INCOGNITA PATAGONIA Exploring the Last Unknown

Patagonian Icefield 2016

Expedition Report by Eñaut Izagirre Evan Miles Ibai Rico

EXPEDITION REPORT

INCOGNITA PATAGONIA: Exploring the Last Unknown Patagonian Icefield

An exploratory and glaciological research expedition to the Cloue Icefield of Hoste Island, Tierra del Fuego, Chile in March-April 2016.

Eñaut Izagirre* Evan Miles Ibai Rico

*Correspondence to: [email protected] Dirección de Programas Antárticos y Subantárticos Universidad de Magallanes

2016

This unpublished report contains initial observations and preliminary conclusions. It is not to be cited without the written permission of the team members.

Incognita Patagonia returns from Tierra del Fuego with an improved understanding of the region's glacial history and an appreciation for adventure in terra incognita, having traversed the Cloue Icefield and ascended two previously unclimbed peaks.

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INCOGNITA PATAGONIA sought to explore and document the Cloue Icefield on Hoste Island, Tierra del Fuego, Chile, with a focus on observing the icefield's glaciers to develop a chronology of glacier change and associated landforms (Figure 1). We were able to achieve all of our primary observational and exploratory objectives in spite of significant logistical challenges due to the fickle Patagonian weather. Our team first completed a West-East traverse of the icefield in very difficult conditions. We later returned to the glacial plateau with better weather and completed a survey of the major mountains of the plateau, validating two peaks' summit elevations. At the glaciers' margins, we mapped a series of moraines of various ages, including very fresh moraines from recent glacial advances. One glacier showed a well-preserved set of landforms indicating a recent glacial lake outburst flood (GLOF), and we surveyed and dated these features. We explored three undocumented fjords, conducting extensive bathymetric surveys to determine historical glacier areas by determining submarine moraine positions. We maintained several automated weather stations (AWS) established by the late Charlie Porter, the only meteorological records for the region. Finally, our presence in the area greatly improved the documentation of historical explorations, and enabled collection of local place-names.

Figure 1 Geographical map of the Cloue Icefield and its surroundings with major landmarks, expedition’s tracks and glacier area change between 1945 and 2016. Background in hillshade DEM built with a SRTM 3.

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Table of Contents I

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY 5 Table of Contents 6

1. INTRODUCTION 8 1.1. Tierra del Fuego and the Cloue Icefield 8 1.1.1. Regional glaciological context 9 1.1.2. Climate regime and some possible explanations of the regional glacier retreat 13 1.2. History and Exploration 14 1.3. Objectives 20

2. EXPEDITION TEAM 22 2.1. Participants 22 2.2. Sailboat crew 23

3. RESEARCH: GLACIER INVENTORY 24 3.1. Background 24 3.2. Methods 24 3.3. Results 25 3.4. Discussion and Conclusions 28

4. RESEARCH: GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY 30 4.1. Background 30 4.2. Methods 30 4.2.1. Imagery 31 4.2.2. Geomorphological mapping 31 4.2.3. Bathymetric survey 34 4.2.4. Dendrochronology 34 4.3. Results 34 4.4. Discussion and Conclusions 36

5. RESEARCH: METEOROLOGICAL DATA 38 5.1. Background 38 5.2. Methods 39 5.3. Results 40 5.3.1. AWS Cloue 40 5.3.2. AWS Pia 40 5.3.3. AWS Diablo 41 5.4. Discussion and Conclusions 42

6. CARTOGRAPHY AND HISTORY 43 6.1. Local Information 43 6.2. Expedition History 43

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Table of Contents II

7. ADVENTUROUS ACTIVITIES 45 7.1. Traverse of the Cloue Icefield 45 7.2. First Ascents at Cloue Icefield 46 7.3. Exploration in Pia Este, Cordillera Darwin 48

8. TRIP LOGISTICS 49 8.1. Route Planning and Late Adjustments 49 8.2. Permits and Access Restrictions 49 8.3. Risk Assessment, Insurance and Medical Support 50 8.4. Air Travel and Equipment Freight 50 8.5. Communications 51 8.6. Northanger Sailboat Support 51 8.7. Environmental and Social Impact 52 8.8. Budget 53 8.9. Key Challenges and Lessons Learned 54 8.10. Appealing Future Objectives 54

9. TRIP LOG 55 9.1. Summary 55 9.2. Daily Log of Events 56

10. SUMMARY OF MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS 59

11. OBSERVED FLORA AND FAUNA 62 11.1. Flora 62 11.2. Notable fauna 64 11.3. Beavers and anthropic effects 66

12. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 69 12.1. Trip Donors, Sponsors and Collaborators 69 12.2. Personal Support 70

13. BIBLIOGRAPHY 71 13.1. Scientific Articles 71 13.2. Expedition Reports and Books 74 13.3. Reference Maps and Nautical Charts 75

14. PUBLIC MEDIA COVERAGE 76 14.1. Television 76 14.2. Radio 76 14.3. Mountain and Science Outreach Magazines 76

15. MAP AND REPORT DISSEMINATION 77

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 Tierra del Fuego and the Cloue Icefield In geographical terms, Tierra del Fuego refers to all the land and sea territory that is located to the South and East of the Strait of Magellan, thus separating the continental Patagonia from the characteristic isolation that possess the “fuegian” lands, geopolitically divided between the countries of Chile and Argentina. This glaciated and glacierized terrain forms the southern tip of the Andean Cordillera as it plunges into the Southern Ocean (Figure 2).

Figure 2 Geographical context of the Cloue Icefield: It is located in the southernmost end of South America where the belt of Southern Hemisphere Westerlies dominates the main winds in the area (A) and it is affected by the precipitation fronts that enter the area from the Pacific Ocean (B).

The archipelago of Tierra del Fuego, as delimited by the illustrious Alberto de Agostini, has a surface area of 72,000 km2 and is located between the parallels of 52º30’ and 56º S and longitudes 63º45’ and 74º45’ W. The Atlantic and Pacific Oceans, with the Strait of Magellan to the North, laterally bound the archipelago. Its southern boundary includes Cape Horn, Cape San Juan at the eastern end of Staten Island, and Cape Desire at the western end of Desolation Island (Agostini, 1956).

This archipelago of seemingly-infinite islands divided by intricate fjords and channels can be divided in three large groups: 1) the main island of Tierra del Fuego, which with 48,100 km2 is the largest land surface of the archipelago and lies between the Strait of Magellan and the Beagle Channel; 2) the islands south and southeast of the Beagle Channel which continue down to Cape Horn, the largest being Hoste Island (4,117 km2), Navarino Island (2,473 km2) and Staten Island (534 km2); 3) the islands of the northwest, to the west of Cockburn and Magdalena Channels but still to the southwest of the Strait of Magellan, including the islands of Santa Ines (3,688 km2), Capitan Aracena (1,164 km2), Clarence (1,111 km2) and numerous other small land-masses (Figure 3).

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Figure 3 Panoramic views of the diverse geography of Tierra del Fuego: A) Main Island of Tierra del Fuego, from the top of Cerro Pietro Grande (425 m) facing the foothills of the main mountain range; B) Navarino Island in the foreground, with the Dientes de Navarino mountains and Robalo Lake, to the Beagle Channel and the Argentine part of the Main Island of Tierra del Fuego; C) Wild and windy landscape of the western part of Hermite Island (55º50’ S), in the background is possible to sight the group of Wollaston Islands; D) High peaks of the Cordillera Darwin from the Beagle Channel, to the right is Gordon Island. Photo credit: Eñaut Izagirre.

1.1.1 Regional glaciological context The Andean cordillera, oriented North-South for thousands of kilometres, is slightly diverted in the area of the Strait of Magellan due to a major active tectonic fault, known as the Magallanes-Almirantazgo- Fagnano failure-system (Klepeis, 1994). This creates an important altitude difference between the mountains to the north of the Strait of Magellan, known as the Patagonian Andes, where peaks higher than 3,000 meters above sea level (masl onwards) are partly covered by the extensive Northern and Southern Patagonia Icefields, with 4,200 km2 and 13,000 km2 respectively (Rivera et al, 2007; Aniya, 1996). However, the southern mountains, known as Austral Andes, and oriented NW-SE, have elevations that just break above 2,000 masl. These mountain complexes are splattered by many mountain glaciers and smaller icefields, which according to the latest measurements with satellite images, encompass a total of 3,290 km2 spread over 1,681 glacier basins in Chilean territory (Figure 4; Bown et al., 2014).

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Figure 4 Relief of the central part of Tierra del Fuego: It shows the location of the major glaciated areas: Santa Ines Icefield (SI), glaciers around Monte Sarmiento (MS), Cordillera Darwin Icefield and adjacent glaciers (CD) and Peninsula Cloue Icefield and adjacent glaciers (PC). The terrestrial relief is based on a Digital Elevation Model (90 m x 90 m) derived from SRTM3 images. The bathymetry is based on General Bathymetric Chart of the Oceans (GEBCO, 2003) with bathymetric curves of 100 meters. The extent of glaciers and ice masses was obtained from the Chilean National Inventory of Glaciers (DGA, 2012) and Randolph Glacier Inventory (Pfeffer et al., 2014).

The glaciers and icefields are mainly found in the Cordillera Darwin Icefield (54º30’ S), which is a continuous mountain axis above 2,000 masl and accounts for 71% of the glaciers in the region. Other major glacier zones include: Santa Ines Island (53º45’ S) with an icefield of around 274 km2 and maximum altitude of 1,370 masl; Monte Sarmiento (54º27’ S), which is an isolated section of the Cordillera Darwin, but still comprises a half-dozen glaciers in separate basins surrounding its two almost identical summits that culminate at 2,207 masl (personal communication from Camilo Rada, 2013); and the area of Hoste Island (55º S), covering 409.5 km2, with the majority concentrated on the Cloue peninsula to form the southernmost icefield of the entire Andes range. (Figure 5; USGS, 1999; Bown et al., 2014).

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Figure 5 Main glaciated areas in Tierra del Fuego: A) Santa Ines Icefield (photo by E. Pfeffer); B) Photograph taken from an airplane, in the foreground the West face of the Monte Sarmiento, and behind the extensive Cordillera Darwin Icefield with the highest peaks in the background (photo by M. Arévalo); C) The two summits of the Monte Sarmiento from the Magdalena Channel, North face, with its characteristic ice mushrooms and the top part of the Schiaparelli and Conway glaciers; D) Fouque glacier is one of the outlet glaciers that flows from the Cloue Icefield in the western end of Hoste Island.

The numbers of shrinking glaciers in Cordillera Darwin fell from 77.5 % for 1870-1986, to 39.5 % for 1986-2001, to 31.8 % for 2001-2011, with many glaciers showing no change from 2001 to 2011 (Davies & Glasser, 2012). Additionally, Davies & Glasser (2012) also studied the outlet glaciers of the nearby Monte Sarmiento massif and Hoste Island’s Cloue Icefield by satellite imagery survey and aerial moraine mapping, and they concluded that the patterns were similar for these areas, frequently with low rates of shrinkage.

Marinelli glacier, the largest icefield on the Cordillera Darwin Icefield, experienced the longest frontal retreat observed within this region after the second half of the 20th century, when it was decoupled from the large terminal moraine that marked the culmination of an advance during the Little Ice Age (Figure 6; Porter & Santana, 2003). Subsequently, Marinelli glacier has retreated at one of the highest rates in South America; at an average of 153 m a-1 (Bown et al., 2014). Overall, the glacier has receded by around 15 km between 1913 and 2011, with the greatest annual retreat between 1984 and 1985 (923 m; Figure 7-A; Bown et al., 2014). Since 2011, it seems to have a new-grounded position in the inner part of the new opened Marinelli fjord, where the calving terminus is 3.3 km wide and it is divided in two by the exposure of a bedrock knoll (Figure 7-B; personal communication from Eñaut Izagirre, 2015). Melkonian et al. (2013) predicted that Marinelli glacier will continue to retreat at least until it reaches a new topographic pinning point, which would likely cause the terminus speed to fall and

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calving rates to drop. The recent visit to the area conducted by E. Izagirre in 2015 has discovered that this prediction could be already happening.

Figure 6 Photo comparison of the Marinelli glacier in Cordillera Darwin: (above) Photo taken by Alberto de Agostini in 1913 from a mountain slope near Ainsworth bay; (below) Photo taken by Eñaut Izagirre in 2015 inside the new-opened Marinelli fjord. As the perspective is not the same, two colour asterisks have been included to give references.

Oppositely, some calving glaciers of the southern margin had small advances between 1986 and 2011, highlighting Garibaldi glacier with 1.3 km from 2001 to 2011 and further than its 1986 limit (Davies & Glasser, 2012). Previously, Holmlund & Fuenzalida (1995) noticed three advancing calving glaciers (labelled 11, 12 and 14) in the inner part of the Pia fjord with 200-400 m from 1960 to 1993, and same number (labelled 13, 15 and 16) of steady ones. In the last years, Guilcher glacier (labelled 16) has been advancing (567 m between 1991 and 2004), while all the others in this fjord are showing stability or small retreats (Bown et al., 2014).

Nevertheless, large glaciers in the southern part have retreated since Agostini’s map of 1956 (Agostini, 1959), especially the Grande glacier at the end of Fiordo Ventisquero, which retreated 2.7 km between 1986 and 2006, and those draining into the Beagle Channel: Roncagli glacier retreated 0.6 km between 1956 and 2001, and Francés glacier retreated 1.8 km between 1956 and 2006, both of them expanding their proglacial lakes (Figure 7-C; Bown et al., 2014).

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Figure 7 A) Marinelli glacier’s frontal variations as draped on a Sentinel-2 composite 8-4-3 RGB image acquired on October 9, 2016; the positions of Marinelli in 1913, 1945 and 1984 were determined by Porter and Santana (2003), and the rest were compiled and interpreted by Bown et al. (2014); B) Photo taken from inside the Marinelli fjord, where the eastern calving front and the bedrock knoll are visible (photo by E. Izagirre in 2015); C) Compilation of recent glacier changes in the Cordillera Darwin Icefield (obtained from Bown et al., 2014).

1.1.2 Climate regime and some possible explanations of the regional glacier retreat The western side of the southern tip of Chile (53-56º S) lies just north of the Antarctic Polar Front, and subsequently is affected by continuous frontal and cyclonic activity resulting in a high annual percentage of cloudy days (86 %) and more than 320 days with precipitation (Carrasco et al., 2002). It is also very windy with an average annual wind speed of 12 m s-1 and maxima exceeding 30 m s-1 (Miller, 1976). The annual climate cycle is strongly affected by oceanic influences; near sea level, weather stations show similar mean daily temperature patterns throughout the region, with temperatures carrying from 0º to 15ºC, indicating a regional control (Schneider et al., 2003; Santana et al., 2006). The eastern side of this region is drier, colder and exhibits more continental characteristics (Endlicher & Santana, 1988), even Holmlund & Fuenzalida (1995) mentioned the apparition of rock glaciers on the northern side of Seno Almirantazgo, indicating dry environments.

Although precipitation varies slightly according to season, this southern region experiences spatially heterogeneous precipitation as a consequence of the pronounced orographic effect, with several thousand of millimetres of annual precipitation on the western islands of the Fueguian archipelago and only few hundred millimetres on the lee side of the southern Patagonian Andes (Schneider et al., 2003; Santana et al., 2006). In the Cordillera Darwin, the weather stations at Bahia Pia and Bahia Ainsworth

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recorded 1200 mm a-1 (2012-2015 period) and 1280 mm a-1 (2011-2014 period) respectively (personal communication from Eñaut Izagirre, 2016), whereas other nearby locations to the south and to the NNW, such as Hoste and Diablo Islands and Canal Brecknock, have yielded precipitation values of 1600 mm a-1 and 6710 mm a-1, respectively (Santana et al., 2006, 2007). Oppositely, Santana et al. (2006) estimated an annual value of 437 mm at Puerto Williams, further to the east.

The most significant surface temperature trend in the region is one of warming as measured at Punta Arenas (53º S). Rates of 0,013ºC a-1 between 1933 and 1992 as well as an accelerated rate of 0,021ºC a-1 between 1962 and 1992 have been recorded (Rosenblüth et al., 1997). Based on 850 hPa geopotential height temperature data from Punta Arenas available as a result of NCEP/NCAR reanalysis, Carrasco et al. (2002) estimated an overall warming trend of 0,98ºC between 1958 and 1998. It seems that putting advancing tidewater glaciers to one side, the main driving force behind glacier change described in the southern region of Chile is probably atmospheric warming over the last decade (Koppes et al., 2009).

Another significant factor concerns the precipitations trends observed in this region, which have been constructed from data collected at Puerto Williams, where Quintana (2004) detected a reduction of 206 mm between 1950 and 2000. This result is totally opposite with that from Islote Evangelistas, at the western edge of the Strait of Magellan, where a constant decrease in precipitation until the mid-1980s (Rosenblüth et al., 1995), was followed by a marked increase, as documented by Aravena and Luckman (2008). Therefore, the precipitation gradient from west to east, together with registered atmospheric warming, could be the cause of the recent collapse of the lower tongue of Marinelli glacier, as well as the driver of retreat experienced by many other glaciers in the region (Bown et al., 2014). Likewise, the frontal advance of Garibaldi and Guilcher glaciers, suggested by Holmlund and Fuenzalida (1995) to be a response to the orographic effect in the south, is more likely due to fluctuations in calving activity and their tidewater glacier cycle, and irrespective of the cause they do not represent a significant trend within this region (Bown et al., 2014).

Summarizing, outside of Antarctica, Cloue is the southernmost glacier system in the world that does not been visited for any in situ glacier studies, and its location exemplifies the legendary Patagonian combination of very strong winds, intense precipitation, and short weather windows.

1.2 History and Exploration The first inhabitation of Tierra del Fuego was by the ancestors of the indigenous Selk’nam, Kaweshkar, Yagan and Haush peoples, probably 9,000-10,000 years ago (Martinic, 1982). The region has had a remarkable heritage, although so many names and stories have been lost to the memories of a people in constant struggle to survive. Native people called it Karukinka, which means “our land” in the Selk’nam language. In typical tragic irony, these people were exterminated by those adventurers and explorers who came later to immortalize their adventures and wrote the first lines of the fascinating story of the uttermost part of the Earth (Bridges, 1949).

This story began in 1520, when the Spanish expedition of the Portuguese Captain Hernando de Magallanes and the Basque navigator Juan Sebastián Elcano reached southernmost South America and managed to progress westwards through the channels on their way to the so-called Spice Islands. It was in this key passage, which was later known as the Strait of Magellan where the Italian Antonio Pigafetta,

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chronicler of the expedition, described smoke columns from indigenous camps, and thus giving the name of Tierra de los Fuegos or land of fires (Martinic, 1982).

A few decades later in 1558, Juan Ladrillero sailed the Strait from West to East and discovered the lands of the northern part of the main mountain range in Tierra del Fuego, from the Brecknock peninsula to the inner part of the Almirantazgo Fjord. He also who started the toponymy of Tierra del Fuego, fixing many location names used to this day, such as Gabriel Channel or Paso Boquerón (Martinic, 1982).

Nothing was known about the mountains of the islands until 1580, when Pedro Sarmiento de Gamboa, an illustrious Spanish navigator who was sent in pursuit of the pirate Francis Drake, crossed the Strait of Magellan and sighted in the distance an imposing “snowy volcano”, which with its smoking summit decorates the maps of the unknown Tierra del Fuego for centuries (Estensen, 2006) and is known as Monte Sarmiento.

Attracted by the hunting of seals and whales, over the following decades and centuries the Europeans began to explore the intricate net of fjords and channels. This exploration reached its peak with the hydrographic expeditions of the British Admiralty, between 1826 and 1836. The Admiralty appointed one of its best officers as head of these expeditions, the expert hydrographer Commander Philip Parker King, and provided great vessels to his command two; the H.M.S. Adventure (captained by him) and H.M.S. Beagle (in charge of Commander Pringle Stokes). These ships were staffed by a group of well- qualified officers, sailors and scientists (Martinic, 2007). However, due to casualties along the journey (including the Commander Stokes), the young Captain Robert FitzRoy came to the scene in 1828. FitzRoy was in charge of the H.M.S. Beagle, which over several years greatly advanced cartographic documentation of the fuegian coast. Of course, this famed vessel later had a marked impact on the entirety of science when it subsequently visited the Galapagos Islands with the still-unknown young naturalist Charles Darwin on-board (Figure 8; FitzRoy et al., 1839)

Figure 8 Lithographs made during the hydrographic expeditions of the British Admiralty (reproduced with permission from J. van Wyhe, ed. 2002; FitzRoy et al., 1839): A) HMS Beagle sails to the South from the Magdalena Channel in 1836, with Monte Sarmiento and one of its glaciers (possibly Schiaparelli) descending to the sea in the background; B) Lithograph painted with watercolours by Henry Colburn in 1838 with the HMS Beagle in front of Monte Sarmiento.

The hard work done by both ships was particularly important in documenting the western and southern coastlines of the main island Tierra del Fuego, where a number of English names have been maintained in the current topography, as for example, Bahía Inútil, Brecknock Peninsula, Ainsworth Bay, Admiralty

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Sound (Seno/Fiordo Almirantazgo) or Beagle Channel (Martinic, 1982); as well as the great mountain range that raises between the last two places: the impressive Cordillera Darwin (Figure 9; FitzRoy et al., 1839). Depth soundings by the Beagle appear on navigational charts for the region to this day.

Figure 9 Map made during the British Admiralty Hydrographic Expeditions between 1826 and 1836 (reproduced with permission from J. van Wyhe, ed. 2002; FitzRoy et al., 1839).

After the British nautical exploration, the 19th century was characterized by several other exploratory expeditions, often with notable polar explorers such as Dumont d’Urville, Charles Wilkes and James C. Ross, who visited the southern geography and producing good cartographic maps of the southern edge of South America and the northern part of the Antarctic continent (Martinic, 2005). One of them, Domenico Lovisato, carried out the first mountaineering activity in the area in 1882, with an attempt to climb the ‘smoking volcano’, Monte Sarmiento. Although he was not very successful in his attempt, he kicked off the race to explore the interior of this mysterious mountain range (Godley, 1970).

In this period, one of the earliest scientific expeditions to reach the southern edge of Tierra del Fuego, and which specifically documented Hoste Island and the Cloue Peninsula, was the French Geologic Expedition (known as the Romanche Expedition) in 1882-83 for the International Polar Year. The primary purpose of this expedition was to make astronomical observations (the transit of Venus) from Bahia Orange on Isla Hoste, but accompanying scientists also documented the geology and natural history of the area. They produced a map covering the area from Ushuaia to Cape Horn, and even took photographs of the surroundings of the Cloue Icefield and some of its outlet glaciers (Figure 10; Hyades, 1887).

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At the end of the 19th century, the scientific knowledge of the interior of Tierra del Fuego and Cordillera Darwin further progressed significantly in geological, geomorphological and orographic aspects with the Swedish Scientific Expedition conducted by the polar explorer Dr. Otto Nordenskjöld, in 1895-96. He established the fundamentals for scientific knowledge on specific aspects for the entire region.

Figure 10 Map (A) and photograph (B) from the Romanche Expedition Report (Hyades, 1887).

In the 20th century, another Swedish expedition, led by botanist and explorer Carl Skottsberg, continued Nordenskjöld’s works by expanding the explorations to the western end of the Cordillera Darwin and Almirantazgo Fjord (Martinic, 1999). Thus, the maritime part of Tierra del Fuego and the shores of numerous fjords and channels were shown to the world and mapped thoroughly. However, the mountain ranges still remained inaccessible (Martinic, 1982). The documentation and exploration of these mountains was instead accomplished by one of the great explorers of Patagonia, the Italian priest Alberto de Agostini, who carried out more than 10 expeditions in 50 years and showed the world this magnificent area through his wonderful photographs and stories in books (Agostini, 1923; 1956; 1959). These contributions, complemented with his cartographic works, have been particularly valuable for the orographic and glaciological knowledge of the Fueguian Andes (Figure 11; Martinic 1999).

Figure 11 Map elaborated by Alberto de Agostini of the western end of the Cordillera Darwin. In red is shown the route carried out by the expedition that he leaded to the summit of Monte Sarmiento in 1956 (obtained from Agostini, 1959).

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It is necessary to also mention select other scientific and exploratory expeditions that contributed to the knowledge of Tierra del Fuego. The German marine and aviator Gunther Plüschow flew over Tierra del Fuego between 1928 and 1929, describing the lands and channels from the air. The Finnish geologist Väinö Auer established the basic chronology and characteristics of environmental changes during the past millennia. The Swedish geologist C. Carl Caldenius developed the geological history of the southern region based on geomorphological features of the late Quaternary glacial stages (Figure 12). In addition, ethnographic studies were carried out by Martin Gusinde to document the diversity of indigenous peoples in the region, while the floristic and phytogeographical studies of the botanist Edmundo Pisano documented the regional ecology (Martinic, 1999).

Figure 12 Map elaborated by Carl Caldenius of the southern end of South America (obtained from Caldenius, 1932).

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A major advance for understanding the region’s physical geography was made in 1945, when the United States Air Force (USAF) Trimetrogon campaign flew several flight lines adjacent to Isla Hoste, obtaining aerial images of the glaciers that form the Cloue Icefield (Figure 13). This campaign also covered the entirety of the Cordillera Darwin and much of Patagonia, and its photographs were used to develop improved cartographic maps for the region, including the first areal perspective of the islands’ glaciers.

Figure 13 USAF Trimetrogon oblique aerial images of the Cloue Icefield.

Later in the 20th century, advanced remote sensing instruments were developed to provide satellite imagery, enabling the development of a multi-temporal glacier inventory for this area. There have been two scientific articles published so far that explicitly mention the Cloue Icefield glaciers. Davies and Glasser (2012) provided an assessment of the historical shrinkage of the regions’ glaciers, including those on Isla Hoste. Bown and others (2014) were the first to separate the Isla Hoste glaciers from others in the region. However, these efforts were conducted without a field validation of any sort. As noted in the RGI Technical Reports, this region is particularly susceptible to misidentification of snow as glaciers, which could lead to substantial errors in the zone’s glacier inventories.

Among the major club journals, only one mountaineering trip has been reported for Isla Hoste: a Canadian-American expedition in 1989-90 (Figure 14). Team members accessed the icefield from the north, then spent a month camped on the icefield waiting out bad weather, but succeeded in climbing two peaks. This trip is summarized in the Canadian and American Alpine Journals (Wrobleski, 1990; 1992), although the higher ascended mountain is incorrectly identified as the highest on the peninsula, Monte Cloven/Cloue (pers. corr.).

Two additional excursions to Hoste Island are documented in expedition reports to the Club Andino de Ushuaia. The expedition of Luis Turi and Carolina Etchegoyen (2001) visited Cloue Peninsula as part of a sailing-mountaineering scouting expedition focused on the Cordillera Darwin. After weeks confined to the boat in the Cordillera Darwin, the pair was able to explore the marine-terminating glacier draining the icefield to the east into Fouque Fjord. After a single overnight camped in the glacier’s cirque, weather again closed in and prohibited any climbing; the team returned to the sailboat.

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Figure 14 Investigation of the 1989 Canadian-American expedition to resolve route and summits. The figure was prepared by Camilo Rada, who assisted with our communications with the 1989-90 expedition.

The later expedition of Gustavo Valdez and Guido Fischer (2002) did not visit the Cloue Peninsula, instead exploring and climbing several spires of Peninsula Dumas to the east, which are visible from Ushuaia.

Finally, it is known that the famous American climber Charlie Porter, who spent his later years in Patagonia sailing and exploring the fjords, was particularly fond of the area. Word from his colleagues and from the 1989-90 expedition report suggest a striking mountain range in spite of remarkably unfriendly weather.

A major limitation for the region’s exploration has been access. Permits for international sailboats to operate in the area have only been granted by the Chilean Navy since about 2000. The 1989-90 Canadian-American expedition was conveyed to their access point in Caleta Coloane by the Chilean Navy, and Charlie Porter was largely allowed to roam freely, but all other expeditions to the area have been subjected to careful evaluation by the Chilean authorities. More recently, private yachts have been able to obtain permits to access the region, and the waterways have been documented for this recreational purpose (Rolfo and Ardrizzi, 2015).

1.3 Objectives The INCOGNITA PATAGONIA project intended to explore the unknown Cloue Icefield in Hoste Island, at a minimum completing a West-East traverse and circumnavigating its coast to document the position of the glacier fronts and important geomorphological features. The project seeks to address the following overall goals and specific objectives:

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Specific objectives: 1. Delimit and characterise the glaciers of the Icefield to develop an improved multi-temporal glacier inventory of the Cloue Icefield. 2. Reconstruct the extents of glaciers in the Little Ice Age by observing and document the glacial geomorphology of the icefield surroundings. 3. Retrieve AWS records of meteorology for this largely unmonitored area for integration into regional meteorological networks, and compare these records to current state-of-the-art climate model outputs to identify modelling accuracy. 4. Enhance the cartographic documentation and exploratory history of Cloue Peninsula by resolving the altitudes of the highest peaks, accurately noting the positions of glacier termini, assessing fjord depths, and incorporating the achievements of the zone’s explorers. 5. Attempt to climb the highest peaks in the area, none of which have been previously attempted, and attempt to traverse the icefield.

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2. EXPEDITION TEAM

2.1 Participants

Evan Miles: Evan (US, currently based in UK, age 30) studies glaciology at the University of Cambridge’s Scott Polar Research Institute. He grew up in Portland, Oregon, and has climbed and ski-toured extensively along the US and Canadian west coast. Since moving to the UK, he has climbed regularly in the British Isles (Welsh and Scottish winter), ski-mountaineered in Svalbard and the Alps, and been fast-and-light climbing in the Nepal Himalaya (Langtang Himal) were he climbed a new ice route together with Ibai Rico. In winter 2014 he made the first historical ascent of Volcan Aguilera in the Southern Patagonia Icefield, together with Camilo Rada and the UNCHARTED team.

Ibai Rico: Ibai (Basque Country, age 34) has explored and climbed in Patagonia since 2008 establishing two ice-climbing new routes in Tierra del Fuego. He sailed to Cordillera Darwin in the winter and has extensive climbing experience in the Fitz Roy massif area. His passion with mountains has taken him to climb and ski in places such as the Arctic (Svalbard), the Alps, Kilimanjaro, Scottish Highlands, New Zealand Alps, the Great Caucasus, Yosemite and the Himalayas were he has recently put up a new ice route on the West face of an unnamed peak of 6212 m. Ibai works as a glaciologist in the Pyrenees, mountain guide and as an instructor at the University of the Basque Country. Guiding activities include kayak and glacier guide in Norway, mountain guide in the Alps, High Atlas of Morocco and the Caucasus.

Eñaut Izagirre: Eñaut (Basque country, age 26) is a ski-mountaineering specialist with ski and climbing experience in the Pyrenees, Norway and the Alps, and recently in Patagonia. He has been living 3 years in Punta Arenas (Chilean Patagonia), studying a MS in Glaciology and working at the University of Magallanes. He has participated in numerous sailing and kayaking expeditions into the Cordillera Darwin and the Patagonian fjords and channels. In 2015 he conducted a scientific expedition to the Marinelli glacier where the team climbed an unclimbed peak.

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2.1 Sailboat crew

Keri Lee-Pashuk: Keri (Canada, living in Puerto Eden, Chile) is a sailboat captain who has lived in Puerto Williams for more than 10 years and regularly provides support to scientists conducting fieldwork across Patagonia with her sailing boat Northanger, which will be our main logistical support. This is a fundamental necessity for the expedition due to Chilean permitting, which would normally aspire to largely self-supported travel.

Caesar Schinas: Caesar (UK, 25) has grown up on a sailboat as a part of his family's prolonged wandering of the oceans, always with the goal of exploring Patagonia (Schinas, 2008). He is an expert sailor and mechanic, and had been based in Patagonia for the six months prior to the expedition, familiarizing himself with the winds and currents within the channels and fjords.

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3. RESEARCH: GLACIER INVENTORY

3.1 Background Located near the southern tip of the continent (55º S), Hoste Island is mantled by glaciers covering 409.5 km2 (Bown et al., 2014). The majority of glaciers are concentrated on the Cloue peninsula to the island’s west, where the SW Beagle Channel opens to the Pacific Ocean. The complex of glaciers on this peninsula forms the southernmost icefield of the Andes range, and is located further south than South Georgia. Glaciers have been noted in the logs of early explorers and sailors, but few efforts have delineated the glaciers’ extent. These are limited to early cartographic maps and very recent regional (e.g. Bown et al., 2014) and global (Pfeffer et al, 2014) efforts. Consequently, an in-depth understanding of the changes to glaciers at the extreme southwest of Patagonia is forthcoming.

3.2 Methods To assess the contemporary glacier coverage and very recent changes in glacierised area, we used the well-established band-ratio method (e.g. Paul et al., 2002; 2013; 2016), which analyses multispectral imagery and takes advantage of the spectral characteristics of ice relative to other landcover types. In particular, the ratio is computed between satellite-observed near-infrared (NIR) and shortwave infrared (SWIR) digital numbers (DNs). The band-ratio results are smoothed with a median filter (3 pixel by 3 pixel kernel). The resulting values are inspected visually to determine a threshold value, which is used to segment the glacierised area. We analysed five datasets using this method, including data from Landsat (TM/OLI) and Sentinel-2 sensors spanning the period 1986-2017 (Table 1). These sensors differ slightly in resolution and spectral characteristics (Paul et al., 2016), but all have been successfully applied for glacier change analysis using the band ratio method.

To extend our assessment of glacier change farther back in history, we leverage two additional panchromatic (greyscale) datasets. Oblique aerial imagery collected by the US Air Force Trimetrogon project in 1945 covered the Cloue peninsula, and formed the basis for historical topographic and nautical maps. Additionally, stereo imagery covering Cloue was collected by the US spy satellite KH-3 “Corona” on 19 August 1966 and has been declassified (Ruffner, 1995). The date of this image corresponds to mid-winter, so the images are not ideal for glacier area identification due to extensive snow cover and deep shadows. Nonetheless, the images provide historical perspective not available from other methods. For both datasets, the resulting orthoimages must be georeferenced. We first identify non-glacierised tie-points manually in Erdas Imagine, then apply Erdas’ AutoSync Workstation, which uses these initial tie-points to automatically identify many other feature-based tie points, and greatly improves the statistical geolocation accuracy. Once properly registered, the orthoimages were interpreted visually, and the glacierised area was delineated manually.

The combination of different multispectral and panchromatic sensors enables us to examine late- summer glacier cover extending back to 1986, although the fickle Patagonian weather leads to some confusion between seasonal snow and glacier coverage. Consequently we expect some uncertainty with respect to the precision of glacier outlines. We assess the relative likelihood of snow cover confusion visually, and shrink the entire glacier outline by several pixels (depending on data quality) to describe a minimum coverage and likely range of glacier area for each dataset.

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Table 1. Satellite and aerial imagery used in this analysis. Scene%Date Sensor Type Altitude Bands%used Resolution%(m) 28/03/2017 Sentinel.2 Multispectral Satellite B8/B11 10 23/03/2015 Landsat8:OLI Multispectral Satellite B5/B7 30 08/03/2007 Landsat5:TM Multispectral Satellite B4/B5 30 23/01/1997 Landsat5:TM Multispectral Satellite B4/B5 30 01/01/1997 SAF Panchromatic Aerial Manual .. 26/02/1986 Landsat5:TM Multispectral Satellite B4/B5 30 20/03/1979 Landsat3:MSS Multispectral Satellite Manual 60 19/08/1966 Corona Panchromatic Aerial Manual .. 01/01/1945 Trimetrogon Panchromatic Aerial Manual ..

Due to the high latitude and variable topography of the study site, panchromatic and multispectral analyses can be confused by shadows and water-ice interfaces. Observations of glacier front positions, glaciers surface elevations, and bergschrund locations were made using handheld GPS units to assist with the satellite image interpretation. In addition, geomorphological interpretations of glacial landforms (Section 4) occasionally assisted in the interpretation of the panchromatic historical imagery.

Last, to produce an inventory from the 2017 glacier coverage, glacier divides were manually delineated with reference to the hole-filled CGIAR-CSI SRTM v4 3-arc-second (~90m resolution) digital elevation model (Jarvis et al., 2008).

3.3 Results We first present the 2017 glacier inventory for Cloue Icefield, which is derived from Sentinel-2 data. Based on a minimum area of 0.1 km2 (as in Pfeffer et al., 2014), we identify 49 glaciers (Figure 15). Of these, seven glaciers terminate in a lake, while five terminate in the sea. These 12 glaciers are much larger on average than the many land-terminating glaciers (mean area 12.8 km2 vs 1.1 km2). The land- terminating glaciers generally occupy a plateau (26) or isolated cirque (10), whereas water-terminating glaciers are more likely to be developed into a valley glacier with multiple source cirques and plateaus. Several glacier tongues are reconstituted from ice avalanches, and do not maintain a dynamic link to their accumulation areas. In total, the glaciers encompassed 195.85 km2 (planimetric) in March of 2017. These ice bodies covered most of the higher terrain on Cloue Peninsula, with a median elevation of 750 m compared to the peninsula’s median elevation of 400 m (Figure 16).

Considering the multidecadal change in area, the relatively low quantity and quality of historic aerial and satellite datasets posed an observational challenge. Due to the inconsistency of observational coverage, and occasional sea-level snowfall even during the ablation season, the observed glacier area does not have a clear trend at face value (Table 2), although direct overlay reveals a substantial reduction in glacier area over the observational period (Figure 17). Comparing the datasets with the smallest errors due to snow, Cloue Icefield experienced an area loss of 50.2 km2 between 1945 and 2017 (20.4% loss). By comparing each partial-coverage dataset with all other full-coverage datasets, we note that the rate of loss has increased in recent years (Figure 18). The 2015-2017 period is not likely to represent a real reduction in area loss, as the 2015 Landsat data was moderately snow-affected, but recent area

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reductions are about 1% per year. Meanwhile, misclassification of seasonal snow in the 2007 Landsat data shows an apparent increase in glacier area that is not real.

Figure 15 The 2017 glacier inventory for Cloue Peninsula, showing all ice bodies >0.1 km2 in area. Backdrop is the 28 March 2017 Sentinel-2 visual-band data from which the inventory was developed.

Figure 16 Hypsometry of 2017 glacierised area and Cloue Peninsula as a whole.

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Table 2. Historical icefield area observed each dataset, also noting the observable portion of the icefield and a qualitative description of the challenge posed by snow for each dataset. Satellite Date Percent,coverage Ice,area,(km2) Snow,extent Sentinel'2 28/03/2017 100 195,85 Negligible Landsat89OLI 23/03/2015 100 216,54 Moderate Landsat59TM 08/03/2007 100 228,13 Moderate Landsat59TM 23/01/1997 90 215,25 Negligible SAF 19/06/1905 15 33,93 Minor Landsat59TM 26/02/1986 95 221,26 Minor Landsat39MSS 20/03/1979 85 205,33 Minor Corona 19/08/1966 95 227,72 Major Trimetrogon 01/01/1945 100 246,06 Negligible

Reductions in glacier area are not evenly distributed. While terrestrial glaciers have marginally retreated, the growth of moraine-dammed lakes has been pronounced. The icefield’s few tidewater glaciers have greatly retreated as well, in many cases disconnecting from the sea. In the Acix Fjord system, glaciers retreated 3km following loss of tributaries and disconnect from upglacier areas. One key exception to the general pattern of retreat is Fouque Glacier, which drains the icefield to the east into Fouque Fjord. This glacier has undergone a cyclic pattern of advance and retreat, never more than a few hundred meters. It is possible that this glacier rests on a deformable bed, and its cycle of retreat and advance is related to the excavation of this material into Fouque Fjord, followed by progressive build-up.

Figure 17 Glacier coverage for each scene, showing widespread retreat of outlet glaciers and marginal retreat of terrestrial (plateau) glaciers. Challenges of snow misclassification are also evident for 2007 in the western portion of the icefield.

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3.4 Discussion and Conclusions The enhanced recent retreat of Cloue Icefield’s glaciers is in agreement with the general pattern of glacier area loss in Patagonia, although the annual rate of loss (about 1% per year) is high for the region, which has had area loss rates of about 0.2% per year since 2001 (Davies and Glasser, 2012). Although the area loss appears to be gradual and progressive overall, changes at individual glaciers were isolated and rapid. For example, the separation of glacier tongues and progressive deglaciation of Acix Fjord was mostly accomplished before 1986, while the expansion of lakes at the head of Fouque Fjord occurred quickly in the 1990s. More recently, the large glacier tongue draining the icefield has experienced flotation and fragmentation, leading to rapid retreat.

Figure 18 Rates of glacier area loss over the study period, computed based on the reduction of glacier area within the common observed area between two scenes. Image dates are indicated by dashed lines, and individual rate estimates are coloured uniquely.

The relatively rapid area loss is likely the result of decreased accumulation (due to increasing mean temperatures and a rising ELA) and decreased supply to glacier outlets. The slight double peak in icefield hypsometry reflects the difference in elevation between the upper icefield plateau and outlet glaciers. These two have historically been dynamically connected through icefalls, but decreased mass supply to the upper plateaus has led to the thinning and disconnection of these ice masses in many places. Consequently, mass supply to the outlet glaciers is primarily accomplished by seracfall rather that ice dynamics, and these glaciers are now generally reconstituted glaciers.

The future evolution of this system is likely to be dominated by melt processes and further retreat. The relatively low median and maximum elevations for Cloue Icefield make it particularly susceptible to increasing temperatures, as continued warming will eventually enable a change of precipitation phase for much of the accumulation area. In this case, the extreme exposure to Pacific storms bringing intense rainfall will further contribute to the glaciers’ demise. Considering the heightened retreat rates exhibited by the Icefield’s glaciers in recent years, it is clear that such extreme precipitation is no longer supplying sufficient mass to maintain the historic terminus positions.

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Although glacial lakes have already formed for many outlet glaciers, several large valley glaciers have not yet expressed retreat. It is likely that some of these glaciers lie over bed overdeepenings, and will soon enter a cycle of proglacial lake formation and retreat, which may increase the rate of glacier area loss for the coming decades. In particular, this is likely the case for the two large glaciers draining the icefield to the southwest, both of which have already developed growing proglacial lakes.

It is important to note that there is considerable uncertainty with respect to the exact glacier outlines and retreat rates resulting from this analysis. In particular, out-of-season snowfall is a regular occurrence in Patagonia and leads to considerable misclassification of some glacier areas. Modern satellite systems largely avoid this problem due to their observational frequency, but historical data are sometimes difficult to analyse with confidence in this region. In addition, different areal coverage of the source datasets makes direct comparison very challenging.

Despite the challenges of limited historical data quantity and quality for Patagonia, we find glacierised areas and rates of glacier area loss similar to that reported in other studies (Davies and Glasser, 2011; Bown et al., 2012). The most recent data suggest a total glacierised area of 195.85 km2 retreating at a considerable rate of about 1% per year. We expect that the area will continue to rapidly undergo deglaciation as the trends of reduced accumulation and proglacial lake expansion continue.

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4. RESEARCH: GLACIAL GEOMORPHOLOGY

4.1 Background Patagonia contains some of the longest and best-preserved glacial records in the world (Clapperton, 1993). The region is an area of interest for palaeoclimatic research because of its position in relation to important atmospheric and oceanic circulation systems, including the Southern Westerly Winds and the Antarctic Circumpolar Current (Ackert et al., 2008; Boex et al., 2013; Kaplan et al., 2008; Moreno et al., 2009; Murray et al., 2012; Strelin et al., 2014). The southern reaches of Patagonia extend closer to Antarctica than any other continent and so researchers have targeted the region to understand interhemispheric glacial (a)synchrony (García et al., 2012; Moreno et al., 2001; Severinghaus, 2009; Sugden et al., 2005).

Contemporary glaciation in Patagonia is restricted to three major icefields (the North and South Patagonia Icefields, and the Cordillera Darwin Icefield on Tierra del Fuego), few smaller icefields (such as Gran Campo Nevado, Santa Ines and Cloue Icefields) and several mountain glaciers scattered around the region (Figure 19). In recent years, the retreat of glaciers of the Cordillera Darwin between the Little Ice Age and present has been studied in detail (Bown et al., 2014; Davies & Glasser, 2012; DGA 2011; Holmlund & Fuenzalida, 1995; Koppes et al., 2009; López et al., 2010; Melkonian et al., 2013; Porter & Santana, 2003). In contrast, neoglacial fluctuations (during the Holocene, after the last termination and before the Little Ice Age) of the Cordillera Darwin glaciers have received relatively little attention (Boyd et al., 2008; Kuylenstierna et al., 1996; Strelin et al., 2008), but there are not published studies for the Cloue Icefield.

The lack of Holocene studies around the Cloue Icefield is partly due to a poor understanding of the detailed glacial geomorphology, and the extreme remoteness and adverse weather conditions of the area have resulted in very few field-based maps. Cloue Icefield was included in a regional map of Patagonian glacial geomorphology (Glasser & Jansson, 2008; Glasser et al., 2008). However, this mapping was conducted at a necessarily coarse scale and recorded only the largest landforms in the study area, marking only few moraine ridges of some of the icefield’s outlet glaciers. In addition to Glasser & Jansson’s (2008) map, small regions of the Holocene glacial geomorphology have been mapped in detail for the Monte Sarmiento massif area (Strelin et al., 2008) and Pia fjord area (Kuylenstierna et al., 1996). To date, high-resolution (10 m) mapping of the Cloue Icefield glacial geomorphology has been lacking.

In this study, we combine mapping from satellite and aerial imagery with fieldwork to improve the Holocene glacial geomorphology of the study area. The map presented here is designed to enable a refined reconstruction of the glacial history of two rapidly receding glaciers in a climatologically significant part of the world, and can be used as the basis for future chronological campaigns.

4.2 Methods We conducted geomorphological mapping using a combination of remote sensing analysis, bathymetric survey and field validation. Aerial photographs and satellite imagery were used to provide the most rigorous interpretation of the glacial geomorphology before selected areas were examined in the field.

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4.2.1 Imagery Our initial mapping used Landsat OLI scenes from the USGS Global Visualization Viewer (GLOVIS; https://glovis.usgs.gov/). These cover an area of 185 × 185 km and have a spatial resolution of 30 m, increased to 15 m using the panchromatic band 8. Landsat imagery was then supplemented with ESA Sentinel-2 images from 2016 and 2017 (spatial resolution of 10 m in four visible and near-infrared bands), downloaded from the Alaska Satellite Facility (VERTEX; https://vertex.daac.asf.alaska.edu/). Terra ASTER images from the NASA’s Earth Observing System Data and Information System (EOSDIS; https://reverb.echo.nasa.gov/reverb/) were also used, covering an area of 60 x 60 km, with a spatial resolution of 15 m.

Where possible, such as the Fouque fjord area and the eastern edge of the Cloue Icefield, we used aerial photographs in preference to satellite images and these revealed features that were absent from previous mapping. A total of 3 vertical aerial photographs were used (all scanned hard copies with ~5 m resolution from the Servicio Aerofotogramétrico de la Fuerza Aérea de Chile). Where aerial photographs were not clear enough, BingMaps© often provided freely-available 2013 DigitalGlobe images of only slightly lower resolution (up to ~5-15 m).

Geomorphological mapping was overlain on Digital Elevation Models constructed from Shuttle Radar Topographic Mission (SRTM) data (3 arcsec data - 90 m resolution, and 1 arcsec data - 30 resolution) from the USGS EarthExplorer depository, ASTER Global Digital Elevation Map (GDEM) data (1 arcsec data, 30 m resolution) from the NASA Reverb depository, and Radiometric Terrain Corrected (RTC) ALOS PALSAR Global Radar Imagery (12.5 m resolution) from the VERTEX depository. The elevation models provided topographic context and were also used to identify some features only visible as subtle changes in topography.

The fieldwork during the expedition in March-April 2016 allowed us to cross-check features mapped from remote imagery. Fieldwork was conducted using a dinghy to access the main study areas of the perimeter around the icefield. The remote and challenging nature of the field area meant that it not possible to cover the entire ~550 km2 study area on the ground and so we targeted key elements of the geomorphological sequence (Figure 20). Due to Chilean Navy permitting, the expedition was not allowed to pass through the fjords to the southwest and south of the peninsula.

4.2.2 Geomorphological mapping In total, 11 types of glacial features were mapped as line and/or polygon symbols using QGIS software (version 2.18.7), in terms of their morphology and appearance (Darvill et al., 2014). These were: contemporary glaciers, glacial cirques, ice-scoured bedrock, submerged moraines, moraine ridges, forested moraines, glacial sediments, outwash plains, proglacial lakes, former shorelines and meltwater channels. Rivers, lakes, alluvial fans and mountain peaks were also mapped and overlain on a SRTM3 DEM to provide a broader landscape context (Table 3).

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Table 3. Criteria used for the identification of the geomorphological landforms by satellite imagery (adapted from Glasser et al. 2005, Glasser et al. 2008, Davies & Glasser 2012, Darvill et al. 2014). Landform/feature Identification criteria Possible identification errors Glaciological significance Morphology Colour/structure/texture Contemporary glaciers Bare ice, snow and debris. Surface Snow and ice appear white to light blue in Possible overestimation in glacier Foci for ice discharge from structures such as crevasses and colour, with smooth to rough surfaces. extent if confused with snow cover. the contemporary icefield. seracs are common. Debris-covered ice is grey to black in colour. Glacial cirques Large amphitheatre-shaped hollows on Sharp boundaries with surrounding terrain, Possible confusion with mass- Indicate the presence of mountain flanks or incised into including cliffs. movement or landslip scars localised or restricted plateau edges. especially beneath volcanic mountain glaciation. plateaux. Ice-scoured bedrock Widespread exposures of bare or Grey to light pink when vegetation cover is Possible underestimation where Evidence for extensive areas lightly vegetated bedrock, often present. Bedrock structures and faults bedrock is obscured by vegetation. of former ice at pressure- containing small lake basins and often present. Upper surface often has a melting point. open joints. rough, irregular texture. Moraine ridges Prominent, cross-valley single or Shading due to change in relief and change in Possible confusion with trimlines Mark former positions of multiple ridges with positive relief. colour where moraines are vegetated. where moraines have low relative outlet glaciers. Linear, curved, sinuous or saw- height. toothed shape in platform. Forested moraine Undulating topography within which Texture/colour difference from adjacent Extent of morainic material difficult Marks approximate extent of complexes distinctive moraine ridges occur. terrain. Presence of moraine ridges. to delimit on imagery. ice-marginal deposition. Elevated above surrounding terrain and heavily forested. Glacial sediments or Depositional landforms, usually Light brownish-greyish colour upstream of Possible underestimation with ice- Marks recent glacier frontal deposits composed by recent till and the forested moraine complexes, and scoured bedrock. variations. glaciofluvial material. usually common surrounding contemporary glaciers. Outwash plains Valley floor accumulations of Flat appearance, mainly light red areas with Possible confusion with delta or ice- Show major drainage routes sediment, commonly dissected by a medium grey where there is thin contact deposits. from glaciers and glacier- braided stream pattern. vegetation cover. Erosional scars and sharp fed streams. boundaries with surrounding terrain. Proglacial lakes Freshwater bodies impounded at the Lakes appear as dark blue to light-brownish Areas in the shadow of high relative Interrupt the delivery of edge of a glacier or at the margin of blue, showing diluted sediments, and with relief or clouds may be mistaken meltwater and sediment to an ice sheet. sharp boundaries with surrounding terrain. for lakes. proglacial zones and Variety of shapes possible. ultimately to oceans.

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Former shorelines Raised terraces, often running parallel Shading due to change in height or relative Possible confusion with moraines, Indicate former lake or sea or sub-parallel to modern coastline relief. Change in colour if former shorelines especially around major lakes levels. Some lake shorelines or lake shoreline. are vegetated. Many shorelines mirror the where both shorelines and indicate the presence of a shape of existing coastlines or lake moraines may be present and have former ice-dammed lake. margins. similar orientations. May be missed where the location of a paleo-lake is not previously known. Former meltwater Channels, without contemporary Generally sinuous in form and often Possible confusion with Indicate the routes of former channels drainage. occurring in combination with moraine contemporary drainage routes. meltwater drainage. ridges, running against contemporary Channels may indicate the drainage direction. Channel floors may be position of a former ice different in colour to surrounding land. margin, especially when in association with moraines. Mountain peaks Mountain peaks, often pyramidal in Dark colours with possible shading and rough Possible misplacement due to snow Divides one or more present shape due to glacial erosion on two texture. or ice on the summit. A DEM helps or former ice masses. or more sides. to pinpoint the exact summit. Lakes Freshwater bodies within enclosed Lakes appear as blue to black, with sharp Areas in the shadow of high relative Indicate impeded drainage basins. boundaries with surrounding terrain. relief or clouds may be mistaken and can result from rock Variety of shapes possible. for lakes. basins formed by glacial over-deepening. Rivers and streams Channels of water draining a valley. Colours vary from blue to black, with sharp Indicate contemporary boundaries with surrounding terrain. drainage routes and may be sourced from modern glaciers. Alluvial fans Sub-horizontal fans on valley sides, Fan shaped accumulations with sharp Possible misinterpretation as fossil Reworking of unconsolidated often fed by meltwater channels or boundaries with surrounding terrain due to delta or ice-contact deposit. material by contemporary streams. change in vegetation cover. Often possess meltwater channels and a pattern of braided streams on upper streams. surfaces.

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4.2.3 Bathymetric survey Before of our visit, many of the peninsula's fjords have not been entered due to shallow entrances, and nautical charts of the area are devoid of depth measures. Bathymetric measurements of the inner fjords were carried out using commercial depth finders from the Northanger sailboat’s dinghy during the circumnavigation of the Cloue peninsula (Figure 21), which was focused only on the north and east coasts due to permit restrictions.

We conducted a whole preliminary bathymetric survey of the Acix Fjord, north side of the icefield, where a quasi-emerged terminal moraine restricts the entrance of the boats. Using the dinghy, we took depth data together with GPS data to develop a preliminary bathymetry chart of this fjord. We had some troubles to cover the whole basin since large amount of drifting ice in some parts and ice mélange in the inner part avoid the data compilation (Figure 22).

4.2.4 Dendrochronology Dendrochronology is the science that deals with the dating and study of the annual growth layers, or tree rings, in woody trees and shrubs. In temperate climates, these layers of wood (tree rings) contain seasonal cell structures (earlywood and latewood) that signify one annual growth ring.

When all the trees at a site are affected by a common environmental factor, such as climate (dendroclimatology), glacier advance/recession (dendroglaciology) or lake filling/draining (dendro- geomorphology), crossdating provides an accurate chronological record that can be used to date events or describe variations in environmental conditions (Fritts, 1976; Luckman, 1988; Masiokas et al., 2009). Due to annual resolution possible throughout an entire tree-ring record, dendrochronological analyses provide both reliable and ubiquitous archives for paleoenvironmental reconstruction.

4.3 Results The glacier geomorphological mapping activities of the team focused on 1) major stable terminus positions since the last glacial maximum (LGM) including the terminus positions during the Little Ice Age (LIA), and 2) recent changes in glacial geomorphology due to exceptional surface processes.

In total, 11 different glacial features were mapped as line and/or polygon symbols using QGIS software (version 2.14.7). These were: contemporary glaciers, glacial cirques, ice-scoured bedrock, submerged moraines, moraine ridges, forested moraine complexes, glacial sediments or deposits, outwash plains, proglacial lakes, former shorelines and former meltwater channels. Climbed peaks, lakes, sea, rivers and alluvial fans were also mapped to provide a broader topographic context (Figure 19).

As part of the first focus, the expedition explored and surveyed the three fjords to the north of the Cloue Icefield, all of which contain major outlet glaciers that have experienced recent retreat. Only one of the three fjords can be easily entered via sailboat, so small craft were used widely to assess fjord depths. Two of the fjords contain land terminating glaciers at present, but the moraine positions within the fjords (both terrestrial and submarine) were located and provide meaningful information about prior glacier extents. Meanwhile, the third fjord (Acix fjord) has a pair of marine-terminating glaciers

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that are rapidly retreating; the stable terminus positions within this fjord were mapped by an extensive sonar survey by Eñaut and Caesar (first mate aboard Northanger) using small craft (Figure 20).

Figure 19 Geomorphology map of the study area, highlighting the glacial geomorphology features around the icefield. Backdrop is the SRTM-3 Digital Elevation Model to show the main topographic context.

Figure 20 Panoramic photo of the inner part of Acix fjord where the a pair of marine-terminating glaciers are nowadays disconnected from their accumulation areas, which make difficult their continuation to the sea level and will soon pass to be hanging land- terminating glaciers.

Additionally, several outlet glaciers were observed to the east of the Cloue icefield, accessible from Fouque Fjord. This included mapping and surveying of LIA moraines for several terrestrial glaciers at the southernmost end of the fjord, where recent glacier retreat has led to the formation of large moraine- dammed terminal lakes, the exploration of two recently deglacierized valleys accessible from the fjord,

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and observation of the large Fouque Glacier at the fjord midpoint, first visited in the 1880’s by the Romanche expedition.

The explorations and terminus observations led to more detailed investigations of certain glaciological phenomena. First, very young moraines of unvegetated till were observed at two Cloue glaciers and one glacier in the Cordillera de Darwin. Glacier advances deposited these moraines recently; all three young moraines were mapped to assess the unusual behaviour of the corresponding glaciers. Second, one glacier near Fouque Fjord showed signs of a glacial outburst flood in the last 20-30 years, evidenced by an impressive 80 m tall cut out of the moraine structure and a continuous change in forest structure at the former lake level (Figure 21). This set of features was a focus of manual mapping and a photogrammetric survey was carried out to more accurately measure the volume of water discharged in the outburst flood, while a tree core of the lower vegetation will help bound the date of the outburst event. Finally, other recent trimlines in the fjord and glaciated valleys were observed and noted to consider LIA and more recent glacier thicknesses.

Figure 21 Break in the moraine wall associated with the Glacial Lake Outburst Flood in Fouque Fjord. The moraine crest is 65 m above the current stream lake level.

4.4 Discussion and Conclusions The geomorphological mapping and basic glaciological observations carried out during the expedition are extremely useful for understanding the changes in the region’s glaciers in recent history as well as the long term. On-site observations of glacier terminus positions and settings provided a rich context in which the project can understand changes seen in the satellite record. The field observations of uncommon glaciological phenomena were stimulating and generated many follow-up research questions for Cloue glaciers. The map presented here is the first preliminary understanding of the detailed geomorphology and recent glacial history, and can be used as the basis of the future chronological campaigns.

A large proglacial lake experienced an outburst flood in late 1998. One marine-terminating glacier has advanced, building a terminal moraine at sea level, and is now dry-calving. The upper plateau of the icefield is often disconnected from glacier tongues; mass transfer generally occurs via avalanches.

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For the Covadonga Lake, remote-sensing techniques complemented with the detailed mapping and the dendro-geomorphological dating of the lake level drop have provided quantitative information of the GLOF event occurred between 1997-98 (Figure 22).

Figure 22 Expansion of proglacial lakes in the inner part of Fouque Fjord from 1945 to 2017, and the GLOF event in Covadonga Lake. The 1945 reconstruction is based on the USAF Trimetrogon oblique aerial image, the 1996 reconstruction was done with the SAF aerial image, and the 2017 mapping was developed with the 28 March 2017 Sentinel-2 visual-band data.

Related to this Glacial Lake Outburst Flood (GLOF) studied in Cloue Peninsula, we noted a remarkable coincidence in timing with another GLOF occurred in the southeastern part of Cordillera Darwin. Next to Roncagli Glacier, the ice-dammed Lago Mateo Martinic has an average area of 9.85 km2, and as observed by satellite imagery, the lake has undergone repeated GLOF events since 1985, including 1997/98, 2002/03, 2006, 2010, 2013, and 2016 (Oct-Nov; Figure 23).

Figure 23 Recent GLOF event of the Lago Mateo Martinic captured by photographer Guy Wenborne in December 3, 2016.

These two lakes drained between March 1997 and February 1998, suggesting a possible common cause, such as an earthquake for example. However, both dam types (moraine-dammed in Cloue Peninsula, and ice-dammed in Cordillera Darwin) have structural instabilities (spillway erosion and subglacial drainage) that can lead to sudden positive feedback and catastrophic change.

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5. RESEARCH: METEOROLOGICAL DATA

5.1 Background Climate in southern Patagonia can be described as cool and windy, with fairly small diurnal and seasonal temperature cycles (Coronato & Bisigato, 1998; Endlicher, 1991; Schneider et al., 2003; Weischet, 1985). Strong westerly winds are dominant due to limited friction within the west wind belt zone of the Southern Hemisphere, essentially because there is little landmass between 40º S and 60º S when compared to the Northern Hemisphere (Cerveny, 1998).

Tierra del Fuego is the southern end of the Andes and runs NW to SE, forming an orographic obstacle approximately perpendicular to the dominant wind direction (Endlicher and Santana, 1988). Precipitation should be strongest in the central part of the Cordillera Darwin Icefield, as is the case in other icefields of the southern Patagonia (Carrasco et al., 2002; Casassa et al., 2000; Schneider et al., 2003). Despite this strong spatial gradient of precipitation no measurements of climate parameters from permanently operated automatic weather stations (AWSs) have been published from the Cordillera Darwin mountain range itself. The only notable exception is a dispersed network of AWSs established by Charlie Porter and Nicolás Butorovic in 2002 around the Beagle Channel. Data from these stations were published by Santana et al. (2006) as the first meteorological measurements across the Beagle Channel and compared with the longer record from Punta Arenas.

Under the cover of his foundation (Patagonia Research Foundation) and with the support of the Universidad de Magallanes (UMAG) and the CEQUA Foundation (Centro de Estudios del Cuaternario de Tierra del Fuego, Patagonia y Antártica), C. Porter periodically visited the AWSs between 2002 and his unfortunate death in 2014 (Figure 24). Since his passing, few stations have been revisited, and our aim was to provide maintenance for some of theses stations located around the study area, also taking the opportunity to gather the extremely valuable meteorological data. These data would be very useful to evaluate the recent meteorological changes and its link with glacier behaviours.

Figure 24 Locations of AWS stations established by Charlie Porter and needing maintenance. Incognita Patagonia team visited the AWS in Cloue Peninsula, near our icefield approach route, and the two AWS stations south of the Cordillera de Darwin, which are located along the Beagle Channel, in Pia fjord and on Diablo Island.

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5.2 Methods The team planned to find several AWSs installed by C. Porter to download data and perform basic maintenance. However, the specific locations of each of these AWSs were not published, and C. Porter’s scientific notes are currently unavailable. We were supplied with geographical coordinates of the AWS locations accurate to a single decimal place (equivalent to about a 5 miles radius). To locate the stations, we had to apply triangulation methods based on identifiable terrain features in old photographs given by N. Butorovic (UMAG), along with large amounts of intuition to try to figure out the possible location of each AWS (Figure 25).

Figure 25 Comparing old photographs and the surrounding topography, the boat team used QGIS software for geographical triangulation and assess accurate posibilities for the AWS location (left); then, they marked the locations on the field maps and check if their assessments were correct (right).

Before our departure, N. Butorovic told us that all the AWSs in our study area were located at low elevations, because C. Porter always wanted to visit the stations alone, leaving the boat as near as possible to each site. Nicolás also told us that each AWS measured air temperature, precipitation, solar radiation, wind speed and direction, and barometric pressure data (Table 4).

Table 4. Hobo AWS instrumentation and sensors. Variable Instrument Range Resolution Accuracy Pressure Barometer S-BPA-CM10 660 – 1070 mbar 0,1 mbar ± 5,0 mbar Air Temperature Thermometer S-TMB-M002 -40º – 100 ºC ± 0,03 ºC ± 0,2 ºC 2 2 Solar radiation Piranometer S-LIB-M003 0 – 1280 W/m 1,25 W/m ± 10 W/m2 Precipitation Gauge S-RGB-M002 0 – 12,7 cm 0,2 mm ± 1% hasta 20 mm Wind (speed) Anemometer S-WSB-M003 0 – 76 m/s 0,5 m/s ± 1,1 m/s Wind (direction) Vane S-WDA-M003 0 – 355 degrees 1,4 degrees ± 5 degrees

However, he also added that they might not be functioning as they had old Hobo H21 dataloggers, which work with lithium batteries, and they do not have an option to install a solar panel. Being aware of that, Northanger had aboard a new Hobo U30 and a solar panel (kindly given by Onset Computer Corporation) that we planned to exchange with one of the older H21 dataloggers in a location that the team thought would be the most useful and accessible for future expeditions and projects.

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5.3 Results As the expedition sailed first to the Cloue Peninsula, the boat group had the chance to visit the broken down AWS Cloue first. Later, the team detoured via the southern portion of the Cordillera de Darwin on its return from the Cloue peninsula to Puerto Williams, and the team visited another pair of stations (AWS Pia and AWS Diablo) where they were able to download the observations for the last few years and maintain the stations with new sensors and minor improvements.

5.3.1 AWS Cloue The boat team (Keri, Caesar and Eñaut) reached this AWS (55º07.718’ S, 69º59.161’ W) on 17 March 2016, entering Bahía Rafagales from the North and mooring Northanger on a precarious anchorage, and then walking through the peat and swamps to the station. The AWS was not working and it looked that the datalogger was broken down (possibly because water had entered the casing). The recovered dataset started at 14:30 on 14 May 2006 and finished at 23:30 on 15 May 2006, so a bit more than 24 hours and then the batteries lasted until 5 September 2008. It seemed that the previous person (possibly C. Porter) that reconfigured the AWS in 2006 did not close the datalogger appropriately. The team decided to take off the datalogger and leave the sensor cables well covered for future research possibilities, but due to its hard-to-access location this seemed an illogical location to re-establish a long-term AWS (Figure 26).

Figure 26 Caesar and Keri reaching the AWS Cloue, while the hailing weather offers a break (left); The station was disabled, but the tripod and sensors were left there well covered (right).

5.3.2 AWS Pia As the team sailed to the southern part of Cordillera Darwin on their return trip to Puerto Williams, the last week was spent inside the Pia Fjord, and the boat team searched for C. Porter’s AWS in the SW bay of the fjord.

After crossing a complex of moraine ridges covered by a dense and wet Coigüe forest, the AWS was found on a large peat bog next to the Beagle Channel (54º49.568’ S, 69º43.710’ W). C. Porter and N. Butorovic installed this station in June 2004 and C. Porter most recently revisited it on 10 February 2012.

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On 3 April 2016, the boat team downloaded the data and it covered a period starting at 13:00 on 10 February 2012 and finishing at 23:30 on 30 October 2015. The sensors had been set to sample environmental conditions every second and to record averages for each half-hour. Then, back in Northanger, all the downloaded measurements were averaged to hourly, daily, and monthly values (Figure 27). These analyses were performed with common statistical programs and electronic forms.

Figure 27 Daily precipitation (mm) registered in AWS Pia, southern part of Cordillera Darwin, and AWS Ainsworth, northern part of it, showing the strong precipitation gradient due to the orographic effect of the mountain range.

Additionally, the boat team changed the old H21 datalogger with a new U30 datalogger and a solar panel in addition to the battery power supply (Figure 28). Meanwhile, all the sensors seemed to be working well and we re-launched the AWS, with the same setting as before to continue registering the meteorological data of this interesting location, due to its proximity to advancing glaciers in the inner arms of the Pia fjord. We are confident that we will be able to revisit the station as part of a future project and expect that it will continue to collect data thanks in part to the new datalogger and solar panel.

Figure 28 Eñaut downloading the meteorological data of the AWS Pia, with the old H21 datalogger (left); then, the team replaced the old datalogger with the new U30, and Caesar as an expert in electronics checked the last connections before to relaunch the AWS and close the waterproof case (right).

5.3.3 AWS Diablo While Northanger was moored in Caleta Olla, and before the last sailing days to Puerto Williams, Eñaut and Caesar travelled to Diablo Island using small craft. Keri and her husband Greg Landreth, aboard Northanger, had previously visited this AWS and removed its broken down datalogger, so its location was known at the highest point of the island (54º57.350’ S, 69º07.500’ W).

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Eñaut and Caesar carried an old H21 datalogger that EE had repaired aboard Northanger and installed it on the tripod, together with a temporary plywood arm for the wind direction sensor (Figure 29). The datalogger was launched again. It was necessary to remove the pendant thermometer to download the data on our way back in Punta Arenas, since it needed a specific coupler for the downloading process. Unfortunately, Caesar passed with his family aboard Mollymawk yacht some months later and he discovered that the station was again not working.

Figure 29 Caesar installing a temporary plywood arm previously made on Northanger (left), and the AWS Diablo as we left it, with the Beagle Channel behind (right).

5.4 Discussion and Conclusions In total, three AWS locations were revisited, not without difficulties, during the expedition and data was downloaded in two of them after C. Porter last visited them in 2014. AWS Cloue had a datalogger fault, which limited the period of record, while Pia station functioned well until the batteries ran down in 2015. Pia and Diablo stations were re-equipped with some components salvaged from Cloue (the most remote), which was disabled (but the tripod and sensors were left there). On the other hand, AWS Beaulieu could not be located and neither were the timelapse cameras inside the NW arm of Pia Fjord.

The data recovered in AWS Pia will be a significant contribution for local networks, and will be compared with other station datasets around Cordillera Darwin. The importance of this specific station is due to its location; it is located on the southern part of the mountain range, for which there are no other in situ observations, and its proximity to some advancing outlet glaciers could give new clues of the local topoclimatic conditions.

Finally, these data could eventually be evaluated as part of the Atmospheric Downscaling for Glacierized mountain environments (DoG) project, which focuses at the development, application and rigorous validation of a state-of-the-art downscaling framework for glacierized mountain environments situated in a diversity of climatic and geo-environmental settings.

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6. CARTOGRAPHY AND HISTORY

6.1 Local Information A main aim of the scientific research in the Cloue icefield and its surroundings is to improve the cartography of the peninsula, producing a freely-available high-quality map of the region on our return. Measurements will focus on the glacier terminii and historical moraines, topographic features, and cartographic corrections of the ice cap's summits. Toponymy and cultural heritage will also be gathered and reflected on the map. Bathymetric measurements will also be performed in several of the peninsula's shallow fjords to increase the knowledge about the peninsula's history of glaciation. These measurements will provide novel information about a largely unexplored area, drastically improving the glaciological understanding of the region while using basic field methods. The final freely-available map will be the eventual output of the exploratory part of the expedition. This map will be a tool for future explorers and scientists in order to make informed decisions.

The team’s presence in the region has greatly improved the cartographic documentation for the project’s planned map. First, discussions with local historians, sailors, and climbers enabled the team to annotate the map with excursions to the icefield periphery, known safe moorings, and some conventional place names.

The team was able to gain access to locally archived maps, sailing literature, and a report from another expedition (previously unknown, and unsuccessful from a mountaineering perspective) investigating access possibilities for the Cloue icefield; some place names and notes have been adopted from these sources. Notably, one of the few photographs presented in the Romanche report pictures Fouque Glacier, and repeating this photograph suggests that the photographer was a short distance inland; this was the first European exploration of the icefield (Figure 30). Based on these data sources, the map is now sparsely populated with place names (most are conventional, but not official) and previous explorers’ activities and accomplishments.

6.2 Expedition History Second, discussions with the 1989 expedition team members led to questions about the exact approach and summit achievements of that trip, relative to reports in the CAJ and AAJ. A comparison with modern imagery (not previously available to the 1989 team) and comparisons with expedition photos suggested different summit locations, and revealed a higher mountain on the icefield than climbed by that team. The icefield traverse confirmed the adjusted route and summit locations; these are indicated on our expedition map.

Communicating with local explorers and experts in the area, we discovered several reports of previous short expeditions to Hoste Island, including to the Cloue peninsula. In particular, the 2001 exploratory expedition of Luis Turi and Carolina Etchegoyen penetrated far up Fouque Glacier before being pushed back by weather; the trip was unsuccessful in terms of mountaineering but indicated that an approach or descent down this glacier was possible. In addition, local sailors advised us of several accessible routes from local moorings, some to prominent points on the peninsula’s periphery. Each of these known routes has been indicated on the expedition map.

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Finally, the expedition’s accomplishments are also to be noted on the map, including measured peak altitudes and suggested names. Consequently, the information contained within the map has improved greatly in quantity and quality, and Incognita Patagonia will be proposing the official adoption of some names to the official body in Chile, the Instituto Geográfico Militar (IGM).

Figure 30 Fouque Glacier in 1882-83 by the Romanche expedition (left) and a similar perspective captured by Incognita Patagonia (right). The terminus of this particular glacier is actually in an advanced position relative to the oldest data available (1945).

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7. ADVENTUROUS ACTIVITIES

7.1 Traverse of the Cloue Icefield Travelling from Puerto Williams, Chile, to Hoste Island in the sailboat Northanger, the Incognita Patagonia team arrived on the 13th of March to Estero Coloane in the northwest region of Cloue Peninsula. Evan Miles and Ibai Rico then used 4 days to traverse the icefield.

On the 14th of March the two explored the access to the icefield by crossing the tongue of Coloane Glacier and found a steep, loose rock gully that enabled an exposed but rapid access to the icefield. They left a cache of equipment at the edge of the icefield’s high plateau and descended to the boat as a storm had been forecast for the night.

The next day the pair took the rest of their gear, climbed up the gully, and skied several kilometres into the icefield up to a ridge were they were forced to set camp due to negligible visibility and a thickening storm (Figure 31 & 32). The entire next day was spent in the tent during a heavy snowfall and continued low visibility.

Figure 31 Eñaut with his camera near the Coloane glacier snout (left) and the camp established by Ibai & Evan during the traverse of the Cloue Icefield (right).

With a better forecast for next night and morning, the team broke camp at 02:00 and set off to continue the traverse. Unfortunately, an unexpected gale-force storm hit them and they had to fight through the night and next day with poor visibility, hail, snow, low temperatures, very strong winds as they sought a path through the crevassed and previously unexplored glacier terrain. In light of the extreme conditions, they could not find or create a shelter from the high winds in order to re-establish camp, so Evan and Ibai decided to carry on skiing cautiously across the icefield. The pair reached the eastern side of the icefield by early morning, having navigating entirely by GPS and instinct for most of the night, only enabled by their careful preparations and route planning before the expedition. In daylight, they followed a ridge that took them down to Fouque Glacier and then Fouque Fjord, passing through several sections of technical terrain. Northanger picked them up safely in the late evening of the 18th of March after 18 hours of non-stop activity in unknown terrain.

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Figure 32 Ibai enjoying good weather during the first day of the traverse.

7.2 First Ascents at Cloue Icefield After a short rest and several days of Northanger-based scientific fieldwork in Fouque Fjord, Ibai and Evan decided to go for a second trip onto the icefield with the objective of surveying and climbing the most aesthetics and highest summits. They were dropped off by Northanger on the 23rd of March near the terminus of Fouque Glacier on the eastern side of Cloue Icefield. After establishing a well- provisioned base camp near sea level, the pair explored the ablation area of Fouque Glacier to determine the safest and most efficient approach to the icefield from this aspect, and established an equipment cache several kilometres up-glacier.

On the 25th of March they collected gear from the cache, and skied and climbed a seracs zone to access the upper icefield plateau (Figure 33). Here, under strong wind conditions, they were able to establish a camp at 900 m just south of Monte Cloue (1356 m).

Figure 33 Ibai walking above blue ice in the upper part of the Fouque glacier (left) and the camp established near the Monte Cloue area; Torre Saia is the left-most peak visible in the photo (right).

On the 26th the left camp at sunrise and they started climbing Mt. Cloue, first on heavily crevassed terrain, then on very steep glacier ice approaching the headwall, and finally through the exposed headwall of very loose rock, persisting through the passage of several small storm systems. Passing the technically straightforward but extremely consequential rock headwall, they reached the upper ridge with strong winds and attained the summit of Mt. Cloue at 14:00, the peak’s first historical ascent. The descent was treacherous with dubious rappels and nearby rock fall but the climbers returned safely to camp.

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Taking advantage of sustained mild weather with light rain and above-freezing temperatures, the two left camp very early the next morning with the objective of climbing a prominent unnamed tower in the south east side of the icefield which can be seen very clearly from the inner part of the Fouque Fjord and provides a wholly different perspective on the icefield. They skied in the dark to the base of the tower and after switching to climbing gear began up steep snow ramps towards a distinct large dihedral. At the base of the wall the results of the high temperatures and rainfall were very clear: what had appeared as a frozen waterfall from the fjord 2 days earlier was now a stream running down the dihedral (a stream waterfall literally). Still, these obstacles did not appear insurmountable, so the team decided to carry on and climbed a series of faces covered in flowing water, ramps of saturated snow, and disintegrating rock until they reached the shoulder of the tower from which the summit was a short walk (Figure 34). The descent was an exposed series of tenuous rappels amid rockfall, and stuck ropes provided extra anxiety, but the pair safely returned to their skis and then across the icefield to their camp.

Incognita Patagonia would like to call this summit “Torre Saia” (Saia Tower, 1223m), as Saia means “spear shaft used for hunting” in the language of the indigenous Yaghan Indians, which inhabited the area before European settlement.

Figure 34 Evan and Ibai at the top of the Monte Cloue with the NatGeo flag (left) and Ibai looking at Monte Cloue, climbed the day before, from Torre Saia (right).

Both ascents were useful to explore the icefield, have a better understanding of the morphology of the glaciers and measure the altitudes of the summits.

FA, Monte Cloue (1356 m): SE Face and East Ridge, 300 m AI3, 70º, IV, M4; 26 March 2016, Ibai Rico and Evan Miles; passing storms of wind and rain; peak name is unofficial

FA, Saia Tower (1223 m): South Face, 350m AI3, 80º, V, M5; 27 March 2016, Ibai Rico and Evan Miles; passing storms of wind and rain; peak name is unofficial

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7.3 Exploration in Pia Este, Cordillera Darwin With some spare time in the Pia Fjord area, Ibai and Evan set about to reconnoiter the area around the glaciers Sinus and Kalv, to the west of Monte Darwin (2261m). After ascending well up Sinus Glacier’s tongue to consider the approach for the imposing Darwin SW Face, the pair decided to attempt Cerro York Minster (2270m) via the ridge and buttress system extending to the west. This approach had been successfully used only once, 30 years previously (Andre, Bartram, and Amstutz, 1987) despite attempts by other parties, and York Minster had only been climbed the one time. Nonetheless, on the map the route appeared reasonable for a quick, safe return given time constraints at the end of an expedition.

Setting off from sea level, Ibai and Evan made their way through very steep (occasionally near-vertical), thick forest, and eventually onto moss-laden landslide and avalanche scars, before finally reaching the crest of the ridge (~900m) and making camp on a small plateau glacier. The entire next day the camp was engulfed by a storm. The following morning, the pair traversed the ridge to an icefall, which they needed to ascend to access the high plateau between Cerro Castor and York Minster (Figure 35). The labyrinth of crevasses through the icefall cost them several hours. By the time they had crossed (reaching 1200m), Evan was concerned about his toes, as he had just recovered from frostbite from an expedition in Nepal, and was uncomfortable continuing. The pair descended back to the sea, where they awaited pickup for three days of high pressure, kicking themselves for missing a very good opportunity.

Figure 35 Evan crosses a heavily crevassed zone (left), and attempting to climb the icy walls to reach the highest part of the seracs (right).

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8. TRIP LOGISTICS

8.1 Route Planning and Late Adjustments Analysis of aerial photographs and images from adjacent fjords led to the identification of three potential approaches for the traverse. Our inspection of high-resolution satellite imagery has identified zones of glacier extension where crevassing is more frequent, which we have attempted to avoid with route planning. The final choice of approach and route will be made on-site for an acceptable level of safety, expedience, and convenience.

Greg Landreth (co-owner and co-skipper of Northanger) was in the end unable to accompany the expedition on board the sailboat, so Keri Pashuk (also Northanger co-owner and skipper) brought along Caesar Schinas as a first hand. The sailboat had a visa problem, requiring a trip to Ushuaia, Argentina, which cost the expedition 4 days at the beginning of the trip. The Chilean Navy was not willing to issue a sailing permit for the southwest of the icefield, which limited our investigations to the north and east perimeter of the icefield, where we explored, mapped, and documented several fjords. In addition, on our arrival we discovered that the Northanger’s Chilean visa had expired due to a clerical mistake, necessitating a 24-hour trip to Ushuaia and back to Puerto Williams before we could leave for the channels.

For the icefield itself, itinerary was constantly adapting to the frequent, intense Patagonian storms, and consequently we had to prioritise research tasks as we had opportunities. During the traverse, we were therefore unable to measure glacier mass balance due to a very thick isothermal snowpack and due to a very bad storm. We had to salvage components from one of the non-functioning weather stations to ensure that other stations would continue to function.

8.2 Permits and Access Restrictions Access permits in Chile required sailboat support for the kayak aspect of the expedition (safety concerns). The expedition was originally anticipated for November 2015, but was delayed slightly due to scheduling challenges with the sailboat. The sailboat logistics were a difficult part of the trip, and permitting required a trip to Ushuaia (Argentina) before our eventual departure from Puerto Williams, costing us 4 days.

The permitting requirements for the Chilean sea access require support vessels for any sea kayaking and expeditions in the area, and we had to ask for different permits to some Chilean institutions: 1) DIFROL permission was necessary because the expedition was in a glaciated area, and also near the Argentinian frontier. We submitted this permission request before Christmas and it was accepted the 8th of February 2016. 2) CONAF permission, which was necessary because our expedition was inside the Alberto de Agostini National Park, was obtained the 3rd of March 2016. The trade off not to pay the permission fee was to make a Scientific Report of our observations in our return. 3) Chilean Navy permission was fundamental to navigate the Chilean waters with the sailing boat. • First, we had one permit to sail through Ushuaia, Argentina, the 9th of March 2016.

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• Second, we had the Argentinian Navy permit to go back to Puerto Williams, the 10th of March 2016. • Third and finally, we had the Chilean Navy permit again to depart in the expedition the 11th or March 2016. 4) Carabineros/Police permission was asked in Puerto Williams and every week we sent a sat phone message to give our position.

8.3 Risk Assessment, Insurance and Medical Support Basque Mountain Guides has conducted a risk assessment and risk management plan, including an evacuation plan. Basque Mountain Guides is an association of reputed mountain guides from the Basque Country whose goal is to maximise the safety and provide a service of high quality mountain experience.

Travel insurance was provided by International SOS, and the team had arranged for 24-hour emergency medical support via satellite phone. Fortunately, our trip succeeded without incident, and we did not need to test either of these portions of the emergency plan.

8.4 Air Travel and Equipment Freight The main expedition equipment was, first, compiled in Punta Arenas, where EI arrived in advance of the rest of the field party. He checked and organised the equipment and bought the main food supplies. All these items where transferred to the Austral Broom ferry, which partly sponsored the cargo shipping, the 2nd of March 2016.

Then, together with KP, who arrived one day later in Punta Arenas, more stuff was carried to the ferry, which departed to Puerto Williams in the evening of the 3rd of March 2016.

The expedition members transported their personal equipment by Aerovias DAP daily flight from Punta Arenas to Puerto Williams, which was totally sponsored by the company (only the team had to pay a small amount due to overweight). EI & KP took a flight from Punta Arenas to Puerto Williams the 4th of March 2016, and IR & EM took the same plane on the next day, 5th of March 2016.

On the return, the team dried and repacked all the equipment in Puerto Williams, before to send it back to Punta Arenas by ferry on the 9th of April 2016. And finally, EM on the 9th and EI & IR on the 11th took the flight from Puerto Williams to Punta Arenas, where they had few more days for last commitments.

The DAP contacts were: Nicolas Harambour (Comunicaciones Corporativas) Lorena Miranda (Ventas) Aerovias DAP Punta Arenas Bernardo O’Higgins 891, Punta Arenas Phone (+56-61) 2616100 E-mail: [email protected]

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8.5 Communications We made use of handheld radios and satellite phones for communications between team members away from the sailboat. The handheld radios were very useful, but limited in range to about 5km line-of- sight. The sailboat and the team were each equipped with an Iridium satellite phone, and we generally made use of the SMS function to communicate at night if out of radio range. For any type of radio communication between team members, an established protocol (who calls whom, what language to use, and speech conventions) and schedule (when to try the radio, when to try the sat phone) is extremely important to conserve battery life and satellite phone time in case of emergencies. It is also important to acknowledge that such communications are limited by weather and topography, so the inability to communicate does not indicate anything gone wrong.

Both of these methods were also used to communicate with the outside world during the expedition. Passing sailboats and fishermen’s vessels can be reached with the handheld radio, and the Chilean Navy maintains a radio network in the Beagle Channel, so the radio is invaluable for raising the alarm if something goes wrong. The satellite phone, meanwhile, was used to update family and friends as to the status of the expedition, both by direct communication and via ExpeNews.

8.6 Northanger Sailboat Support Northanger is a specially built research and expedition sailing vessel that has proven its capabilities with voyages to the Antarctica, South Georgia, Patagonian fjords and channels, Greenland and the Northwest Passage. It is the perfect vessel for small teams that need to accomplish ambitious objectives and has a large fuel reserve for its size, providing autonomy for longer expeditions in isolated regions. It has proven a capable expedition vessel, successfully supporting numerous scientific, mountaineering, filming and kayak expeditions in the high latitudes (Figure 36). http://www.northanger.org/en/home.php

Figure 36 Northanger moored in Caleta Chorlito, Gordon Island, on its way to Cloue Peninsula.

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8.7 Environmental and Social Impact The environmental cost of this expedition is dominated by the unavoidable carbon cost of international and national airfare to Puerto Williams, Chile (~1 metric ton CO2 for London-Puerto Williams one-way). From that point, the team members will seek to minimize their impact by embarking on sailing boat, which can primarily be sailed to minimize fuel usage. The icefield traverse and kayaking activities are human-powered adventures, with the small exception of stove fuel. Human waste will be disposed of using best practices for uninhabited wilderness: cat-holes below treeline and in crevasses above glacier firn-lines. Between these locations, waste will be transported up or down as appropriate. All non- biodegradable waste will be packed and carried for the expedition duration. Personal electronics and communications devices will be used minimally but charged based on solar panels on the sailboat. Social and cultural impacts of this expedition are minimal in the field, but the expedition will promote popular awareness of the geosciences and of our planet’s response to climate change.

Additionally, related to the expedition social outcomes, the expedition participants have been given several general public talks and academic lectures, focusing on Incognita Patagonia expedition accomplishments and climate change related glacier awareness through science communication and public engagement.

2016: • April 9, Puerto Williams (Chile): Ibai & Eñaut in the Sailing Club from Puerto Williams. • April 18, Punta Arenas (Chile): Eñaut at the University of Magallanes. • May 11, Azpeitia (Basque Country): Ibai & Eñaut in the town hall of Azpeitia Council. • May 24, Vitoria-Gasteiz (Basque Country): Ibai & Eñaut at the University of the Basque Country. • July 27, Washington DC (USA): Eñaut at the National Geographic Society Headquarters. • November 16, Donostia/San Sebastián (Basque Country): Eñaut at the Okendo Culture House. • November 23, Tolosa (Basque Country): Eñaut at the ‘Antxon Bandres’ Traveler Society. • November 24, Vitoria-Gasteiz (Basque Country): Ibai at Base Camp shop. • December 1, Elgoibar (Basque Country): Eñaut at the Culture House of Elgoibar. • December 12, Azpeitia (Basque Country): Ibai & Eñaut at the Azpeitia Mountain Club. • December 17, Bilbao (Basque Country): ‘Incognita Patagonia’ film presented at the Bilbao Mendi Film Festival (MFF).

2017: • February 16, Fort William (Scotland): ‘Incognita Patagonia’ film awarded with ‘The Spirit of Mountain Culture’ at the Fort William Mountain Festival. • February 18, Fort William (Scotland): Eñaut giving a lecture at the Fort William Mountain Festival. • February 23, Jaca (Spain): Ibai presenting the film at ‘La Casa de la Montaña’. • March 4, Isaba (Basque Country): Eñaut presenting the film at ski-mountaineering ‘Bandres-Karolo’ race. • March 13, Santiago (Chile): Eñaut at Zenit Climbing together with sponsor Marmot-Chile. • March 15, Tolosa (Basque Country): Ibai presenting the film at ‘Mendi Tour’ with Bilbao MFF. • March 17, Seville (Spain): Ibai presenting the film at Alventus Viajes. • May 14, Sofia (Bulgaria): Eñaut presenting the film at the Sofia Science Festival. • May 24, Zarautz (Basque Country): Eñaut presenting the film at ‘Mendi Tour’ with Bilbao MFF. • July 17, Berlin (Germany): Eñaut presenting the film at the Opening Ceremony of the ‘Climate Impacts on Glaciers and Biosphere in Fuego-Patagonia’ Conference and Workshop.

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8.8 Budget A summary of the trip budget appears below. Major costs were for 16,386 USD, with grant support from 13,396 USD and 3,000 USD covered by team members for their international flights. Several organisations kindly provided sponsorship for gear, equipment, or travel costs.

EXPENDITURES (USD) Item Description Cost Observations International Flights Madrid/London - Punta Arenas, round 3433 Travel to Punta Arenas and subsistence trip (x3) costs paid by team members In-country travel 4 Flights Punta Arenas - Puerto 118 Sponsored by DAP airlines (paying Williams, round trip overweight) Northanger sailboat base costs 10000 (including main food) Other food and Energetic gels & bars 33 mainly sponsored (75%) by Honey lodgement Stinger Mountain bars & snacks 0 sponsored by Skout Backcountry High performance meals 0 sponsored by TentMeals Food supplies in Punta Arenas & Puerto 746 Williams Lodgement in PA 357 Transport of stuff Pulka shipping Santiago-Punta Arenas, 110 round trip Cargo shipping Puerto Williams-Punta 187 Arenas, round trip Sat phone minutes 50 partly covered by Juan Carlos Aravena (UMAG) Insurance 0 sponsored by International SOS Expenews registration 70 partly sponsored (50%) by Uncharted Web domain 215 Equipment Packrafts 0 sponsored by Alpacka Raft Climbing staff (rope, hardware…) 200 partly sponsored (25%) by Landher Medicines and suncreams 87 Fuel and other materials 780

EXPEDITION OVERALL 16386

SOURCES (USD) Income Description Revenue Observations Grant giving trusts Young Explorers Grant (National 5000 Geographic) Joxe Takolo Grant (Azpeitia Council) 3360 (3000 €) Expedition Grant (British 616 (400 £) Mountaineering Council) Geographical Fieldwork Grants (Royal 1430 (1000 £) Geographical Society) Individuals donations Crowdfunding event (YouCaring) 2990 (2650 €) Other sources Team contribution 3000 To pay international flights

OVERALL TOTAL 16396

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8.9 Key Challenges and Lessons Learned

The weather presented a significant challenge for many aspects of the fieldwork, but was expected to do so. We had some difficulty with our satellite phones’ messaging capabilities at one point during a storm, which left our team with little information about incoming weather patterns and a smaller safety net. Our team and prior experiences have emphasized the importance of self-reliance in the mountains, and this did not pose a serious problem. We decided to return to shore to re-establish communication, although this ended up happening during a storm. We had no health issues at any point in the trip.

The expedition required significant resilience in adverse conditions and with limited information, as was only possible thanks to very careful preparations. For example, Ibai and Evan completed most of the icefield crossing in a blizzard at night, following a carefully-prepared GPS route. We later conducted the survey of icefield summits, including two interesting first ascents (Mt Cloue and Torre Saia), during the only conditions permitting visibility – moderate rain and wind. Consequently we have some dramatic photos and video from each of those experiences. Simply locating the positions of the weather stations was a major obstacle due to poor record-keeping, and those (limited) observations are of extreme value to groups attempting to validate dynamically-downscaled meteorological and climate models.

8.10 Appealing Future Objectives This project is part of a larger PhD project that will start E. Izagirre in Oct 2017, aiming to have a general glacier understanding of the southernmost icefields of South America, using the main hotspots that are around Cordillera Darwin Icefield (CDI). Some of them have been already visited and new spots are proposed for future plans: - Monte Sarmiento area and western part of CDI (2013 and 2014) - Marinelli glacier and Parry fjord areas on the northern slope of CDI (2014 and 2015) - Pia fjord and southern slope area of CDI (2014 and 2016) - Hoste Island and Cloue Icefield (2016, this report) - Southeastern part of CDI and Roncagli glacier area (proposed for 2018) - Eastern part of CDI and Stoppani glacier area (future plans)

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9. TRIP LOG

9.1 Summary Trip Dates: 2 March – 11 April 2016 (Figure 37) 3 days of logistical preparations in Punta Arenas and cargo shipping to Puerto Williams 6 days of logistical preparations in Puerto Williams 4 days of sailing approach to field site 22 days of explorations in Tierra del Fuego: Ski-traverse of Cloue Icefield Mountaineering ascents on Cloue Kayak and dinghy-based exploration of fjords around the icefield Glaciological research and geomorphological mapping near Cloue and Cordillera Darwin Maintenance of automated weather station network 3 days sailing return to Puerto Williams 3 days of sailboat cleaning and cargo shipping to Punta Arenas

Figure 37 Trip map summarizing the main places that were visited during the expedition and the dates.

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9.2 Daily Log of Events These initials are used to indicate team members in the following daily log: EM: Evan Miles IR: Ibai Rico EI: Eñaut Izagirre CS: Caesar Schinas KL: Keri Lee-Pashuk, is aboard Northanger unless otherwise specified

2 March: EI arrives in Punta Arenas and ships main expedition cargo and food by ferry to Puerto Williams. 3 March: EI meets KL in Punta Arenas and both prepare details for their depart to Puerto Williams next day. 4 March: EI and KL arrive in Puerto Williams; CS already aboard Northanger, moored at Micalvi Yacht Club. 5 March: EM and IR arrive in Puerto Williams and begin packing Northanger. 6 March: Pack Northanger, test equipment and continue general preparations 7 March: Preparation in Puerto Williams, discovery that Northanger visa has expired, requiring departure from Chile and return. 8 March: Ready to leave, fee required at customs for Northanger's visa over-stay. 9 March: Chile customs and immigration for departure from Puerto Williams, Northanger sails to Ushuaia, Argentina; clears Argentina customs and immigration. 10 March: Northanger sails back to Puerto Williams, Chile; clears Chile customs and immigration. 11 March: Northanger sails Puerto Williams to Caleta Burshem (Isla Navarino) in Beagle Channel. 12 March: Northanger sails Caleta Burshem to Caleta Chorlito (Isla Gordon) in SW Beagle Channel. 13 March: Wait out storm in Caleta Chorlito (Isla Gordon). 14 March: Northanger sails Caleta Chorlito to Caleta Coloane (Isla Hoste) on Cloue Peninsula (Figure 38). 15 March: EM and IR scout icefield approach, establish gear cache; EI and CS map glacial geomorphology of Estero Coloane. 16 March: EM and IR collect gear and establish camp on icefield at 1000m; EI and CS take the dinghy to go to Des Moines fjord, which have a shallow quasi-emerged moraine in the entrance. 17 March: EM and IR wait out storm at camp; Northanger sails to the West of the Peninsula Cloue, doing bathymetry survey in Bahia Rafagales; EI, CS, and KL locate, download, and salvage AWS Cloue; and the sailboat returns back to Caleta del Bosque in Estero Fouque. 18 March: EM and IR cross Cloue Icefield at night and are picked up by Northanger in Estero Fouque, to moor in Caleta del Bosque. 19 March: Rest day for EM and IR; Northanger in Caleta del Bosque (Isla Hoste) in Estero Fouque. 20 March: Geomorphological mapping of Lago Covadonga outburst flood, Northanger stays in Caleta Nutria (Isla Hoste) in Estero Fouque. 21 March: Geomorphological mapping of other proglacial lakes at end of Estero Fouque; sail to Caleta Caracoles (Isla Gordon) in SW Beagle Channel 22 March: Rest day waiting out storm in Caleta Caracoles 23 March: RGS-GFG satellite phone interview; EM and IR drop-off in Estero Fouque next to Fouque Glacier, establish camp and fix lines up slabs for approach; Northanger stays in Caleta Augusto, EI and CS map glacial geomorphology in the valley upstream.

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24 March: EM and IR scout Fouque Glacier and establish advanced gear cache, conduct photogrammetric surveys; Northanger in Caleta Augusto, EI and CS continue glacial geomorphology mapping in the area. 25 March: EM and IR collect gear and establish camp at base of Monte Cloue at 950m, conduct photogrammetric surveys; Northanger in Caleta Augusto, EI and CS continue glacial geomorphology mapping in the upper part of the valley, where a previous glaciated valley is nowadays free of ice. 26 March: EM and IR climb Monte Cloue (1323m) and return to camp, conduct photogrammetric surveys; Northanger moves to Caleta del Bosque due to strong winds. 27 March: EM and IR climb Torre Saia (1281m) and return to camp, conduct photogrammetric surveys; Northanger in Caleta del Bosque, EI, CS and KL explore and map Lago Flores area. 28 March: EM and IR pack camp, conduct photogrammetric surveys, and descend to Estero Fouque, pickup by Northanger and sail to Caleta Cecilia (Isla Gordon) in SW Beagle Channel; EI and CS bathymetry survey in the submerged moraine of Acix fjord entrance. 29 March: EI and CS explore Fiordo Sin Nombre (named Acix) and conduct bathymetric surveys via dinghy; EM and IR rest and clean gear with Northanger in Caleta Cecilia. 30 March: Northanger sails to Caleta Beaulieu (Isla Grande Tierra del Fuego) in Fiordo Pia Este, Cordillera Darwin. 31 March: EM and IR drop-off at Glacier Sinus, establish camp and geomorphological mapping of Sinus; Northanger sails to the Fiordo Pia Oeste, check Guilcher glacier front position and find anchorage in Caleta del Norte. 1 April: EM and IR fight vertical shrubs to establish camp at 900m between Glaciers Kalv and Sinus; Northanger in Caleta del Norte due to strong finds in the fjord. 2 April: EM and IR wait out storm at camp; Northanger in Caleta del Norte due to strong winds in the fjord. 3 April: EM and IR ascend icefall (to 1250m) below Cerro Castor, turn back and descend to camp in Fiordo Pia Este; EI, CS and KL go with the dinghy to Harris bay (Fiordo Pia SW), locate, download, and replace AWS Pia. 4 April: EM and IR wait at camp in Fiordo Pia Este; EI, CS and KL attempt to reach the head of the fjord but they have to turn around due to difficulties with drift ice in the fjord. 5 April: EM and IR wait at camp in Fiordo Pia Este; Northanger in Caleta del Norte due to strong winds and williwaws in the fjord. 6 April: Northanger picks up EM and IR, sails to Caleta Olla (Isla Grande Tierra del Fuego) in NW Beagle Channel. 7 April: Early morning EI and CS go to Isla Diablo where locate, download, and replace AWS Diablo; Then, Northanger sails Caleta Olla to Puerto Borracho (Isla Navarino) in Beagle Channel. 8 April: Northanger sails Puerto Borracho to Puerto Williams. 9 April: EM flies back to UK; IR and EI arrange equipment return shipping. 10 April: IR and EI clean up Northanger and give talk in Puerto Williams Sailing Club. 11 April: IR and EI fly back to Punta Arenas, and recover all the cargo from the ferry. 12 April: IR flies back to Spain and EI stays one week more in Punta Arenas, for last issues.

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Figure 38 Expedition tracks from March 14 to 29 in Cloue Icefield and its surroundings. The tracks are divided in 4 main groups: Traverse tracks in red (by EM and IR); Climbing tracks in purple (by EM and IR); Scientific works in yellow (mainly by EI and CS); and Northanger sailboat’s tracks in green (captained by KP).

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10. SUMMARY OF MAJOR ACCOMPLISHMENTS

Glacier Mapping and Observations The glacier geomorphological mapping activities of the team focused on 1) major stable terminus positions since the last glacial maximum (LGM) including the terminus positions during the Little Ice Age (LIA), and 2) recent changes in glacial geomorphology due to exceptional surface processes.

As part of the first focus, the expedition explored and surveyed the three fjords to the north of the Cloue Icefield using small craft, all of which contain major outlet glaciers that have experienced recent retreat. Two of the fjords contain land terminating glaciers at present, but the moraine positions within the fjords (both terrestrial and submarine) were located and provide indication of prior glacier extents. Meanwhile, the third fjord has a pair of marine-terminating glaciers that are rapidly retreating; the stable terminus positions within this fjord were mapped by an extensive sonar survey by Eñaut and Caesar (first mate on Northanger) using small craft. Additionally, several outlet glaciers were observed to the east of the Cloue icefield, accessible from Fouque Fjord. This included mapping and surveying of LIA moraines for several terrestrial glaciers at the southernmost end of the fjord, where recent glacier retreat has led to the formation of large moraine-dammed terminal lakes, the exploration of two recently deglacierized valleys accessible from the fjord, and observation of the large Fouque Glacier at the fjord midpoint, first visited in the 1880’s by the Romanche expedition.

The explorations and terminus observations led to more detailed investigations of certain glaciological phenomena. First, very young moraines of unvegetated till were observed at two Cloue glaciers and one glacier in the Cordillera de Darwin. These moraines were deposited recently by glacier advances; all three young moraines were mapped to assess the unusual behaviour of the corresponding glaciers. Second, one glacier near Fouque Fjord showed signs of a glacial outburst flood in the last 20-30 years, evidenced by an impressive 90m tall cut out of the moraine structure and a continuous change in forest structure at the former lake level. This set of features was a focus of manual mapping and a photogrammetric survey was carried out to more accurately measure the volume of water discharged in the outburst flood, while a tree core of the lower vegetation will help bound the date of the outburst event. Finally, other recent trimlines in the fjord and glaciated valleys were observed and noted to consider LIA and more recent glacier thicknesses.

The geomorphological mapping and basic glaciological observations carried out during the expedition are extremely useful for understanding the changes in the region’s glaciers in recent history as well as the long term. On-site observations of glacier terminus positions and settings provided a rich context in which the project can understand changes seen in the satellite record. The field observations of uncommon glaciological phenomena were stimulating and generated many follow-up research questions for Cloue glaciers.

Historical Heritage and Cartography The team’s presence in the region has greatly improved the cartographic documentation for the project’s planned map. First, discussions with local historians, sailors, and climbers enabled the team to annotate the map with excursions to the icefield periphery, known safe moorings, and some

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conventional place names. Second, discussions with the 1989 expedition team members led to some doubt about the exact approach and summit achievements of that trip, but the icefield traverse made their routes very clear. Third, the team was able to gain access to locally archived maps, sailing literature, and a report from another expedition (previously unknown, and unsuccessful from a mountaineering perspective) investigating access possibilities for the Cloue icefield; some place names and notes have been adopted from these sources. Notably, one of the few photographs presented in the Romanche report pictures Fouque Glacier, and repeating this photograph suggests that the photographer was a short distance inland; this was the first European exploration of the icefield. Based on these new data sources, the map is now sparsely populated with place names (most are conventional, but not official) and previous explorers’ activities and accomplishments.

Finally, the expedition’s accomplishments are also to be noted on the map, including measured peak altitudes and suggested names. Consequently, the information contained within the map has improved greatly in quantity and quality, and Incognita Patagonia will be proposing the official adoption of some names to the official body in Chile, the Instituto Geográfico Militar (IGM).

Automatic Weather Station Data Download and Maintenance The meteorology of the southernmost Patagonia is also poorly documented, with the notable exception of a network of weather stations established by Charlie Porter. Since his passing in 2014, few stations have been revisited, and many of the locations were not well-known by anyone except Charlie. As the team was in the area, a major objective was to attempt to locate and maintain as many of the stations as possible, based on the limited information available.

Consequently, the team detoured via the southern portion of the Cordillera de Darwin on its return from the Cloue peninsula to Puerto Williams. Eñaut and Caesar had the chance to visit some of these stations (AWS Cloue, AWS Pia and AWS Diablo) where they were able to download the observations for the last few years and maintain the stations with new sensors and minor improvements. These data will be a significant contribution for local meteorological understanding, and will be evaluated as part of the Atmospheric Downscaling for Glacierized mountain environments (DoG) project, which focuses at the development, application and rigorous validation of a state-of-the-art downscaling framework for glacierized mountain environments situated in a diversity of climatic and geo-environmental settings.

Traverse of the Cloue Icefield Travelling from Puerto Williams, Chile, to Hoste Island in the sailboat Northanger, the Incognita Patagonia team arrived on the 13th of March to Estero Coloane in the northwest region of Cloue Peninsula. Evan Miles and Ibai Rico then used 4 days to traverse the icefield west to east, exiting the ice in Fouque Fjord, where they were collected by Northanger. The traverse made use of a scouting day to establish a gear cache, then a high camp for two nights waiting out a storm. To successfully cross the icefield, Ibai and Evan navigated by GPS at night in a blizzard, making slow, careful progress. This effort was only possible due to their careful preparations and route planning before the expedition.

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First Ascents Undeterred by the miserable conditions on the crossing, Ibai and Evan decided to go for a second trip onto the icefield to survey and climb the most aesthetic and highest summits. They were dropped off by Northanger on the 23rd of March near the terminus of Fouque Glacier on the eastern side of Cloue Icefield. They established a well-provisioned base camp and a gear cache high on the ablation area of this glacier. They then made use of the cache en route to establish a high camp directly beneath the pyramid of Monte Cloue (1356m). They climbed this mountain (the highest of the icefield) the following day, first on heavily crevassed terrain, then on very steep glacier ice approaching the headwall, and finally through the exposed headwall of very loose rock, persisting through the passage of several small storm systems. Passing the technically straightforward but extremely consequential rock headwall, they summited at 14:00, the peak’s first historical ascent. The descent was treacherous with dubious rappels and nearby rock fall but the climbers returned safely to camp.

Taking advantage of sustained mild weather with light rain and above-freezing temperatures, the next morning the two made their way to a prominent unnamed tower in the south east side of the icefield which can be seen very clearly from the inner part of the Fouque Fjord. They skied in the dark to the base of the tower and after switching to climbing gear began up steep snow ramps towards a distinct large dihedral. At the base of the wall the results of the high temperatures and rainfall were very clear: what had appeared as a frozen waterfall from the fjord 2 days earlier was now a stream running down the dihedral (a stream waterfall literally). Still, these obstacles did not appear insurmountable, so the team climbed a series of faces covered in flowing water, ramps of saturated snow, and disintegrating rock until they reached the shoulder of the tower from which the summit was a short walk. The descent was an exposed series of tenuous rappels amid rockfall, and stuck ropes provided extra anxiety, but the pair safely returned to their skis and then across the icefield to their camp. Incognita Patagonia would like to call this summit “Torre Saia” (Saia Tower, 1323m), as saia means “spear shaft used for hunting” in the language of the indigenous Yaghan Indians, which inhabited the area before European settlement. Both ascents were useful to explore the icefield, have a better understanding of the morphology of the glaciers and measure the altitudes of the summits.

FA, Monte Cloue (1356 m): SE Face and East Ridge, 300 m AI3, 70º, IV, M4; 26 March 2016, Ibai Rico and Evan Miles; passing storms of wind and rain; peak name is unofficial

FA, Saia Tower (1323 m): South Face, 350m AI3, 80º, V, M5; 27 March 2016, Ibai Rico and Evan Miles; passing storms of wind and rain; peak name is unofficial

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11. OBSERVED FLORA AND FAUNA

The following section summarises the biotic characteristics of the study area, including those species that were identified at and around Cloue Peninsula. There are no signs of current human settlements in these remote areas, so ecosystems have mostly remained intact and unchanged since the cessation of the indigenous Yamana lifestyle. However, the Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis) was introduced in 1946 and its territorial range expanded rapidly; the team was sadly surprised to find that it has thoroughly colonised all areas the expedition visited around Tierra del Fuego.

11.1 Flora The vegetation of this remote area of the southern end of South America has similar characteristics to much of the southwestern area of Tierra del Fuego and the western part of the Patagonian fjords and channels.

The forest is composed primarily of Magellan’s beech or Coigüe de Magallanes (Nothofagus betuloides) and Antarctic beech or Ñirre (Nothofagus antarctica) at higher elevations. The Lenga beech (Nothofagus pumilio) is present at low elevations and more common to the East, where there is less precipitation. It should be noted that Chilean firebush or Notro (Embothrium coccineum) and Winter’s bark or Canelo (Drimys winteri), and more moderately Magellan’s mayten or Maitén (Maytenus magellanica) and Guaitecas cypress (Pilgerodendron uviferum) are common in the understory of Coigüe forests. In addition, some shrubs are abundant in the coastal areas, such as Magellan barberry or Calafate (Berberis buxifolia), Holly barberry or Michay (Berberis ilicifolia), Strawberry myrtle or Murtilla (Ugni molinae) and Prickly heath or Chaura (Gaultheria mucronata).

These species form the Patagonian rainforest (which is formally called the Magellan Subantarctic phytogeographical district). These forests are often composed of old and fallen trees by their own weight and excessive water saturation in the soil, leading to the development of peatlands within the forests (Figure 39).

Figure 39 Photographs of forests found at Cloue Peninsula: A) Forest of young Coigües with little understory but full of mosses; B) Forest of old Coigües with understory of varied species in the highest part of a moraine, where the GLOF scar is visible.

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These peat bogs, which are developed in poorly drained lands in cool and wet climates, further benefit from the large amounts of unsorted sediments deposited by former glaciers. Where the moisture is sufficient to form a continuous layer of mosses (such as the genus Sphagnum), wildfires are scarce and the conditions are fresh and cold enough to permit gradual decomposition, the dead mosses and plants accumulate to form peat (Gorham 1957). As a basic principle, peat accumulates when the rate of net primary production at the surface exceeds losses from decomposition, leaching, and/or disturbance throughout the peat column, resulting in a vertically and/or laterally aggrading deposit of organic matter (Figure 40; Turetsky et al. 2004). As a basic principle, peat accumulates when the rate of net primary production at the surface exceeds losses from decomposition, leaching, and/or disturbance throughout the peat column, resulting in a vertically and/or laterally aggrading deposit of organic matter (Fig x; Turetsky et al. 2004).

Figure 40 Photographs of some peat bogs in the southern end of South America: A) Well-developed peat bog of Sphagnum magallanicum in the proximity of the southwestern bay of the Pia fjord (photo by K. Pashuk); B) Small peat bog developed in a plain of a slope, note the dense cover of vegetation covering the boulders.

The bedrock and surface boulders (transported by glaciers in the past) are also normally covered with a thick layer of mosses and abundant water, giving rise to impressive vertical accumulation forms, which are somewhat unique to these subantarctic environments (Figure 41).

Figure 41 Photographs depicting the typical sights of fueguian mosses: A) Moss of vertical growth in the surroundings of Caleta Cecilia, in Gordon Island; B) Accumulation of moss and grass on a boulder of Estero Coloane.

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Finally, it is important to highlight the richness of the microflora in these high latitudes, where the paraglacial environment presents favourable factors for the colonization of lichens and mosses within the first phase of a new ecosystem.

11.2 Notable fauna The local fauna in this remote end of Tierra del Fuego is varied and diverse, and is especially rich in birds and marine fauna. The following tables are the major sightings made during the course of the expedition, along with some photographs (Tables 5 & 6; Figure 42).

Table 5. Sightings of birds made in the course of the expedition, together with their common name, scientific name and some comments. Common name (Sp./Eng.) Scientific name Sightings Comments Albatros de ceja negra Thalassarche Many Common, especially in rough seas with big waves Black-browed albatross melanophrys and strong winds. Agachadiza común Gallinago Scarce Some specimens among the low vegetation of Common snipe gallinago beaches and coastal areas. Caranca (Cauquén costero) Chloephaga Many Common, always in pairs and in the coastal rocks Kelp goose hybrida exposed to the waves. Carancho Caracara Scarce They do not appear as commonly as in continental Southern crested caracara plancus Patagonia. Chimango o Tiuque Milvago Scarce Few specimens as far south, although we saw a Chimango chimango couple of them. Churrete Cinclodes Many Common in open and mountainous areas. Dark-bellied cinclodes patagonicus Cometocino patagónico Phrygilus Some In coastal zones, with dense vegetation and Patagonian sierra finch patagonicus forests. Cóndor andino Vultur gryphus Scarce Few in Hoste Island, more frequent in Cordillera Andean condor Darwin. Cormorán de las rocas Phalacrocorax Many Common on rocky shores and cliffs, in bays, Rock shag magellanicus islands, fjords and channels. Cormorán imperial Phalacrocorax Many Typically in colonies shared with rock shags. Imperial shag atriceps Gaviota cocinera Larus Many They can often be seen flying the Fueguian Kelp gull dominicanus channels and fjords. Gaviota austral o gris Leucophaeus Manv They can often be seen flying the Fueguian Dolphin gull scoresbii channels and fjords. Martín pescador grande Megaceryle Some Visited the Northanger in bays and inlets, curious Ringed kingfisher torquata with the sailboat mooring ropes. Ostrero magallánico Haematopus Some Mainly in islets and rocky beaches. Magellanic oystercatcher leucopodus Petrel gigante Macronectes Many Common, especially in stirred seas with lots of Southern giant petrel giganteus waves and strong winds. Quetro austral (Pato a vapor) Tachyeres Many Common, in bays and coastal areas of channels Fueguian steamer duck pteneres and fjords. Rayadito Aphrastura Some In open forests where the colonies are Thorn-tailed rayadito spinicauda concentrated in specific trees.

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Table 6. Sightings of marine fauna during the course of the expedition, together with their common name, scientific name and some comments. Common name (Sp./Eng.) Scientific name Sightings Comments Ballena franca austral Eubalaena 4 Solitary specimens in the Barros Merino and Southern right whale australis Beagle Channels. Delfín austral Lagenorhynchus Many Several specimens in groups in different bays and Peale’s dolphin australis fjords of the Cordillera Darwin and Hoste Island. Delfín chileno Cephalorhynchu 12 12 specimens in a few groups in the Eastern branch Chilean dolphin s eutropia of Pia fjord. Elefante marino Mirounga 0 Not observed in this expedition, but in previous Southern elephant seal leonina visits to the Cordillera Darwin. Foca leopard Hydrurga 0 Not observed in this expedition, but in previous Leopard seal leptonyx visits to Parry Fjord in the Cordillera Darwin. Lobo marino Otaria Several Mainly on the rocks exposed in the waters of fjords Southern sea lion flavescens and channels. Rorcual austral o Minke Balaenoptera 1 Spotted one in the SW arm of Beagle Channel. Southern minke whale bonaerensis

On the other hand, terrestrial animals are almost conspicuous by their absence in this extreme southwestern edge of Tierra del Fuego, where the isolation of Hoste Island and the remoteness of the Cloue Peninsula have not allowed the more common mammals to settle or survive so easily. Although not observed during the expedition, there may be fueguian foxes (Pseudalopex culpaeus lycoides) in the area, like guanacos (Lama guanicoe guanicoe), which are more common in certain areas of the Cordillera Darwin. The team did find evidence of mice and other small rodents (chewed food bags), which have also been observed even in the remote Hermite Island.

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Figure 42 Photographs of bird and marine fauna species in Tierra del Fuego, from Cordillera Darwin to Cape Horn: A) Magellanic penguin (Spheniscus magellanicus) in the Tucker Islets, northern slope of Cordillera Darwin; B) Colony of Imperial cormorants (Leucarbo atriceps) in the Tucker Islets, northern slope of Cordillera Darwin; C) Andean condor (Vultur gryphus) adult and young in-flight near to Cape Horn; D) Giant petrel (Macronectes giganteus) in low-flight around the Wollaston archipelago; E) Family of elephant seals (Mirounga leonina) on the islet of Ainsworth Bay, northern slope of Cordillera Darwin; F) Leopard seal (Hydrurga leptonyx) inside the Parry fjord, northern slope of Cordillera Darwin; G) Ringed kingfisher (Megaceryle torquata) in one of the mooring lines in Caleta Cecilia, southern slope of Gordon Island; H) Tiuque (Milvago chimango) with attentive look in Caleta Lynch, Cloue Peninsula; I) Pair of sea lions (Otaria flavescens) in one of the boulders at the entrance to the Acix fjord, Cloue Peninsula; J) Peale’s dolphin (Lagenorhynchus australis) in the waters of the Beagle Channel, southern slope of Cordillera Darwin.

11.3 Beavers and anthropic effects One of the biggest problems in these surroundings, as for the rest of Tierra del Fuego and especially on the main island, is the incredible expansion of the Canadian beaver (Castor canadensis). As mentioned at the beginning of this section, this invasive species was introduced in 1946 in the Argentinian part of Tierra del Fuego for commercial purposes. However, they quickly found a splendid territory for

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reproduction and expansion, since there were no predators for its natural control. Thus, they began to occupy the river systems and peat bogs of the main island of Tierra del Fuego, and also distributed to the adjacent islands around the Beagle Channel; such as Gordon, Navarino, Hoste, etc., also reaching the remote Cloue Peninsula. Their anthropogenic prevalence in Patagonia is ironic given the extreme reduction of beaver habitat in much of North America.

Taking into account the important impact on ecosystems, during the expedition the team tried to locate the most possible beaver dams to identify their locations and level of development, since the rivers change significantly due to their construction of dams (Figure 43; Table 7).

Figure 43 Map of beaver dams locations discovered during the Incognita Patagonia 2016 expedition. The background image is a Landsat 8 false-colour combination, acquired in March 2015.

Finally, there are very few traces of human presence in the area, with exception of some fishermen boats that visit seasonally. Local fishermen focus their activities on Patagonian king crab (Paralomis granulosa), Southern king crab (Lithodes santolla) and Southern oyster (Chlamys vitrea). The expedition often encountered buoys with crab traps and elements for anchoring in protected bays and inlets (Figure 44).

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Table 7. Location and observations of observed beaver dams and lodges (usually together) during the expedition. Zone Latitude Longitude Observations Valley completely affected by beavers, with many dams and lodges, is 1 55º5.980’ S 69º49.745’ W often difficult to continue by foot; looks like they have tried to capture the lake that lies upstream. 2 A small developed dam taking advantage of the small concavity in the 55º6,379’ S 69º39.827’ W bedrock, without much impact. Dam located in a peat bog near the river, the course is not affected 3 55º6.737’ S 69º32.963’ W but impact on vegetation. A dam of great development that takes advantage of glacial sediments 4 55º6.675’ S 69º33.259’ W deposited in the area. Important development of several dams, aided by a peat bog area 5 55º6.717’ S 69º33.712’ W that has been flooded. Signs of activity of beavers around the lake and a lodge on the shore, 6 55º10.912’ S 69º35.511’ W but they have not been able to dam the lake (although it can be seen that they have tried to do it). Different dams have been developed from the beach to upstream, 7 55º11,348’ S 69º34.439’ W with lot of activity and changes in the river course. Highly developed beaver zone with many dams between moraines 8 55º11.991’ S 69º34.654’ W that difficult the access to them. Old signs of beavers in this zone, but there are not visible lodges or 9 55º2.025’ S 69º36.517’ W fresh cuts on trunks or branches.

Figure 44 Photographs showing seasonal activity or fishermen: A) Crab traps on the shore inside the Fouque Fjord, near Caleta Nutria; B) Mooring lines for fishing boats inside the Acix Fjord.

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12. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

12.1 Trip Donors, Sponsors and Collaborators Grants and donors: • Young Explorers Grant #EC0757-15 (National Geographic Society) • Joxe Takolo beka 2015 (Azpeitia Council) • Geographical Fieldwork Grant (Royal Geographical Society) • Expeditions Grant (British Mountaineering Council) • Crowdfunding event (more than 80 personal donors)

Sponsors: • Alpacka Raft • Basque Mountain Guides • DAP Airlines • Honey Stinger • International SOS • Landher Montaña • Level Six • Marmot – Andesgear • Skout Backcountry • TentMeals

Collaborators: • Bilbao Mendi Film Festival • CONAF • UNCHARTED project • Universidad de Magallanes (UMAG) • University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU)

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12.2 Personal Support The Universidad de Magallanes (UMAG; Punta Arenas, Chile; https://www.umag.cl/en/) has been our primary scientific host, supporting us with the loan of 1) basecamp equipment to reduce international shipping and 2) radio and sat phone communications equipment for safety considerations. Eñaut has completed his MS degree at the University of Magallanes, has very good rapport with the scientists and administrators, and is hoping to undertake a doctoral degree in collaboration with the university.

Special mention to Dr. Gino Casassa Rogazinski and Dr. Juan Carlos Aravena Donaire (both from the Dirección de Programas Antárticos y Subantárticos at the UMAG), who have reviewed our scientific research works and have helped with some bureaucratic issues.

In addition, Nicolas Butorovic (Climatology Department, Patagonian Institute at the UMAG) and Carlos Olave at the Research Centre for Quaternary Studies (Researcher in CEQUA Foundation; Punta Arenas, Chile; http://www.cequa.cl/) have supported our project as local collaborators. They deployed some of the AWSs that are located in the southern Patagonia area and they have been working with Charlie Porter’s AWS data for many years, until his unfortunate death.

On the other hand, Camilo Rada (PhD Candidate in Glaciology, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, Canada) has been a part of the project’s vision from the start due to his intimate knowledge of the area and his close friendship with Evan and Eñaut. Although still a PhD student, Camilo has a very strong academic record studying the glaciers of Chile and Antarctica with safe but ambitious field programs (his prior studies took place in Chile). He has also embarked on numerous mountaineering expeditions throughout South America and Antarctica, but in recent years has focused on Patagonia. He is a co-founder of the UNCHARTED project (http://www.uncharted.org/), which is part of the inspiration for our expedition, and has been very supportive in our logistical preparations.

Finally, Denis Chevallay (Puerto Williams) is a guide, logistics agent and documentalist, specialized on Tierra del Fuego under all its aspects. He helped us documenting as best as possible the historic knowledge of the Cloue Icefield, adding new cartography and place names to our project.

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13. BIBLIOGRAPHY

13.1 Scientific Articles Ackert, R.P., R.A. Becker, B.S. Singer, M.D. Kurz, M.W. Caffee & D.M. Mickelson (2008). Patagonian Glacier Response During the Late Glacial–Holocene Transition. Science, 321, 392-395. doi:http://www.sciencemag.org/content/321/5887/392.abstract. Aniya, M., H. Sato, R. Naruse, P. Skvarca & G. Casassa (1996). The use of satellite and airborne imagery to inventory outlet glaciers of the Southern Patagonia Icefield, South America. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote Sensing, 62(12), 1361-1369. Aravena, J.C. & B. Luckman (2008). Spatio-temporal rainfall patterns in Southern South America. International Journal of Climatology, 29(14), 2106-2120. Boex, J., C. Fogwill, S. Harrison, N.F. Glasser, A. Hein, C. Schnabel & S. Xu (2013). Rapid thinning of the late Pleistocene Patagonian Ice Sheet followed migration of the Southern Westerlies. Sci. Rep., 3, 1- 6. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/srep02118. Bown, F., A. Rivera, P. Zenteno, C. Bravo & F. Cawkwell (2014). Chapter 28: First glacier inventory and recent glacier variations on Isla Grande de Tierra del Fuego and adjacent islands in Southern Chile. In: J.S. Kargel, G.J. Leonard, M.P. Bishop & B. Raup (Eds.) Global Land Ice Measurements from Space, Springer-Praxis, 33 chapters. Boyd, B.L., J.B. Anderson, J.S. Wellner & R.A. Fernández. 2008. “The Sedimentary Record of Glacial Retreat, Marinelli Fjord, Patagonia: Regional Correlations and Climate Ties.” Marine Geology, 255 (3-4), 165-78. doi:http://10.1016/j.margeo.2008.09.001. Carrasco, J., G. Casassa & A. Rivera (2002). Meteorological and climatological aspects of the Southern Patagonia Icefield. In: G. Casassa, F. Sepúlveda, and R. Sinclair (Eds.), The Patagonian Icefields: A Unique Natural Laboratory for Environmental and Climate Change Studies, Kluwer Academic/Plenum Press, New York, pp. 29–41. Casassa, G., A. Rivera & J. Carrasco (2000). Glacier variations in the Southern Patagonia Icefield and their relation with climate. Proceedings of the 6th International Conference on Southern Hemisphere Meteorology and Oceanography, Santiago (Chile), American Meteorological Society, 312-313. Cerveny, R.S. (1998). Present Climates of South America. In: J.E. Hobbs, J.A. Lindesay, and H.A. Bridgman (Eds.), Climates of the Southern Continents: Present, Past and Future, John Wiley, New York, pp. 107-135. Clapperton, C.M. (1993). Quaternary geology and geomorphology of South America. Elsevier Science Publishers B.V., Amsterdam, 779 pp. Coronato, F. & A. Bisigato (1998). A temperature pattern classification if Patagonia. International Journal of Climatology, 18, 765-773. Davies, B.J. & N.F. Glasser (2012). Accelerating shrinkage of Patagonian glaciers from the Little Ice Age (~AD 1870) to 2011. Journal of Glaciology, 58 (212), 1063-1084. Endlicher, W. (1991). Zur Klimageographie und Klimaökologie von Südpatagonien. 100 Jahre klimatologische Messungen in Punta Arenas [On the Climatology and Eco-Climatology of South Patagonia. 100 Years of Climatological Measurements at Punta Arenas]. Freiburger Geographische Hefte, University of Freiburg, Germany, vol. 32, 181-211. Endlicher, W. & A. Santana (1988). El clima de la Patagonia y sus aspectos ecológicos: Un siglo de mediciones climatológicas en Punta Arenas. Anales Instituto Patagonia, 18, 57-86 [in Spanish]. Fritts, H.C. (1976). Tree Rings and Climate. Academic Press, New York. García, J.L., M.R. Kaplan, B.L. Hall, J.M. Schaefer, R.M. Vega, R. Schwartz & R. Finkel (2012). Glacier expansion in southern Patagonia throughout the Antarctic cold reversal. Geology, 40, 859-862. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g33164.1. Glasser, N. & K. Jansson (2008). The Glacial Map of southern South America. Journal of Maps, 4(1), 175- 196. doi:http://10.4113/jom.2008.1020. Glasser, N.F., T.O. Holt, Z.D. Evans, B.J. Davies, M. Pelto & S. Harrison (2016). Recent Spatial and Temporal Variations in Debris Cover on Patagonian Glaciers. Geomorphology, 273, 202-216.

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doi:http://10.1016/j.geomorph.2016.07.036. Godley, E.J. (1970). Botany of the Southern Zone: Exploration, 1847-1891. Tuatara 18, 50-93. Holmlund, P. & H. Fuenzalida (1995). Anomalous glacier responses to 20th century climatic changes in Darwin Cordillera, southern Chile. Journal of Glaciology, 41(139), 465-474. Jarvis, A., H.I. Reuter, A. Nelson, & E. Guevara (2008). Hole-filled SRTM for the globe Version 4, available from the CGIAR-CSI SRTM 90m Database (http://srtm.csi.cgiar.org). Retrieved April 4, 2014, from http://www.cgiar-csi.org/data/srtm-90m-digital-elevation-database-v4-1. Kaplan, M.R., C.J. Fogwill, D.E. Sugden, N. Hulton, P.W. Kubik & S.P.H.T. Freeman (2008). Southern Patagonian glacial chronology for the Last Glacial period and implications for Southern Ocean climate. Quaternary Science Reviews, 27, 284-294. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2007.09.013. Klepeis, K.A. (1994). The Magallanes and Deseado fault zones: Major segments of the South American- Scotia transform plate boundary in southernmost South America, Tierra del Fuego. Journal of Geophysical Research: Solid Earth, 99(B11), 22001-22014. Klepeis, K.A. (1994). Relationship between uplift of the metamorphic core of the southernmost Andes and shortening in the Magallanes foreland fold and thrust belt, Tierra del Fuego, Chile. Tectonics, 13(4), 882-904. Koppes, M., B. Hallet, & J.B. Anderson (2009). Synchronous acceleration of ice loss and glacial erosion, Glaciar Marinelli, Chilean Tierra del Fuego. Journal of Glaciology, 55, 207-220. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.3189/002214309788608796. Kuylenstierna, J.L., G.C. Rosqvist & P. Holmlund (1996). Late-Holocene glacier variations in the Cordillera Darwin, Tierra del Fuego, Chile. The Holocene, 6, 353-358. López, P., P. Chevallier, V. Favier, B. Pouyaud, F. Ordenes & J. Oerlemans (2010). A regional view of fluctuations in glacier length in southern South America. Global and Planetary Change, 71, 85-108. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.gloplacha.2009.12.009. Luckman, B.H. (1988). Dating the moraines and recession of Athabasca and Dome Glaciers, Alberta, Canada. Arctic and Alpine Research, 20, 598-606. Masiokas, M.H., A. Rivera, K.E. Espizua, R. Villalba, S. Delgado & J.C. Aravena (2009). Glacier fluctuations in extratropical South America during the past 1000 years. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 281, 242-268. doi:http://10.1016/j.palaeo.2009.08.006. Melkonian, A.K., M.J. Willis, M.E. Pritchard, A. Rivera, F. Bown & S.A. Bernstein (2013). Satellite-derived volume loss rates and glacier speeds for the Cordillera Darwin Icefield, Chile. The Cryosphere, 7, 823-839. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.5194/tc-7-823-2013. Mertes, J.R., J.D. Gulley, D.I. Benn, S.S. Thompson & L.I. Nicholson (2017). Using Structure from Motion to create Glacier DEMs and Orthoimagery from Historical Terrestrial and Oblique Aerial Imagery. Earth Surf. Process. Landforms. doi:http://10.1002/esp.4188. Miller, A. (1976). The Climate of Chile. In: W. Schwerdtfeger (Ed.), World Survey of Climatology, Vol. 12, Elsevier, Amsterdam, The Netherlands, 113-218. Moreno, P.I., G.L. Jacobson, T.V. Lowell & G.H. Denton (2001). Interhemispheric climate links revealed by a late-glacial cooling episode in southern Chile. Nature, 409, 804-808. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/35057252. Moreno, P.I., J.P. Francois, R.P. Villa-Martinez & C.M. Moy (2009). Millenial-scale variability in Southern Hemisphere westerly wind activity over the last 5000 years in SW Patagonia. Quaternary Science Reviews, 28, 25-38. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2008.10.009. Murray, D.S., A.E. Carlson, B.S. Singer, F.S. Anslow, F. He, M. Caffee, S.A. Marcott, Z. Liu & B.L. Otto- Bliesner (2012). Northern Hemisphere forcing of the last deglaciation in southern Patagonia. Geology, 40, 631-334. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1130/g32836.1. Nuth, C. & A. Kääb (2011). Co-registration and bias corrections of satellite elevation data sets for quantifying glacier thickness change, The Cryosphere, 5, 271-290. doi:http://10.5194/tc-5-271- 2011.

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Paul, F., A. Kääb, M. Maisch, T. Kellenberger & W. Haeberli (2002). The new remote-sensing-derived Swiss glacier inventory: I. Methods. Annals of Glaciology, 34, 355-361. doi:http://10.3189/ 172756402781817941. Paul, F., N.E. Barrand, S. Baumann, E. Berthier, T. Bolch, K. Casey,… & S. Winsvold (2013). On the accuracy of glacier outlines derived from remote-sensing data. Annals of Glaciology, 54(63), 171– 182. doi:https://doi.org/10.3189/2013AoG63A296. Paul, F., S. Winsvold, A. Kääb, T. Nagler & G. Schwaizer (2016). Glacier Remote Sensing Using Sentinel-2. Part II: Mapping Glacier Extents and Surface Facies, and Comparison to Landsat 8. Remote Sensing, 8(7), 575. doi:https://doi.org/10.3390/rs8070575. Pfeffer, W.T., A.A. Arendt, A. Bliss, T. Bolch, J.G. Cogley, A. Gardner, J. Hagen, R. Hock, G. Kaser, C. Kienholz, E. Miles, G. Moholdt, N. Mölg, F. Paul, V. Radic, P. Rastner, B. Raup, J. Rich & M. Sharp (2014). The Randolph Glacier Inventory: a globally complete inventory of glaciers. Journal of Glaciology, 60(221), 537-552. doi:http://10.3189/2014JoG13J176 [Technical Report available via http://www.glims.org/RGI/] Pfeffer, W.T., A.A. Arendt, A. Bliss, T. Bolch, J.G. Cogley, A.S. Gardner, J.O. Hagen, et al. (2014). The Randolph Glacier Inventory: A Globally Complete Inventory of Glaciers. Journal of Glaciology 60(221), 537-52. doi:http://10.3189/2014JoG13J176. Porter, C. & A. Santana, A. (2003). Rapid 20th century retreats of Ventisquero Marinelli in the Cordillera Darwin Icefield. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia, 31, 17-26. Rivera, A., T. Benham, G. Casassa, J. Bamber & J.A. Dowdeswell (2007). Ice elevation and areal changes of glaciers from the Northern Patagonia Icefield, Chile. Global and Planetary Change, 59(1), 126- 137. Rosenblüth, B., G. Casassa & H. Fuenzalida (1995). Recent climate changes in Western Patagonia. Bulletin of Glacier Research, 13, 127-132. Rosenblüth, B., H. Fuenzalida, and P. Aceituno (1997). Recent temperature variations in southern South America. International Journal of Climatology, 17, 67–85. Ruffner, K.C. (1995). CORONA: America’s First Satellite Program. CIA Cold War Records Series. Santana, A., C. Porter, N. Butorovic & C. Olave (2006). Primeros antecedentes climatológicos de estaciones automáticas (AWS) en el Canal Beagle, Magallanes, Chile. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia, 34, 5-20 [in Spanish]. Santana, A., C. Porter, N. Butorovic, and C. Olave (2007). Climatic characteristics in the Brecknock Channel at 54°30ʹS latitude, Magallanes, Chile. Anales del Instituto de la Patagonia, 35, 5–18. Schneider, C., M. Glaser, R. Kilian, A. Santana, N. Butorovic & G. Casassa (2003). Weather observations across the southern Andes at 53ºS. Physics of Geography, 24(2), 97-119. doi:http://10.2747/0272-3646.24.2.97. Severinghaus, P. (2009). Southern see-saw seen. Nature, 457, 1093-1094. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1038/4571093a. Strelin, J.A., G. Casassa, G. Rosqvist & P. Holmlund (2008). Holocene glaciations in the Ema Glacier valley, Monte Sarmiento Massif, Tierra del Fuego. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 260, 299-314. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2007.12.002. Strelin, J.A., M.R. Kaplan, M.J. Vandergoes, G.H. Denton & J.M. Schaefer (2014). Holocene glacier history of the Lago Argentino basin, Southern Patagonian Icefield. Quaternary Science Reviews, 101, 124- 145. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quascirev.2014.06.026. Sugden, D.E., M.J. Bentley, C.J. Fogwill, N.R.J. Hulton, R.D. McCulloch & P.S. Purves (2005). Late-glacial glacier events in southernmost South America: a blend of ‘northern’ and ‘southern’ hemispheric climatic signals? Geografiska Annaler 87, 273-288. doi:http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.0435-3676.2005.00259.x. Warren, C.R. (1994). Freshwater Calving and Anomalous Glacier Oscillations: Recent Behaviour of Moreno and Ameghino Glaciers, Patagonia. The Holocene 4(4), 422-29. doi:https://10.1177/095968369400400410.

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Weischet, W. (1985). Climatic constraints for the development of the far south of Latin America. Geo Journal, 11, 79-87. Westoby, M.J., J. Brasington, N.F. Glasser, M.J. Hambrey & J.M. Reynolds (2012). “Structure-from- Motion” photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications. Geomorphology, 179, 300-314. doi:https://doi.org/10.1016/j.geomorph.2012.08.021.

13.2 Expedition Reports and Books Agostini, Alberto (1956). 30 años en Tierra del Fuego. El Elefante Blanco, Buenos Aires. ISBN 987-9223- 74-8. Agostini, Alberto (1959). Esfinges de Hielo: Escalada en los Montes Sarmiento e Italia en la Tierra del Fuego. ILTE, Torino, 237 pp. [in Spanish]. Bridges, Esteban Lucas (1949). Uttermost Part of the Earth. Dutton, University of Texas, 558 pp. Caldenius, Carl (1932). Las Glaciaciones Cuaternarias en Patagonia y Tierra del Fuego. Ministerio de Agricultura de la Nación, Dirección General de Minas y Geología, Boletín 95, Buenos Aires, 148 pp. DGA (2011). Variaciones recientes de glaciares en Chile, según principales zonas glaciológicas. DGA- MOP, Santiago (Chile), 142 pp. Estensen, Miriam (2006). Terra Australis Incognita: The Spanish Quest for the mysterious Great South Land. Allen & Unwin, Sidney, 288 pp. ISBN 9781741750546. FitzRoy, Robert, Philip Parker King, Pringle Stokes & Charles Darwin (1839). Narrative of the surveying voyages of His Majesty’s Ships Adventure and Beagle between the years 1826 and 1836, describing their examination of the southern shores of South America, and the Beagle’s circumnavigation of the globe. Editorial Henry Colburn, London. This work was published in three vols. - Vol. I: Proceedings of the first expedition, 1826-30, under the command of Captain P. Parker King. 597 pp. - Vol. II: Proceedings of the second expedition, 1831-36, under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy. 695 pp. - Vol. III: Journal of researches into the Geology and Natural History of the various countries visited by H.M.S. Beagle, under the command of Captain Robert FitzRoy from 1832 to 1836, by Charles Darwin. 615 pp. Hyades, Paul (1887). Mission scientifique du Cap Horn, 1882-1883. Vol. 4: Geologie. Gauthier-Villars. [French] LINK Jones, Mark (2006). Expedition to the End of the World. Sea Kayaker, Dec 2006 Martinic, Mateo (1982). La Tierra de los Fuegos. Artegraf Ltda., Punta Arenas, 221 pp. Martinic, Mateo (1999). Cartografia Magallanica 1523-1945. Ediciones de la Universidad de Magallanes, Punta Arenas, 345 pp. Martinic, Mateo (2005). Crónica de las tierras del sur del canal Beagle. Editorial “La Prensa Austral”, Punta Arenas, 279 pp. Martinic, Mateo (2007). Los británicos en la Región Magallánica. Co-edición entre Universidad de Magallanes y Universidad de Playa Ancha de Ciencias de la Educación, Editorial Puntángeles, Valdivia, 217 pp. Rolfo, Mariolina & Giorgio Ardrizzi (2015). Patagonia and Tierra del Fuego Nautical Guide, 3rd Edition. Editrice Incontri Nautici, ISBN 9788865944318 Schinas, Jill Dickin. 2008. A Family Outing in the Atlantic. Imperator Publishing. ISBN 9780956072214 Turi, Luis & Carolina Etchegoyen (2001). Expedición Cordillera Darwin 2001. Club Andino Ushuaia. [Spanish] Valdez, Gustavo & Guido Fischer (2002). Expedición Nautico Andinistica a la Isla Hoste. Club Andino Ushuaia [Spanish] Wrobleski, Brad (1990). Soaking the Sol. Canadian Alpine Journal, 73: 84-86. Wrobleski, Brad (1992). Monte Cloven, Hoste Island, Tierra del Fuego, South America, 1989-90. AAJ, 34(66): 181. LINK

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13.3 Reference Maps and Nautical Charts Camilo Rada’s Map (2013): UNCHARTED: Cordillera de Darwin (Mapa Preliminar v. 0.9). Uncharted Project (http://www.uncharted.org). Chilean Navy’s Nautical Charts: Servicio Hidrográfico y Oceanográfico de la Armada de Chile (SHOA). - 12700: Canal O’Brien a Punta Yamana (1973). Scale 1:100.000 - 12800: Bahía Desolada a Punta Yamana (1989). Scale 1:200.000 - 13100: Canal Beagle (de Canal Murray a Puerto Williams) (1980). Scale 1:80.000 - 13112: Estero Fouque (Canal Beagle) (2001). Scale 1:20.000 - 13113: Fiordo Pía y Caleta Olla (Canal Beagle) (2001). Scale 1:20.000 - 13131: Puerto Navarino, Bahía Honda, Caleta Lewaia y Accesos (Canal Beagle) (2001). - 13200: Canal Beagle a Cabo de Hornos (1988). Scale 1:200.000 IGM Topographic Maps: Instituto Geográfico Militar (IGM) de Chile. - 5570: Isla Hoste – Carta Preliminar (1954). Scale 1:250.000 - L-197: Isla Delta (2011). Scale 1:50.000 - L-198: Estero Fouque (2011). Scale 1:50.000 NIMA Map (1997): Bahía Desolada to Punta Yamana. Nº 22418. Scale 1:200.000 NIMA Map (1998): Beagle Channel to Cape Horn. Nº 22430. Scale 1:200.000 Romanche Map (1885): Archipel du Cap Horn et Canal du Beagle. Direction Générale des Services Hydrographiques de la Marine, 1885. Russian Map (1965): Photograph of an unknown Russian navigational chart depicting the Cloue Peninsula provided by Denis Chevallay, probably partly based on the IGM chart.

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14. PUBLIC MEDIA COVERAGE

14.1 Television • 2015/12/12: Eñaut & Rebecca Martin in MendiTV talking about Incognita & NatGeo Grants. https://vimeo.com/148810986 • 2016/02/22: Eñaut in the Basque TV ETB 1 (Azpimarra) talking about Incognita Patagonia. http://www.eitb.eus/eu/get/multimedia/screenview/id/3857298/tipo/videos/ • 2016/07/08: Incognita Patagonia appearing in the Basque TV News (Teleberri) http://www.eitb.eus/es/get/multimedia/screenview/id/4222802/tipo/videos/ • 2016/10/22: Incognita Patagonia has been interview in a Basque TV science program (Teknopolis) http://www.eitb.eus/es/get/multimedia/screenview/id/4456602/tipo/videos/

14.2 Radio • 2015/12/29: Eñaut in Onda Vasca (Piedra de Toque), presenting Incognita Patagonia http://piedradetoque.es/incognita-patagonia-nuevo-proyecto-de-aventura-y-exploracion-de-enautt- izagirre/ • 2016/02/18: Eñaut in Euskadi Irratia (Faktoria), before to depart on the expedition http://www.eitb.eus/eu/irratia/euskadi-irratia/programak/faktoria/audioak/osoa/3847038/incognita- patagonia-espedizioaenaut-izagirrek-helburua-faktorian/ • 2016/05/19: Ibai in Euskadi Irratia (Hiri Gorrian) after min. 34 http://www.eitb.tv/eu/irratia/euskadi-irratia/hirigorrian/3445588/4087202/hiri-gorrian-2016-05-19/ • 2016/05/26: Ibai in Radio Vitoria (Alguien Te Está Escuchando) http://www.eitb.eus/es/radio/radio-vitoria/programas/alguien-te-esta- escuchando/audios/detalle/4107914/en-patagonia-chilena-ibai-rico--radio-vitoria/ • 2016/05/28: Eñaut in Onda Vasca (Piedra de Toque) http://piedradetoque.es/enaut-izagirre-explora-el-campo-de-hielo-mas-austral-de-tierra-de-fuego/ • 2016/06/02: Ibai and Eñaut in Radio Euskadi (La Casa De La Palabra) after 34 min. http://www.eitb.eus/es/get/multimedia/screenview/id/4128524/tipo/audio/ • 2016/06/03: Ibai and Eñaut in Cadena SER Vitoria (Hoy por hoy) http://cadenaser.com/emisora/2016/06/03/ser_vitoria/1464959823_989760.html • 2016/06/17: Eñaut in Euskadi Irratia (Norteko Ferrokarrila) http://norteko.elhuyar.eus/entzun.asp?Kodea=1237 • 2016/08/06: Ibai and Eñaut in Radio Euskadi (Levando Anclas) after 57:30 min. http://www.eitb.eus/es/get/multimedia/screenview/id/4298902/tipo/audio/

14.3 Mountain and Science Outreach Magazines • 2016/06/10: Incognita Patagonia in Spanish mountain magazine Desnivel. http://desnivel.com/expediciones/la-expedicion-incognita-patagonia-explora-el-campo-de-hielo-mas- austral-de-tierra-del-fuego • 2016/06/22: Incognita Patagonia in Basque science outreach magazine Elhuyar. http://aldizkaria.elhuyar.eus/erreportajeak/suaren-lurraldean-izoztza-malkotan/ • 2016/06/27: Incognita Patagonia in Basque newspaper Gara. http://www.naiz.eus/eu/hemeroteca/gara/editions/2016-06-27/hemeroteca_articles/incognita-patagonia- koen-lorpena-suaren-lurraldean • 2017/01/01: Incognita Patagonia in Spanish mountain magazine Pyrenaica. http://www.pyrenaica.com/sumario_contenido_266.php?i=c&n=673 • 2016/11: Incognita Patagonia in English Patagonia’s magazine Patagon Journal (nº 2). http://www.patagonjournal.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=3686&Itemid=322

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15. MAP AND REPORT DISSEMINATION

For record-keeping, a copy of the expedition report will be submitted to the archives of the National Geographical Society, Royal Geographical Society, the British Mountaineering Council, the Alpine Club, the Scott Polar Research Institute, and the Cambridge University Mountaineering Club.

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