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Determination of Tropical Cyclone Surface Pressure and Winds from Satellite Microwave Data

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Determination of Tropical Cyclone Surface Pressure and Winds from Satellite Microwave Data Determination of Tropical Cyclone Surface Pressure and Winds from Satellite Microwave Data by Stanley Q. Kidder Department of Atmospheric Science Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado DETERMINATION OF TROPICAL CYCLONE SURFACE PRESSURE AND WINDS FROM SATELLITE MICROWAVE DATA by Stanley Q. Kidder Department of Atmospheric Science Colorado State University Fort Collins, Colorado April, 1979 Atmospheric Science Paper No. 307 ABSTRACT A new approach to the problem of deducing wind speed and pressure around tropical cyclones is presented. The technique, called the Surface Wind Inference from Microwave data (SWIM) technique, uses satellite microwave sounder data to measure upper tropospheric temperature anomalies which may then be related to surface pressure anomalies through the hydrostatic and radiative transfer equations. Although current satellite instruments have too coarse resolution to accurately estimate central pressure, surface pressure gradients outside of the radius of maximum wind are estimated for the first time. Future instru- mE~nts may be able to estimate central pressure with .:t 0.1 kPa accuracy. Surface pressure gradients determined by the SWIM technique are related to surface wind speeds using the gradient wind equation and a shearing parameter. The method is first tested using simulated satellite data constructed from temperature, pressure, and height data recorded by aircraft reconnaissance of four hurricanes. Wind speeds in the 80-95 kPa region are estimated with 2-3 m s-l accuracy. Next, data from the 55.45 GHz channel of the Nimbus 6 Scanning Microwave Specto­ meter (SCAMS) over eight typhoons during 1975 are used to estimate the radii of 15.4 m s-l (30 kt) and 25.7 m s-l (50 kt) winds. Accuracies of + 80 km and .:t 65 km, respectively, were found. These results are sufficient to provide valuable information to forecasters. It is suggested that the technique be further tested using data from the 54.96 GHz channel of the TIROS-N Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) launched in October, 1978. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This paper constitutes the author's Ph.D. dissertation which could not have been completed without the help of many people. The author would first like to thank his advisor, Dr. Thomas H. Vonder Haar, for his support and encouragement along the way. Thanks are also due to Dr. William Gray for his enthusiasm and for the use of his tropical cyclone rawinsonde data set, and to the rest of the author's committee, Drs. Stephen K. Cox and David A. Krueger, for useful comments and suggestions. The author is indebted to Drs. David H. Staelin and Phil W. Rosenkranz of MIT Eor their help in interpretting the SCAMS data tapes; to LCDR David Sokol of the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Mr. Samson Brand of the Naval Environmental Prediction Research Facility for supplying data on the typohoons of 1975; to Dr. Hans J. Liebe of the U.S. Depart­ ment of Commerce Office of Telecommunications for a computer subroutine to compute atmospheric absorption coefficients; and to Dr. William M. Frank, formerly of CSU, for helpful discussions. This research was sponsored by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration under grant NSG-5Z58. TABLE OF CONTENTS ABSTRACT iii ACKNOWLED;MENTS •• v TABLE OF :ONTENTS. • vii LIST OF T iBLES • ix LIST OF FLGURES. xi 1.0 INTR)DUCTION ••. 1 2.0 RADI~TIVE TRANSFER THEORY • •••. 4 2.1 Basic Theory • • •. •.••.• • . • • . 4 2.2 Active Atmospheric Constituents ••••••• 8 2.3 Surface Characteristics ••.••• 13 2.4 Retrieving Atmospheric Temperature Profiles •. 17 3.0 DETERMINATION OF THE SURFACE PRESSURE FIELD . 31 3.1 Tropical Cyclone Temperature Structure . 31 3.2 Satellite Observations . • • • ••. 36 3.3 Limb Darkening Correction.. • ••• 41 3.4 Surface Pressure Equation •• 42 3.5 Estimating Central Pressure from Satellite Data. 48 4.0 DETIRMINATION OF THE OUTER WIND FIELD. 52 4.1 Theory. 52 4.2 Aircraft Data. 55 4.3 Nimbus 6 Data •• 60 5.0 SUG(ESTED FUTURE WORK 70 6.0 SUM! [A.R.Y AND CONCLUSIONS • • 72 REFERENCl:S • 74 APPENDIX I . 78 APPENDIX II. 83 vii LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Equivalent Frequencies for the Nimbus 6 SCAMS and the TIROS-N MSU. • . 25 2 Model Cloud Properties • 26 3 Simulated Brightness Temperatures (K) for Different Cloud Conditions • . 28 4 Storms Used in this Study (all 1975) 37 5 Limb Darkening Correction for 55.45 GHz. 40 1 6 Values of the Coefficient A (K- ) . 47 7 Summary of Aircraft Reconnaissance Data from Hurricanes Used in this Study .•...••. 57 8 Variation of Regression Statistics as Functions of J.1 and x. • • • • . • • . • • • • . • . 65 ix LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1. Plane-parallel geometry. • • • . • . • • • . 7 2. Transmittance of the 15 0 North Annual Atmosphere . 9 3. Cloud absorption coefficient (y) per unit liquid water content (L) (after Westwater, 1972) 12 4. Satellite-observed brightness temperatures as functions of rain rate for different backgrounds (after Savage, 1976) . • . • . • . 14 5. Nadir emittance of a smooth ocean surface as a function of surface temperature. • . 16 6. Emittance of a smooth ocean surface as a function of zenith angle • . • • • 18 7. 19.4 GHz brightness temperature of the ocean surface as a function of zenith angle at a height of 1 km for several wind speeds (after Stogryn, 1967) .....•.... 19 8. 19.4 GHz brightness temperature of the ocean surface as a function of wind speed for a zenith angle of 50 0 (after Stogryn, 1967) • . 20 9. Weighting functions for the Nimbus 6 Scanning Microwave Spectrometer (SCAMS) in the 15 0 North Annual Atmosphere. • . • . • . • . 22 10. Weighting functions for the TIROS-N Microwave Sounding Unit (MSU) in the 15 0 North Annual Atmosphere • • • . • . • • • . • • . • • • • 23 11. Data recorded by Nimbus 6 on 26 September 1975 on the descending portion of data orbit 1425; Top: 11.5 ~m Temperature Humidity Infrared Radiometer (THIR) imagery; Bottom: Nadir brightness tempera­ tures from the Scanning Microwave Spectrometer (SCAMS). • • • • • • • . • . • • . • • 29 12. Mean temperature anomalies in 1 0 radial bands for a) West Pacific typhoons and b) Atlantic (West Indies) hurricanes (after N~~ez and Gray, 1977) .....•........... 32 xi LIST OF FIGURES (continued) Figure 13. Mean environments of West Pacific typhoons and Atlantic (West Indies) hurricanes (after N~~ez and Gray, 1977) ..•......... 35 14. 55.45 GHz brightness temperature anomalies. The three circles are at radii of 2°, 3°, and 4° from the interpolated best track storm center. The interpolated maximum wind speed and central pressure are shown in the upper right-hand corner. The environmental mean brightness temperature and its standard deviation are ShOWll in the bottom right-hand corner. (a) Typhoon June on 19 November 1975 at 1426 GMT; (b) Typhoon Cora on 4 October 1975 at 1528 GMT; (c) Hurricane Caroline on 29 August 1975 at 1753 GMT; (d) Hurricane Gladys on 30 September 1975 at 1558 GMT. • . • . • . " . 38 15. 11.5 llm THIR images of the four storms in Figure 14 (a) Typhoon June on 19 November 1975 at 1426 (~; (b) Typhoon Cora on 4 October 1975 at 1528 GMT; (c) Hurricane Caroline on 29 August 1975 at 1753 GMT; (d) Hurricane Gladys on 30 September 1975 at 1558 GMT. • . • • . • • . 39 16. Surface pressure versus 55.45 GHz brightness temperature for a between zero and ten (note logarithmic surface pressure scale). 45 17. Logarithm of central pressure versus eye brightness temperature for eight typhoons during 1975 • . • . 49 18. Calculated 55.45 GHz brightness temperatures (circles) and best fit line for four hurricanes. 58 19. Calculated gradient level (- 85 kPa) wind speeds (line) and observed low level wind speeds for four hurricanes (note that both scales are logarittnnic) . • . • • • . • 59 20. Observed versus estimated average radius of (a) 15.4 m s-l (30 kt) and (b) 25.7 m s-l (50 kt) winds in eight typhoons during 1975 for x~0.5. 62 21. Observed versus estimated average radius of (a) 15.4 m s-l (30 kt) and (b) 25.7 m s-l (50 kt) winds in eight typhoons during 1975 for x=0.7 ... 67 xiii 1.0 INTRODUCTION Aircraft reconnaissance flights into tropical cyclones have long been the standard method of measu~ing su~face wind speeds and central pressure. There are several disadvantages to this technique, however. The flights are expensive and are becoming less f~equent, the spatial and temporal resolutions of the obse~vations are low, and only the United States maintains a fleet of reconnaissance aircraft. It is becoming increasingly important, therefore, to monitor storms using satellite data. Scientists have been attempting to do this for many years beginning with Sadler (1964) and progressing th~ough Fett (1966), Fritz et ale (1966), Dvorak (1975) and others. Today the scheme of Dvorak (1975) is widely used (Gaby et al., 1977) to estimate storm intensity (maximum sustained surface wind speed) and central pressure (minimum sea level pressure). -1 Although the Dvorak scheme is fairly accurate (6-10 m s rms), three criticisms may be made. Fi~st it has a statistical rather than a physical basis. The forecaster classifies each storm according to categories based on various cloud characteristics, observed in visible or infrared satellite images, such as the nature and amount of banding, the shape of the cirrus ove~cast, and the appearance of the eye of the storm. These categories are statistically related to central pressu~e and maximum wind speed. It takes a significant amount of skill, acquired primarily by experience, to correctly classify a storm. Second, Arnold (1977) has shown that convection is not well related to storm intensity; thus the Dvorak technique probably cannot be improved by using higher resolution data. And third, the Dvorak scheme does not estimate winds at outer radii, which a~e not well related to maximum 2 wind speed or to central pressure.
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