Power Generation & Nuclear Energy

POWER GENERATION & NUCLEAR ENERGY

THE OFFICIAL PUBLICATION OF THE SOUTH AFRICAN INSTITUTE OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERSwattnow | MARCH| march 2015 2015 | 1 Conlog has the world’s largest installed base of prepaid meters, spanning more than 20 countries on four continents. Furthermore, over 70 utilities worldwide utilise our solutions and consider Conlog their preferred prepayment provider.

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2 | wattnow | march 2015 LETTERS 6 Message from the SAIEE President Dr. Pat Naidoo.

REGULARS 8 wattsup page 9 Current Affairs. 12 News Industry updates. 20 Engineering Nuggets 54 WATT? Your questions are answered by industry experts. 63 Calendar of Events page 22

FEATURE 22 Power Generation from Coal Gold to electricity consumers. 42 Nuclear Power The misconceptions of nuclear power is clarified. 46 Load Shedding City Power takes the sting out of this daily anomaly. page 46 RECRUITMENT 52 Recruiting? 5 uses of Powerful Tech Tools

LOOKING BACK 56 March What happened on this day in March? page 52 YOUR OPINION 60 SONA 2015 Opinion piece by Mike Cary. 62 On the light..er side Everything's going Nuclear!

page 60

wattnow | march 2015 | 3 From the Editor's Desk | minx avrabos

Managing Editor Minx Avrabos | [email protected] EditorS Derek Woodburn Jane-Anne Buisson-Street Mike Crouch Dr Michael Grant Contributors BJ Bryant Stuart Webb Mike Cary Karen Ekron Jane Buisson-Street Jayne Archbold Angela Price arch is upon us, motoring on like a steam train.... EVENTS waiting for no one. If you are a South African citizen, you would've experienced load shedding, which Gerda Geyer | [email protected] is, in my opinion, inevitable. CPD & course accreditation Sue Moseley | [email protected] This issue of wattnow features articles on Power Generation and Nuclear MEMBERSHIP & TECHNOLOGY LEADERSHIP Power, which is something totally different. To quote Deputy Minister Ansie Smith | [email protected] Thembi Majola: “To compare coal with nuclear, is like comparing apples ADVERTISING with bananas”. Avenue Advertising T 011 463 7940 | F 086 518 9936 This issue sports a nice in-depth article about Coal and its production E [email protected] (pg 24), Nuclear Power (pg 42) and Load shedding (pg 46). Publisher South African Institute of Electrical Engineers I’ve kicked the hornet’s nest once again with the February issue of SAIEE HEAD OFFICE wattnow. P.O. Box 751253 | Gardenview | 2047 T 011 487 3003 | F 011 487 3002 Your February issue of wattnow had your correct address but an incorrect E [email protected] | W www.saiee.org.za Office Hours: 8am-4pm name – but it was done on purpose – why? So we could gauge who read their flysheet – why? To gauge what marketing value could be attributed to the flysheet – why? So we could acquire tangible evidence. Guess what? There has been an enormous response and we now know more or less the contribution of the flysheet. SAIEE 2014/2015 Office Bearers President Pat Naidoo Deputy President André Hoffmann Thank you for those who participated in the secret survey and we assure Senior Vice President T.C. Madikane you we know your correct name and the huge value you are to our noble Junior Vice President Jacob Machinjike Immediate Past President Paul van Niekerk institute. We promise not to use these unconventional tactics, unless it is Honorary Treasurer Viv Crone in the interests of all our members. Honorary Vice President Mario Barbolini ISSN: 1991-0452 Herewith the March issue (correctly addressed), enjoy the read! South African Institute of Electrical Engineers. All material is strictly copyright and all rights are reserved. Reproduction without permission is forbidden. The views expressed in this publication are not necessarily those of the SAIEE. E&OE

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wattnow | march 2015 | 5 Generation to Power Grid

Generation to Power to you Grid PLuGs & sockets PLuGs & cabLe sockets Power cabLe Power correctioncorrection & LV & LV switchGear MeterinG Power switchGear Motor Power station controL Motor & biLLinG PaneLs controLiGhtinGL station hV, MV & LV transforMers standby From & MV switchGear Power standby PaneLs • LS resin core • Miniature soLutions transformers substations Power Earth • Pole top • SF6 Type From Earth transformers • Vacuum Type soLutions • MV Switchgear For example, under the real time category, infrastructure. Our people make the we want an intensive focus on load difference. shedding operations. We propose to facilitate national and regional customer During the past month, I had the QualitY mv/lv SolutionS forums to collate the customer inputs for opportunity to travel with the Eskom load management. We understand that Board to Medupi Power Station. Matimba, The Simoprime air-insulated, medium voltage, load shedding is an accepted practice its immediate neighbor, a giant in its own type tested distribution boards are designed for to manage the imbalance in supply and right, appears small when compared to standard applications in the poWer utilitieS demand. The emphasis is on accuracy, Medupi. Thousands of South African and induStrial SectorS. certainty and predictability. The economic artisans, technicians and engineers are reetings from SAIEE House! impact and the negative effect of the busy at work. Unit 6, a super critical temporary reduction in electricity could be boiler powering an 800 MW synchronous Safe, productive, flexible In February, Radio 702 reported minimized. Another example, under the generator, will be commercially available and fully compliant that South Africa has become the short term category, we want an intensive for the winter of 2015. Units 5,4,3,2 and world’s favorite destination for Valentine’s focus on the maintenance of the plant and 1 are in various stages of construction. Day Celebrations; dinner by candlelight. In equipment at our national power stations, Medupi, Kusile and Ingula are all racing February, The President delivered the State at our substations and power lines of towards commercial operation. South of the Nation Address. Energy was agenda transmission and distribution. Africa will soon have an installed capacity number one of the nine point national plan of + 50 000 MW. Eskom, the African Power for growth and prosperity. We propose to facilitate asset management House, is rising! forums that will help enhance maintenance Energy, as in electrical energy and Eskom, practices and processes. We plan to Very soon, we will all have short memories will continue to be the agenda with which promote local supplier support and of load shedding and you will be promoting we will grapple as we journey through development initiatives. Our aspiration is red hanger energy sales. Keep up the 2015, and the next few years. There is the longer term sustainability of the total confidence and continue to grow your hope. I have confidence that we will help power system. consumption of South Africa’s quality make the difference as members and as The electrical energy. Be good and pay your Institute of Electrical Engineers. When all the analysis is complete, we will account. Thank you, work hard and have find that human resources are the key to all fun. our challenges. We need a stronger focus Under the leadership of Honorary Fellow, Dr. We specialise in: Ian McRae, Office Bearers are in discussion on growing and nurturing our people on “Electricity South Africa”. We have resources: our artisans, technicians and • Fully Type Tested Panels • Mini-Subs selected four time periods for the packaging engineers. Every person associated with • Production of LV/MV Panels • Standby Generators of ideas, strategies and contributions to the power system must be a member of the and Switchboards • Specialised Assemblies • Variable Speed Drives • Flexible Delivery Schedule enhance our national electrical energy Institute. Our drive is to grow world-class • Motor Control Centers • Cost Effective performance. The selected time periods are engineers, technicians and artisans. The • Custom Design by Manufacturing real time, short term, medium term and same effort must be applied to water works, Application MV/LV Solutions long term. For each of these time periods, road, rail and transportation networks, Dr Pat Naidoo | Pr. Eng | FSAIEE we are collecting from members, their ideas telecommunication and information Contact us today for the solution that best 2014 SAIEE President and strategies for action. networks and for all engineering suits you, on 031 783 4607 or [email protected]. facebook.com/VoltexSA | twitter.com/voltexsa www.voltex.co.za 6 | wattnow | march 2015 Generation to Power Grid

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Contact us today for the solution that best suits you, on 031 783 4607 or [email protected]. facebook.com/VoltexSA | twitter.com/voltexsa www.voltex.co.za wattnow | march 2015 | 7 CURRENT AFFAIRS

Global Trends in Hydro Power & African Perspectives

From left: André van der Walt (SMEC Functional Head Power and Energy), Refilwe Buthelezi (SAIEE Power Section Chair), Pat Naidoo(SAIEE President and Eskom board member), Stephen Reynders (SMEC Section Manager Power and Energey), Saeed Soltani (SMEC General Manager, Hydro and Energy) and Chris Viljoen (SMEC Functional Head, Hydropower and Dams).

Saeed Soltani, General Manager Hydropower and Energy Africa • Operating models and options Division of SMEC international (A leading global infrastructure • Global Hydro power Challenges consulting engineering company) presented a lecture to members of the SAIEE Power Section in December 2014 entitled: “Global The presentation was followed by a round table discussion on Trends in Hydro Power & African Perspectives”. The presentation Hydropower in Africa and South Africa hosted by Chris Viljoen, focused on: one of South Africa pre-eminent Dam, Tunnel and Hydro • Trends on hydro power globally: large to micro, run of river and Engineers. The discussion focused on challenges and particular pumped storage projects in the South African Hydropower sphere. • Trends across Africa • Major African Projects The full presentation can be found on the SAIEE website in the • Funding options “NEWS” section.

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Mr S G Xulu receives his Fellowship Certificate from Prof I.E. Davidson receives his Fellowship Certificate from SAIEE SAIEE Deputy President, André Hoffmann Deputy President, André Hoffmann

At the first SAIEE Council Meeting of 2015, Deputy President, Davidson. André Hoffmann had the pleasure in handing over Fellowship Certificates to a some of the Senior Members who transferred The new Fellows who couldn’t attend the Council meeting are: their membership status. The recipients who attended the Mr L.W. Anthonissen, Mr J J Daniel, Mr G Donachie, Dr B J Council Meeting in February 2015, are Mr S.G. Xulu and Prof I.E. Kotze, Prof P Naidoo, Mr V N Ramnarain and Mr S G Xulu.

Aurecon earns ‘Top Green Service Provider’ award from Growthpoint Properties

Aurecon is committed to delivering sustainable and environmentally responsible building projects and has ensured that its project teams comprise suitably trained and registered professionals, ranging from engineers to Green Star SA Accredited Professionals.

In line with this, the company was recently honoured as ‘Top Green Service Provider’ by Growthpoint Properties. “Our work with Growthpoint has included partnerships on flagship green projects, such as Lakeside, Grundfos offices and warehouse and the new Discovery head office in Sandton. The award demonstrates our companies’ shared passion for sustainability and the delivery of cutting-edge and sustainable design options that demonstrate technical excellence and value,” says Martin Smith, Aurecon’s National Green Building Expert.

Green rated buildings require a holistic approach to buildings, seamlessly integrating sustainable development, engineering, planning and design to produce efficient, sustainable buildings.

wattnow | march 2015 | 9 CURRENT AFFAIRS

400kV Transmission line spanning 89km’s - a significant achievement for Eskom and CONCO

to the project plan, were key elements to the project’s success.”

This is the first 400kV line in the former Transkei area enabling a higher power transfer capability in the area. “400kV Lines transmit bulk power to feed a large number of customers and can power up a t o w n ,” says Mr Naidoo. “When the line is placed in commercial operation, the current power shortfall in the Mthatha area and surrounding towns will be relieved and will strengthen the network by supplying sufficient capacity to the area for economic growth.”

Commenting on the choice of equipment, Mr Naidoo says, “The steel lattice structures CONCO CEO, David van Zyl (left), hands over a plaque to Eskom were used to carry a three phase, triple Executive Projects Manager, Bob Naraghi at the official handover. conductor bundle together with an earth wire and optical ground wire. Some of the span A major milestone for the CONCO group is the three-year construction of a 400kV, lengths were greater than 1000 metres. Steel 89 kilometre long transmission line for Eskom, stretching from Eros substation near structures were used due to their durability Harding in KwaZulu-Natal, towards Vuyani substation in Mthatha in the Eastern Cape. and ability to carry the required mechanical This major project was completed by CONCO and officially handed over to Eskom last loads.” year. Approximately 400 people worked on the Commenting on the success of the project, Sugan Naidoo (Eskom Project Engineer) project over a three-year period. During says, “The CONCO relationship with Eskom was professionally handled with Eskom’s that time, over 200 temporary employment requirements being met in terms of delivering the project according to specifications. The opportunities were created in the local contract management was executed with excellence.” villages. CONCO also donated 200 desks, 100 chairs, a microscope and a projector, to “The handover was well received by Eskom for the first section of transmission line being Dudumeni High School in Flagstaff. built in the former Transkei area which is now part of the Eastern Cape,” said Mr Naidoo. “CONCO built 89 kilometres of the 167 kilometre 400kV line and considering this was “The Eros/Vuyani project is a milestone for the CONCO’s first 400kV line construction project, its successful completion was a great CONCO group,” says Mr Mahlangu. “It’s the achievement by the efforts of the project team and site workers.” first 400kV project executed by CONCO and we have proved our ability to project manage, CONCO project engineer, Joseph Mahlangu says, “Effective stakeholder communication engineer and construct a transmission line and project control integration which encompassed communication planning, applying of this dimension. We completed it on time, best practised systems and controls, work structure, scheduling, reporting and adhering within budget and to the highest quality.”

10 | wattnow | march 2015 Traco Power TSP–REM Redundancy Module

Traco Power has launched their new TSP–REM each. The unit is also Redundancy Module for use with the TSP Din- fitted with a remote Rail Industrial power supplies. ON/OFF system.

With this module and two Din-Rail power The TSP-REM supplies of the TSP series (of same type) a highly requires two 24V DC inputs reliable, truly redundant power system can be and the unit has a maximum configured without any additional components. input of 360 watt pet input. The This module enforces the equivalent sharing of output voltage is adjustable the output current by each power supply. The from 24 to 27VDC. system is fully redundant and provides output power even if one power supply has completely The unit has a true industrial failed e.g. by short circuit on the output. In the design and a rugged metal event of either power supply failing or being case for harsh industrial disconnected, the second unit will automatically environments. supply the full current to the load. For more information please The redundancy of the system is monitored and contact if lost, indicated by an alarm output. The inputs Conical Technologies on 012 347 5035 or are hot swappable and can be loaded up to 15 A [email protected]

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wattnow | march 2015 | 11

Ad Ex-series_180x130_IND_UK_new.indd 1 09/02/15 14:00 NEWS Significant Uptake in Demand for Key Products Shaw Controls, a company of the Zest WEG Group, has seen a significant increase in the demand for key products such as electrical houses (E-Houses), fully withdrawable motor control centres (MCCs) and modular variable speed drives (VSDs). This has resulted in the Zest WEG Group committing to a major expansion drive at Shaw Controls as the Group expands its manufacturing capability in order to boost its presence in the local market and also in Africa, which is perceived as a major growth area.

hile the Zest WEG Group is well known “The Zest WEG Group as a whole has the for distributing one of the largest electric management team and overall company structure in motor ranges in the world from WEG place to be able to handle projects of a much larger of Brazil, our comprehensive product nature and to provide the customer care needed on line up includes switchgear, VSDs, MCCs, multiple projects for different customers, and to do so gensets and renewable energy solutions. We also efficiently and cost effectively.” have three fully fledged manufacturing facilities in South Africa that we are in the process of expanding In addition, Shaw Controls is in the process of as we increase our footprint in Africa,” Louis establishing a centralised bulk store for the receipt Meiring, CEO of the Zest WEG Group, says. and issue of all goods in line with its new inventory control system. “We are fully committed to the ISO Bevan Richards, Managing Director of Shaw 9001 process.” Controls, reveals that next year it will embark on the design and establishment of a standalone Richards says that the growth and expansion at E-House and container conversion facility. Shaw Controls dovetails with the overall strategy of the Zest WEG Group. “We are integrating “We are anticipating a 4 000 m2 facility to be our product range with those of the other Group able to handle these products, which represents companies involved in large scale turnkey projects. a major extension of the Zest WEG Group’s local This represents a huge opportunity for us to add manufacturing capability,” Richards says. value to our own product range by capitalising on

12 | wattnow | march 2015 Lebo Ntete in the dedicated electrical workshop for the production of main and sub distribution boards at Shaw Controls. the knowledge and experience of the entire Santos Ferreira, product development Group.” specialist at Shaw Controls, reveals that all the company’s products have now been tested The E-Houses from Shaw Controls represent to the latest IEC 61439-1 standard. “We have a particular innovation for the South African developed various ranges of our switchboard market in that they are a cost effective products, namely SC 100, SC 200 and SC alternative to traditional containerised 300, for various applications at different fault solutions manufactured in either 6 m or 12 levels and current ratings.” The maximum m standard marine containers. “The main rating that all products have been tested at is benefit of the E-Houses is that they can be 690V+5% @ 65 kA. “In addition we are in the manufactured to customised dimensions, process of locally developing the WEG range which is a testament to the flexibility of Shaw of fully withdrawable MCCs. This product Controls.” range is suitable for all types of process type industries and will add great value to Shaw Shaw Controls also supplies WEG modular Controls’ product range,” Ferreira adds. VSDs for loads of up to 2.5 MW at 690V. “Whereas modular VSDs were previously Richards concludes that it’s all systems go built and assembled by WEG of Brazil, we as for the future expansion at Shaw Controls the South African arm of WEG will in future and its continued integration into the Zest develop the enclosures and populate them WEG Group’s total solutions approach to the with modular VSD components from WEG,” requirements of its diverse customer base. “Our Richards reveals. “The advantage of these business is customer focused and as a result we modular VSD products now being assembled in strive to provide the best service and support South Africa is that it represents a substantial possible. Meeting the needs of our customers is of Albert Chauke proudly displays the range reduction in the lead time of any project.” fundamental importance.” of cable reels available at Shaw Controls.

wattnow | march 2015 | 13 NEWS

Renewable energy sector boom

Following significant growth in its renewable energy business, AfriCoast Engineers SA has developed a sister company to expand its vision.

he leading engineering firmwith a collective capacity of over 2000 MW, announced that new company, working closely with energy developers, investors, AfriCoast Energy, will now be the state and private landowners,” McGillivray responsible for all future renewable said. energy projects – particularly wind and solar – while it will also play a key role Over the past decade AfriCoast Engineers SA in guiding AfriCoast Engineers’ current has played a catalytic role in bringing renewable basket of renewable energy projects. energy projects online in the country. To date it has delivered projects collectively worth over John McGillivray, former project director at R4-billion for its local and international client AfriCoast Engineers SA, has been appointed base. chief operating officer at AfriCoast Energy. In the first stage of the Department of Energy’s “AfriCoast Engineers SA’s growing footprint in the Renewable Energy Independent Power renewable energy sector over the past ten years Producers Procurement Programme (REIPPP), led to the establishment of AfriCoast Energy to the firm initiated three out of four of the follow opportunities within the renewable energy successful Eastern Cape projects between 2011 and sustainability sectors. We are pursuing large, and 2014, and a successful round three project. medium and small scale renewable energy projects

14 | wattnow | march 2015 WINDS OF CHANGE: AfriCoast Engineers SA directors (left) Donald McGillivray and Venance da Silva (right) congratulate John McGillivray (centre), chief operating officer of AfriCoast’s newly established sister renewable energy company, AfriCoast Energy.

Now, through AfriCoast Energy, it will concept to the remaining provinces of the Eastern Cape will lead the race over the continue to provide the expertise that c o u n t r y,” he said. next few years by sharing its expertise with has been at the core of renewable energy the Southern African market. projects such as the MetroWind Van McGillivray said his team will focus Stadens, Gibson Bay and Kouga windfarms, on the entire lifecycle of renewable The province is set to become a leading and the Dobbin, Brakpoort, Hopewell and energy projects; from identification and wind and renewable energy hub in an effort Coega solar projects. permitting, through to construction and to help the Department of Energy meet its operation. This will provide much needed procurement objectives of 3 725 MW of McGillivray, an engineering project diversification and stability to the local renewable energy. management and consulting veteran and national energy supply, while enabling of projects in England, South Africa, sustainable development, job creation and “The formation of an entirely new company Australia and the United States spanning growth in South Africa. along with our existing track-record will over two decades, said AfriCoast Energy enable us to play an important role in leading has laid out an ambitious plan to continue “AfriCoast Energy also provides strategic the country and continent’s renewable energy pioneering new models in renewable sustainability planning to assist government renaissance.” energy development for government, departments with the implementation of low communities and private sector entities. carbon and climate resilient interventions “We are strategically positioned, drawing and to ensure that opportunities within the on an already established local green “We were privileged to work with Amatola green economy are fully developed for the economy through the renewable energy Green Power in pioneering embedded Southern African market,” he said. component manufacturing and export hubs generation and energy trading in South of Coega IDZ, the ongoing research of the Africa through an innovative trading model Chairman of AfriCoast Engineers SA, local academic community and our own and a ground-breaking agreement with the Venance Da Silva, said he is optimistic about engineering track record in renewable energy Nelson Mandela Bay Municipality in the the future and development of renewable projects,” he said. Eastern Cape. We would like to extend this energy in South Africa, and believes the

wattnow | march 2015 | 15 NEWS

Energy efficiency takes the lead in the Eastern Cape THE Coega Development Corporation (CDC) Friday (subs: 30 January 2015) announced the installation of solar panels at its headquarters in the Coega Industrial Development Zone (IDZ) in Nelson Mandela Bay.

he installation forms part of the manufacturing hub. organisation’s deep commitment to alternative energy sources such as renewable “This move further strengthens CDC as the green energy, in order to save on electricity, as well as economy IDZ. Apart from providing green power, environmental stewardship and an ongoing drive CDC plans to roll out rooftop solutions for all to management innovation. investors located in the IDZ as phase two of this project in order to reduce investor’s electricity bill,” “The solar panels will supply 48kW (approximately said Tyida. 25%) of solar energy to CDC’s corporate head office, and echoes our passion in introducing ways Other energy projects in the IDZ include the how we believe companies can improve their eco R3.5 billion Dedisa Peaking Power Plant; the credentials while diversifying energy security,” said R12 million Powerway/Sungrow JV manu- Vuyokazi Tyida, CDC investment promotion facturer of power supply equipment for solar PV manager. and wind power projects; Powerway/JA Solar JV a R666.6-million investment, the world’s The solar installation incorporates concrete largest manufacturers of high performance solar foundations, thin-film components, and three power products; and DCD Wind Towers which sets of 15kW inverters. launched its R300-million, 23 000m² wind tower manufacturing facility in March 2014 in Zone 3. The CDC’s initiative to install solar panels is in line with government’s strategy to use renewable In line with its vision to become the leading energy (wind, hydro and solar) as part of national catalyst for socio economic growth and local programme diversifying the country’s national beneficiation, the organisation brought in a energy mix. It also reflects on CDC’s success and number of local SMMEs to help out on the location as Africa’s green energy component’s project and assure skills beneficiation.

16 | wattnow | march 2015 “We used a number of Port Elizabeth (PE) based small businesses in the project including Ubume Construction, Ivor Smith and Studio d’Arc” said Andile Ntloko, CDC SMME unit head.

The project is envisioned to come with a number of spin offs such as improving electricity supply, reduction of carbon footprint; competitive input cost and generally improves the efficiency levels at the CDC.

The installation of the solar panels in the Coega IDZ will help achieve GREEN POWER PROJECT: The team behind the initiative government’s target of generating 3 725 megawatts (MW) from are, from left, CDC Business Development market analyst renewable energy by 2030 through the Independent Power Producer Tony Wang, CDC intern, Papama Mnyamana and CDC Programme (IPPP). investment promotion manager Vuyokazi Tyida stands in front of the solar panels. “We are proud to contribute to the national renewable strategy. The CDC has built momentum on energy projects and already uses wind and solar energy and will be looking to add biogas and biofuels in the near future,” said Dr Ayanda Vilakazi, CDC unit head marketing and communications.

wattnow | march 2015 | 17 NEWS

SA champions drive technologies for efficiency and productivity Energy management solutions and efficiency technologies are a means to end the energy crises experienced worldwide, highlighted Jean-Pascal Tricoire, chairman and CEO of Schneider Electric, during his visit and tour of the new Midrand Schneider Electric Campus in Gauteng.

he convergence of IT and energy initiatives. Employees from the Capital Hill, Bartlett and technologies, the Internet of things applied to Germiston sites, as well as certain personnel from its energy, allows increasing control and anticipation nearby headquarters, have relocated to this site. in the use of energy and resources. Schneider Electric’s technology and expertise is therefore focused According to Schneider Electric, the new building shows on safety, reliability, efficiency and the grid, encompassing a major commitment to the organisation’s long-term both industrial and green automation innovation,” he added. investment in southern Africa and provides it with more local capabilities, in particular, when it comes to fully Representatives from the French Development Agency, servicing its customers by being closer to their needs. Angolan Trade Commission, the French Embassies in Bostswana and South Africa, and members of the local The colocation of all employees on the site is envisioned to media, were invited to join Tricoire and Mohamed Saad, assist in greater collaboration. Senior Vice President for Africa and the Caribbean, on a 360-degree Schneider Electric experience at its new The Midrand site also forms part of the company’s global 12,000 square metre site. “Cool Sites” programme, which focuses on designing workplaces that are attractive, inspiring and energising The site houses the company’s manufacturing for employees, enabling better employee engagement, operation, and is also the new home of its mining team, productivity and satisfaction levels. which services the whole of Africa, its Sustainability Development Business Unit and Low Voltage Electrical “It is an inviting space for our valuable customers. It Distribution Division, as well as the Schneider Electric perfectly mirrors our brand promise as a global specialist Academy and the company’s data centre consolidation in energy management, with its state-of-the-art elements

18 | wattnow | march 2015 From left: Mohamed Saad, Senior Vice President for Africa and the Caribbean Jean-Pascal Tricoire, Chairman and CEO of Schneider Electric Eric Leger, Country President for Southern Africa at Schneider Electric reflecting our central message of efficiency He added that “if your technology is the innovation support to help close energy and energy saving,” added Eric Leger, best, you must be everywhere in the world”, gaps worldwide. Within this programme, Country President for Southern Africa at and demonstrating this, delegates were Schneider Electric has created access to Schneider Electric. given an overview of Schneider Electric’s energy for 43,837 people worldwide. BipBop programme (Business, Innovation, “Schneider Electric believes in the long- and People at the Base of the Pyramid), “It has been an honour to host Jean-Pascal, term,” emphasised Tricoire, saying that which develops collective solutions for who turned a French company into a the decisions the company makes today comprehensive rural electrification,global operation, managing more than 100 are for the future. “Africa is an economy domestic solutions for energy-related businesses worldwide and leading 185,000 of resources. The continent offers a growing needs, and the business models that make people, as well as Mohamed, who most population, and numerous young people these solutions sustainable. This means recently accepted the Africa Best Employer wanting to learn and build competencies. We that it offers reliable, affordable, and Brand Award for 2014/ 2015, in South are committed to Africa.” clean solutions; training; and business Africa,” concluded Leger. wattnow | march 2015 | 19 ENGINEERING NUGGETS

Schneider Electric ranks to measure its sustainability performance. for developing and expanding trade and The Planet & Society Barometer has been business opportunities. 9th in the 2015 Global the Group sustainability scorecard since 100 Most Sustainable 2005 with objectives defined for a three- “This trilateral partnership is exactly the year period and quarterly results for its kind of boost that South Africa requires Corporations in the key performance indicators. With each to foster development, innovation and company program, the Group defines a new entrepreneurship. The Joburg Centre for World Planet & Society barometer. The barometer Software Engineering at Wits will serve as Schneider Electric announces it ranks 9th overall progress uses a scoring scale of 10. the catalyst for this initiative through its tech in the 2015 Global 100 Most Sustainable The final result of the Planet & Society hub in Braamfontein,” said Habib. Corporations in the World (“Global 100”) barometer for the 2012-2014 company Index. The index was released by Corporate program was published on February 19th, In 2013, Ryerson Futures teamed up with Knights, the Toronto-based media and 2015. However, the barometer had already the Bombay Stock Exchange Institute investment advisory company, on January exceeded its 3-year target of 8/10, and to bring Ryerson’s incubator concept to 21st. achieved 9.20 (out of a maximum possible India, to catalyse the same entrepreneurial 10) in Q3 2014. The next version of the opportunities for start-ups in India and Companies ranked in the Global 100 index Planet & Society Barometer was presented Canada eager for access to new markets are the top sustainability performers in to external stakeholders on February 19th, and new opportunities. their respective industrial sectors, selected 2015. from a starting universe of 4,609 listed “The partners are developing and expanding companies with a market capitalization Wits partners with a multi-country network of innovation and greater than $2 billion (USD). The Global entrepreneurship zones to drive job growth 100 is determined using twelve quantitative Ryerson University and opportunities in Canada, India and sustainability indicators, including the South Africa,” said Ryerson University amount of revenue companies generate and India to boost President Sheldon Levy at the first per unit of energy consumed and lost-time opportunities for anniversary of Zone Startups India (ZSI), injury rate. which is Ryerson’s partnership with the Entrepreneurship Bombay Stock Exchange Institute. “The Global 100 represents the corporate trailblazers who are forging new ways to Wits University has partnered with Ryerson “In just under a year, the Mumbai-based make more with less,” said Toby Heaps, University in Canada and the Bombay accelerator ZSI has proven to be a thriving CEO of Corporate Knights. Stock Exchange Institute in India to boost hotbed of entrepreneurship – 40 startups, growth opportunities for entrepreneurs focused on industry connections, an array “Schneider Electric ranks in the top 10 for and accelerate start-up incubation in the of supportive networking and learning the second consecutive year, this is a strong three partner countries. opportunities and access to a pool of venture recognition of our continued commitment capital and angel investors keen to harness to sustainability. On a daily basis, Schneider Professor Adam Habib, Wits Vice- the energy and innovation at ZSI,” said ZSI Electric seeks to prove that economic, Chancellor and Principal, and Barry Director Matt Saunders. environmental and social interests are Dwolatzky, Professor of Software convergent. To have a significant impact Engineering at the University and Director and initiate lasting change, a performance of the Wits Joburg Centre for Software Nigeria to reach measure is required. That is why Schneider Engineering, were present at the launch of 182 million mobile Electric has defined specific objectives and the trilateral partnership. measures its results each quarter using the subscribers in 2019 Planet & Society barometer”, said Jean- Ryerson has been successful in developing Pascal Tricoire, Chairman and CEO of a rich ecosystem for young entrepreneurs. Pyramid Research forecasts a positive Schneider Electric. The Canadian University is ranked as one of outlook for the telecommunications market the top innovative centres in the world. The in Nigeria, the largest economy in Africa, Schneider Electric has been building its Canadian government has identified both with the mobile subscriber base growing to Planet & Society Barometer since 10 years South Africa and India as key countries 182 million in the coming five years.

20 | wattnow | march 2015 According to a report by Pyramid Research, countries earmarked to benefit from a Currently, end user customers who the Nigerian telecommunications market direct Master Power presence. subscribe to a cloud service have a limited is expected to generate US$10.9 billion in storage capacity and any storage beyond 2019, up from a total of US$9.2 billion in “We identified a requirement for solutions the prescribed threshold is payable, often 2013. Although growth in the market will and products in East Africa, not to mention run by an international OTT usually paid be slightly reduced in 2015, as the market direct representation and made the decision using a credit card. recovers from the large number of fixed- to have a dedicated full time presence here”, line disconnections, long-term growth of says Neill Schreiber, Sales and Marketing Larry Annetts, Chief Marketing Officer: the telecommunications sector will not Manager at Master Power Technologies. MTN South Africa, says information to be affected. The telecoms market will stored on MTN Cloud is encrypted to grow at a Compound Annual Growth Rate The Kenyan team is being led by Babeksingh ensure security that its security integrity (CAGR) of 2% over the next five years, Khalsa who is the Regional Manager for is not compromised and data stored is with mobile data increasing at 16% up until East Africa. not screened to enhance privacy MTN 2019. Cloud software allows users to sync all “We are very excited about having a their devices, be it smartphones, tablets or Severin Luebke, analyst at Pyramid dedicated Kenyan office as this is enabling laptops, and access stored data from any Research, says: “Political instability and us to better service our current projects preferred devices anywhere, anytime. low oil prices have led to a depreciation by having a foot on the ground. Projects of the Naira against the US Dollar, but planned for 2015 will also benefit greatly With MTN Cloud, subscribers can the telecommunications market will from this local office” he says. seamlessly access and share all their files remain an integral part of the country’s such as photos, videos and documents efforts to diversify its sources of growth.” Khalsa continues “Plans to increase our remotely on any device using a Mobile Cloud Although currency devaluations are likely market share are underway as we are working app from anywhere in the world. The app is to result in slower US Dollar growth rates, closely with associated partners for support available on the Andriod and iOS operating in local currency terms, the Nigerian and are exploring conducting business systems, however compatibility with other telecommunications market offers strong within different sectors in the market such operating systems is being finalized. growth rates of around 6.8% per year for as; Oil and Gas, Mining and the Marine the period between 2014 and 2019. Industry in addition to the telecom, financial “In this digital age the amount of information and general data centre markets”. we collect and store is astounding. It is Master Power critically important that consumers have the “The offices were set up in late 2014 and peace of mind knowing that the integrity of Technologies invests in our aim is to increase our presence here, to that information, be it business or personal, include warehousing of products and spares” is not compromised. MTN Cloud ensures Kenya concludes Schreiber. “We believe that with that this important data is not only stored for our experience in the power and data centre posterity, but is easily and safely accessible as As part of its plan for growth in Africa, fields we can add real value to the region w e l l ,” says Annetts. Master Power Technologies, power solution and assist our East African partners in and data centre specialists, has recently expanding their knowledge in this field”. To subscribe to this service, MTN customers opened an office in Kenya in order to better need to visit: mtncloud.mtn.co.za from service East Africa. MTN launches unlimited their browser and enter their email address. They will then receive an email with a link to Situated in Nairobi this forms yet another cloud service complete the registration. Once a customer step in the expansion of Master Power’s cancels their subscription to MTN Cloud, presence in the region so that clients can MTN has launched a cloud service that they have a 30 day window period to log on have easy access to the quality products provides customers with unlimited storage and retrieve their documents. Customers and technical expertise Master Power has capacity across a range of devices for a may not be able to add any new documents to offer. monthly fee of R99. This service which is during this period. “We continuously available to both prepaid and post-paid strive to develop tailored solutions that are Offices in Kitwe and Lusaka in Zambia customers, is payable with airtime, a first in relevant, game-changing and affordable,” were recently opened with further African the industry. concludes Annetts.

wattnow | march 2015 | 21 FEATURE Power Generation From Coal

Coal is the world’s most abundant and widely distributed fossil fuel with reserves for all types of coal estimated to be about 990 billion tonnes, enough for 150 years at current consumption.

COMPILED BY | MINX AVRABOS

22 | wattnow | march 2015 oal fuels 42% of global factors can result in the misinterpretation electricity production, and of efficiency data. is likely to remain a key component of the fuel mix for power generation to Thus, reconciling different efficiency meet electricity demand, especially the measurement methodologies is not growing demand in developing countries. simply concerned with theoretical design To maximise the utility of coal use in power efficiency, but with the actual operational generation, plant efficiency is an important efficiency of existing power plants and all performance parameter. Efficiencythe associated issues and constraints found improvements have several benefits: in the real world. • prolonging the life of coal reserves and resources by reducing consumption; This study proposes a generic methodology • reducing emissions of carbon dioxide which can be applied to determine the

(CO2) and conventional pollutants; efficiency and specific2 CO emissions of • increasing the power output from a given coal-fired power generation processes. The size of unit; and application of such a reference methodology • potentially reducing operating costs. would provide a potential route to gauge how coal might be deployed more cleanly The calculation of coal-fired power plant and efficiently in the future. To this end, the efficiency is not as simple as it may seem. major objective of this report is to review Plant efficiency values from different plants the methods used to calculate and express in different regions are often calculated coal-fired power plant efficiency and CO2 and expressed on different bases, and using emissions, and determine whether these different assumptions. There is no definitive can be reconciled for comparison using a methodology. common basis.

Objective Factors influencing Power Measuring coal-fired power plant efficiency PLANT efficiency And consistently is particularly important at emissions the global level, yet significant regional The section reviews the relevance of current differences exist. Similarly, at the local level, power plant performance measurement the performance of individual generating standards and how these might be reconciled units and power plants can only be using a common methodology to allow compared if measured consistently. performance benchmarking. The section continues with a summary of the reporting Although variations in efficiency may bases and the required information sources arise from differences in plant design for calculating the efficiency of a whole and maintenance practices, the practical plant according to national standards. CO2 and operational constraints associated emissions from fossil fuel use are closely with different fuel sources, local ambient related to plant efficiency and the section conditions and electricity dispatch all play concludes with a review of how these are significant roles. Misunderstanding these monitored and reported in practice. wattnow | march 2015 | 23 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

continues from page 23

Differences in reported Gross and net values of the first law of thermodynamics. efficiency values Assessments of efficiency often refer Although some regions and industries Apparent Efficiency Differences to “gross” or “net” bases, both for the prefer to use lower heating values in daily Differences in reported efficienciesdetermination of the heating values of business, the true energy content of a between plants can sometimes be artificial, fuel inputs and for the energy outputs fuel is its GCV or higher heating value. and not reflective of any underlying from a process. In the latter case, the Another complication, associated with fuel differences in their actual efficiencies. The terminology usually relates to the use of heating values, is the reference temperature reported efficiency of two identical plants, a proportion of the output energy by the used for their determination. Typically, or even the same plant tested twice, could process itself: the output being referred calorific values are quoted based on a 25 °C potentially be different owing to: to as “gross output” before any deduction, reference temperature; however, 15 °C is also or “net output” after the deduction for commonly used and other temperatures • the use of different assessment procedures own-use. This most commonly applies to may be used after correction, if these differ and standards; the consumption of electrical power by a from the temperature of the reactants • the use of different plant boundaries and plant where “generated” power is referred and products at the start and end of the boundary conditions; to as “gross output”, and “sent-out” power, combustion test. • the implementation of different following deduction of on-site power use, assumptions or agreed values within the is referred to as “net output” or “gross-net”. Obviously, the use of values calculated scope of a test standard; This analysis can be complicated further on different reference temperature bases • the use of different operating conditions for multi-unit sites where some parts of the would result in different apparent heat during tests; process may be fed directly from a common inputs. Some technical standards provide • the use of correction factors to normalise import power supply, shared between all equations for the correction of calorific test results before reporting; generating units. This power must also be values between different reference • the expression of results on different bases deducted from generated power to derive temperatures. (e.g. gross or net inputs and outputs); a true “net output” for the plant; an output • different methods and reference that may be referred to as “gross-net-net” Electrical power imports and exports temperatures for determination of Fuel or “station net export”. Electricity produced and consumed Calorific Value (CV); within the plant should not affect plant • the application of measurement For fuels, the difference between Gross performance assessment, providing the tolerances to the reported figures; Calorific Value (GCV) and Net Calorific system boundary is drawn at the outer • differences in the duration of assessments; Value (NCV) stems from the assumptions plant boundary. Electrical power imported • differences in the timing of assessments made about the availability of the energy into the plant can be deducted directly from within the normal repair and present in the moisture in the combustion exported power in order to calculate the maintenance cycle; products. overall net power generation for efficiency • errors in measurement, data collection assessment. In general, it is recognised that and processing; and The GCV measures all the heat released power exports should be referenced to the • random performance and measurement from fuel combustion, with the products conditions at the transmission side of the effects. being cooled back to the temperature of the generator transformer and thus account for original sample. In the NCV assessment, it transformer losses. These effects are difficult to quantify, is assumed that water in the combustion especially when assessing the products is not condensed, so latent heat Efficiency Differences Due To Real performance of major sub-systems that is not recovered. Using the NCV basis Constraints are interconnected with other parts of the is questionable: a modern condensing It is reasonable to expect that there will plant. boiler could potentially achieve a heating be differences in efficiency between efficiency in excess of 100%, in violation particular plants because of the constraints

24 | wattnow | march 2015 within which they were constructed and fuels and partly on the cost and practicality undertaking a number of heat consumption operate. Considerations, which can impact of purchasing and transporting these to the tests on a turbine at different loads and then significantly on efficiency, include: plant. Coastal power plants may have more plotting a best-fit line through the observed fuel supply alternatives than inland power values. • fuel moisture content (influences latent plants close to local coal resources. Another and sensible heat losses); obvious consideration is the environmental The overall energy consumption of a • fuel ash content (impacts on heat transfer impact of transporting fuel over longer plant can be similarly characterised by and auxiliary plant load); distances. a fixed element and a variable element • fuel sulphur content (sets design limits proportional to output. Hence, overall on boiler flue gas discharge temperature); Efficiency Differences In Operation efficiency will decline as load is reduced • use of closed-circuit, once-through Efficiency is significantly affected when and the no-load portion becomes a greater or coastal cooling-water systems plants operate under off-design conditions, fraction of the total heat. (determines cooling-water temperature); particularly part-load operation. • normal ambient air temperature and Another related consideration is that works humidity; Average operating load power will account for a greater percentage • use of flue gas cleaning technologies, Plants, which operate with a low average of generated power at part load, because e.g. selective catalytic reduction (SCR), output, will return low efficiencies the no-load running losses of electrical fabric filtration, fuel gas desulphurisation compared to their full-load design equipment increase relative to useful

(FGD) and CO2 capture (all increase on- efficiency. Steam turbine heat consumption output and because certain activities must site power demand); and is characterised by a relationship known be carried out, irrespective of unit load. • use of low-NOx combustion systems as the “Willans line”, shown in Figure 1 for (requires excess combustion air and an example turbine. This line shows that For these reasons, power plants may increases unburned carbon). total heat consumption comprises a fixed formally record “part-load loss” as a penalty element and an incremental element: at incurred purely as a result of being asked to A plant designed for high-moisture, high- zero load, the heat consumption is not zero. operate the plant at a lower-than-optimum ash coal, fitted with FGD and bag filters, This relationship is normally derived by output. and operating with a closed-circuit cooling system, for example, could not be expected to achieve the same efficiency as one without FGD using high-rank, low-ash, low- moisture bituminous coal at a coastal site with cold seawater cooling. In most cases, there is little that can be done to mitigate these effects; it is sufficient to recognise that their impact is not necessarily a result of ineffective design or operation, but merely a function of real plant design constraints.

It might be argued that the major fuel factors – the first three bullet points above – are not genuine constraints since, in many cases, fuels can be switched, blended or dried. The commercial feasibility of doing Figure 1: Typical relationship between steam turbine heat this will depend partly on the availability of consumption and operating load

wattnow | march 2015 | 25 FEATURE ACTOM, providing customers with a balanced offering Power Generation from Coal

continues from page 25 MANUFACTURING BRANCH NETWORK Committed to generating output, all of the input energy high quality local Serving the industry is lost (i.e. efficiency is 0%). Supercritical manufacture. though its 40 units, in particular, have high start-up distribution outlets. losses because large quantities of steam, and therefore heat energy, must be dumped to the condenser during start-up.

Power plants operating in volatile or competitive markets, or operating as marginal providers of power, may be required to shut down frequently. This can, TURNKEY in turn, lead to a deterioration in physical PROJECTS condition which will affect plant efficiency. Turnkey electro- For base-load operation, unit start-up mechanical projects. energy may be a negligible fraction of total energy (<0.5%). For other flexibly operated Figure 2: impact of unit operating load on heat rate plant it could represent 5% or more of total SERVICE Figure 2 derived from the Willans line and system power demand and management, energy consumed and result in reductions assuming an overall unit fixed heat rate which preclude operation in this way. in efficiency in the order of 2 percentage Comprehensive refurbishment of 9% (i.e. greater than the turbine-only points, even if the average output during fixed heat rate), illustrates the effect of Transient operation and maintenance the on-load period is high. For simplicity, offering. running at lower loads on the performance Another factor, which can significantly corrections of 0.5%, 1.5% and 5% of total RENEWABLE of subcritical and supercritical units. impact efficiency, is the number of energy use could be applied to plant ENERGY Supercritical units are shown to experience perturbations (transients) from steady running regimes categorised as “base-load”, only about half the part-load efficiency state operating conditions. During each Supplier of “transitional” and “marginal/peaking”. products, degradation of a conventional subcritical of these transients, the plant will not be services and unit. operating at peak performance: the more Performance optimisation maintenance to transients, the greater the reduction in The adoption of good practices and exercise the renewable Load factor efficiency. Operation in frequency response of care will avoid most operational problems energy market. The effects of average operating load (see mode, where steam flow and boiler firing within the control of a plant operator. above) and load factor are different. Load fluctuate to regulate system frequency, can Although the majority of operational or capacity factor describes the output lead to more transients. Other situations efficiency variations are linked to unit load over a period of time relative to the may require frequent load changes, notably and the need to operate through transient potential maximum; it depends on both in response to power system constraints or conditions, there is usually some scope for The largest manufacturer, solution running time and average operating load. power market pricing. final optimisation of performance by fine It is not necessary to consider load factor provider, repairer and distributor of tuning of automatic controller set points electro-mechanical equipment in Africa. specifically here since the impacts of more Plant starts and control loops, amounting to about 1% frequent unit starts or lower operating unit An extreme form of transient operation is of a unit’s heat rate. Optimisation may be loads can be taken into account separately. where demand falls sufficiently to require performed manually or through the use of It is technically possible for a low load plant shutdown. This incurs significant advanced control systems or optimisers, factor plant to attain high efficiency if starts off-load energy losses, particularly during some of which are based on neural are few in number and the load is kept high subsequent plant start-up, which must networks. Operator experience can also be during the periods of generation. However, be done gradually to avoid damage from a source of operational gains or losses. The there may be practical issues relating to thermal stresses. While the plant is not commercial attractiveness of performance ACTOM (Pty) Ltd: 2 Magnet Road, Knights, 1413, PO Box 13024, Knights, 1413 Tel: +27 (0) 11 820 5111, Fax: +27 (0) 11 820 5044 www.actom.co.za 26 | wattnow | march 2015 ACTOM, providing customers with a balanced offering

MANUFACTURING BRANCH NETWORK Committed to high quality local Serving the industry manufacture. though its 40 distribution outlets.

TURNKEY PROJECTS Turnkey electro- mechanical projects.

SERVICE Comprehensive refurbishment and maintenance offering. RENEWABLE ENERGY Supplier of products, services and maintenance to the renewable energy market.

The largest manufacturer, solution provider, repairer and distributor of electro-mechanical equipment in Africa.

ACTOM (Pty) Ltd: 2 Magnet Road, Knights, 1413, PO Box 13024, Knights, 1413 Tel: +27 (0) 11 820 5111, Fax: +27 (0) 11 820 5044 www.actom.co.za wattnow | march 2015 | 27 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

continues from page 26

optimisation increases with plant load and can be substantial at high loads. Optimisation is a potentially attractive proposition at any load where the plant will be operated for a significant period of time.

Boiler operation is an area where efficiency gains are often possible. A “fixed-pressure” boiler requires the outlet steam to be throttled at part load to match the lower pressure demand of the turbine. “Sliding- pressure” boiler designs avoid this loss, with the added benefit that feed-water pumps require less power. Sliding-pressure control is standard operating procedure on Figure 3: example energy flows in a typical 500 Mw most modern power plants. subcritical pulverised coal-fired boiler performance and efficiency may be more alternator plant similarly has losses, which Control systems play a major part in difficult because operating margins may reduce performance compared to the ideal, optimisation by enabling the automation be slim, and market volatility may hinder and although efforts are made to minimise of best practices. The use of advanced long-term investment planning. these, there are economic and practical control systems can bring about significant limits to what can be achieved. efficiency improvements and reduce 2CO Energy And Efficiency Losses emissions. The transfer of heat energy to the working In summary, the plant will have losses fluid of the power cycle can never be associated with: Regulation complete or perfect. The presence of tube • combustor flue gas wet and dry gas losses The regulatory environment can have wall and refractory material (if used), and unburned gas heating value; a significant impact on power plant surface deposits and non-ideal flow • combustor solid residue sensible heat operation and efficiency. Meeting the regimes all impede heat transfer. In the content and unburned fuel heating value; requirements of environmental emissions case of a coal-fired boiler, the net result • heated water or steam venting and leaks, legislation, even where flexible with of these imperfect conditions is a degree and other drainage and blow-down; respect to operating regime and fuel of heat loss from the hot source (burning • frictional losses, radiated and convected quality, can be a challenge to operators. In coal) in the form of hot flue gases. In cases heat; some cases, achieving multiple objectives where condensation has to be avoided, • cooling system losses where heat is simultaneously can impact efficiency since and particularly where the acid dew rejected and not recovered; transients, off-design fuels and emission point temperature is raised because of the • heat lost to flue gas treatment reagents controls generally add to energy losses. presence of sulphur, chlorine or excessive and energy consumed by fans in Functional performance, for example to moisture in the fuel, the hot flue gases loss overcoming gas pressure drops; achieve target output, load ramp rates or can be significant. Auxiliary equipment • make-up and purge water; frequency control, may be a higher priority consumes energy, e.g. coal mills, water • off-load losses associated with start-up to the plant operator than efficiency pumps, fans and soot blowers for cleaning and shutdown; optimisation. Where a plant operates heat transfer surfaces. Some heat is also lost • off-design losses associated with transient within a competitive market environment, to the surroundings through conduction, operation and part-load running; and making the case for investment in plant convection and radiation of heat, even • transformer losses. maintenance and upgrades to improve where equipment is insulated. The turbo- 28 | wattnow | march 2015 Impact of condenser- operating conditions on efficiency The Sankey diagram in Figure 3 shows example heat flows in a typical 500 MW subcritical pulverised coal-fired boiler, where the electrical output is 39% of the heat input and the heat rejected by the condenser to the cooling water is 52.5%. This example illustrates that it is the thermodynamics of the steam cycle, and not the fuel combustion process, which is a limiting factor for conventional power plant efficiency. Where the rejected heat can be utilised, this can provide significant improvements to the overall cycle efficiency. Figure 4: example of the impact of cooling-water temperature on condenser pressure for constant unit load A relatively small change in condenser pressure, in the order of thousandths of a bar (or hundreds of pascals), can bring about seemingly disproportionately large changes in plant efficiency. To achieve similar changes in efficiency at the high-temperature end of the cycle would require more significant changes in steam conditions. A major factor governing the condenser pressure is the availability of a cold heat sink for heat rejection. This is often provided in the form of a large body of water such as the sea or a river, although heat can also be rejected using closed-circuit wet, semi-dry or dry cooling systems. The temperature and quantity of Figure 5: Impact of condenser pressure on heat consumption cooling medium available to the condenser have a significant impact on performance. The precise impacts of cooling-water cooling-water temperature on condenser temperature on condenser pressure, pressure is about 2 mbar per 1 °C change Since economics generally determine the and the associated impact of condenser in inlet temperature, and the associated heat exchanger size, and the capacity of the pressure on heat rate, are site-specific. impact on heat rate is in the order of 0.1% cooling system, a major factor determining Like many of the other losses considered of station heat consumption per 1 mbar. real plant performance becomes the cooling- in this report, a detailed thermodynamic Thus a difference of 5 °C in cooling water water supply temperature to the condenser. model in conjunction with real plant inlet temperature might change unit heat This tends to be lowest for coastal sites in the operating experience should be used to consumption by around 1%. northern hemisphere and highest for sites in assess site-specific losses. However, within locations with high ambient temperatures reasonable limits, some approximations Ambient conditions change both and limited water supplies. can be made. In general, the impact of seasonally and diurnally. In the case of a wattnow | march 2015 | 29 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

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closed-circuit cooling system, there will range through the addition of “topping” or making electricity more valuable. Although be feedback effects from the load on other “bottoming” cycles. In the topping cycle, a net power and net heat outputs can be units, which may be using the same cooling gas turbine is employed, where the working calculated separately, the equivalence system. These all affect heat consumption. fluid is hot gases at a higher temperature between power and heat requires careful Examples of the impact of cooling-water than steam in a steam turbine, and exhaust consideration. Heat use, in particular, temperature on condenser pressure and heat is used in the boiler of a Rankine steam can be a very important factor in efficient

the impact of condenser pressure on heat cycle. In a bottoming cycle, refrigerant-type coal energy utilisation and specific CO2 consumption in conventional steam plants fluids can be used to accept the heat rejected emissions. are shown in Figures 4 and 5. from the Rankine cycle and do more work in a separate turbine or expander designed Plants supplying both heat and power have Maintaining a low condenser pressure is for the lower temperature gas. Neither an overall plant energy efficiency that can be clearly important. However, power plant option is commonly employed in coal- calculated by taking into account both the condensers tend to suffer from degradation fired electricity generating plant, although heat and power outputs from the process. in performance over time because of a combined cycle gas turbine plant is While it is also possible to calculate effective scaling and fouling, as well as any loss of effectively a topping cycle with a Rankine efficiencies for heat and power production area due to the removal from service of cycle, albeit with no direct firing of the heat independently, these values may have less damaged elements (usually by sealing). recovery boiler. meaning and require more interpretation. Although periodic physical cleaning is For example, the heat output can be used as usually performed, and some stations have Heat and power equivalence a fuel heat rate correction to yield a net heat on-load cleaning systems, performance still Both heat and electrical power are forms flow used for electricity generation. varies according to the state of cleanliness. of energy and can therefore be measured Figure 6 illustrates the effect of condenser using the same engineering units. Energy In the case of a power production process cleanliness on heat consumption. conversion processes themselves can where rejected heat is not utilised, as in only convert heat into power with certain most utility-scale plants, the total fuel Steam cycle efficiency can be improved efficiency; losses mean that electric power energy input is used to produce electrical by extending the working temperature requires more primary energy than heat, power with a given efficiency. If the waste heat was recovered and used, it could be argued that the heat was not produced specifically to meet demand, the efficiency of its production might be considered to be 100%. The use of some of this otherwise waste heat now brings about an apparent increase in plant electrical efficiency, even though nothing in the basic power production process has changed. If, however, the waste heat utilisation were excluded from the power generation efficiency, then this would not reflect the energy efficiency benefits of combined heat and power.

Some standards and protocols suggest that heat and power generation efficiencies Figure 6: effect of condenser fouling on turbine heat rate should be calculated separately and each

30 | wattnow | march 2015 referred to the total energy input (usually instead treated as energy supplied to the The overall plant efficiency equals the input fuel energy, but may also include heat system. power generation efficiency, because there power and heat energy from other sources) is no heat output: as follows: The overall energy efficiency of the plant can then take account of power and heat export, as applicable: If 150 GJ of the waste heat is used, then the This provides one method of determining overall plant efficiency increases: efficiency, although the results may be misleading. If some or all of the rejected The apparent electrical efficiency can be heat from power generation is used to determined by debiting any heat energy satisfy a heat demand, and therefore offset output from the total input energy. In other The apparent electrical or power generation other energy use, this is not recognised in words, any useful energy output, other than efficiency is now: the power generation efficiency calculation. electricity, effectively reduces the energy It is proposed that heat rejected from the attributed to the generation process. For steam cycle which is recovered and put to example, consider a plant with a fuel energy use is not considered as consumed by the input of 500 GJ producing power with an Similar analysis can be used to calculate the power process, or treated as a loss, but is energy equivalent of 200 GJ (56 MWh). efficiency of heat production:

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A more complex relationship and a set of Efficiency performance power loss coefficients are described in assessment periods the German VDI 3986 standard (VDI, Most generation assets, whether operated This method of analysis, although not 2000). However, this degree of complexity for power, heat or both, have varying perfect, is a practical means of calculating is rarely necessary. The VDI also calls for capacity, load or utilisation factors. Their and comparing real plant efficiencies. In the heat energy to be expressed in terms of outputs may change depending on the time the above example, the heat generation the electrical power which it would have of day, season, and state of the energy market efficiency is low compared to the efficiency generated had it been used in the main or demand profiles. These changes affect of a modern heating boiler. However, the power process. The ASME PTC 46-1996 performance since plants must operate use of waste heat improves the effective performance test code, from the United under off-design conditions (e.g. transients efficiency of the power generation process States, permits corrections for exported or part-load) or face energy penalties and the overall energy efficiency. It should heat, although these corrections are associated with, for example, unit start-ups be noted that the overall efficiency is not based on modeling analysis for particular and shutdowns. Attempting to represent the simple numerical sum of the power and scenarios (ASME, 1997). a given plant with a single performance heat efficiencies. figure is therefore almost meaningless In a refinement to the analysis described when taken out of temporal context, The simplicity of this calculation enables above, European Union law requires that even before the detail of the calculation is the output heat energy to be used directly as the heat supply be grossed up to the input considered. Unfortunately, this is not often a correction factor to the overall efficiency energy that would have been needed to recognised in comparisons of technologies, figure of a combined heat and power plant. supply the same heat from a stand-alone and misleading conclusions can easily be Figure 7 shows a generic correction factor, heating boiler operating at 88% efficiency drawn. which can provide corrections for a range (or 86% in the case of lignite-fired plants). of plant types. It should not be used to The power generation efficiency in the Potential bases upon which performance determine or correct the independent heat- above example then becomes: could reasonably be stated include: only or power-only efficiencies. • theoretical maximum; • as-designed; • as-commissioned; • best-achieved; • latest or best-recent; • average-daily; • average-weekly; • average-monthly; • average-annual; • average inter-overhaul; and • average cumulative-to-date.

As can be seen, the conditions of the tests may or may not be at the maximum rated output; and may or may not be carried out at, or corrected to, a set of standard reference conditions, including ambient temperature and pressure, and cooling- water temperature. Although tests at the Figure 7: Effect of heat supply on overall efficiency rated output demonstrate the potential

32 | wattnow | march 2015 performance of the plant, the actual average imports should be measured with calibrated There are a number of major drawbacks performance may be significantly lower for metering devices, and on-site stock related to the use of these standards. the reasons discussed above. adjustments should be taken into account. • The standards are inconsistent and The overall accuracy of performance therefore results based on one standard The assessment of overall plant performance calculations should then be within ±2% of cannot be compared directly with those needs to establish not just what the plant the actual energy consumption (or better based on another standard without was designed to, or might achieve, but than ±1% if calibrated belt weighers are considerable care. what it actually does achieve under real used) for a well-managed plant, or within • They permit a wide range of system operating conditions. It is this measure ±5% for a poorly managed installation. boundaries, exceptions and amendments which ultimately determines the energy use to be made by agreement between of the plant and its related CO2 emissions. The problem with annual reporting is parties to the test. This means that, Although reference to a standard set of that it does not necessarily reflect the best even though two tests may have been conditions might sometimes assist in the potential performance, which is possible undertaken in compliance with the same technical comparison of plants, it would from the plant under favourable conditions. standard on the same plant, the results generally be preferable to use the actual may not be comparable. Furthermore, conditions for comparison rather than an For this reason, it is suggested that for tests on different plants are unlikely to arbitrary set of reference conditions. reference, and where available, the annual be directly comparable. Clarification performance figure is supplemented by an of the detailed basis on which a test Most power plants operating within a additional assessment based on short-term result has been calculated requires more regulated environment will be required formal test data at close to rated output information than would be reasonable to submit annual reports and data returns conditions, which should represent the best for the purposes of generating overview from which the main information for achieved performance of the unit under the comparisons of plant performance. whole plant performance assessment prevailing test conditions. Although such • These test codes focus on the assessment should be available. The advantage of tests could be done in accordance with PTC of the boiler which, although very adopting an annual operating period is 46-1996 (ASME, 1997), it is more likely that important, is only one component of that, irrespective of start and end dates, the boiler and turbo-alternator would be a coal-fired power plant. While the it will tend to smooth out many of the tested separately and the figures combined boiler energy conversion efficiency potentially variable factors such as ambient with suitable corrections for other losses. is an important consideration, the conditions, seasonal variations, operating turbo-generator and balance-of-plant regime, short-term plant problems and fuel Efficiency standards and equipment have a major bearing on the quality to provide more confidence in the monitoring overall plant performance. assessment. Assessments based on short- • It would be impractical to apply term tests will generally be over-optimistic Fired boiler performance standards these standards during normal plant and exclude many factors, which degrade There are a number of standards for the operation because they specify certain performance during normal commercial performance assessment of coal-fired test conditions. Similarly, the efficiency operation. power plant boilers including: obtained under test conditions will not • BS 2885:1974 (withdrawn British be representative of normal operation. The accuracy of annual performance standard); figures is generally good provided that • DIN 1942 (German standard); The main purpose of boiler performance test they are generated within a reasonably • EN 12952-15:2003 (European standard, codes is to provide a contractually binding well-controlled regime. For example, fuel similar to DIN 1942). means of assessing the performance of new, deliveries should be made over calibrated • PTC 4-1998 (current US standard); and modified or refurbished plant on handover. weighbridges and subject to CV and • PTC 4.1-1964 (1991) (former US As such, the standards are a means to an analysis checks, power and heat exports and standard, superseded by PTC 4-1998). end and act as a convenient and widely

wattnow | march 2015 | 33 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

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accepted measure which can be used with At present, the scheme requires the annual mines and transported over different

minimal modification for establishing a reporting of CO2 emissions by mass, similar distances using different modes of plant performance benchmark, even if to routine measurement and reporting transport. this is not representative of future plant undertaken in countries such as the United

performance. For the reasons outlined States. Specific emissions reporting per Co2 Reporting Issues

above, boiler performance standards are unit of production (e.g. gCO2/kWh) is not Carbon or CO2 not suitable for the comparison of overall required. Emission calculations are based Most reporting systems in use around

power plant performance. on fuel used and agreed oxidation factors. the world report on the basis of CO2 Reporting of figures on the basis of actual emissions and use factors to report other

Reporting bases for whole oxidation factors, rather than the assumed greenhouse-gas emissions as their CO2

plant efficiency values, is permitted where actual values are equivalent (CO2e). Occasionally, CO2 In most regions of the world, efficiency is available and can be verified. emissions are quoted in terms of carbon expressed on the basis of the fuel’s Gross (C), or confusingly are stated as “carbon”

Calorific Value (GCV) and net electrical Greenhouse Gases And Life-Cycle when they are in fact CO2. The equivalence power output. This appears reasonable for Assessment in mass terms between carbon dioxide the purposes of comparison since it reflects This section focuses on energy efficiency and carbon is simply the ratio of their

the total energy input and useful electricity and CO2 emissions at coal-fired power molecular masses CO2:C, this being 3.6632 output. However, other bases are also used. plants during fuel conversion into useful (IUPAC, 2005). In Europe, for example, it is common output energy. The purpose of clarifying to express efficiency on a Net Calorific whole plant efficiency and emissions Input versus output basis Value (NCV) and net power output basis, reporting methodologies is to provide a Input-based emission calculations and

reflecting the difficulty of recovering latent relatively simple, common basis for relative limits for the mass of CO2 emitted per heat and coal trade on a net calorific value performance assessment. unit of input energy, expressed in units

basis. such as tCO2/GJ or lb/MMBtu coal, create

Emissions of methane, CO2 and other a poor comparison of specific emission Where there are multiple units on a power greenhouse gases associated with the rates. They imply that producing the same station site, the “station” consumption extraction, preparation and delivery of total emissions from the same quantity of for common services is generally not fuel to power plants are not considered. fuel represents equivalent performance. included in the efficiency determination Similarly, the greenhouse-gas emissions In reality, although a more efficient plant of individual units; even for unit-based associated with the construction of coal- consuming the same mass of fuel as a calculations, the plant boundaries, test using plants are not taken into account less efficient plant creates the same total

standards and efficiency calculations in this operational assessment, although quantity of CO2, it does so with the benefit can vary significantly. In most cases, they might be considered as part of a more of producing more useful output energy. unless otherwise stated, efficiencies are detailed life-cycle analysis, for example as Emission standards based on useful energy

quoted for convenience on the basis of part an environmental impact assessment output (e.g. tCO2/GWh) are therefore design, acceptance or expected maximum for a new plant. important, since they recognise the output efficiencies, and are generally not benefits of higher efficiency and incentivise representative of those achieved in practice. There are a number of published studies the development and implementation of on methane production from mining cleaner, more efficient technologies. and the carbon cost of transporting

CO2 emissions reporting bulk commodities from which generic Mass versus volume basis The EU Emissions Trading Scheme (ETS) relationships could be created to estimate Reporting gaseous emissions on a volume is the largest greenhouse-gas emissions the Green House Gas (GHG) emissions basis is not straightforward. Quantities trading scheme of its kind in the world. footprint of coals sourced from different must be expressed against a reference

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temperature, pressure, moisture and oxygen concentration if they are to be correctly compared or assessed against emission standards. In contrast, reporting emissions on a mass basis is absolute and avoids any requirement for volumetric corrections. CO2 emissions in mass units, rather than volume units, are therefore preferred and are widely used by most reporting systems and analysts.

Units of output

To report specific CO2 emissions in terms of a power plant’s useful output requires heat and electrical energy to be combined, Figure 8: example of relationship between Co2 emissions and as for the overall efficiency calculations net plant efficiency (with and without CCS) described above. Common energy units are Determination of Emitted Co would be achieved. The calculation of needed, e.g. gigajoules (GJ) or megawatt 2 Commercial instrumentation is available CO2 emissions must account for all these hours (MWh), with simple conversion for monitoring CO concentration and flue additions and reductions, such that the factors between these. 2 gas volume flows. Given the limitations mass release (Mout) is: of such instrumentation, the accuracy of Typically, large subcritical coal-fired directly measured CO release is probably utility plants today produce around 2 no better than that derived by indirect Where Min is the mass of carbon in the fuel 900 kgCO2/MWh. This figure becomes calculation. Moreover, many plants do not input and Mash is the mass of unburned higher for high-moisture fuels, or for plants measure flue gas volume flow and CO carbon retained in ash. operated at low load factor or of inferior 2 concentration, so indirect calculation of design. This can be compared to around The use of further correction factors for emitted CO2 is the only option and can be 740 kgCO2/MWh for state-of-the-art applied consistently. CO2 emissions follows similar principles modern supercritical plants, and potentially to those for efficiency calculations. For around 600 kgCO /MWh for plants with 2 Where FGD processes are employed for SO the purposes of developing a common advanced steam conditions that are currently 2 removal, the mass release (M ) of carbon plant assessment methodology, specific under development. Carbon dioxide FGD from the reaction between limestone greenhouse- gas emissions analysis is capture and storage (CCS) offers perhaps (CaCO ) and flue gas should be considered limited only to the CO2 produced during the only way to make further reductions 3 in the plant assessment, although its fuel conversion into useful supplies of in CO emissions from conventional coal- 2 contribution to total emissions will be energy, including electricity and heat. fired plants. CCS would cut emissions relatively small. The release mechanism is: As with efficiency, proper account must to 60-70 kgCO /MWh, assuming >90% 2 be taken of any heat supplied when CO2 capture from future state-of-the-art calculating specific CO2 emissions per unit plants. Potentially, a net emission of zero is The treatment of CO emissions from of electricity supplied possible where the plant also fires a small 2 plant incorporating carbon capture is more proportion (approximately 10-15% by heat difficult since the removal efficiency of Generic reconciliation input) of biomass material to compensate the capture plant needs to be included in Methodology for the residual CO emissions not captured 2 the calculation. It is likely that a removal By taking into account the factors presented in the plant. previously, it is possible to derive a common efficiency factor CCS(X ) of 90% or more 36 | wattnow | march 2015 • meter power import and export using calibrated equipment in order to determine net power export; and • where applicable, meter and determine the heat content of incoming and outgoing water and steam in order to determine net heat export.

The average annual values of these parameters may then be used to determine plant performance indicators. Where there is more than one unit, such information must be provided on an overall station basis as a minimum, but the provision of supplementary information for individual units could also be required. Figure 9: Example of a process boundary showing energy in-flows and out-flows for a power plant Output data methodology for expressing and comparing or water and steam interconnections, The assessment of the annual performance whole plant efficiency and specific2 CO should be accounted for. of a given power plant should be held emissions relative to useful energy output in a database to facilitate comparison for a wide range of different conversion Such a “black-box” approach to the with other data. The final evaluation of plant types and fuels. For convenience and whole power plant island is shown in plant performance in accordance with consistency, it is recommended that units Figure 9, in which the energy output the methods described here needs to be of measurement are in accordance with the associated with the shaded flows can be captured in a clear and concise format, ISO 80000-1:2009 standard system (ISO, ignored in the calculation of overall plant and must concentrate on the key indicators 2009). efficiency. Although in the short term, the which are relevant to the creation of the measurement of some of these parameters database. Part of the record for each plant Process boundaries may be subject to measurement error, the needs therefore to comprise the summary To avoid the need for performance details accuracy of data over longer time periods, output data and part needs to comprise of individual plant components, a system and particularly annual periods, should be summary descriptive data. boundary should cover the entire power high. plant, from fuel reception to the interface Efficiency outlook For Power with the power or heat transmission system. Input data requirements Generation From Coal This may or may not coincide with a clear In order to perform an assessment of power The need for energy, together with the physical boundary, depending on the plant plant performance, plant operators must economics of producing and supplying layout and its application. ensure that they: that energy to the end user, are central considerations in power plant investment This approach simplifies the assessment • weigh, or obtain weights for, all delivered decisions and operating strategies. of overall plant performance and can be fuel using calibrated equipment; Inevitably, there will be a point at which applied consistently to many plant types • undertake representative sampling and higher efficiency and lower emissions come and fuels. It also removes any debate analysis of all fuel supplies to determine at a cost which cannot be justified. Where regarding how internal energy flows, such the average values of calorific value, economic and regulatory conditions exist as works power or own-use consumption, moisture content, ash and sulphur; which shift this balance consistently in

wattnow | march 2015 | 37 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

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Fig 10, 11, 12 and 13: Evolution of coal-fired heat and power plant efficiency in selected countries (annual data and five-year moving averages)

favour of higher efficiency and lower data collected by the IEA. The annual data Efficiency is calculated after correcting for emissions, improvements become a normal (dashed lines) are smoothed by using five- heat supply using the methodology adopted part of running a competitive business. The year moving averages to show long-term by the EU. While this assessment allows trend over time has been towards improved trends (solid lines). Fuel energy input is comparison of coal-fired power generation power plant performance. on a Net Calorific Value (NCV) or Lower efficiency at the national level, it does not Heating Value (LHV) basis, while electricity allow performance comparisons to be Worldwide coal-fired power plant efficiency output is on a gross basis (i.e. at the made between individual plants; indeed, averaged 35.1% in 2007, compared with generator terminals, before any deduction the IEA does not collect plant-level data. 33.5% in 1971. Figures 10, 11, 12 and 13 for on-site electricity use), each being the illustrate the evolution of efficiency in basis adopted by the IEA for reporting The development of supercritical and countries where coal is used widely for energy statistics. Heat supply is based ultra-supercritical steam cycles, with electricity generation and heat supply. This on the quantity of heat supplied under progressively higher steam temperatures top-down assessment is based on annual commercial arrangements; the gross- net and pressures, combined with modern coal consumption and electricity supply concept has no meaning for heat supply. plant design and automation, provide 38 | wattnow | march 2015 9 The GRIDThe it? is What The GRID is a graphic element that helps create to the indentity.ZEST Derivative of the proportions of the logo, it is based on a proportion of width and height of 2-to- 3. The distance between the GRID elements of the is 1/3 height of an element. +27 11 723 6000 www.zest.co.za AFRICAN MULTI-NATIONAL SOLUTIONS INTEGRATED CUSTOMER FOCUSSED CUSTOMER WHY SUPPORT TECHNICAL 24/7 SUPPORT TECHNICAL 24/7 24/7 technical back-up Fully qualiﬁ ed technicians Fully qualiﬁ 5 Fully equipped training Africa across centres 187 site visits into Africa per year

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wattnow | march 2015 | 39 FEATURE Power Generation from Coal

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significant potential for further efficiency improvements and the mitigation of

CO2 emissions when compared with existing coal-fired power plants. These improvements can be realised through the progressive replacement of existing assets with new plant designs that reflect best practices.

Although a large number of supercritical and ultra-supercritical pulverised coal- fired power plants are currently under construction or planned, subcritical technology has continued to dominate recent build. However, with stricter

requirements to limit CO2 emissions, the Figure 14 efficiency improvement potential at hard coal-fired power plants share of supercritical and ultra-supercritical plants should increase. CO2 capture and storage. For lignite-fired storage, case-by- case analyses would be plants, these figures will be up to five needed to assess whether existing control By far the largest energy loss from existing percentage points lower depending on the systems can be safely adapted and whether moisture content of the coal, but that can and future coal-fired power plants will the large steam requirement of CO2 capture remain the heat rejected from the steam be improved if developments in efficient equipment can be sensibly supplied from cycle to the cooling water. The use of coal-drying technology are successful, these existing plants. cogeneration or combined heat and power, using either waste heat or low-grade steam. along with district heating and cooling, Owing to the loss of efficiency, retrofitted has therefore received renewed interest CO2 capture will impact significantly on units will deliver less power; additional new in the light of requirements to improve the efficiency of both existing and future capacity would likely be needed to offset plants. At the current state of technology, this loss. Based on new-build information, energy efficiency and reduce specific CO2 emissions. However, the most significant units retrofitted with capture would suffer a project proposals and forecasts it appears decrease in efficiency of up to 12 percentage that while the majority of future plants potential to reduce CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants will come through points, and consume perhaps 20% to 30% will be either supercritical or ultra- more fuel per unit of electricity supplied. supercritical, with efficiency above 40%, the application of CO2 capture and storage. Here, basic plant efficiency improvements While a concept of what constitutes subcritical units will still have a significant will be a significant factor in ensuring the “capture-ready” exists for new power plants, market share. By 2030, up to half of the viability of carbon capture. it may not be economic or technically fleet might be considered suitable for CCS viable to retrofit existing pulverised coal retrofit when necessary, while most of the

Figure 14 shows projections by VGB for plants with CO2 capture, especially at remaining plants would require either the efficiency of and emissions from coal- smaller units. Refurbishments will often be upgrading to deliver high efficiencies or fired power generation by 2020. With necessary to improve efficiency at existing total replacement. Further work is needed proper policy and financial support for plants before CO2 capture retrofits can be to better define the future potential for CCS demonstration, by 2015 the net efficiency contemplated. If 40% efficiency were to be retrofit at coal-fired power plants. of state-of-the-art units firing hard or considered the cut-off for CO2 capture bituminous coal could reach 50% (LHV, retrofit, around 10% of the world’s current Conclusions or around 48% HHV) at plants without coal-fired capacity would be suitable for Coal is the least costly and most accessible CCS. Even then, and assuming a route to fuel for some of the most dynamic 40 | wattnow | march 2015 developing economies. Its use at coal- >40% efficient. Governments should The Way Forward fired power plants accounts for over 28% look to replace by 2020 those coal-fired Policy makers must reflect on what steps of global CO2 emissions, a share that is power plants built over 25 years ago and are now needed to improve the overall rising. An absolute priority is to enhance <300 MW. All other coal-fired power efficiency of power generation from coal. plant efficiency, which can significantly plants should be assessed for upgrading This report presents the tools for analysis reduce CO2 emissions and the volume of or replacement to achieve around 40% and makes recommendations on how to coal consumed. Available technology can efficiency. use these tools to compare performance. deliver fuel savings of 50%. • International co-operation, training This will allow poorly performing plants and financing mechanisms should be to be identified, wherever they are located. Worldwide coal-fired power plant efficiency focussed on achieving the above best- The costs and benefits of refurbishing, averages around 33% (LHV, net output). practice efficiency objectives in the upgrading or replacing these plants can be Implementation of the suggested measures design, operation and maintenance of estimated as the first stage in developing from IEA work carried out in support of the coal-fired power plants and electricity new policies that would encourage greater G8 Gleneagles Plan of Action could result grids. efficiency. The prize is large: some estimates in the replacement of some 300 GW and • The development and demonstration suggest that 1.7 GtCO2 could be saved retrofit of some 200 GW of older coal-fired of those technologies that target higher annually. However, securing this reward power plant capacity, while ensuring that all efficiency at coal-fired power plants would demand a major realignment of new plants are state-of-the-art. This could, should be accelerated. For example, national energy and environmental if fully implemented, lead to a reduction of advanced materials, coal cleaning policies, a realignment that may be less up to 1.7 Gt per annum of CO2 emissions and drying, co-generation of heat and politically acceptable than allowing old,

– which is roughly one-quarter of annual power, and more efficient 2CO capture inefficient coal- fired power plants to

CO2 emissions from coal-fired heat and technologies all need to be deployed. continue running, in the hope that they power production – and a reduction in coal will eventually fade away. Given that there consumption of at least 0.5 Gt per annum. In addition to these efficiencyappears to be no prospect of meeting

improvements, the deployment of CO2 global electricity demand without coal, To improve the operating efficiency of the capture and storage (CCS) technology is governments must implement policies that global fleet of coal-fired power plants – and vital. The aim of reducing CO2 emissions respond more proactively to the growing thereby significantly reduce CO2 emissions by 50% by 2050 implies that virtually all use of coal, rather than wishing it away. – the IEA recommends that governments coal-fired power plants will need CCS by Monitoring the efficiency of power plants focus on the following policy approaches: then (including some under construction and targeting those that perform poorly • New coal-fired power plants should be now). would be a step in that direction.

wattnow | march 2015 | 41 FEATURE

Nuclear Power

When the term Nuclear Power or Nuclear Energy gets used usually the first things that come to mind for most people are bombs, destruction, war, and deformed humans, which in fact are four things that occur the least in the nuclear power field.

BY | BJ Bryant

uclear power is much more than just dangerous, which is why it is a much regulated bombs and destruction; bombs energy source, but without it where would we barely even take up a percentage of be? the total amount of nuclear energy used in the world today. Most of the nuclear energy The Physics of a Nuclear used today comes in the form of production Reactor of electricity. Nuclear power does not just form off of some radioactively charged material like it is Nuclear power plants are responsible for 16% portrayed in some simple minded television of all of the worlds electricity production; shows. In fact it comes from a very tedious and which really may not sound like a lot, but when meticulous process called nuclear fission. you think of the amount of electricity used in the world it really puts it into prospective how Nuclear fission is a process by which a slow- vital nuclear power is to us all. moving neutron is absorbed by the nucleus of a uranium-235 atom, which in turn splits The reason nuclear power has such a vital into fast-moving lighter elements (fission role in our society is largely due to the products) and free neutrons. This process global warming trend, and the fact that creates massive amounts of energy in forms of nuclear power is much cleaner and more gamma rays, and in the form of kinetic energy. “environmentally friendly” than other forms Nuclear power plants perform this process of energy production. Nuclear power is not within their nuclear reactors, where they can a very simple energy source to come by. then use this kinetic energy to heat water that It is produced through a very tedious and flows through the reactor into steam. At which meticulous process that if controlled is very point the steam will rise and spin a turbine that powerful and if uncontrolled is extremely creates the electricity sent out to you and I.

42 | wattnow | march 2015 Disadvantages Though this process seems pretty straight forward and hazard proof it is far from just that. The process of nuclear fission is one of the most dangerous processes known to man. There are so many things that can go wrong with this process that a few countries have refused to resort to it due to the horrible effects it has if something goes wrong. The most common thing that could go wrong in this process of creating nuclear power is the reactor over-heating.

This happens because the water coming into the reactor that turns to steam is also used as a coolant to keep the reactor from getting too hot and causing a melt-down. This could be caused by the outside temperature being too hot, which would not allow the coolant water to cool down enough causing a chain reaction in which a total nuclear melt-down occurs where it becomes too hot inside the reactor and the reactor splits and releases radiation into the air, along with a large explosion which shoots radioactive debris and ash into the air.

This such situation has only occurred once in the history of nuclear power production, and it will never be forgotten, the scars it left on the earth will be seen for many years to come.

The Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant is located near the city of Pripyat in north central Ukraine. at the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant near Pripyat, Ukraine. On April 26, 1986 the situation described earlier was played out to a tee. The explosion shot radioactive fallout so far up that it was recorded to have landed in just about every Northern Hemisphere Continent. To this day radioactivity can still be traced in the area, so much so that the remains of the explosion have yet to even be cleaned up.

The Chernobyl disaster is thought of as being the worst nuclear power accident ever and rightfully so. The melt-down resulted in the evacuation of over 336,000 people, and resulted in 56 direct deaths, with 9,000 possible deaths within 20 years due to radiation exposure. The effects of this disaster were tremendous, but it also showed us how easily this stuff we were playing with could turn on us and cause a catastrophe. Which is also a cause for concern today in another sense.

wattnow | march 2015 | 43 FEATURE Nuclear Power

continues from page 43

With all of the terrorist acts going on is very high, but within the lifetime the sound the alarm if an intense amount of around the world today there is major costs saved by the use of nuclear power heat, such as a fire, were to come close to concern in the way that a nuclear power rather than say oil or coal will have paid the detector. Another use of nuclear power plant is a very easy target that could and itself off. Also, speaking of coal and oil, the that is not quite so common is in nuclear would cause much destruction should it be amount of harmful emissions released into submarines. Nuclear submarines work terrorized. There is really no defense against our atmosphere is very large compared to pretty much like a small nuclear power plant. a terrorist attack on a nuclear power plant, the amount released by a nuclear power The same reaction takes place on a minor and should there be one there is no way plant. scale, and the energy produced powers the to stop the immense amounts of radiation submarine. This was a major revolution in from exploding into the air. In fact, this is one such thing nuclear power the technology of submarines, being able to plants pride themselves on is the fact that stay submerged for days without surfacing, It would be absolutely catastrophic, they do not produce any environmentally being able to conceal the position of the anything and everything within a certain hazardous emissions. This is a huge factor, submarine. This became a very vital part radius would be subject to overwhelming especially today where the “Green House of the most recent wars. Submarines are a amounts of radiation exposure, and would Effect” and “Global Warming” are two very vital part to our national defense, and most certainly die. So you can see why this of the biggest topics in today’s society. the nuclear energy that powers them makes is one of the main causes for concern with Everywhere you look there are people out it all the more efficient. nuclear power plants today. Due to the very there trying to think of new and improved unstable nature of fission in general, let ways to clean our earth, to save it from the Conclusion alone nuclear fission, these are the main set harmful emissions we release into the air Today nuclear power effects, in one way or backs to the production of energy through with our cars and our field sprays well here another, the majority of us 1. Through the nuclear power. is definitely one. process of nuclear fission we have electricity, smoke detectors, nuclear submarines, Advantages Alternative Uses nuclear bombs, and much more. Plus with However the question that needs to be Nuclear power is not just a one sided the production costs of nuclear energy asked is what is worth more, the minuet source of energy. It does not solely produce being so much more reasonable it makes chance of a nuclear meltdown or a terrorist electricity for our homes and offices. You everything just that much easier for us all. attack, or the massive amounts of energy can find nuclear power and energy just produced at the minimal cost of nuclear about everywhere you go now days. I say Certainly nuclear power is not something power. just about anywhere because just about to just mess around with because it can anywhere you go has a smoke detector, and will turn on you in an instant, but with The reason why nuclear power is such a big and smoke detectors use an artificially evolving technology and understanding we rave is mostly due to the heightened costs produced radioisotope: americium-241. will someday be able to tame to great power of crude oil and other energy producing This radioisotope is extremely sensitive to of nuclear fission to the point where we products. The initial cost of a nuclear plant changes in heat and allows the detector to may be able to use it in everyday life.

44 | wattnow | march 2015 BFA is dedicated to providing a consulting service that will benefit its Clients by means of applying the latest technology particularly with respect to energy saving, without compromising the aesthetic and corporate image of the client at the most economical cost.

T 011 011 679 3481 F 086 537 3589 E [email protected]

wattnow | march 2015 | 45 FEATURE

LoadShedding

or any electrical grid to remain stable the available generation capacity must match the load demand of the consumers, in simple terms ‘supply must match demand’. At any one time the generation capacity of a system will generally be less than the installed capacity as certain plant will be out of service as a result of planned or forced outages. The difference between the national maximum demand and the available generating capacity is referred to as the ‘Reserve Margin’ and in an ideal world this should be around 15%.

If the system demand at any instant in time is greater than the available generation the system will become unstable and extensive and progressive blackouts may result. This would be catastrophic

46 | wattnow | march 2015 City Power Johannesburg

This article will provide a brief history of City Power, the electricity utility which distributes power to consumers within the City of Johannesburg’s licenced area of supply, and will describe the various options available to mitigate the impact of future load shedding should this be necessary to maintain the stability of the national grid.

BY | Stuart Webb | B.Sc. (Hons) Electrical Engineering

wattnow | march 2015 | 47 FEATURE Load Shedding

continues from page 47

for the country and must be avoided even and equipment, voltages and operating significant negative impact on the economy if drastic measures are necessary. If the philosophies. These technical differences of region and, indeed, on the country as demand cannot be quickly reduced to made interconnection of the various well as adversely affecting the lives of the match generation large blocks of load must networks of little benefit and the systems citizens. be intentionally disconnected. are essentially operated independently. Curtailment Stages In 2008 the national generation levels could City Power purchases the majority of its In terms of NRS 048 – 9 various stages of not meet demand during peak periods due energy from the national generator, Eskom, load shedding are described. to unplanned unavailability of plant and for onward distribution to its customers. • Stage 1 is defined as a 5% reduction in the country experienced a series of forced In addition a small amount of power is winter maximum demand outages which quickly became known as supplied from the independently owned • Stage 2 is defined as a 10% reduction in ‘Load Shedding’. These forced outages and operated Kelvin Power station. winter maximum demand resulted in extreme inconvenience to the • Stage 3 is defined as a 20% reduction in public and adversely affected companies, City Power’s customer base is in excess of winter maximum demand businesses and the national economy. This 360 000 and the maximum demand around was a new phenomenon for which the 2 600 MW. In City Power’s case these stages would country was ill-prepared. equate to around 130MW, 260MW and The Challenges 520MW respectively. A Brief History of City Power As alluded to above, City Power procures When the now defunct Metro Electricity, the vast majority of its power from Eskom The duration of load shedding can vary which was the City of Johannesburg’s and an alternative source of such magnitude greatly from a few hours up to 8 hours or electricity service provider, was formed is not available. Over the years countrywide even longer in extreme cases. it amalgamated several former municipal load growth and development has resulted electricity undertakings into one new in Eskom’s reserve margin falling below the Opportunities utility. It brought together 5 essentially internationally accepted level of around The City of Johannesburg and City Power independent systems, namely 15% due to various factors not always have recognised the negative impact of load • Johannesburg within its control. shedding on the economy and the citizens • Randburg of the city. As a result the city has made a • Roodepoort In addition, Eskom’s build program has commitment to avoid a repeat of 2008. • Sandton experienced several delays and a significant • Johannesburg South reduction in grid capacity pressure is only Several mitigating opportunities to avoid expected to be realised in two to three emergency load reduction have been There were also a few minor networks years. identified by City Power and have been or included such as Alexandra, Dainfern, will be introduced. The various initiatives Lenasia and Brink’s Vlakfontein. As a result the possibility of having to available will be described and discussed in quickly reduce system demand during peak the following sections. In 2001 Metro Electricity was rebranded periods or following a major system event as a new company and called City is ever present. Although a concerted effort Key Customer Demand Power Johannesburg. More recently the has been made by all parties to inform the Response Modderfontein and Midrand areas have public of the precarious situation and the City Power has a number of high been added to the supply area. response from consumers has been positive consumption key customers whose annual the threat of load shedding still remains. usage exceeds 5 GWh. The activities of The technical designs of the former these companies differ widely but all have municipal areas are diverse in terms of plant The impact of load shedding has a a potential ability to reduce or shift load

48 | wattnow | march 2015 when energy purchase costs are at their highest. Geyser control can, in addition, be called upon to reduce demand when system capacity is tight or in an emergency situation.

The existing coverage is limited to around 60% of domestic premises although further expansions are planned. The present capacity of the ripple control system allows for an immediate reduction in demand of between 50 to 80 MW depending on the time of day and the season.

Gas Turbines City Power has three Gas Turbine installations situated around the JHB CBD. The capacity of these units is 40MW each or 120MW in total. The units had Ripple Control Coupling Cell not been used for several years and had without necessarily halting or adversely infrastructure utilising ripple control been mothballed. Following the 2008 load affecting their production of operation. technology. This form of demand side shedding experience two new refurbished These companies are fully aware of the management is normally aimed at reducing engines were sourced and installed. The impact of complete load shedding on their the city’s maximum demand during units were then operated but it was found businesses as a result of the prevailing the morning and evening peak periods the control circuits were unstable and conditions and are willing to assist City Power to mitigate this situation.

Presently City Power has identified around 112 key customers who have confirmed their willingness to voluntarily participate in a demand response scheme. The proposed, but as yet unconfirmed, repayment incentive rate is R1,11 per kWh and certain criteria will apply for the companies to participate.

It is estimated the potential load curtailment to be gained from this initiative will be around 80 MW.

Geyser Control City Power has installed, over several years, an extensive network of geyser control Cottesloe 40 MW Gas Turbine Installation wattnow | march 2015 | 49 FEATURE Load Shedding

continues from page 49

It is estimated these installations equate to an evening peak demand reduction of around 7MW and avoids a future potential load of 45MW from conventional electric geysers.

Photovoltaic Generation Presently City Power has received a significant number of applications to connect PV to its grid. Eskom funded projects amount to some 4MW alone with further privately sponsored projects in the pipeline. Fully regulated PV programs could yield tens of megawatts of power. Approval for grid connected PV and surplus power buy-back tariffs is awaited from NERSA.

Kelvin ‘B’ Power Station In addition a number of larger companies unsuitable for reliable operation. It is an Solar Geysers have installed generation plant and they could also be contracted to operate their option going forward to modernise the A roll-out of solar water geysers was plant at times of system constraints. control systems allowing City Power to run initiated in late 2012 and the first phase these units to off-set demand curtailment involved the installation of some 60 000 requests at times of system constraints. units in various areas. It is the intention in The repayment rate and applicable the current financial year to continue with conditions are presently being developed Kelvin Power the installation of a further 10 000 units. for submission to NERSA. City Power has a 20 year PPA (Power Purchase Agreement) with Kelvin Power which commenced in 2001. Kelvin has a reduced capacity availability of around 300MW following the recent decommissioning of the obsolete ‘A’ Station.

The unit price of Kelvin is higher than the Eskom Megaflex tariff and presently Eskom has contracted to purchase all output at the higher rate.

However, CP has an opportunity to utilise Kelvin’s full available output as a contribution to its load shedding quota although this clearly has financial implications. Typical Solar Geyser Installation 50 | wattnow | march 2015 The Demand Response initiative will be expanded.

It is confidently expected that these measures will significantly contribute to the national effort to reduce system demand and thereby minimise the need for the re- introduction of load shedding.

Typical Photovoltaic Installation

Smart Metering It is also possible to control the actual A strategic decision to introduce smart consumption during periods of constraint metering has been taken by City Power. Both by remotely setting a load limit which, if credit and prepaid options are available to exceeded, would result in disconnection. customers. Generally consumers presently consuming < 1000kWh per month will be Summary offered a prepaid meter. Currently several options to mitigate the possibility of load shedding are available In addition to automatic reading to City Power, albeit at significant cost. functionality the meters have a capability With the options available City Power can for communication and to switch domestic accommodate up to a Stage 2 request but appliances such as geysers and pool any appeal beyond this cannot be complied pumps. It is the intention to fully utilise with without the deliberately disconnection this functionality to control residential of customers. demand, where necessary. City Power will continue expanding its Residential Time of Use (TOU) geyser control systems to all areas – load Tariff can be quickly reduced and held off until A residential TOU tariff is now available constraints ease up. The roll-out of smart to City Power customers. The previously meters will proceed and the use of these installed, older technology, meters were not meters to control network loading will capable of metering TOU consumption. also be implemented. New renewable and energy efficient technologies are being With the roll-out of smart meters the investigated such as photovoltaic (PV) introduction of TOU tariffs is now power and energy efficient streetlighting - supported. The intention is to incentivise the City of Johannesburg, in conjunction residential customers, through tariff with City Power, has initiated a project to signals, to reduce consumption during generate electricity from the gas produced Domestic Smart Meter peak periods. at two landfill sites. wattnow | march 2015 | 51 recruitment Recruiting? Top 5 uses of powerful tech tools

Today’s recruiter has a range of powerful tools at his or her disposal to help make the recruitment process more efficient and cost-effective. From online jobs portals to social media, these tools make it easier to reach high-quality applicants, manage the flow of applications, and eventually complete the hiring process.

By | Karen Ekron | Head of Recruitment | Sage VIP

owever, recruiters should not treat applicants like online commodities or imagine they can automate their jobs end-to-end. Though it can help recruiters to gather CVs more efficiently and identify suitable candidates faster, technology is no replacement for the art of building relationships. Here are a few tips about how to get the most from today’s tools and use them to make the recruiter’s job easier.

Match the technology to your audience Recruiters love the ease of online recruitment tools - they’re quick, easy, and often free. But as a recruiter, you must still apply your skill and understanding to the nuances of the job spec and specific client requirement.

All too often, recruiters use the wrong platform to attract potential talent for a particular position. Always ask where you are more likely to find the right talent. According to a survey by American company Jobvite, Ninety-four percent of recruiters are active on LinkedIn, whereas only 36% of job seekers are. Are you fishing where the fish are?

Social media can be an asset to recruiters If you’re considering calling someone in for an interview, it’s a good idea see what sort of presence they have online. Of course, social media is not the only tool you should use to judge a candidate’s suitability for your business, but it can add some colour to what you will learn about him or her from the CV and the interview. From their social media profiles, you may be able to get an idea of whether they’ll be a good cultural fit with your business. And it could be interesting to see who follows them on Twitter or who their LinkedIn connections are.

52 | wattnow | march 2015 Social media is also a good way to broaden be missing an easily trainable technical points are also important - for example, your candidate database. If the position skill, yet offer exceptional proficiency in whether a candidate has the right is attractive, your professional network another area of the job spec. temperament for the role and how well he can help you share it through Twitter, or she will fit in with the company culture. LinkedIn or Facebook, hopefully attracting Video is no substitute for some high-quality applicants. More and face-to-face contact This is proof that technology is unlikely more people are looking for jobs using Videoconference calls - using Skype, for to completely replace the skill required to social media, but be sure you use the same example - are great for doing an exploratory recruit wisely. Persuading, negotiating, channels as they do. discussion with a candidate who lives prepping, listening, understanding, and too far to travel for a first interview. But managing both the client and the candidate Don’t filter out good technical problems such as poor voice and is a skillset no technology can offer. candidates video quality mean that doing an interview When you go online and see hundreds this way will always be a little unnatural for Your experience and wisdom in assessing of CVs in your email inbox or dozens of interviewer and candidate alike. Besides, a how well an individual will fit in and alerts on a career portal you subscribe to, it video interview is no substitute for meeting perform once he or she is given the job is might be tempting to simply filter out those someone face-to-face and being in their how you perform magic for your business. that don’t meet your baseline criteria. For physical presence. I’d recommend using example, many portals and tools allow you video as a way to screen out unsuitable CONCLUSION to filter candidates by age, qualifications, candidates, but a face-to-face meeting is Technology is a powerful enabler of the and years of experience and so on. still essential before you hire someone. recruitment process. Today’s technology includes software that allows employers Yet you should still assess every application Remember that recruitment to manage their own recruitment process to make sure that you aren’t missing any is an art not a science – filtering candidates, consolidating data gems in the rough. For example, someone There are many objective data points and tracking placements. It can help you to who has less than your desired years of that one should use in weighing up a free up time and be more productive - yet it experience might have a great academic potential candidate - skills, qualifications, cannot do your job for you and it probably record and a solid degree. Or he or she might psychometric tests, and so on. But softer never will be able to.

wattnow | march 2015 | 53 EXPERT ADVICE

att? is a newly established forum related specifically to the industrial and commercial electrical sector.

Do you have any burning questions, topical issues or points of interest about the electrical industry, from the perspective EXPERT INDUSTRY ADVICE of a contractor, supplier or professional service provider? Submit your comments, QUESTION ONE which may result in nuisance trips during thoughts, ideas, suggestions or questions I have heard that high efficiency motors starting. for the attention of our industry experts, have a very high inrush current. Is this and these will be addressed in a future true, and if so what can be done about it? High efficiency electric motors generally issue of the magazine. This is your forum, have a lower X/R ratio than standard and we would like to hear from you! ANSWER efficiency motors. Therefore the LRC To answer this question it is important to is generally (not always) higher which, The rapid pace of technological change first understand the difference between due to the phenomenon of all induction and product development is a global trend locked rotor current (LRC), also known as machines, could lead to higher sub- that affects entire economies. We may start-up current, and sub-transient inrush transient inrush currents. The percentage have access to more information than current. The LRC is a constant value difference between standard efficiency and ever before, but is this information readily and its magnitude is determined by the high efficiency motors is not constant but understandable? Does it give us insight design parameters of the motor, typically generally slight. into the fundamental issues? Is it precise between 6 and 8 times the rated current. and based on technical clarity? For example, when applying full voltage After many years supplying high efficiency to the stator (DOL starting) the value motors to industry, the cases reported Watt? is an opportunity for people on of the LRC will be limited to the value of nuisance tripping is so small that it is the ground to engage with each other and stipulated on the given data sheet and virtually unheard off. Although the inrush related professionals in an informative will not exceed 20% of that value as per current is higher, it does not mean that it and friendly manner. This is a platform IEC 60034. Contrary to LRC, subtransient will affect all installations. In severe cases for you to discuss anything related to your inrush current is a variable value and can where the inrush current could cause particular sector, to highlight anything be calculated mathematically by analysing concern, the issue is easily rectified by new, or to ask a specific question related the motor’s voltage and flux immediately the correct selection and adjustment of to a technical topic or to engage in general after energising it. The maximum flux protection devices used. The benefit of industry issues. . Please note that we will amplitude reached on the first half cycle higher efficiency far outweighs the potential not be considering anything related to of the applied voltage is dependent on nuisance tripping that could occur due the domestic sector, such as residential the phase of the voltage at the time it is to incorrect selection and adjustment of wiring. applied. The maximum flux can be twice as protection devices or circuits. high as the steady state flux, which results We hope that this section of the magazine in a large increase in magnetising current. QUESTION TWO not only becomes a regular feature, but that Can motors retain their efficiency after it is widely read and distributed among Therefore the sub-transient current could being rewound and what can I do to ensure your peers. Remember, it can only become peak at 3 times the LRC. This is true of this? a success with the full participation of our all squirrel cage motors, regardless of readers! Send your burning questions to efficiency class. As this lasts only for a few ANSWER [email protected] - subject ‘Watt?’. cycles (milliseconds), it is normally not Yes, motor efficiency can be retained after detected by conventional meters. However, being rewound. To answer this question it We look forward to hearing from you. it could be detected by the instantaneous is important to firstly understand where - Ed elements of protection devices (magnetics), motor losses come from and what could 54 | wattnow | march 2015 increase the losses. Motor losses comprise should take special care to replace the fan Yes, a lot of times the repair cost is a lot less the following: Joule losses, iron losses, or bearings with original equipment from than that of a new motor, but the impact of mechanical losses and additional or stray the manufacturer to ensure that the losses the running cost sometimes outweighs the load losses. are not affected. In addition, operating additional cost of replacing the motor. conditions such as ambient temperature, Motor efficiency will only be reduced or over greasing or misalignment also have an It is a known fact that the motor consumes affected negatively if any of the associated impact on mechanical losses. the energy equivalent of the capital outlay motor losses were increased. Motor losses within weeks. The motor cost in relation are not just increased, however. They could Additional or stray load losses are caused by to its running cost over the full lifespan is be affected during a motor repair or a currents and magnetic flux resulting from so small that it should make no sense to rewind, as per the following example: high frequency components. Proprietary repair a motor in the first place. However, design techniques are used to reduce the decision to never repair a motor is not The Joule losses (also known as I²R losses) stray load losses. These developments are viable. This is when a replacement policy could be increased if the original winding mostly unique to each manufacturer’s should be established with the following specification was compromised, if different manufacturing process. highlights. grades of copper or aluminium were used for • Does the motor suit the application and the winding or when the quantity of copper Reputable rewinding facilities are able to is it correctly sized? was reduced by using a smaller diameter wire. guarantee original design performance by • Is it a critical application where reliability Therefore if the resistivity or current flowing incorporating OEM material and processes plays a big role? through the conductors was increased, in the repair. The only way to ensure this is • Is it a catastrophic failure with huge then the losses will also be increased. to use repair facilities that are pre-approved mechanical damage? For example, a and accredited by the original equipment damaged stator core. The iron losses are due to the magnetic field manufacturer. • Is there evidence of a prior repair and do in the rotor and stator laminations and are you have records of the repair? dependent on the magnetic induction, QUESTION THREE • Does the motor run for long periods frequency and the quality of the material When is it better to rather replace rather during the year? used. If the laminations are being replaced, than repair an old motor? • What is the failed motor’s efficiency one should ensure that the composition rating? Now is a good time for a motor and also the thickness of the steel were ANSWER with increased efficiency. matched exactly to avoid additional losses. It is important to realise that motors need During the burn off process, one should maintenance and regular inspections. This Upon failure, it is worthwhile to replace all take special care to follow the correct burn hardly happens and is always questioned older, lower efficiency motors with a high off procedure to ensure that the integrity of once the motor has failed. Once the motor efficiency option as the energy savings the steel laminations is not compromised. has failed the next question is: “Should we alone justify this. The cut-off point for repair or replace?” replacement rather than repair is a hugely The mechanical losses are due to the power debated topic, but the general consensus requirement of the cooling fan coupled on So what’s the right answer? It turns out that of large users of electric motors seems the motor shaft and also due to bearing the decision to repair, rewind or replace a to be to replace any motor that fails < 45 friction. These losses are directly affected failed motor is not always so simple and kW or when the ratio between repair and by the motor speed. During repairs one straightforward as you may have heard. replacement is higher than 60%.

Answers provided by Zest WEG Group wattnow | march 2015 | 55 LOOKING BACK ... March's birthstones are aquamarine and bloodstone. These stones symbolize courage. Its birth flower is the daffodil. The zodiac signs for the month of COMPILED BY | JANE BUISSON-STREET March are Pisces (until March 20) FMSAIEE | PMIITPSA | FMIITSPA and Aries (March 21 onwards).

draw result, and the length of this 6 March match, it is often referred to as the 1869 Dmitri Mendeleev presented the “timeless” test, and the only one of first periodic table to the Russian its kind in history. Chemical Society, predicting that there would be more elements to 4 March come. 1793 The second inauguration of George Washington as the first President of 7 March the United States took place in the 321 Roman Emperor Constantine I Senate Chamber of Congress Hall decreed that the Dies Solis Invicti in Philadelphia, USA. He then gave (sun-day) would be the day of rest the shortest inaugural address ever, in the Empire. 133 words. 8 March 1978 “Don’t panic” but the first radio episode of The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy, by Douglas Adams, was transmitted on BBC Radio 4. 1 March 1893 Nikola Tesla, not Guglielmo 9 March Marconi, gave the first public 1562 Kissing in public was banned in demonstration of radio in his Naples, Italy, and was punishable presentation, “On Light and Other by death. Authorities were more High Frequency Phenomena.” concerned about public health than morality; a second plague 2 March was spreading through Europe like 1925 South African Airways undertook wildfire, and leaders were doing its first flight between Cape Town anything in their power to blunt the and Durban. epidemic.

3 March 1938 The longest cricket test match in history began between South Africa and England in Durban. Play went on until 14 March … nine days in 5 March total. England needed 41 runs to 1979 NASA’s Voyager 1 made its closest win at the close of the 9th day, but approach to Jupiter, allowing for the match was drawn as the English never before research and photos to players had to leave to catch their be taken. boat back to England. Due to the

56 | wattnow | march 2015 10 March 13 March 16 March 1535 After his ship drifted off course on 1930 After decades of speculation, 1872 The very first FA Cup final was a journey from Panama to Peru, “Planet X” was on its way to won by the Wanderers FC, with Bishop Tomas de Berlanga of receiving the name “Pluto” once a final score of 1-0 over the Royal Panama discovered the “worthless” news of its formal discovery reached Engineers AFC. The oldest football Galápagos Islands entirely by the Harvard College Observatory cup competition in the world accident. Now a UNESCO World by telegraph. was organised by the English FA Heritage Site, the Galápagos Islands (Football Association), which until are considered a “living laboratory” then had only organised friendlies of evolution. between clubs.

11 March 17 March 1890 Vannevar Bush, an American 1901 Paintings by Dutch master engineer, inventor, and science Vincent Van Gogh were shown administrator, who was considered at the Bernheim-Jeune gallery in key to winning World War II and Paris, France. The 71 paintings, was, in effect, the first presidential which captured their subjects in science advisor, was born. As head bold brushstrokes and expressive of the U.S. Office of Scientific colours, caused a sensation across Research and Development the art world. Eleven years earlier, (OSRD) during WW II, he Van Gogh had committed suicide coordinated almost all wartime having no idea that his work was military R&D including the destined to be so revered. initiation and early administration of the Manhattan Project . 18 March 1965 Cosmonaut Alexey Leonov left his 12 March spacecraft for 12 minutes, making 2006 The Chicago Tribune claimed to the first spacewalk in history. Due have compiled a list of supposedly to problems with the spacesuit, undercover CIA operatives, internal Leonov almost could not re-enter agency telephone numbers, and the 14 March the craft. locations of 24 secret CIA facilities 1879 Albert Einstein came into the by searching the Internet. world, beginning a life that would become one of the most impactful in scientific history. Some famed Einstein quotes: • “If we knew what it was we were doing, it would not be called research, would it?” • “The only reason for time is so that everything doesn’t happen at once.” • “Science is a wonderful thing if one does not have to earn one’s living at i t .” • “I am neither especially clever nor especially gifted. I am only very, very curious.”

15 March 1961 South Africa withdrew from British Commonwealth.

** http://www.ThisDayinQuotes.com/ wattnow | march 2015 | 57 looking back March...

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20 March remaining Rangers were successful, 1883 Shoe manufacturing was culminating in Ranger 9’s 5,800 revolutionized by the lasting images that provided strong machine, which was patented by confirmation of the crater-on- inventor Jan Earnst Matzeliger. crater, gently rolling contours of the Before the lasting machine, shoes lunar surface. were made mostly by hand. The machine could produce up to 22 March 700 pairs of shoes each day. Hand 1993 The first Intel Pentium was shipped, lasters produced only 50 pairs per kicking off what would become day. a core line for the company and a well-regarded brand to the public. It was Intel’s first superscalar x86 microarchitecture and, as a direct extension of the 80486 architecture, it included dual integer pipelines, a faster floating-point unit, wider data bus, separate code and data caches and features for further reduced address calculation latency.

23 March 19 March 1989 Two electrochemists announced 1895 Auguste and Louis Lumière record that they had produced energy their first footage using their through a cold fusion reaction; newly patented cinematograph, opening the way for almost limitless a competing device to Thomas production of cheap, clean energy. Edison’s kinetoscope. The film, La The claim was later found not to Sortie des usines Lumière à Lyon be replicable and cold fusion was (Workers Leaving the Lumière given the cold shoulder. Factory in Lyon), was a 46-second- long, black-and-white, silent 21 March documentary. It is a single scene in 1965 NASA launched Ranger 9, the which workers leave the factory. last in a series of unmanned The cinematograph was a motion lunar space probes, on March 21, picture film camera, which 1965. The Ranger spacecraft were also serves as a film projector designed to take images of the and developer. Unlike Edison’s lunar surface, transmitting those kinetoscope, which had to be images to Earth until the spacecraft viewed by one person at a time were destroyed upon impact. A through an eye-hole (peephole), the series of mishaps, however, led to cinematograph could be projected the failure of the first six flights. At onto a screen to be viewed by a large one point, the program was called audience of people simultaneously. “shoot and hope”. Fortunately the

58 | wattnow | march 2015 24 March seeing little use for the white, waxy, 1930 Planet Pluto was finally named. substance. That was until 1933 when Imperial Chemical Industries’ (ICI) 25 March (Northwich, England) chemists 1979 NASA’s first fully functional Space Eric Fawcett and Reginald Gibson Shuttle, Columbia, was delivered to rediscovered it by accident. One the John F Kennedy Space Centre to of its earliest uses was as insulation be prepared for its first launch. In for UHF and SHF coaxial cables of total, Columbia flew 28 flights, spent radar sets during World War II. 300.74 days in space, completed 4,808 orbits, and flew 201,497,772 km in total, including its final mission. Unfortunately Columbia was destroyed on February 1, 2003, upon atmospheric re-entry when a piece of foam insulation broke off and damaged the wing.

26 March 1958 The United States Army launched 30 March Explorer 3, its second successful 1975 Uruguayan master conductor Jose satellite launch in the Explorer Serebrier accidentally stabbed program. himself in the hand with a baton mid-concert, and then continued 27 March his performance without missing a 1933 Polyethylene, the most common beat. plastic, was discovered in 1898 and was rediscovered several times after that with chemists and researchers 31 March 28 March 2003 New Mexico librarian Susanne 1979 A coolant leak at the Three Mile Caro opened an 1888 book on Civil Island’s Unit 2 nuclear reactor War medicine and discovered a outside Harrisburg, Pennsylvania, startling memento: an envelope of led to the worst accident in US century-old smallpox scabs. commercial nuclear power plant history when the core overheated and a partial meltdown occurred – an occurrence that could have been avoided by better user interface systems.

29 March 1974 NASA’s Mariner 10 became the first spaceprobe to fly by Mercury.

wattnow | march 2015 | 59 YOUR OPINION

IN MY OPINION : mike cary SONA 2015

The State of the Nation Address (SONA) is probably the most spoken about address in the history of the country. Because of the many distractions from forcible evictions to walk-outs, President Zuma’s address included many items that have been lost in the wash. One of these is the promise that Government would make 23 billion Rand available to Eskom over the next 12 months.

By | MIKE CARY | FSAIEE | PR ENG

he State of the Nation Address (SONA) The cost of diesel for the Open Cycle Gas Turbines is probably the most spoken about (OCGTs) contributed R1,5bn, R5,0bn, and address in the history of the country. R10,6bn to the primary energy costs respectively. Because of the many distractions from This dramatic increase in the cost of diesel is the forcible evictions to walk-outs, President Zuma’s direct result of Eskom trying to keep the lights on address included many items that have been by using the OCGTs which comprise about 5% of lost in the wash. One of these is the promise the installed capacity. that Government would make 23 billion Rand available to Eskom over the next 12 months. The total installed capacity of the Eskom generation fleet is 43 Gigawatt. Ideally, one should Why is this money necessary, when the tariffs have at least 90% of this available, the balance have increased by 2 figures each year for the past being for planned maintenance and breakdowns. few years? To put this into perspective, we can Currently, the energy availability factor (EAF) is look at the last available annual income statement 70% to 75%, necessitating the use of the OCGTs, at the end of March 2014. The income grew from and the figure for the monthly cost of diesel is R114,8bn in 2012, to R128,8bn in 2013, and to said to be R2bn. If this is required for 12 months, R139,5bn in 2014. In the same period primary the cost will be R24bn – this could be part of energy costs grew from R46,3bn to R60,7bn to the motivation for the R23bn from the Eskom R69,8bn. shareholder – Government.

60 | wattnow | march 2015 This situation can be improved if the EAF can be increased and the new machines at Medupi and Kusile come online. The cover story in the 25 January 2008 Financial Mail stated that Medupi would be completed by 2015, and the date for Kusile (then known as Bravo) was still to be advised (information sourced from Eskom). The quoted cost of these two projects was R84bn, and R88bn – about half of the current projections. The additional funding required for these projects has also put increased pressure on the Eskom finances.

The SAIEE is committed to assisting Eskom to improve its EAF – a short term solution to both Eskom and the Country’s woes.

Some of the supply-side solutions are mentioned above. Another part of the solution lies in the demand-side and here all of us can assist by using electricity wisely and sparingly – it will also help your pocket!!

wattnow | march 2015 | 61 ON THE LIGHT... ER SIDE...

Well - some wish it would, others vehemently hope it Everything’s won’t. going Nuclear by | ANGELA Price For those of you not a child of the 80’s, down one of their units (according to ost a dinner party these Springfield NPP is a fictional, boiling water reports, ‘the main reason for the failure days and there are a few nuclear plant which powers the whole of of one of the two units at the Koeberg things you can just about Springfield USA - home to The Simpsons nuclear power station was due to the bet on: (an American, adult, animated sitcom - incorrect positioning of scaffolding in • Table talk will eventually watched by millions of kids in the 80’s). The preparation for routine maintenance at turn to the current SA power Springfield example painted a pretty strong the plant’.) crisis; anti-nuclear message. • Whilst they are not killing us, Eskom’s • the ‘Things in Zim started this way’ woes are certainly killing the SA discussion will inevitably commence; To describe a just few of Springfield’s economy. • a tally will be given of friends/family who operational examples/problems: • The cost of fixing Eskom’s problems runs are leaving SA; • Carelessness of the plant’s employees (like into the billions - if only government had • and somewhere along the line things will Homer Simpson) often endangered the listened sooner and spent some money. go NUCLEAR (oh, and during the meal residents and the natural environment. • At the core of Eskom’s troubles are two you will likely be load shed - as per the • The plant was notorious for being poorly power stations (Kusile and Medupi), unscheduled schedule). maintained, largely due to the owner’s both still inoperable. miserliness and employee (Homer • Whilst Eskom has not yet experienced an Yip, folks are pretty divided on the nuclear Simpson’s) incompetence. entire ‘meltdown’, they have had: power generation issue. • A surprise inspection found 342 - the boiler at unit three of Duvha power violations with an estimated $56 million station explode; If you were a fly on the wall at some of our required to bring the plant up to speed, - a collapse of the central coal silo at family dinner parties you would likely hear money which management refused to Majuba; my mother-in-law exclaiming about the spend. - an ‘act of God’ (lightning) triggering a dangers of nuclear, “My dear, I just read • The core of the reactor was an outdated chain of events which resulted in Lethabo an article about babies being born near Fissionator 1952 Slow-Fission Reactor. power station literally drowning in ash. reactor sites, they have two heads - it’s • The plant came close to a meltdown • Eskom’s infrastructure is outdated true!” (My husband has a favorite saying, several times, and blew up at least once. and years overdue for upgrades and ‘Too little information is just as dangerous • Cooling towers cracked (fixed in one proper maintenance. Eskom recently as too much’ - a point always well illustrated episode using a piece of chewing gum). acknowledged that,”…almost all our during our family discussions.) • The plant contents created a mutant power stations are experiencing all sorts subspecies of three-eyed fish. of problems at this stage.” Comforting to Her hysteria is usually calmly counter • Oh, and the emergency exit signs at the know. balanced by my husband quietly explaining plant were crudely painted on. the obvious benefits of nuclear power The irony is that whilst we laughed ourselves And whilst I haven’t seen any three-eyed generation to those of us who have a more silly watching The Simpsons in the 80’s, the fish recently; my mother-in law-knows neutral, or (like me) completely clueless Springfield example was almost a ‘power about some two headed kids out there approach to this hot topic. prophecy’ when looked at in comparison to somewhere. our current Eskom scenario. When I think of nuclear power generation, P.S. If the emergency exit signs (likely some of my first thoughts go to the Fast forward to the SA present day: pointing to Oz) are going to be painted on, Springfield Nuclear Power Plant. • Carelessness of the Eskom employees could someone kindly ask them to use glow- recently tripped Koeberg’s power, taking in-the-dark paint - thanks.

62 | wattnow | march 2015 2015 EVENTS calendar If you want to see your function or event listed here, please send the details to Minx Avrabos at [email protected]

MARCH 2015

11 Advanced Microsoft Excel For Engineers Corporate Conference Centre, JHB www.saiee.org.za

12 Power Transformer Operating Environment Corporate Conference Centre, JHB www.saiee.org.za

18 Understanding Transact, Db Optimisation & Database Design sAIEE House, JHB www.saiee.org.za

24 Revision Of Power System Fundamentals Corporate Conference Centre, JHB www.saiee.org.za

24 Power & Electricity World Africa sandton Convention Centre, JHB www.terrapinn.com

26 sAIEE Annual General Meeting Franklink Auditorium, Eskom Megawatt Park www.saiee.org.za

013 692 7171 013 692 3225 [email protected] website: www.ttssurvey.co.za Accurate Sustainable Solutions

Physical Address: 5 de Klerk Street, Del Judor, eMalahleni 1035 www.ttssurveywatt.conow.za | march 2015 | 63 SAIEE COUNCIL MEMBERS GRADE name & SurnaME Contact Details Email address

President Dr. Pat Naidoo 071 312 0111 [email protected]

Deputy President Andre Hoffmann 011 783 9330 [email protected]

Senior Vice President T.C. Madikane 031 536 7300 [email protected]

Junior Vice President Jacob Machinjike 011 800 3539 [email protected]

Immediate Past President Paul van Niekerk 011 789 1384 [email protected]

Honorary Treasurer Viv Crone [email protected]

Honorary Vice President Mario Barbolini 044 620 2559 [email protected]

Past President Stan Bridgens 011 487 9048 [email protected]

Past President Mike Cary 011 425 3497 [email protected]

Past President Mike Crouch 011 728 2852 [email protected]

Past President John Gosling 011 651 6266 [email protected]

Past President du Toit Grobler 083 666 6855 [email protected]

Past President Rod Harker 021 553 2632 [email protected]

Past President Dr. Angus Hay 011 585 0490 [email protected]

Past President Ian McKechnie 012 663 4804 [email protected]

Past President Andries Tshabalala 011 820 5094 [email protected]

Fellow Lt. Col. Bill Bergman 011 346 0395 [email protected]

Fellow Hermann Broschk 011 728 4071 [email protected]

Fellow Viv Cohen 011 485 2567 [email protected]

Fellow George Debbo 012 991 3748 [email protected]

Fellow Prof. Jan de Kock 018 299 1970 [email protected]

Fellow Tom Eichbaum 011 652 2226 [email protected]

Fellow Dr. Hendri Geldenhuys 084 625 5522 [email protected]

Fellow Sy Gourrah 087 809 4700 [email protected]

Fellow Paul Johnson 012 428 7647 [email protected]

Fellow Collin Matlala 011 997 8900 [email protected]

Fellow Prince Moyo 011 800 4659 [email protected]

64 | wattnow | march 2015 SAIEE COUNCIL MEMBERS GRADE name & SurnaME Contact Details Email address

Fellow Prof. Jan-Harm Pretorius 011 559 3377 [email protected]

Fellow Prof. Rex Van Olst 011 717 7220 [email protected]

Fellow Dries Wolmarans 011 793 9335 [email protected]

Fellow Derek Woodburn 011 609 5013 [email protected]

Fellow Jane-Anne Buisson-Street [email protected]

Senior Member M. Chauke 012 661 2346 [email protected]

Senior Member John Dal Lago 011 800 2657 [email protected]

Senior Member Theuns Erasmus 016 960 2496 [email protected]

Senior Member Prof Sunil Maharaj 012 420 4636 [email protected]

Senior Member Hope Mashele 011 312 9902 [email protected]

Senior Member Prof. Johan Meyer 011 559 3880 [email protected]

Senior Member Patrick O’Halloran 011 490 7485 [email protected]

Senior Member Leon Staphorst 012 841 3236 [email protected]

Senior Member William Stucke 011 566 3009 [email protected]

Member Wayne Fisher 011 679 3481 [email protected]

Member Thavenesen Govender 011 629 5738 [email protected]

Member Dr. Mike Grant 011 717 7256 [email protected]

Member Phillip Konig 011 239 5348 [email protected]

Member Prudence Madiba 011 800 4212 [email protected]

Member Dr. Nicholas West 012 656 1266 [email protected]

Chairman - E&S Section Ian Gebbie 071 312 0111 [email protected]

Chairperson - Power Section Refilwe Buthelezi 011 629 5355 [email protected]

Chairman - Historical Section Max Clarke 011 476 5925 [email protected]

IEEE Representative Prof Willie Cronje 011 717 7224 [email protected]

RMWG Representative Mario Kuisis 011 326 2708 [email protected]

wattnow | march 2015 | 65 SAIEE CENTRES

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