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French Grammar Basics and Beyond
French Grammar Basics and Beyond Easy explanations in English of French Grammar with more than 200 exercises, and solutions! This grammar book is for students of the A1 levels (total beginners) to B1 level (intermediate level). Click here to order this e-book at Special Price Only $24.50/ 21.90 € / £18.99! Paperback and Kindle version also available – Details here French Grammar Basics and Beyond ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ©ȱ2020ȱbyȱLearn French at Home.ȱAllȱrightsȱreserved.ȱ NoȱpartȱofȱthisȱeȬbookȱmayȱbeȱreproducedȱinȱanyȱwriĴen,ȱelectronic,ȱrecording,ȱorȱphotocopyingȱwithȬ outȱwriĴenȱpermissionȱofȱtheȱpublisherȱorȱauthors.ȱȱ ȱ Publishedȱby:ȱLearn French at Home www.learnfrenchathome.comȱ Authors:ȱCélineȱVanȱLoanȱandȱAnnickȱStevensonȱ 3rdȱedition.ȱ1stȱeditionȱpublishedȱinȱ2011.ȱ ȱ DateȱofȱPublication:ȱ2020.ȱ ISBN:ȱ9798664830743ȱȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ ȱ Coverȱphoto:ȱȱ Paris,ȱtheȱRodinȱMuseumȱ©ȱCélineȱVanȱLoanȱ Backȱcoverȱphoto:ȱ CélineȱVanȱLoanȱ©ȱMartyȱVanȱLoanȱ 2 French Grammar Basics and Beyond AboutLearn French at Home Learn French at Home,ȱ createdȱ inȱ 2004ȱ byȱ Célineȱ andȱ Vincentȱ Anthonioz, hasȱ helpedȱ thousandsȱ ofȱ Frenchȱlearners,ȱeachȱwithȱveryȱdiěerentȱlearningȱgoals.ȱTheȱmainȱingredientȱofȱourȱsuccessȱliesȱinȱourȱ teamȱofȱprofessionalȱandȱfriendlyȱnativeȱFrenchȱteachersȱwhoȱtakeȱtheȱtimeȱtoȱpersonalizeȱeveryȱsingle lessonȱaccordingȱtoȱtheȱstudentȇsȱpersonalȱandȱprofessionalȱgoal.ȱOurȱmainȱpurposeȱisȱtoȱdeliverȱtrueȱ qualityȱserviceȱtoȱeachȱstudent.ȱ ȱ Sinceȱtheȱlessonsȱtakeȱplaceȱinȱtheȱstudentȇsȱhomeȱorȱworkplace,ȱitȱdoesnȇtȱmaĴerȱwhereȱyouȱlive.ȱ -
1. from the Beginnings to 1000 Ce
1. From the Beginnings to 1000 ce As the history of French wine was beginning, about twenty-five hundred years ago, both of the key elements were missing: there was no geographi- cal or political entity called France, and no wine was made on the territory that was to become France. As far as we know, the Celtic populations living there did not produce wine from any of the varieties of grapes that grew wild in many parts of their land, although they might well have eaten them fresh. They did cultivate barley, wheat, and other cereals to ferment into beer, which they drank, along with water, as part of their daily diet. They also fermented honey (for mead) and perhaps other produce. In cultural terms it was a far cry from the nineteenth century, when France had assumed a national identity and wine was not only integral to notions of French culture and civilization but held up as one of the impor- tant influences on the character of the French and the success of their nation. Two and a half thousand years before that, the arbiters of culture and civilization were Greece and Rome, and they looked upon beer- drinking peoples, such as the Celts of ancient France, as barbarians. Wine was part of the commercial and civilizing missions of the Greeks and Romans, who introduced it to their new colonies and later planted vine- yards in them. When they and the Etruscans brought wine and viticulture to the Celts of ancient France, they began the history of French wine. -
Why French Is Awesome!
WHY FRENCH IS AWESOME! Last updated July 2018 • Find this ONLINE at tinyurl.com/FrenchStatsJonShee (In the online version of this document, all asterisks are hyperlinks to the sources/articles used for each statement.) • French is the most learned (and most popular) second language in the world after English.*, *, * Different sources say 82 - 100 million people are currently learning French around the world.* • Different studies show that French is now the 3rd* or 5th* or 6th* most spoken language in the world! (by native and secondary speakers). • By 2050, French is expected to be the 3rd most spoken language in the world!* (following Mandarin and Spanish or English) • By 2025, French is predicted to become the most widely spoken mother tongue in Europe.* • French is the only language other than English that is taught and spoken on five continents.** • French is the 3rd most widely known language and 4th most widely spoken mother tongue in the European Union.* • French is the 2nd most commonly taught language in American schools after Spanish.* (2017 report) • There are 900,000 French teachers in the world (2016).* • French is the 3rd most spoken language in Connecticut after English and Spanish (2015 census). • French is the 3rd* or 4th* most widely used language on the Internet. • French is the 2nd* or 3rd* most useful language for business after English. (Top 3: Mandarin, French, Arabic) • There are 37 'francophone' countries (23 in Africa) where French is either an official language (33 countries) or is spoken by at least one in five of the population.* (The most common languages proclaimed as “official” throughout the world are English, French, Arabic, and Spanish.*) The number of French speakers has increased by 25% from about 220 million in 2010 to 274 million in 2017.* The number of French speakers in the world has tripled over the last fifty years. -
Gaulish Galo
palaeoeuropeanpalaeoeuropean languages & epigraphieslanguages & | epigraphiesHispania & Gaul PALAEOHISPANICA 2020 | I.S.S.N. 1578-5386 revista sobre lenguas y culturas de la Hispania antigua DOI: 10.36707/palaeohispanica.v0i20.383 Gaulish Galo Alex Mullen University of Nottingham [email protected] Coline Ruiz Darasse Université Bordeaux Montaigne, Institut Ausonius / UMR 5607 CNRS [email protected] Abstract: Gaulish is a language in the Celtic language family, documented in Gaul (France and surrounding territories) from around the 2nd century BC and through the Roman period. It is transmitted primarily in Greek (Gallo-Greek) and Latin (Gallo-Latin) script, with a small number of Gaulish texts also attested in the Etruscan alphabet in Italy (Gallo-Etruscan) and with Gaulish names found in Iberian script. In this article we detail current knowledge of the linguistic content, context and classification of Gaulish, and consider the epigraphic corpus, naming practices, writing systems and the cultural interactions that shape this material. Finally, we discuss the future challenges for the study of Gaulish and some of the work that is underway which will drive our research in the 21st century. Keywords: Continental Celtic. Cultural contacts. Epigraphy. Gaul. Gaulish. Gallo-Greek. Gallo-Latin. Onomastics. Writing systems. Resumen: El galo es una lengua perteneciente a la familia celta, que está documentada en la Galia (Francia y los territorios adyacentes) desde aproximadamente el siglo II a. C. y a lo largo del período romano. Esta lengua se escribió principalmente en alfabeto griego (galo-griego) y latino (galo-latín), aunque también se cuenta con un pequeño número de textos en alfabeto etrusco en Italia (galo-etrusco) y de nombres galos en escritura ibérica. -
Understanding Core French Grammar
Understanding Core French Grammar Andrew Betts Lancing College, England Vernon Series in Language and Linguistics Copyright © 2016 Vernon Press, an imprint of Vernon Art and Science Inc, on behalf of the author. All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior permission of Vernon Art and Ascience Inc. www.vernonpress.com In the Americas: In the rest of the world: Vernon Press Vernon Press 1000 N West Street, C/Sancti Espiritu 17, Suite 1200, Wilmington, Malaga, 29006 Delaware 19801 Spain United States Vernon Series in Language and Linguistics Library of Congress Control Number: 2016947126 ISBN: 978-1-62273-068-1 Product and company names mentioned in this work are the trademarks of their respec- tive owners. While every care has been taken in preparing this work, neither the authors nor Vernon Art and Science Inc. may be held responsible for any loss or damage caused or alleged to be caused directly or indirectly by the information contained in it. Table of Contents Acknowledgements xi Introduction xiii Chapter 1 Tense Formation 15 1.0 Tenses – Summary 15 1.1 Simple (One-Word) Tenses: 15 1.2 Compound (Two-word) Tenses: 17 2.0 Present Tense 18 2.1 Regular Verbs 18 2.2 Irregular verbs 19 2.3 Difficulties with the Present Tense 19 3.0 Imperfect Tense 20 4.0 Future Tense and Conditional Tense 21 5.0 Perfect Tense 24 6.0 Compound Tense Past Participle Agreement 28 6.1 -
Running Head: ORTHOGRAPHIC DEPTH and ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING 1
Running head: ORTHOGRAPHIC DEPTH AND ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING 1 This is a post-peer-review, pre-copyedit version of an article accepted in "Reading and Writing". The final authenticated version will be available at link.springer.com. The Effect of Orthographic Depth on Letter String Processing: The Case of Visual Attention Span and Rapid Automatized Naming Alexia Antzaka (ORCID iD: 0000-0002-3975-1122) Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Departamento de Lengua Vasca y Comunicación, UPV/EHU, 48940, Leioa, Spain Clara Martin (ORCID iD: 0000-0003-2701-5045) Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013, Bilbao, Spain Sendy Caffarra (ORCID iD: 0000-0003-3667-5061) Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Sophie Schlöffel Running head: ORTHOGRAPHIC DEPTH AND ORTHOGRAPHIC PROCESSING 1 Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Departamento de Lengua Vasca y Comunicación, UPV/EHU, 48940, Leioa, Spain Manuel Carreiras (ORCID iD: 0000-0001-6726-7613) Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Departamento de Lengua Vasca y Comunicación, UPV/EHU, 48940, Leioa, Spain Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, 48013, Bilbao, Spain Marie Lallier (ORCID iD: 0000-0003-4340-1296) Basque Center on Cognition, Brain and Language, 20009, San Sebastián, Spain Author note The authors acknowledge financial support from the Basque Government (PRE_2015_2_0049 to A.A, PI_2015_1_25 to C.M, PRE_2015_2_0247 to S.S), the European Research Council (ERC-2011-ADG-295362 to M.C.), the Spanish Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness (PSI20153653383P to M.L., PSI20153673533R to M. -
A Linguistic Assessment of the Munji Language in Afghanistan
Vol. 6 (2011), pp. 38-103 http://nflrc.hawaii.edu/ldc/ http://hdl.handle.net/10125/4506 A Linguistic Assessment of the Munji Language in Afghanistan Daniela Beyer Simone Beck International Assistance Mission (IAM) This paper presents a sociolinguistic assessment of the Munji (ISO: mnj) speech variety based on data collected in the Munjan area of northern Afghanistan. The goal was to determine whether a national language is adequate for primary school education and literature, or whether the Munji people would benefit from language development, including literature development in the vernacular. The survey trip entailed administering questionnaires to village elders,sociolinguistic questionnaires as well as Dari proficiency questionnaires to men and women of various age groups, eliciting word lists, and observing intelligibility of Dari and language use. In this way we aimed to determine the vitality of Munji, the different varieties of Munji, the use of Munji and Dari in the different domains of life, attitudes toward the speaking community’s own speech variety and toward Dari, and to investigate their intelligibility of Dari. In this paper we aim to show that the Munji people would benefit from Munji language development as a basis for both primary school material and adult literacy material in the mother tongue. In the long term, this is likely to raise the education level as well as the Munji people’s ability to acquire Dari literacy. 1. INTRODUCTION.1 From April 20 to 25, 2008, we conducted sociolingistic research in the Munjan language area of northern Afghanistan.2 The research was carried out under the auspices of the International Assistance Mission (IAM), a non-governmental organization working in Afghanistan. -
INTERSECTING CONSTRAINT FAMILIES: an ARGUMENT for HARMONIC GRAMMAR KIE Zuraw BRUCE HAYES University of California, Los Angeles U
INTERSECTING CONSTRAINT FAMILIES: AN ARGUMENT FOR HARMONIC GRAMMAR Kie Zuraw Bruce Hayes University of California, Los Angeles University of California, Los Angeles In the analysis of free variation in phonology, we often encounter the effects of intersecting constraint families: there are two independent families of constraints, each of which has a quantifiable effect on the outcome. A challenge for theories is to account for the patterns that emerge from such intersection. We address three cases: Tagalog nasal substitution, French liai- son/elision, and Hungarian vowel harmony, using corpus data. We characterize the patterns we find as across-the-board effects in both dimensions, restrained by floor and ceiling limits. We ana- lyze these patterns using several formal frameworks, and find that an accurate account is best based on harmonic grammar (in one of its two primary quantitative implementations). Our work also suggests that certain lexical distinctions treated as discrete by classical phonological theory (e.g. ‘h-aspiré’ vs. ordinary vowel-initial words of French) are in fact gradient and require quanti- tative treatment.* Keywords: harmonic grammar, noisy harmonic grammar, maximum entropy grammars, Tagalog, French, Hungarian, intersecting constraint families 1. Introduction. A key debate in constraint-based linguistic frameworks concerns ranking versus weighting. Optimality theory (OT; Prince & Smolensky 2004 [1993]) uses strict ranking: candidate A is preferred to candidate B if the highest-ranked constraint that distinguishes between them prefers A. In harmonic grammar (Le- gendre et al. 1990, Legendre et al. 2006, Potts et al. 2010, and others), the constraints bear numeric weights, and the winner is the candidate with the best harmony value (a weighted sum of constraint violations). -
Multilingualism As a Cohesion Factor in the European Culture
MULTILINGUALISM AS A COHESION FACTOR IN THE EUROPEAN CULTURE 1. EUROPEAN LANGUAGES Many European languages have their origins in three Indo-European language groups: the Romance languages from the Latin of the Roman Empire; the Germanic languages, whose original language was spoken in Southern Scandinavia, and the Slavic languages, derived from the Protoslav branch, which existed for over 3000 years before evolving into a variety of other languages during the period between the VI-IX centuries AD1. In general, all the current languages in Europe settled during the Middle Ages. Until then, the various languages had evolved rapidly because there was only a small percentage of people who could read and write. With so few people being able to read, it was normal for languages to be passed from generation to generation orally, making its evolutional process more expedient than what it currently is today. Romance languages were, and still to this day are spoken mainly in Southwestern Europe and in Romania and Moldova (Spanish, French, Portuguese and Italian are Romance languages, as well as other languages that are not so widespread as Catalan or Sardinian). Germanic languages have their roots in Northern and Northwestern Europe, and in some areas of Central Europe; to this group belong German, Dutch, Danish, Norwegian, Swedish and Icelandic, as well as Frisian, which is considered a minority language. Slavic languages are spoken in Central Europe, the Balkans, Russia and West of Russia. Because the area suffered numerous invasions over several centuries, languages were strongly differentiated from each other, which is the reason for the current division into three distinct groups: Western, Eastern and Southern. -
Chapter 2. Native Languages of West-Central California
Chapter 2. Native Languages of West-Central California This chapter discusses the native language spoken at Spanish contact by people who eventually moved to missions within Costanoan language family territories. No area in North America was more crowded with distinct languages and language families than central California at the time of Spanish contact. In the chapter we will examine the information that leads scholars to conclude the following key points: The local tribes of the San Francisco Peninsula spoke San Francisco Bay Costanoan, the native language of the central and southern San Francisco Bay Area and adjacent coastal and mountain areas. San Francisco Bay Costanoan is one of six languages of the Costanoan language family, along with Karkin, Awaswas, Mutsun, Rumsen, and Chalon. The Costanoan language family is itself a branch of the Utian language family, of which Miwokan is the only other branch. The Miwokan languages are Coast Miwok, Lake Miwok, Bay Miwok, Plains Miwok, Northern Sierra Miwok, Central Sierra Miwok, and Southern Sierra Miwok. Other languages spoken by native people who moved to Franciscan missions within Costanoan language family territories were Patwin (a Wintuan Family language), Delta and Northern Valley Yokuts (Yokutsan family languages), Esselen (a language isolate) and Wappo (a Yukian family language). Below, we will first present a history of the study of the native languages within our maximal study area, with emphasis on the Costanoan languages. In succeeding sections, we will talk about the degree to which Costanoan language variation is clinal or abrupt, the amount of difference among dialects necessary to call them different languages, and the relationship of the Costanoan languages to the Miwokan languages within the Utian Family. -
The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity
The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity The Harvard community has made this article openly available. Please share how this access benefits you. Your story matters Citation Wilkinson, Ryan Hayes. 2015. The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity. Doctoral dissertation, Harvard University, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences. Citable link http://nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:17467211 Terms of Use This article was downloaded from Harvard University’s DASH repository, and is made available under the terms and conditions applicable to Other Posted Material, as set forth at http:// nrs.harvard.edu/urn-3:HUL.InstRepos:dash.current.terms-of- use#LAA The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity A dissertation presented by Ryan Hayes Wilkinson to The Department of History in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the subject of History Harvard University Cambridge, Massachusetts May 2015 © 2015 Ryan Hayes Wilkinson All rights reserved. Dissertation Advisor: Professor Michael McCormick Ryan Hayes Wilkinson The Last Horizons of Roman Gaul: Communication, Community, and Power at the End of Antiquity Abstract In the fifth and sixth centuries CE, the Roman Empire fragmented, along with its network of political, cultural, and socio-economic connections. How did that network’s collapse reshape the social and mental horizons of communities in one part of the Roman world, now eastern France? Did new political frontiers between barbarian kingdoms redirect those communities’ external connections, and if so, how? To address these questions, this dissertation focuses on the cities of two Gallo-Roman tribal groups. -
English in South Africa: Effective Communication and the Policy Debate
ENGLISH IN SOUTH AFRICA: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND THE POLICY DEBATE INAUGURAL LECTURE DELIVERED AT RHODES UNIVERSITY on 19 May 1993 by L.S. WRIGHT BA (Hons) (Rhodes), MA (Warwick), DPhil (Oxon) Director Institute for the Study of English in Africa GRAHAMSTOWN RHODES UNIVERSITY 1993 ENGLISH IN SOUTH AFRICA: EFFECTIVE COMMUNICATION AND THE POLICY DEBATE INAUGURAL LECTURE DELIVERED AT RHODES UNIVERSITY on 19 May 1993 by L.S. WRIGHT BA (Hons) (Rhodes), MA (Warwick), DPhil (Oxon) Director Institute for the Study of English in Africa GRAHAMSTOWN RHODES UNIVERSITY 1993 First published in 1993 by Rhodes University Grahamstown South Africa ©PROF LS WRIGHT -1993 Laurence Wright English in South Africa: Effective Communication and the Policy Debate ISBN: 0-620-03155-7 No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photo-copying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publishers. Mr Vice Chancellor, my former teachers, colleagues, ladies and gentlemen: It is a special privilege to be asked to give an inaugural lecture before the University in which my undergraduate days were spent and which holds, as a result, a special place in my affections. At his own "Inaugural Address at Edinburgh" in 1866, Thomas Carlyle observed that "the true University of our days is a Collection of Books".1 This definition - beloved of university library committees worldwide - retains a certain validity even in these days of microfiche and e-mail, but it has never been remotely adequate. John Henry Newman supplied the counterpoise: . no book can convey the special spirit and delicate peculiarities of its subject with that rapidity and certainty which attend on the sympathy of mind with mind, through the eyes, the look, the accent and the manner.