POLITICAL PSYCHOLOGY IN PLATO´S ALCIBIADES I*†

Psicología Política en el Alcibiades I de Platón

José Daniel Parra Universidad Externado de Colombia

ABSTRACT

The following essay presents a close reading of the Platonic dialogue Alcibiades I. In the text, Socrates is depicted as a young teacher approaching young Alcibiades, a future prominent and hubristic ruler of post-Periclean democratic Athens. In his propadeutic task, Socrates appeals to Alcibiades’ unlimited self-love in order to gain his confidence and attention, rousing his spirited ambition and keen intellect, trying to tempt him into becoming a philosopher. We explore the roots of Alcibiades’ character, his desire for primacy intermingled with his fear of failure. For motives that will be explored in this essay, the mayeutic education of Alcibiades towards the life of wisdom not only failed, but also had undesired political outcomes. Would a more powerful Socrates have been able to procure Alcibiades’ ultimate allegiance? The Alcibiades I sheds light on the roots and potential limitations of the study of Platonic political philosophy. Key Words: Socratic mayeutics, classical political philosophy, government, thumos, dialectic.

RESUMEN

Este ensayo propone una lectura del diálogo platónico Alcibíades I. En el texto, vemos a Sócrates como joven maestro aproximándose al también joven Alcibíades, quien sabemos se convertirá en un prominente y hubristico gobernante de la Atenas democrática post-Periclea. En su tarea propedéutica, Sócrates apela al amor propio ilimitado de Alcibíades con el fin de ganar su confianza y atención, incitando su espíritu de ambición y su agudo intelecto, tratando de tentarlo hacia la vida filosófica. En el texto exploramos las raíces

* Recibido Marzo de 2010; aprobado Agosto de 2010. † Este artículo es producto del proyecto Humanismo como Política, adscrito al Observatorio OPERA, del Centro de Investigaciones y Proyectos Especiales CIPE, Universidad Externado de Colombia. Fue originalmente uno de los capítulos de la investigación de maestría titulada Paideia: A Study of Socratic Teaching, realizada en la Universidad de Carleton, bajo la dirección de los profesores Waller R. Newell, Tom Darby, y el apoyo especial de Horst Hutter. El autor agradece a los profesores Juan Camilo Rodríguez, y Fernando Estrada Gallego por el apoyo institucional y académico que hizo posible la publicación del texto.

Praxis Filosófica Nueva serie, No. 31, julio-diciembre 2010: 25-44.7-16 ISSN: 0120-4688 26

José Daniel Parra of thereasonsforhisultimate failuretosteer Alcibiades’ longingaway approach to Alcibiades at this point in time, and, arguably, as perhaps one We willtake this intoaccount asperhapsoneofthe limitations of his ed. RichardMcKeon(New York: ModernLibrary, 2001). are by Stephanusnumber. References from Aristotle are from The Basic Works of Aristotle, WorksPlato, Complete of The (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 1964).Otherreferences fromtheCorpusPlatonicum are from seems tobeunseasonedintheeroticartofpsychagoge eros bythe prophetess Diotima. Presumably he has. Nevertheless he still time Socrates has already been initiated into the pedagogical mysteries of the I occurssomeseventeen years before The dramatic date of theAlcibiades fictionalized characters in the present tense, without the filter of a narrator. not know). Itisaperformed dialogue: we are shown theactions of two (presumably itisaprivateconversation: an 2 1 3 young Alcibiades canbefoundinXenophon pp. 149-157. A classical observation abouttherelation between the historical Socrates and Philosophy? Ancient Chicago P,is 2009), pp.229-237.Consideralsotheimportant work ofPierreHadot What Catherine H. Zuckert Philosophy.Political Platonic in Statecraft of classical political philosophy seetheworkof WallerEroticsthe Passion R. NewellRuling University of New York Press, 2000), pp 205-207. For further discussions about I, seeGary Alan Scott, of theAlcibiades For aninteresting discussion onthe chronology and scholarly debate about the authenticity taking dialogues of selection place inaccordance withthespiritualandintellectual development of schoolmembers. the academy, the in “listeners”) by dialogue Platonic a to audience of pupils(c.f. Aristotle into the Platonic corpus. The dialogues wereeither read out-loud or performed for an The Arabic medieval philosopher Al Farabi considered the IhaveusedtheLoebClassical Library editionofPlato’s Alcibiades I. PlatoLaws650b6-9. ad hoc ad 1. thumos, dialéctica. Clave: Palabras potenciales delestudiodelafilosofíapolíticaplatónica. El de Alcibíades? ¿Habría sidounSócratesmáspoderosocapazdeprocurarselalealtadúltima no sólofalló,sinoqueademástuvoindeseablesconsecuenciaspolíticas. filosófica vida la hacia Alcibíades de mayéutica educación La fracaso. al del carácterde Alcibíades, sudeseodeprimacía enlazadoconsutemor The Symposium Introduction liids I Alcibiades conversation as it were,wherebythesettingremainsindistinct conversation as (416 BCE),andthus,thereaderislefttowonderifbythis Plato´s Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues. (Chicago: U Coherencethe The of Philosophers: Plato´s Trans. MichaelChase. (Cambridge: Harvard UP, 2002),especially Mayéutica socrática, filosofía política clásica, gobierno, clásica, política filosofía socrática, Mayéutica 1 arroja luz sobre las raíces y limitaciones Iarrojaluzsobrelasraícesylimitaciones Alcibíades isanattempt at a philosophical propadeutic ed. JohnM.Cooper(Cambridge: Hackett, 1997).Citations Politics Plato’s Socrates as Educator as Plato’sSocrates 1263b16, wherereference is made to reactions Memorabilia I.2.39. (Laham: Rowman & Littlefield, 2000) with 2000) Littlefield, & Rowman (Laham: where ittakes placewedo liids Ithe gateway Alcibiades 3 orsoul-shaping. Trans. W.R.MLamb (New York:State (New paideia 2 . Itis in say, Telemachus(Homer, as, such men young outstanding of figures archetypal other of case the in overcome thesehauntingomens likely, hencetheir need forpower, friends,resourcestoturn-aroundand essential loss. Isthecritical fate of their fathers awaiting them?—most seem to be drawn to the political arena as therapy for the pain of some eventually mark Alcibiades’ desire to vindicate his past. 1511-1514) the premature loss or untimely withering of a father figure will King the with 696-711), orOedipus(Sophocles, Oedipus conceives of as wrongs still unexpiated), and driven (for privation elicits he (this expectations unfulfilled or failings father’s his for angry torn: is live up totheir father’s nature, which isalsotheir own. The thumotic fathers intheir mistakes or shortcomings: they bothwantanddon’t wantto 103b5) istoomuchforotherstobare(104a). explain himthereasonwhyhefeelshisarrogantcharacter (megalophónon, stage (103a6)—but nowheconsidersthat it is the right moment his remained distant yetmostattentive to theboy’s elementary education— started to show, butalsohisvoice is turningthicker, graver. Socrateshad a “grown up” (meirakion), ayoungman;presumablynotonlyhisbeardhas Now he no longer has the pristine beauty of a child (pais), and is becoming tended to become distant from him, intimidated by his keen spiritedness. Alcibiades’ suitorshavefeltattracted to thepromisingyouthandyethave we expectrejection, especially onthebasisofpastfailures).Many attraction if we think the object of desire is attainable) and/or fear (if beauty. Beautyfunctionsasacatalyst for attention: it evokesawe(and and thephilosophicalwayoflife. from his love of being praised by the 5 4 do manypeople a goodturn”(Aristotle, mother re-marriedPyrilampes,a friendofPericles. Hackett, 1992),pp.viii,Plato’s father, Ariston, alsodiedwhenPlatowasstill aboy, andhis 1980) pp.106. According toC.D.C.Reeve’s introduction to Plato’s Republic statesman Pericles, for Alcibiades’ father died whenhewasachild connections, fortune. Heisalsothenephewandprotegé ofthegreat , goodbirth,looks,stature,family kagathoi right qualities of thekaloi Political power presupposes but also reinforces friendships: “holders of public office can office public of “holders friendships: reinforces also but presupposes power Political Plutarch.Lives.Dryden’stranslation. Ed.andintro.Charles W. Elliot. (Danbury:Grolier, 2. The action ofthe dialogue begins with Socrates praising Alcibiades’ Socrates offers todiagnose Alcibiades’ character. Hepossessesall the daimonion preventedhimfromapproaching Alcibiades atsuch early Deconstructing Alcibiades: PaterandPatria Odyssey 5 . Surelytheydonotwanttoresembletheir Rhetoric III, 77-79,370-377andIV, 315-323, demos towardsthe love of wisdom 1188b15). Thumotic 307-315 and (Indianapolis: (kairos) to man 4 men . As

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José Daniel Parra still tooyoungtounderstandthis is fueled by anger rooted in fear of failure. Alcibiades is angry, but he is eros, havedirectedhisattentiontowardspoliticalaction love? Youngand pride unequal strengths, his and death of fearful not is Alcibiades universal, craves Alcibiades (105a5-8). recognition. shouldSocratesdealwith How Alcibiades’ unlimited self- you” tell I’ll life? in greater?’ Ithink, you’d choose to die. What then you rather die on the spot if you weren’t permitted to acquire anything you, ‘Alcibiades, wouldyourather live with what you nowhave, or would him morepowerful?Socratestemptshim:“supposeoneofthegodsasked Education is not(yet)anobjectof Alcibiades’ pride.Caneducation make education. him: reach to aspires he which through fishhook the be indeed qualities (104 a-b)Socrates failed to mention a crucial element, which will not content with them (104 e-105a).Inthe enumeration of Alcibiades’ Rhetoric and passive (Symposium poet Agathon, for instance, who isalsobeautiful and talented but dreamy Filosófica more self-consciousabouthispolitical pretensions andfears somewhat lower station in life and who isalso older, more seasoned, andso with thesonsofPericles mentioned at 118e1-2 don’t haveasenseofpurpose tendtobecome effete (considertheproblem Because otherwise Alcibiades would have turned out soft:aristocrats who even thepossibilityofnotstrivingtoperformgreatornobledeeds. Why? tyranny hastodowith Alcibiades’ deeplyrootedfeelingofindignation at eventual failure of Socratestosteer Alcibiades away fromthetemptation of pain, and inthat condition a man is alwaysaiming at something 11 10 9 8 7 6 up tohisown,andthusfathers’,truenature observe. C.f.Machiavelli Alcibiades (and thusfor Athens), whichperhapsthediagnostician Socrates failed to (Chicago: UChicagoP,Arendt Hannah 1998),pp.9. also Consider father”. the of son secret the unveiled found I the often and son; the in speaks father the in silent was “What Tarantulas”: 107). Seeespecially Nietzsche and Callicles in my essay “The Rhetoric of Action: A Reflection on Plato´s This psychological knot will bedeterminant for thepolitical ambitions oftheyoung Ibíd.,1739a10. Plutarch, Lives: “‘You bite Alcibiades, like a woman’, ‘no’, replied he, ‘like a lion’” (p. lion’” a ‘like he, replied ‘no’, woman’, a “‘Youlike Lives: bite Alcibiades, Plutarch, Ihaveattempted toprovide a discussion onthe psycho-political relation between Socrates ContrastPlato Inconnectiontothispointseealso Plato Alcibiades, despitehavingalladvantagesthatordinarypeopleseek,is , NuevaSerie,No.28,Enero-Junio 2009,p.55-75. 1389 a25-30)aqualitythatinduceshimtodaringaction. Phaedo 64a2-4,withXenophon MemorabiliaI.2.16. Discoursi III,17. 223d9-10), Alcibiades is hot-blooded(Aristotle, a Science, Gay 8 . HeisnotCallicles, who comesfroma Laws 694c6-696a5. aphorism 9,withZarathustraII,“Onthe 7 10 . Thus hispassionofpride ). Also: incontrast to the is your real ambition h Hmn Condition Human The 11 . Gorgias”. 9 . Perhapsthe 6

) tolive Praxis

(which the purgation for the purposes ofovercoming and elevating his political to auniversal object of longingsothat,presumably, afterundergoing a Alcibiades strivetobecomeemperor. be tooconstraining for Alcibiades’ aspirations.Consistencyshould make Cyrus orXerxes. The constitutional limits of the Athenian polisseem to of stature the of rulers great of extent the to recognized being by fulfilled but heuniversalizes it, claiming that his desireforglorycanonlybe has? Socrates appeals to young Alcibiades using the political paradigm, precede the desire to know. Forwhywouldonepursuewhat one already almost in a curative or homeopathic sense: knowledge of ignorance has to Socratic mayeutics draws theneed for philosophynotinapreventive but or “odd” useless forpolitical purposes (Republic as philosophers conceive to misunderstanding common a is it is preliminary or strategic (he does notwant to turn Alcibiades off), for Perhaps thefailureofSocratestomentionphilosophyindialogue fame, the world horizon ofthe Athenian polisbeingtoonarrowforhisgreatexpectations. toencompass ambition Alcibiades’ inflames Socrates ascendancy of Pericles seems to be enough to satisfy Alcibiades’ intent: 104 e5). Alcibiades is abouttoenterpubliclife. Not eventhepolitical appeal to Alcibiades’ sensibilities by acknowledging him as a man (aner, strive fortranscendence( is philosophyomitted? Plato hintsthat the futuregeneral-statesman will problem: the wordphilosophyisnevermentioned in theAlcibiades I. Why offer him this? Here the pedagogic dynamic of the dialogue presents a desire forimmortality, thatis,toattain the goodalways.Canpolitical life good. But Alcibiades’ spiritednessisalsosubordinatedtolove,his active civic virtue for the purposes ofrecognition in servingthe common at containing accommodate the imposing ambitions of Alcibiades? Political praxis aims Peloponnesian War, (2.65.9). the first man (logoi men demokratia, ergoi de upo tou protou andros arché)”. 12 Athenian statesman Pericles great the than more even honored be to aspiring (105b1), time first the for psychologically open state which wouldmake him self-consciousofhis Thucydides describesPericlean Athens as“inprinciple, a democracy; in practice, rule by 3. We can see Socrates’ riskypedagogical method of bringing Alcibiades Why should Alcibiades associatewithSocrates?Socratesstartsto Alcibiades is also a fewdaysshyfromaddressingthe Alcibiades isalso Athenian assembly Paideia Republic thumos (fear and anger), channeling it in the direction of andEmpire as a whole aims to achieve) he would then be in a Symposium 208b3-7)throughthelifeofaction. 12 (105b3). Can the political community 487d-e). Howeverthismaybe, History of the mania

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José Daniel Parra will not,forhevalues Alcibiades’ attention (106b1-4). Socrates (perhaps teacher, tomoralize at himthroughlongrhetorical speeches. ButSocrates somewhat indifferent (106a-b). Heisexpecting Socrates, like every dangerous”. Confucius Analects Man (Chicago:ChicagoUP, 1978),pp.192-209 the Athenian general Nicias attests during the Sicilian expedition. Leo Strauss The detrimental for the well-being of the political community, particularly at war, as the case of be precededbyanaporia doxa? Shadows are sirens. The love of true knowledge or wisdom, has to source ofthedesiretoknow. Butwhatif Alcibiades is notwillingtoforgo radical ignorance, a necessary step prior to the sense of wonder that is the 14 13 seditious oratleastimpiousimplications without whichtheSocratic teaching, by thestandardsofcity, has the Forms(Republic (love ofphilosophy)furthertotheelusiveIdeaGoodthatilluminates have Alcibiades move from the concrete (love of demos)to abstraction level, heaccomplished. What provedproblematic was thefurtherstepto longing, fromthelocal or particular to theuniversal. This, atapolitical over Alcibiades by expanding Alcibiades’ conception of hisobject of before, thisisadangerousproposition:Socratesattempts to havepower with apolitical scenariothattranscendsthehorizonofpolis. noted As Socrates appealsto Alcibiades’ sensibilities—hisprideandambition— knowledge beginsinter homines, origins arerootedinourcommon experience. The searchforobjective tends tobeabstract, meaning that its object(s) may notbetactile, but its can onlymake senseifsomethingcanbeknown. The loveofknowing not know doesnot preclude the probability of further knowing. Knowing can turn his desire towards the love of knowing. For knowingthat one does knows nothing,thispre-noetic man ofhistemperament? love (105e-106a1) disclosing certain things perhaps unsuited for ayoung political? Did Socratessuccumbtothe temptation of vyingfor Alcibiades’ philosophic philanthropypossible? Is can (orshould) itbe if so, And is How another? one from thumotic learn “loves” two these can How wisdom? “The Master said: ‘Learning without thinking is useless. Thinking without learning is We should also note that excessive piety, or immoderate moderation can also be 4. The discussionhasmade Alcibiades curious, yethestill remains Is theloveofdemospossibleafterawakening ofthelove Paideia love of the and War 518d9ff.), andthenbackto the polis—afullprocess ifrn fo Scai “philanthropy”? Socratic from different demos 14 bookII,ch.25. or perplexity—Alcibiades has toknow experience has togriphim,beforeSocrates that is, withpolitical questions (105a-d). 13 . that he City and but the most fundamental problem that draws Alcibiades’ attention—the with the objects ofpolitical passion: it is not any kind of political business a crucial point in the dialogue, which demonstrates Alcibiades’ familiarity question (107c4-5).Butwhat doestheassemblydeliberate about? This is that the standard forpolitical counsel should beexpertise in the matter in precocious wealthy citizen, or toadoctor? As usual,Socratescontends advice on measures regarding, say, public health, should they listen to a on theAthenians advice Will Alcibiades grammar, wrestling, or lyre playing? What if the Athenians are seeking it were. as office, public for he hasincorporated. Alcibiades isahighschoolgraduatetryingtorun has received instructioninmusicand gymnastics andthesearethesubjects preparation for properconductandfurther development. Now, Alcibiades to formourcharacter part theseareimpartedtous and disposition,as from habituation, training, or primary instruction in that for the most (106d5-6). Actual learning presupposes anactive desire tolearn: it differs What heknowseither learned fromothers,orfoundaboutonhisown be agoodadviseronlyaboutmatters of whichhehasattained knowledge. regards tohisintentionadvicethe Athenian assembly: Alcibiades would teachers tendtobeimprudent. science). natural studying/teaching career his Young of part first the spent an inexperienced dialectician and teacher of political philosophy (forhe have been around 36 years old: perhaps at this point in time he was still (possibly 433BCE) Alcibiades wasabout 19 years of age. Socrates would should alsonotethat,accordingtothedramatic date ofthedialogue him as hetries to tease him into learning to askquestionshimself. We to Alcibiades seems to be somewhat contrived, unpolished: he questions in refuted tendstomake people ashamed orangry(thinkof Thrasymachus he pretendstobeobliviousofthestructure of theelenchus. After all, being or thecontradiction of theoriginalclaim. Socrates isironicinthesensethat “follow the logos” (Protagoras information or detail as muchdemands for an assent. Socrates will then usually requiring simple yes orno answers: they are not so much requests of will differ from the original proposition in that they will seem platitudes, function as the starting point for further questions. These questions,inturn, will statement this statement; a to assent induce to will Alcibiades he first think, and sohascrafted his approach to Alcibiades in the following way: into thedynamicofelenchus.Socrateswantstoteach Alcibiades to prematurely) conceives this is asa good moment to introduce Alcibiades Republic To comebacktothetext, at 106cSocratesquestions Alcibiades with at 337a). The way in which Socrates presents his questions 333c) eventually leading to the affirmation

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José Daniel Parra at alarge scale, thewayquestionsofjusticeandwardo. Apparently of domestic policy is something Alcibiades is not really concerned about. question ofwar. The regularmanagement of governmentorroutinematters confidently against his playmates when he was being cheated (110b). Even But when? Even during Alcibiades’ boyhoodSocrates saw him complain have beenatime when Alcibiades thought hedidnotknowwhat justice is. understanding that he didnotalready know itsmeaning (109e). There must if hehadsearched, but thishewouldnotdounlesswas underthe know aboutjusticeandinjusticewithoutateacher? He certainly could, from learn could him thispolitically most important distinction (109d). Butcan’t he Alcibiades that so teacher, such to attend to first the be would the justandunjust? Who taughthim?Socratessaysironically that he means tobe“morejust”. Apparently ( that which we conceive as “right” or “better” when it comes to war-making rhetoric of warcannotbeputforward intermsofnecessity(109c8)—for said to be necessary, it does not follow that all necessary wars are just. The caused bynecessitywhichmayoverridejustice.If all justwarsmaybe agrees. Alcibiades tells Socrates, hypothetically, that there may be wars Youngreplies. Alcibiades Socrates improper, and be unlawful (nominon) would This (109c1-3). it” admit wouldn’t justly,he us treating were who “even if someone thought it was necessary [ananke] to wage war on people (109c): question straightforward a with dealing not are they that officials) possibly overheard private conversations of Pericles with senior Athenian 327a1). Butnotsofast: Alcibiades isnotGlaucon. Alcibiades knows (hehas (Republic Piraeus” the to down “go to beginning and Alcibiades Socrates treating them justly or unjustly? This is a key question: one can almost see Alcibiades advice the Athenians towagewaragainst—those whoare under groundsofhaving been cheated, robbed, orinjured. Whom will assembly ontheissueofwar(108e8-109a4). War isusuallyundertaken be at a loss whenit comes to knowing what is proper when advising the knows thatit is better for asickpatient to get healthier—but he seemsto is right regarding the problem of war. Although Alcibiades is nodoctor he health inthepatient,political expert mustalsoknowastandardofwhat identify a sicknessandknowsthatwhatisrighttoattempt to re-establish long? (107d3-4). for how The wayaphysicianormedical expert isableto 5. To continue: how did Alcibiades learn to make the distinction between and when fight to right is what or whom know we do then—how But War andJustice Oikonomia doesnotagitate the passions, eveniftaking place phainetai ), replies Alcibiades. ), questions. What isthedifference betweenknowledgeofaskingquestions Alcibiades aware of the fact that he does not possess Socrates’ powerto ask of the truth ofthisproposition, through dialectical questions. Socratesmakes expediency are not coeval. Socrates urges him, then, to try to persuade him Alcibiades notes that from the point of view of the assembly justice and are right? (113e). Fromwhomdid Alcibiades learn what isadvantageous? we know we do how remains: question same the “realist” or utilitarian be to happens discourse political if even undaunted: is Socrates “what”). a assumes (which “how” their about but questions, political of “what” true think justice is something obvious (113d2-3). They deliberate expedient. The assemblydoesnotengage in political philosophy: they what theyreally debate about isthe advantageous in contrast to thenon- practice, Athenians take the question of justice and injustice for granted— Alcibiades isnotconvinced(113c1). to askquestions,all the conclusions Alcibiades has drawnforhimself. But himself limited only has he no, him: (112e). corrects affirming Socrates is might not know what justice is. This, Alcibiades thinks, is what Socrates he has learned from the people is found wanting, it seems that, after all, he Alcibiades did not learn from himself about justice, and if what he thinks about it:heisperplexed.If from thepeople thathecametoknow was to trustwholeheartedly the people’s judgmentonthisissue,andyetit is depicted (andshaped?)byepic poetry. Alcibiades is notinaposition of thepoet. The peopleare not ofacommonmindaboutjustice and this familiar with theIlliad them from other sources—particularly Homer (112 a-c). Alcibiades is questions ofjustice, or ifhehasn’t, atleast he might have heardabout their actions. Alcibiades must have seen the incessant quarrels about them disagree with each other with regards tojustandunjustmen when itcomestodecidingandactinguponwhatisjustunjust? with thequestionofjustice? Are people of the same mind, or dothey differ, because in that field it tends to be of one mind (homonoia).Isthis the case N.E. (111a1). Islanguage or grammar an object of deliberation? (c.f. Aristotle pollon). Furthermore,didn’t healsolearntospeakGreekfromthem? ton it the way everybodylearns about these things: from the multitude (para learned have must he reflection, upon (110c11)—but, justice of meaning the out found first he when tell cannot he that Zeus by swears Alcibiades as achild Alcibiades knew whenotherboyswherebeingunfairtohim. Alcibiades recollects about what actually takes place in the assembly: in tend tostirthepeopleindifferentThe passions directions making 1112a34-b11). The multitude isacompetent teacher of Greeklanguage and the Odyssey: heacknowledges the authority not about the

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José Daniel Parra political context with itsadvantages and limitations. The nature of human 1253a5) andthustheends whichtheyaimatindividually presuppose a for thecommunity at large. Humanbeingsarepolitical animals (Politics 1094a 22-24)notonlyatthelevel of theindividual but alsoifpossible, define the to human good, happiness (eudaemonia),andtobringitaboutNE aims ethics statesmanship; of action of fields the are compulsion and distinct measures(dynamis),asdoes,say, medicine, or gymnastics.Ethics a kindofcraft(techne endoxa of a given political community (N.E. 1180ª32-1181b12). It is also principles and the hierarchy of ends) with experience shaped by the ethical the understanding of universal standards (the active rather than apurely theoretical character. Politike science used bystatesmen (politikos get asenseoftheartpoliticalrule. features of statesmanship with the help of Aristotle’s analytical clarity, to Socrates? Perhaps weshouldmake a brief exploration about some essential only come to him with time? And in that case why would Alcibiades need amount to? Isitjustamatter of habituation, and thusexperience that can even mentionedinthetext. What wouldthisknowledgeofpolitical things become a philosopher first? But as noted before the word (politike impression that Alcibiades is eagerforaneducation in political science Socrates remainssilent. Socrates andtherhetorician Thrasymachus attest.Butonthispoint, difference, asthedistinction betweenthetechniquesofphilosopher a is there course Of (114d) one?” by one them persuades latter the while of conversation, exceptinsofarastheformerpersuadesthemalltogether between an orator speaking to the people and an orator speaking in this sort can persuade me, you will have persuaded them: “is there any difference the way you would question the assembly—Socrates continues—if you Preface, sections 57-58. See also rhetorician who isalsounawareof dialectical reasoning—in theGorgias not realized thedifference betweendialectic and rhetoric to force Alcibiades tothinkdialectically even though Alcibiades still has and thedelivery ofadiscourse? At thispointSocratesmélangesthetwo 15 Inconnection to thisdistinction we arereminded of thecasePolus—aseasoned 6. At thisjuncture inthedialoguePlatoleavesreaderwith politike episteme Statesmanship or political science (politike Hegel Politike ). IsSocratespreparedtoteach him statecraft? Shouldn’t Alcibiades Phenomenology of Spirit. of Phenomenology ) inthesensethatitaimsatsomegoodbymeansof Tras. A.V.Miller. ) inthebusinessofruling.Ithasan epistemic (Oxford: OxfordUP, 1977), attempts to balance ) isthe practical philosophy isnot 15 . Questionme rs o first of grasp (461b4-462a6). and thecraftofpoliticalauthority regulative procedures, atension,betweentheactivity of political freedom For Aristotle theartofgoverningisthusanamalgam of prudenceand (N.E. better people 1179b-1180a), if necessary, “making” by means of regulations and coercive measures. at aims Statecraft law. of need the hence time, the of most virtue for opt beings human most make to sufficient be prudent judgement (phronesis ). Ethical persuasion however seems to not praxis, punish (timorein) orexact a penalty through lawful compulsion. Ethics is a which aims at rehabilitation (N.E. 1119a33), or, inmore severe cases to is torestrainpublicoffences bymeansofcorrective treatment (kolazein cases such in statesman’stask The time. the all so be not may “virtuous” the Even vicious. or recalcitrant the with dealing when insufficient be to non ofhappiness).Commendation however,qua may prove virtue (a sine by ethical education (NE 1152 b1-8),whichaimsatself-overcoming or beings is not fully developed, according to Aristotle, unless it is nurtured Monarchy in Aristotle’sMonarchy 16 pp. 159-178. b5). be properorrequired to achieveagivenend(N.E.1112b26; 1139a21- calculation (logismos) orinference that has showna course of action to desire to dosomething in the present moment, to act, following a rational (prohairesis) resultsfromtherational aim to attain some good.Itisa deliberation as the reasonable process aiming at a practical decision of endeavour.field While epistemic knowledge aims at understanding this for undertaking essential an is deliberation thus and ended, a strongernecessarymotion. purpose andreasoning. A necessitycannotbeotherwiseunlessaffected by deliberate persuasion, itiscontrary to themovement that accords with necessary ispainful.Necessitysomethingthatwould notbesubjectto good would be ofnoavail. The compulsory is called necessary—thus the motive and purpose. It implies the set of conditions without which a given as necessity (ananke).So,what is necessity? In the with this realm of activity, and not with universals of no exception, such to mostofthe cases it is applied to, but not toall. Ethics isconcerned probabilities (hos epi to polu). A usualtruthisajudgement thatispertinent for itsself-preservation. Aristotle contends thatitisacategory of thatwhichanentity requires OnthispointIamindebtedto W.R. Newell’sessay “Superlative Virtue: The Problemof Now, ethicsontheotherhandisconcerned with theusualoropen- Politike Prohairesis dealswithparticular cases (kath’) thatmustbe hekaston an activity substantiated bypraise and blame under the guidance of isconcernedwithaction,henceitdealsusualtruthsor Politics Ananke ”. WesternQuarterly,Political entails what iscompulsoryorcontraryto 16 . Vol. 40, No.1(Mar., 1987), Metaphysics ananke, (V, 5) )

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José Daniel Parra The abilityofrulingotherspresupposesself-rule. because of hisexperience (empeiria), akeyaid to prudence ( NE 1141b18). about them—for otherwise they could not be concerned with only usual, lacking the exactness of science (episteme)—hence we debate commendable, harmful or dangerous. The principles of justice (dike 22) rationally perceives from the facts whether they are permissible or attain facts throughperception, and prudence (phronesis, 1109b20-3).and perception is whatmakesusawareofthese(NE We judged by perception (aisthesis); actions are concerned with particulars, we knowthatsomeoneunderstands somethingwhenhecandemonstrate his sons,whohave turned outsimpletons (118e1-2)? Because for Socrates knows whatheseemstoknow, andyet hehasbeenincapable of teaching (techne teach someone what one represents. What is the difference between a craft makes adistinction between understanding somethingandbeingableto teacher, Damon.CanPericles teach Alcibiades theartofpolitics? Socrates Anaxagoras, andeven now, despite his old age, he consults with his music (118c-2). Pericleshasdonehishomework:hestudiedwithPythoclidesand Perhaps oneoftheexceptions wouldbe hisguardian,thestatesmanPericles be alone in this condition for hewouldhave most politicians for company. can Alcibiades rushinto politics in that state? It istrue that he wouldnot not is mostharmful.Is Alcibiades waveringaboutthesenotions? how And (amathia) aboutthemostimportantthingslikejusticeandadvantageous It is ignorance (agnoia) that causes truly undesired outcomes. Not-knowing Otherwise wemakemistakes and missthemark(hamartámontes,117e8-9). something do unless wethinkknowwhataredoing,orelselettheexpertdoit. to set not do We (117b2-3). it?” about waver necessarily you saythatwheneversomeonedoesn’t knowsomethinghispsychewill Alcibiades however, himself. intends to be consistent. Socrates asks: “wouldn’t contradicting up ends then but thing, one first says questioned, keeps sayingthesamethingsonsubjects, Alcibiades, when given practical situation. This will be second nature to the and their understanding (nous) to see what ethical principles apply to a in man. Menshouldappeal to their deliberative capacity, their perception which combines knowledge of the distinct, the usual, and the necessary importance of self-knowledgeandknowledgehumancharacter types but onlywithnecessarybehaviourordetermined conduct. Hencethe 7. To come back to the text, at 116e we are shown that whereas Socrates )? How is itpossiblethatPericles pragma )? How ) andaknack(alogon In Search ofaGuide:Socrates or Pericles? phronetic NE 1141b14- human action man, ) are

légeis Sparta, orevenofempires, like Persia. This soundslike the truth(alethe thinking about a rivalry with the powerful leaders of other great states like than one’s inferiorsisnoreasonforpride(119e5-6). Alcibiades shouldbe (megalophrona) like Alcibiades compete against? Because being better make melikeyou,Socrates? Socratesappealsto Alcibiades’ prejudices— ambitions? We canalmost hearhimpondering: would this self-cultivation Can thisprocessofself-knowledge lead Alcibiades away fromhispolitical to have no time left to deal publicly with political matters (Apology Socrates, who is also involved in this process ofself-cultivation, seems how longwouldthisproject of self-shaping take? For wealsoknowthat rivals? Could self-cultivation actually harm him? He doesn’t think so. Still, (120c2-4). Butinanycase,wouldn’t self-cultivation help himface these king and the Spartan generals are no different from any regular politician eager tolearnandlisten. We noteinpassingthathestillthinks the Persian war, canleadtolethal outcomes fortheunprepared.Now Alcibiades is not require great preparation butcompetition with foreignrulers,and but tothesovereignrulersof Athens’ enemystates.Localpolitics might citizens, fellow his to not himself compare should He ruler. magnificent of democraticpoliticswoulddistract Alcibiades frombecomingatruly on Alcibiades´ strategy acceptance of livedcontradictions.Socratesfocuseshissoul-shaping disappoints Socrates:hecannotadmitmediocrity, thatis,thewilling quickly surpasshispolitical rivals (119b-c). This kind ofconsideration trial anderror. And Alcibiades,given hisoutstandingnature,wouldvery experience necessary tolearndiscernpolitical phenomena bymeansof a processofapprenticeship (like most politicians do) toaccumulate the only amatter of phronesis, then,naturally Alcibiades wouldhavetoundergo cultivation ( remain in hispresentperplexed condition, or ishewilling to practice self- rule fromhim(118e4-6). Who couldorient Alcibiades? Does heintendto an unleisured man. Alcibiades shouldnotbecountingonlearningtheartof about the procedures ofhispractice, unlike a true teacher. Pericles is also knowledge tohisheirswouldseemindicate that heisnotself-conscious practice that hehasmadesomeoneelseunderstandit.Now, Periclesisableto 8. Being entangled in thepolitical rivalries and deliberative minutiae Learning to rule others presupposeslearning self-rule. If politics were ) tohim. Alcibiades of Arabia politike, but the fact that he has not been able to transmit this epimeleian tinapoieisthai thumos: withwhomshouldahigh-spiritedman )? 23b).

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José Daniel Parra to select forhimaproperteacher? (cf.Machiavelli, him byPericles?Periclescannoteducate Alcibiades—but is heatleastable Alcibiades’ Alcibiades’ potential teacher Socrates hastooffer him? And whatabout Persians. of austeritythatcontrasts starkly withthe luxury andextravagance of the perhaps one of the differences is that the Spartans are educated in a kind with theSpartangenerals, who alsoundergo athorougheducation, though prince tobefearless,because fearisslavery(122a3-8).Itnodifferent free, andself-ruled. The bravestone(andreiótatos tutor teaches him how nottobemastered by the pleasures, sohecan be (dikaiótatos also thesecrets thatakingshouldknow(122-a1-3). The mostjustman prince learns the worship ofthe gods, the Magian lore of Zoroaster and such ateacher? Inanyevent, from thewiseman(sophostatos)Persian Persians haveteachersthatembodyallthefourvirtues? Would Socratesbe learn fromthem?Fourteachers,eachforacardinal virtue. Why don’t the the mostsound-minded, and thebravest. What does thePersianprince paidagogous), selected for being the wisest, tutors the (basileus most just, rigorous education; around agefourteentheyareentrusted tofourroyal not forthedesiretoknow, butoutofprideandthelovevictory. if properly educated. Young Alcibiades is amenable to shame into learning areténpros well born will turn out virtuous (gignesthai he comesfromoneofthemostnotoriousfamilies in Athens: thosewhoare 17 intelligence (epimeteia Pericles, butunlikehim,hethinksisabletoimprove hispupilthrough he himselfisinapositiontocompetewiththegreatkings—Socrates isnot to compete with these foreign kings? Socrates can help him, not because offers toteach Alcibiades out oflove(122b7-8).Is Alcibiades inacondition his unlimited self-love towards the ultimate universal object of longing here is touse Alcibiades’ sense of consistency for the purposes ofelevating way just to end reasoned discussion. The pedagogical intent of Socrates Alcibiades tells him to please beserious:anappeal to godseemsbea wiser thanPericles. What isSocrates’ guide? A god,heclaims (124c6). Alcibiades: the difference isthatSocrates’ guideorguardianisbetterand but chooses not to practice. But Socrates is in a similar condition than practices, while Socratescanteach what hecould(soseemstoclaim) “Italwaysis What isthedistinctionbetweenthiscomprehensiveeducationandwhat The Persianprinces—Alcibiades’ truerivals—are brought upwitha ) teaches him tobetruthful. The sound-minded(sophronestatos) current tutor Zopyrus the Thrasyan, an old man selected for and neithercomes tobenorpassesaway, neitherwaxes, norwanes...itisnot ) andskill (techne ). Pericles cannot teach what he Prince ) teaches the Persian , 120d9-10),only , XXII). Socrates , XXII). 17 . least bitsmallerorgreater, nor suffer anychange”(Plato Symposium 211a2-b6). that, insuchawaythatwhenthose otherscometobeorpassaway, this doesnotbecomethe itself byitself,withitisalwaysinoneform;andalltheother beautifulthingssharein anywhere inanotherthing,asananimal,orearth,heaven, orinanythingelse,but the highestactivity he canperformisruling with local Athenian politics. Because Alcibiades is keen on the notion that hint at an initiation into the love of (a) god or the good, toend back again attention from spirited competition with foreign rulers (i.e. war), to a leading and ruling the citizens of Athens (124e). Socrates draws Alcibiades’ agathoi ) do,the taking care of vitally crucial things such as oi andres (oi for Alcibiades. This ismostimportant for thepurposesofwhatnoble men to cultivate or shape himself, but this is the case especially for him and we reckonthem? Now, Socratescontendsthateveryhumanbeingneeds But are there not degrees of skepticism? And if so under what standard do theology or political theory arenotofhistaste. Alcibiades is askeptic. Young strategy. Alcibiades could become interested in political philosophy, change but political to tries Socrates (124d1). dualism in believe to means oftruevirtue(cf.Symposium always), by shifting his unlimited self-love to unlimited love ofthe good, by encompass the Whole, shaping hisdesire for immortality (to attain the good 210a1-5). Socratesistaking the risk ofexpanding Alcibiades’ horizonto ladder”? “Diotima’s in upwards step Can Socratesinitiate Alcibiades into themysteriesoflove?(Symposium more one move Alcibiades Can 18 (Feb., 1985),pp. 112-137, andCatherine Zuckert “Socrates and the Problem of Political Science Education”. gifted student than Alcibiades and hisrelation with Socrates consider Thomas L. Pangle (Spring 1995),pp.339-358.For acomplementary discussion pertaining Theages, a less have to learn political not thecause,butpossibleresultofsoundpractice, he will would notneedanintensiveintellectualare preparation, butsincehonours politics were onlyacontestforhonoursandrecognition then perhapshe needs tolearnthecraftofpolitical rule. From Alcibiades’ perspective, if matter (and asaprecondition for successfulforeignpolicy?), Alcibiades minding one’s ownbusiness.But is minding one’s ownbusinessequivalent (127b10-11). Political friendship or civic justice seems to be related to from thecity, thenthepractitionercanclaimtobe doingtherightthing. type of civic friendship is present, and hatred and insurrection are absent that the practitioner has beensuccessful. In the political craft when some the medicalcraftwhenhealth ispresent anddiseaseabsent,wecanknow over men(125d7-125e6).Does Alcibiades know theaim of statecraft? In Plato,Laws When each person does hisownworkright mutual friendship ensues Alcibiades I” 713e4-6. SeeMarkBlitz “Plato’s Alcibiades politike , the skill and the knowledge (episteme) of howto rule 212a-b). Alcibiades however, refuses Plato´s Philosophers 18 . Forthepurposesofthis Political Theory, Vol. 13, No.1 Interpretation , pp.355-56. 22,No.3 failed

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José Daniel Parra (sophrosyneneinai Socrates claims that self-knowledge is the same as being sound-minded the most divine element thereof, expressed in that person’s wayoflife. self-knowledge entailsamirroring—looking intothesoulofanother, into (133c4-6). Butforthisprocessintrospection is notenough:thewayto and intelligence (phronein)—would have the best grasp of himself as well” (theoi, divine the “someone wholookedatitandgraspedeverythingdivine—vision (thean) reflects which it, within part highest the his is, that first, self true his for account and know to strive against the danger of populism and misguided rule. Alcibiades should before hand,Socratic education being thepharmakon(132b2)orantidote This isnot in itself bad, butitisessential that Alcibiades prepare himself seek theloveofdemos,thatis,toaimatbeingacclaimedbythem. Republic examination? unsuited forthepedagogical and contemplative life ofnever-ending self- focus onsuchpromethean goal? What if the active nature of Alcibiades is thus aimatattaining immortal political glory,shouldn’t why hethoroughly him to seek to rule universally? And if he isina position to do so,and convinced of the necessity of this open question whether Alcibiades, even at his point of hislife, is truly purposes ofclear-sighted and sound-minded action (131b4). It is still an Self-knowledge herewouldbeakindofsoul-careassoul-craftforthe young Alcibiades acenterofstrivingdistinct from the anxieties of theego. structure aphysio-psychological hierarchy, soastrytocrystallise in the aims atclearly delineating the sourcesofself(130a8-11), inorderto formation andshapingofhispsyche. The seemingdualism atthisjuncture the bodyforheuristicpurposeofdirecting Alcibiades’ attention to the themselves. At thispointinthedialogue Socrates extricates thesoulfrom to formandenhance themselves theywillbebetterhow abletoknow unexamined life is not worth living? Socrates claims that if they know Alcibiades knowthathemuststriveforself-knowledge,giventhe difficult” (129a5-6). Does Alcibiades know himself? Does Socrates? Does Socrates, thatanyonecandoit,butthensometimes I thinkit’s extremely heauton )? Alcibiades responds: “sometimes I think, oneself (gnomai know to it is difficult How body? tactile our by fully composed self our cultivate or shape our bodythrough the art (techne to performingone’s ownart?Orisittocultivate oneself? (128a1). We truths with moralism. And again: why virtue? Courage and intelligence are Socrates tells Alcibiades that he is histrue lover (erastes, 490a-b). Hefearsthat Alcibiades’ self-love will drivehimto ). Alcibiades senses Socrates is mixing certain possible askesis. Fordidn’t Socrates also induce ) ofgymnastics. Is psyche, and 133c4), for 131e9; by means ofsinging, dancing, chanting is keyinfostering therefore hastobecomplemented by courage.Education in gymnastics, Sophrosyne initselftendstobeinactive and too limiting (696d4-e2) and impulses, on thebasisofself-knowledge. Because of itspassivequalities (sophrosyne), (630b): character education alsorequiresasenseofinnermeasure however, inordertobenobleandavoidrashness, hastobecomplemented immediate fears, forthepurposesof along-term goal (791c).Courage psyche isconditioned by meansofpraise and blame in ordertoforgo through habituation, whereby the sub-rational nature of the young child’s unnatural virtue—built upon a person’s natural spiritedness—first instilled irrespective ofpositivelaw. virtues conformaunioninmultiplicity as thequalityoftrustworthiness the of account the in Thus, (630b). virtue” of whole the become trustworthy andsoundinthemidstofcivil wars ifhedidn’t have prudence, existing inamanalongwithcourage . foramanwouldnever in the midst of dangers” which is the result of “justice and moderation and “trustworthiness is asserts, Theognis as virtue, greatest the (629d), war” and things, butthisistruenotonlyfornations,alsoindividualsamong, of nature the of fact a is conflict indeed Kleinias’that saying by argument addresses Stranger Athenian The (626b). victors” the to belong defeated customs, unless one triumphs in war . . forall the good things of the nor for possessions neither citizens beneficial, really training is “nothing in that given consist courage, must education civic (625e), cities” all I the Cretan Kleinias contends that since an “endless war exists against public convenience? Alcibiades need justice and sophrosyne clearly necessary to rule, but doessomeonewiththe political ambitions of Interpretative Essay by Thomas L.Pangle.(Chicago: UChicagoP, 1988). 19 the outsideinchild’s sub-rationalpartofthesoul. sophrosyne, generating a senseofinneraccordandharmony, inducedfrom approach the discussiononcivic virtue depicted in Plato’s Laws for self-knowledgeasaprerequisitestatecraft, it mightbeusefulto Forthissection of the essay Ihave used The Laws of Plato 10. The virtue of courage (Andreia) isthe foundation of action. Itisan To furtherexplorethepsycho-political conundrum of Alcibiades’ quest within themselves.Giventhatthe“harshestofallwars.iscivil Plato´s Laws: An ExcursusintheQuestfor Civic Virtue which allows the person tobalance his ownappetites, his beyond appearing to havethemfor . Translated, withNotesandan Laws the cardinal andreia 19 . In book and

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José Daniel Parra insight fortherightmomentofaction( know howto keep measure), in order to make possible goodjudgment and the appetites (it needscouragetoassertitself,andsoundmindedness of therational part ofthepsychethat presupposes acorrect ordering of of existential possibilities for acting in agivensituation. Itisaquality is apolitical virtue. Itcomprisesasenseofpractical reason, aninsight virtue, instead of wisdom(Republic against thebackdropofwar(international, civic, inner)thehighestformof Republic a Forewordby Tracy B.Strong.(Chicago: UChicagoP, 1996). 20 la CarlSchmitt conflict (629 c). Self-friendship, and not only a friend-enemy distinction within apolitical community, protecting it fromcivil and international war; justice (giving to each their due) attempts to befriend individuals good ofothers.Sophrosyne the consideration into take to expanded be can benefit, personal his and harmony, ofself-control, its attributes moderation and self-knowledge, which are pertinent to a person’s appetites justice: of reflection inner an is developed by meansofpraiseand blame, and fear of the laws. Sophrosyne public good.Oncetheyouthreachesageofreason,courageisfurther the for beneficial be to order in purposes civic toward cultivation further first sense understood in terms of an educational process that has to address make freedomandfriendship possible. the prudence that guides legislators to foster and institute the laws that platonic account of practical constitutional politics, reason (phronesis) is from ever-recurring disruptions domestically and internationally. Inthis freedoms its affirm to able and willing be to war—but evil—civil greatest aim ofcivicfriendshipwhichallowsthecommunity not onlytoavoidthe harmonious withinthemselves are able to befriend others, anditisthis ofthe in the Theunity beautiful. the and civic virtuesisparalleled with the three aimsoflegislation expressed beneficial, the noble, the toward developed in menandwomenwho already have acultivated disposition which the rational parts of virtue—justice and prudence—are instilled and create, induce, foster the right habits, which then become the basis upon CarlSchmitt Given thatthediscussionofvirtuesinLawsisbeingphrased The virtuespertinent to thesub-rationalpartofsoulrequire The multiplicity of civic virtues unified under a single virtue makes virtue asingle under unified virtues civic of multiplicity The andreia Laws: freedom, friendship, reason (701d).Onlycitizens who are 423e-24a). The Concept of the Political . sophrosyne bypedagogical means at early age, so asto and 20 , isthebasisofself-identity and civic friendship (consider harmonizes thesoul,protecting it frominner Trans. andIntroduction George Schwab,with 427e), becomes prudence. kairos). Phronesis à which, heforesees,mightgetthebetterofthemboth. he distrustsisnot Alcibiades’ nature, but thecity’s power, itsluringsong, companion (paidagogein).Socratesbelieveshim,butheishesitant: what teacher? Alcibiades claims that fromnowon,hewillbehisconstant being ruledbysomebodyelse.IsSocrateswillingtobecome Alcibiades’ arete. But before he has a better grasp ofvirtue, he should learn to rule by (ananke)needs virtue (arete necessity” “by ruler a Socrates, to according Likewise, ship isboundtosinkifitscaptain lacks insightandtheskillofnavigation. rule even if intelligence (nous) islacking (134e)? Even the most powerful correct for sufficient power Now,is (134c9-19). power of quality distinct power norauthority, butjusticeandself-control.But Alcibiades sensesthe Alcibiades that what he needs to become a statesman is not really political IX and XII). At this point Socrates pushes the argument too far telling from Socratesfortheinstrumental intentofbecomingastatesman.Even with awillingness onthepartof Alcibiades to learn the artofself-rule dedicating himself to the examined, contemplative life. The dialogue ends many reservations the young aristocratic Athenian had with regards to however, Socrates’ initial encounter with Alcibiades was entangled with both potential discovery andtransformation. As wesawinthepaper aims atbringingaboutaquestforself-knowledge, aprocessinvolving Initial perplexity is awakened by Socratic questioning which, in principle, man intoaphilosophicalpractice of self-examination and self-shaping. a conversationatleisure(schoole)dedicated shows toinitiate a young role ofpolitical educator. The dialogue between Socrates and Alcibiades analyze a Platonic illustration whereby young Socrates performs the paideia to doso—byexample (in addition consider alsoMachiavelli this it is essential that he impart virtue to the citizens. And the best way soundminded to be a good steerer of the ship of state (134b-c), and for appeals to Alcibiades’ softspot: his fear of failure. Alcibiades has to be bound tomakemistakes (hamartesétai) bothprivate and public? Socrates condition, can Alcibiades be atrue statesman? Wouldn’t Alcibiades be himself, he alsocouldn’t knowwhatbelongstothecity (133e8-9). Inthat to himself: he cannot know hisdue. If he cannot know what belongs to 12. The purposeofthisessayhasbeentodiscussSocratic philosophical If Alcibiades doesnotknowhimself he cannot know whatbelongs 11. Alcibiades I. The aimwastodepictand inthePlatonic dialogue Alcibiades Conclusion A Future Statesman:Power or Virtue? ) toguidetheshipofstate. So thepower Alcibiades needsis Prince chs.

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José Daniel Parra interlocutor’s sourceofstriving.Philosophical alluded to inSocrates’ philosophical rhetoric as ameanstotap into his other naturalhumantypes.Furthermore,thethemeoferos isconstantly understanding of civic virtue (arete Alcibiades with the intention of shaping his politics in the direction manifestation of statecraft. In thisdialogue, Socrates approachesyoung psycho-political education and hisconviction that ruling shouldbethe towards thelifeoflovewisdom. appeal to hisspirited nature and self-love, suggesting a further maturation 248d-c1), andtherefore, his conversation with young Alcibiades aimed to of hisinterlocutors oughttoinformthewayheapproaches them (Phaedrus young Socrateswasconscientious ofthe fact that the different characters 21 root forthestudyofPlatonicpoliticalphilosophy. The relation between Socrates and Alcibiades remains the psycho-political Socratic education,itsbeautiful prospects aswellitshumanlimitations. The rule? should who wisdom, of lover the not if And first? philosopher a become wisdom from taking root in a spirited young man? Should a potential ruler pull is anoblequest.Now, what are the motives preventing the love of LeoStrauss,TheCityandMan One ofthe key themes we explored was the dynamic between Socratic Alcibiades I 21 . Self-knowledge is inextricably linked with cognizance of is a Platonic dialogue trying to depict the first steps in ) throughcharacter formation and clear-sighted , pp.2-3. paideia isalovestory:the