THE EVOLUTION OF BIOTECHNOLOGY The Evolution of Biotechnology From Natufians to Nanotechnology

by

Martina Newell-McGloughlin D.Sc. and

Edward Re Ph.D. A C.I.P. Catalogue record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN-10 1-4020-5148-4 (HB) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5148-7 (HB) ISBN-10 1-4020-5149-2 (e-book) ISBN-13 978-1-4020-5149-4 (e-book)

Published by Springer, P.O. Box 17, 3300 AA Dordrecht, The Netherlands. www.springer.com

Printed on acid-free paper

Cover images – from left to right: “Portrait of a DNA Sequence” by Roger Berry, summer 1998, College of Biological Sciences, Life Sciences Addition, University of California, Davis. Photo courtesy of Mark McNamee, former dean, presently Chancellor of Virginia Tech; A tripartite RNA-based nanoparticle to carry therapeutic agents directly to targeted cells courtesy of Peixuan Guo, professor of molecular virology at Purdue University; This is a woodcut of Einkorn from the digital version of Fuch’s Botany of 1545 created by Richard Siderits, M.D. Cushing/Whitney Medical Library, Yale University. Primi de stirpivm historia commentariorvm tomi uiuæ imagines, in exiguam angustioremq[ue] formam contractæ, ac quam fieri potest artificiosissime expressæ...Basileæ, 1545 7 p. l., 516 p. of plates (part col.) 17 ½ cm.

All Rights Reserved © 2006 Springer No part of this work may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, microfilming, recording or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher, with the exception of any material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. CONTENTS

Preface vii

Acknowledgements ix

Introduction xi

Pre History 1. Early History: Cultivation and Civilization 1

Early Technology 2. Early Technology: Evolution of the Tools 21

Early History of Biotechnology 3. The Dawning of the Age of Biotechnology 1970–1990 45

4. The Flowering of the Age of Biotechnology 1990–2000 93

5. To Infinity and Beyond 2000– 141

Glossary of Terms Commonly Used in Biotechnology 191

Chronology of Biotechnology 227

Index 257

v PREFACE

Biotechnology in the broadest sense can trace its roots back to prehistory. This book is not intended to be a comprehensive history of the technology from some arbitrary point in time or even a chronological tracing of the evolution of that technology but rather my impression of the various events throughout history that have intersected or built on one another to lead to the forward progression of a technology. Obviously, with such a broad canvas much selectivity is involved in the choices made to advance the narrative and, while the subjects chosen are not capricious, they are influenced by the author’s perspective. In addition I have made some attempt, where validated resources exist, to present my perspective on how individual personalities and their particular contextual experience influenced the direction in which they carried the science or the science carried them. The book is divided into an introduction and five chapters, which this author views as one of the many possible delineations that could be employed to trace the progress of the technology. The introduction gives a broad overview of the technology, the components covered, progression of the science, present applications and future prospects. Chapter one covers the prehistory which, of its essence, involves some conjecture in addition to supported data. There are many potential starting points, but I choose our agricultural roots since as noted anthropologist Solomon Katz asserts the domestication of plant and animals presaged civilization. Katz also asserts that the initial motivation for planting cereals may have been motivated by another ubiquitous application of biotechnology namely brewing thus making that particular use of grains, both wild and planted, a more ancient catalyst in the transformation of the human condition. As Homo sapiens moved from hunter- gatherer to settled agrarian societies, robust methods for tracking crops, accounting for supplies and designating ownership had to be in place. Thus written language and mathematics were developed to trace and quantify. These are the consensus keystones for most popular conceptions of the genesis of civilization. The first half of chapter two chronicles some of the discoveries and develop- ments of the early science and the tools to investigate same. While the second half focuses on a selective subset of the many key events that led to the birth of biotechnology as a modern discipline. Chapter three covers the formative years from the accepted nascent point of the technology, namely Paul Bergs’ seminal splicing of the first recombinant molecule in 1973, to the age of the genome which I arbitrarily set at 1990 although events in the eighties without doubt portended this event. The era covered by Chapter four (1990-2000) is largely overshadowed by the leviathan genomics projects being conducted within and between nations, but, vii viii PREFACE of course, endeavors on numerous fronts translated into many interesting biotech- nology developments unrelated, or marginally related, to these activities. Dolly and the genesis of the age of cloning and stem cells come to mind. Since there is no effective way to conclude a tome in a field that is advancing as rapidly as biotechnology, I titled the final chapter (V) "To Infinity and Beyond 2000- ?", as much is still speculative on where this technology, or more correctly the confluence of this technology with the other high profile technologies of the late 20th and early 21st centuries, will lead us. As I am not trained in sociology or ethics I do not attempt to provide an in-depth analysis of this technology in a societal context. However, since it is impossible to discuss such a charged field within an aseptic clinical framework, I attempt to provide some context for the science, and the practitioners and protagonists who shape its trajectory. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Writing a book on science is quite often an exercise in frustration, as old sources are difficult to unearth, or verify and the rapid pace of change render the newer somewhat ephemeral. By its very nature such a book is often obsolete before it reaches print which impels the writer into the realm of quasi realty where the Red Queen hypothesis prevails and one is writing as fast as one can in a frantic effort to barely keep pace with developments. We owe a debt of gratitude to those who took personal time to help us attain most of our goals and retain some level of sanity during the protracted process; Gussie Curran for a keen eye and wit in suggesting editorial modifications; Cathy Miller for diligence and persistence in wading through the maize of bureaucratic clearances; Mila and Tomás for putting up with frayed nerves and inattention; and David, Alan and Colin for being unfailing long distance sources of distraction and amusement.

ix INTRODUCTION

In the simplest and broadest sense, Biotechnology is a series of enabling technologies, which involves the manipulation of living organisms or their sub- cellular components to develop useful products, processes or services. Biotech- nology encompasses a wide range of fields, including the life sciences, chemistry, agriculture, environmental science, medicine, veterinary medicine, engineering, and computer science. The manipulation of living organisms is one of the principal tools of modern biotechnology. Although biotechnology in the broadest sense is not new, what is new, however, is the level of complexity and precision involved in scientists’ current ability to manipulate living things, making such manipulation predictable, precise, and controlled. The umbrella of biotechnology encompasses a broad array of technologies, including recombinant DNA technology, embryo manipulation and transfer, monoclonal antibody production, and bioprocess engineering, the principle technology associated with the term is recombinant DNA technology or genetic engineering. This technique can be used to enhance the ability of an organism to produce a particular chemical product (penicillin from fungus), to prevent it from producing a product (polygalacturanase in plant cells) or to enable an organism to produce an entirely new product (insulin in microbes). To date the greatest and most notable impact of biotechnology has been in the medical and pharmaceutical arena. More than 325 million people worldwide have been helped by the more than 155 biotechnology drugs and vaccines approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). Of the biotech medicines on the market, 70 percent were approved in the last six years. There are more than 370 biotech drug products and vaccines currently in clinical trials targeting more than 200 diseases, including various cancers, Alzheimer’s disease, heart disease, diabetes, multiple sclerosis, AIDS and arthritis. The use of biotechnology to produce molecules of therapeutic value constitutes an important advancement in medical science. Medications developed through biotechnology techniques have earned the approval of the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for use in patients who have cancer, diabetes, cystic fibrosis, hemophilia, multiple sclerosis, hepatitis B, and Kaposi’s sarcoma. Biotechnology drugs are used to treat invasive fungal infections, pulmonary embolisms, ischemic strokes, kidney transplant rejection, infertility, growth hormone deficiency, and other serious disorders. Medications have also been developed to improve the health of animals. Scientists are currently investigating applications of advanced gene therapy, a technology that may one day be used to pinpoint and rectify hereditary disorders. Many of the products we eat, wear, and use are made using the tools of biotech- nology. Using genetic engineering, scientists are able to enhance agronomic traits xi xii INTRODUCTION such as biotic and abiotic stress tolerance, growing season and yield, and output traits such as processing, shelf life and the nutritional content, texture, color, flavor, and other properties of production crops. Transgenic techniques are applied to farmed animals to improve the growth, fitness, and other qualities of agriculturally important mammals, poultry, and fish. Crops and animals can also be used as production systems for the production of important pharmaceuticals and industrial products. Enzymes produced using recombinant DNA methods are used to make cheese, keep bread fresh, produce fruit juices, wines, treat fabric for blue jeans and other denim clothing. Other recombinant DNA enzymes are used in laundry and automatic dishwashing detergents. We can also engineer microorganisms to improve the quality of our environment. In addition to the opportunities for a variety of new products, including biodegradable products, bioprocessing using engineered microbes and enzymes offers new ways to treat and use wastes and to use renewable resources as feedstocks for materials and fuel. Instead of depending on non-renewable fossil fuels we can engineer organisms to convert maize and cereal straw, forest products and municipal waste and other biomass to produce fuel, bioplastics and other useful commodities. Naturally occurring microorganisms are being used to treat organic and inorganic contaminants in soil, groundwater, and air. This application of biotechnology has created an environmental biotechnology industry important in water treatment, municipal waste management, hazardous waste treatment, bioremediation, and other areas. DNA fingerprinting, a biotech technique, has dramatically improved criminal investigation and forensic medicine, as well as afforded significant advances in anthropology and wildlife management. This book will aim to cover the history of biotech the tools and applications across time and disciplines and look to future potential at the confluence of technologies. INTRODUCTION xiii

BIOTECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY PATENTS The US Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) has responded to the growing demand for patents by the biotechnology industry by increasing the number and sophis- tication of biotechnology patent examiners. In FY 1988, the PTO had 67 patent examiners. By 1998, the number of biotech examiners more than doubled to 184. Statistics provided by BIO organization Source: U.S. Patent and Trademark Office, Technology Profile Report, Patent Examining Technology Center, Groups 1630–1650, Biotechnology 1/1977 – 1/1998, April 1999