuego 53 Yahgan and Alacaluf 55 Scientific expeditions and first detailed observations 56 Extended visits by the Anglican missionaries among the Yahgan 57 Construction of a bark-canoe among the Yahgan, by Martin Gusinde 62 Construction of a bark-canoe among the Alacaluf, by Martin Gusinde 66 Analysis of some Fuegian canoes 68 The Yahgan canoe in the Museum of Santiago 68 The Yahgan canoe in the Museum of London 71 The Alacaluf canoe in the Museum of Bern 72 The Alacaluf canoe in the Museum of Punta Arenas 80 The Yahgan canoe in the Museum of Rome 82 Materials employed 87 In conclusion: what is the origin of the Fuegian canoes? 89 Appendix 1: Inventory of canoes of Amazonia and the Guianas together with their location (fig. 24) 94 Appendix 2: Inventory of the canoes observed 100 Bibliography 102 Index 109 Tribes and indigenous names of the craft 109 Tree species 110 Geographical names 111 Béat Arnold, 2017. Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego (English text without illustrations). 2 List of illustrations Fig. 1 Raft of unprocessed logs of balsa type observed by Joris van Spielbergen in the port of Paita (northern Peru, near Piura), during his voyage between 1614 and 1618. In this illustration, three gouarès – a kind of leeboard – are controlled by three people. Finally, two triangular sails are directly attached to a curved mast (VAN SPIELBERGEN 1620, pl. XII). Fig. 2 Log raft of balsa type, equipped with a square sail stretched over two spars arranged in a cross. The front is shaped into an oblique plane (Puerto Viejo province, Ecuador; BENZONI 1572, p. 165-a). Fig. 3 Balsilla 4-4.5 m long, with their rama (leeboard and rudder, a kind of gouarès) in the port of Yasila (desert coast of Sechura, northern Peru; August 2011). Fig. 4 Caballito de totora consisting of two bundles resulting from the overlapping of two assemblies of different lengths (b). The construction was carried out by Felix Gondillo and Alejandro Urcia, on Huanchaco beach (August 2011). It took 15 minutes to create each bundle, and 10 minutes to assemble them. Length 4.1 m. Duration of use: 2-3 months. The totora (Scirpus sp.) were first dried (a). The two bundles were then created in parallel in order to ensure that they were symmetrical. Finally, the two elements were assembled (j). Transporting a canoe at Pimente (o), and going to sea on the craft, using the traditional bamboo stem paddle, split longitudinally (p). Fig. 5 Adobe bas-relief from Huaca las Balsas (Túcune, Lambayeque civilisation, around 1000-1100 A.D.), illustrating two large rafts consisting of bundles of stems lashed together. The length must have been around 10 m, and they were propelled by 7-8 paddles per side. Fig. 6 Small traditional balsa with raised ends, Lake Titicaca (Huarina, Bolivia; August 2011). The ropes were plaited, with the width prevented chafing of the stems in the outer layers of the bundles. Fig. 7 Sometimes, towards one end or the other, the cross-section of the central bundle suddenly increases to that of the two major bundles, emphasising its function, which is to enable the assembly of the two main parts via two series of ropes. It is also possible to observe this construction principle by dismantling a small-scale model, here intended to be sold to tourists. Fig. 8 A piece of wood acts as the support for the bipod mast. Here the sail is placed in the bottom of the balsa. The bundles are pulled together by means of a plaited plant rope which prevents fraying in the upper layers of the totora, unlike the current nylon cords (Huatajata on the banks of Lake Titicaca, Bolivia; August 2011). Fig. 9 The rivers Saña and Santa, located between Trujillo and Chimbote (north of Lima), are crossed by means of an assembly of calabashes (DE BRY ed. 1601, pl. II). Fig. 10 Balse used along the desert coasts of Chile, consisting of sea lion skins. Length 3 m (FRÉZIER 1716, pl. XVI). Fig. 11 Watertight seam on a balse consisting of sea lion skins and technical drawing by A.-F. FRÉZIER (1716, pl. XVI/F). Fig. 12 “Apical lashing” type canoe of the Arára or Caripúna Indians (Madeira, Caldeirão do Inferno rapids, near the Brazil/Bolivia border; KELLER-LEUZINGER 1874a, fig. p. 101, 1874b, fig. p. 408; KELLER 1875, fig. p. 144). For the location: see fig. 24/52 ; Appendix 1/record 32. Fig. 13 Distribution map for a series of vernacular craft in South America with, in particular the pelota separating the area where bark-canoes were used in Amazonia from that of the more complex canoes in Tierra del Fuego (after HORNELL 1946, extract from world map in Appendix). Fig. 14 Pelota consisting of an envelope formed by one or sometimes two cow skins sewn together (Rio Grande do Sul, Brazil; CÂMARA 1888, fig. p. 172). Fig. 15 First ethnographic description of the manufacture and use of bark-canoes by H. STADEN, in 1557 (Part 2, chap. 25), and its first translation into French by H. TERNAUX (1837, p. 289-290): “Il y a dans ce pays une espèce d’arbre que l’on nomme yga-ywero; ils en détachent l’écorce depuis le haut jusqu’en bas, et font, autour de l'arbre, une espèce d’échafaudage pour l’enlever d’un seul morceau. Béat Arnold, 2017. Bark-canoes of South America: from Amazonia to Tierra del Fuego (English text without illustrations). 3 Quand ils ont arraché cette écorce, ils la portent au bord de la mer, la chauffent fortement, replient les deux bouts, après avoir eu soin d’y placer des traverses en bois [des varangues plates sur le dessin], et en font ainsi des canots, qui peuvent porter jusqu'à trente personnes. Cette écorce est épaisse d’un pouce, et les canots ont environ quatre pieds de large sur quarante de long : il y en a de plus petits et de plus grands. Ils vont fort vite, et les sauvages font souvent de très-longs voyages dans ces embarcations. Quand la mer devient mauvaise, ils les tirent à terre, et se rembarquent, dès que la tempête est apaisée. Ils ne s’avancent pas à plus de deux milles en mer; mais ils vont quelquefois très-loin le long des côtes.” Fig. 16 Ygat canoes with flat frames for the floor (STADEN 1557, Part 2, fig. chap. 20). Fig. 17 The same canoes as above, but equipped with a tie (DE BRY ed. 1593, pl. p. 52). Fig. 18 Canoe with two folded ends from the Upper Xingú, in central Brazil (QUIRKE 1952, fig. p. 81; after VON DEN STEINEN 1894, pl. X); a type sometimes called the jatobá, named after the tree from which the bark is taken. Fig. 19 Canoe with apical lashings, cascara (MATHEWS 1879, p. 60) or kānāwā’ constructed by the Jamamadí on the rio Marmoreá Mirí (STEERE 1903, p. 386, fig. 12); W. ROOP (1942, p. 399) uses the term of jamamadí to describe this type of canoe. Fig. 20 Canoe with pressed and tied ends, by the Oyampí (CREVAUX 1883a, fig. p. 216). Fig. 21 Open-ended woodskin, or pakasse (SCHOMBURGK 1841a, p. 92), observed among the Carib in the upper stretches of the Barama River; the suspended bench on the right is missing from the drawing (ROTH 1924, fig. 336). Fig. 22 Woodskin with raised ends, or attamanmad, constructed by the Wapisiána (FARABEE 1918, p. 75, fig. 8). At this stage of construction, the stretchers have not yet been incorporated.