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Human Journals Review Article November 2016 Vol.:5, Issue:1 © All rights are reserved by Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Iron Ore Mining, Waste Generation, Environmental Problems and Their Mitigation through Phytoremediation Technology

Keywords: Iron ores, Mining, Tailings, Overburden, Waste, Phytoremediation

ABSTRACT

Nilima Chaturvedi* and Hemanta Kumar Patra

Mining activities generally occupy and spoil a large tract of

Laboratory of Environmental Biotechnology, land due to generation of a large amount of waste rocks and

tailings, which is deposited at the surface and becomes a Post-Graduate Department of Botany, continuous source of metal to the air and water

Utkal University Bhubaneswar-751004, India. resources of the area concerned. A number of conventional

remediation technologies are already in practice but they are

Submission: 10 November 2016 environmentally destructive while Phytoremediation is cost-

effective, and environmental-friendly alternative technology, Accepted: 15 November 2016 to reduce, remove, degrade, or immobilize environmental Published: 25 November 2016 toxins using plants. Thus, a brief review on waste generated

and general environmental problems related to iron ore mining(with special reference to Indian mining zones), types of phytoremediation processes, plants that can be used a potential phytoremediation tool, examples of field

applications of phytoremediation at mining sites have been

www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com compiled in this paper.

www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com

1. INTRODUCTION

Minerals and metals are considered as the mainstay of the economic development and welfare of the society but their exploration, excavation and processing directly infringe upon and affect the other natural resources like land, water, air, flora and fauna, which are to be conserved and optimally utilized in a sustainable manner. Mining generates considerable waste materials and tailings, which are deposited on the surface as mine spoil dumps. Removal of fertile topsoil, formation of unstable slopes prone to sliding and erosion, and siltation of water bodies due to washing off of mineral overburden dumps are also major negative effects of mining. The metals released from mining, smelting, forging, and other sources would accumulate in the soil (Khan et al., 2009), altering its . Metal is not restricted to the mining site only because considerable release of metals occurs through acid mine drainage and erosion of waste dumps and tailing deposits (Salomons, 1995).

The hazards of surface and groundwater pollution increases significantly when the mine waste materials contain reactive sulfide minerals such as pyrite (Liao et al., 2007). Pyritebearing mine tailings disposed at neutral or slightly alkaline conditions also can weather within a relatively short period of time to produce extreme acidity and to acid mine drainage (Robb and Robinson, 1995). Acid mine drainage usually contains a high load of , in addition to having a low pH, which poses a major risk to surrounding water and soil systems ( Achterberg et al., 2003). Chemical problems associated with surface mining, such as acid generating materials, are thus significant (Darmody et al., 2002) and in mine spoils, the geomorphic system is in disequilibrium (Dutta and Agarwal, 2001). Unfavorable and poor structure also deprive soil microbe and plant growth (Pederson et al., 1988).

Many traditional technologies are extremely costly and time-consuming; other methods for cleaning up the environment require the use of other chemicals that may not always be benign with respect to the various compartments. An alternative to conventional technologies is phytoremediation, in which specially selected plants with a particularly high affinity for heavy metals are used to restore degraded (Pilon-Smits, 2005, Mohanty and Patra, 2011, Chaturvedi et al., 2015). Thus, a brief review of general environmental problems related to mining activities, types of phytoremediation processes, plants which can be used a potential phytoremediation tool, examples of its field applications, advantages and constrains in

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 398 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com application, its cost effectiveness as compared to conventional remediation techniques as well as issues impending its long-term success have been compiled in this section.

2. Wastes associated with iron ore extraction and beneficiation

Waste may mean one or more of the following. Any substance that is discarded, emitted or deposited in the environment in such volume, constituency or manner as to cause an alteration to the environment or any otherwise discarded, rejected, unwanted, surplus or abandoned substance intended for sale or for , reprocessing, recovery or purification by a separate operation from that which produced the substance. Waste generation is a major issue in every country, and waste quantities are generally growing. Total waste quantities continue to increase the problem in mining and allied industries. The impact of waste on the environment, resources and human health depends on its quantity and . The generation and of waste include emissions to air (including greenhouse gasses), water and soil, all with potential impacts on human health and nature.

Mining wastes is generated during the process of extraction, beneficiation and processing of minerals. Extraction is the first phase that consists of the initial removal of ore from the earth. This is normally done by the process of blasting, which results in generation of large volume of waste (soil, debris and other material). This is useless for the industry and is normally just stored in big piles within the mine lease area, and sometimes, on public land. The bigger the scale of the mine, greater is the quantum of waste generated.

Though most mining wastes, such as overburden, are inert solid materials, the industry also generates waste that is toxic in nature. Some of these toxic are inherently present in the ore, for example, heavy metals such as , arsenic, lead, , , etc. These heavy metals leach out of the stored waste piles, contaminating the local environment. Opencast mines are therefore more pollution intensive as they generate much higher quantities of waste compared to the underground mines. Open-pit mines produce 8 to 10 times as much waste as underground mines (Anon, 2006). Once the ore is brought to the surface, it is processed to extract the mineral, which itself generates immense quantities of waste. That is because the amount of recoverable metal in even high-grade ores is generally just a small fraction of their total mass. Moreover, as

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 399 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com the higher-grade mineral deposits are being exhausted, the mineral industry is generating more and more quantity of waste, as they have to now depend on lower grades of reserve.

Next to coal and limestone, iron ore mines are the biggest contributor to total mining wastes generated in India. According to the data of the Indian Bureau of mines (IBM), for iron ore mines, the stripping ratio varies widely and is about 1-3:1; this does not include the wastes generated during beneficiation and processing, which can be very high. The main types of mining waste in addition to topsoil and overburden can be classed into two categories as follows.

2.1. Waste rock (Mine Rock Piles)

The solid material generated in the largest quantities by iron ore extraction is the material that overlies the ore body (the overburden) and the other rock that has to be removed to gain access to the ore (the mine development rock and waste rock). The quantity and composition of waste rock vary greatly between sites. These wastes contain minerals associated with the ore body and host rock. The materials can occur in a wide range of particle sizes owing to variations in ore formations and differences in mining methods. In many operations, waste rock is disposed of in piles located near the mine (Van Ness, 1980). It also can be used in dams or other on- or off-site construction. Mining operations generate two types of waste rock - overburden and mine development rock. Overburden is defined as the material other than the mineral generated during the process of excavation, which is not useful including topsoil while mine development rock is a byproduct of mineral extraction in underground mines.

The ratio of overburden excavated to the amount of mineral removed is called the overburden ratio or stripping ratio. For example a stripping ratio of 4:1 means that 4 tons of waste rock are removed to extract one ton of ore. Lower the ratio, the more productive the mine. Stripping ratio varies with the area undermining (Anon, 1998). For iron ore mines, the stripping ratio ranges around 2-2.5. (BBY Limited Resources, POSCO) This means that for every ton of iron ore produced, double the quantity of waste is generated. In 2003-04 themselves, Steel Authority of India (SAIL) generated 4.76 million tons of overburden and rejects from its 12 mines in the country (Anon, 2005). Overburden is typically not contaminated with toxic components. However, when these are disposed on useful and arable lands for indefinite period, it to its degradation. Apart from this, they also degrade adjoining lands sometimes due to leachate,

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 400 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com change of local drainage pattern and groundwater conditions. Furthermore, overburden management of most Indian mines is rather poor as they make big piles of waste which are often a hazard for the workers and community.

Six workers were killed on 9th December 2006 when iron ore mining waste dumps collapsed in the Tollem mines in Goa, India. The nearly 100-metre high overburden dumps - covering an area in a 200-metre radius - gave way burying the excavating machines as well as the operators beneath them in the interior Sanguem iron-ore mining heartland of the state. The landslide was so sudden that those trapped were unable to even react. Military personnel was called in to carry out the rescue operations. A case of negligence was filed against the board of directors and managers of the mine (India E News, 2006). The low priority is given to the mine operators, especially in small-scale and illegal mines, to overburden management culminated into this tragedy. There are several such cases, many of which are not even reported.

2.2. Tailings (Processing Waste)

Tailings are the result of mineral beneficiation/milling process. Many minerals cannot be used for metal extraction directly as the concentration of the basic ore is less and has to be concentrated before it can be used. During the process of concentration, this involves grinding and milling, tailings are generated which is in a form of slurry. The characteristic of tailings depends on the type of ore and hence varies from mineral to mineral. It also depends on the ore physical and chemical processes used to extract the economic product. However, there are certain common contents of tailings such as arsenic, barite, calcite, cyanide, fluorite, mercury, pyrite and quartz. The slurry or the tailing is stored in a storage area commonly known. Most common storage facility used today are the dams, embankments and other types of surface impoundments and remain of primary importance in tailings disposal planning as a Tailings Dam or a Tailings Management Facility (TMF) or Tailings Storage Facility (TSF).

The quantity of tailings generated from iron ore mining depends on the quality of the ore. In some areas like Kudremukh (Karnataka, India), the ore mined is of low grade and contains about 35 to 38 percent of iron and the balance 62 to 65 percent, after going through the process plant, becomes tailings. Therefore, the mines of Kudremukh Iron Ore Company Limited (KIOCL) generated substantial quantity of tailings, approximately 14.0 million tons per annum. These iron

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 401 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com tailings were stored in earthen dam, called Lakya Dam, with a height of 100 meters. As in 2005, around 150 million tons of tailings are stored in Lakya Dam (Anon, 2005a).

Laboratory characterization of iron ore tailings or slimes has indicated that they are largely made up of extremely fine material. More than 60% of the particulates in such slimes have diameters that are <20 µm (Das et al. 1993). Moreover, the silica and alumina content of the tailings is quite high, which requires both beneficiation and agglomeration treatment prior to their use in steel making. The distribution of particle sizes in tailing slurries is solely dependent on the beneficiation process adopted. The distribution size of particulates is important because iron-ore particles and associated total suspended solids (TSS) constitute the main water that require downstream treatment before being discharged. The extent to which iron ore tailings are produced at different washing plants in India from iron-ore mining activities is presented in Table 1. From the foregoing, it is evident that large quantities of iron ore slimes are annually produced in India and the iron content of such waste streams varies between 52 and 62.8% Fe. Iron ore tailings are also contaminated with parts per million levels of heavy metal such as Cu, Pb, Zn, Cr, Sn, Mo and U as well as lower levels of macronutrients. Many of these potentially toxic elements reach and become pollutants of water.

Table. 1 Fe content of iron ore slimes from mining operations produced at different washing plants in India.

Washing plants Production (t/year) Average Fe content (%) Daitari 0.3 60 Bailadilla-14 1.2 62.8 Bailadilla-5 0.5 61.2 Barsua 0.6 52.5 Kiriburu 1.6 60.4 Donimalai 1 57.9 Meghahatuburu 0.6 60 Bolani 0.4 59.8 Noamundi 0.75 58.1 Kudremukha 15 26.6 aNo longer in operation; t metric tons Source: Mohanty et al. 2010

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 402 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com

The composition of various inorganic contaminants in a typical set of different slimes is shown in Table 2. Concentrations of toxic heavy metals such as Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cr, Mo, Ni and Co have been found in mine water, as well as in iron tailings. It has also been reported that high concentrations of heavy metals, viz., Cu, Fe, Mn, Zn, Cr, Mo, Ni and Co, are also found in the soils of surrounding localities. The soil concentration of metal ions at such sites varies as follows: Fe (33.2–121.5 g/L), Mn (0.39–1.39 g/L), Cr (57–204 g/L), Co (1.3–4.6 g/L), Cu (25.8– 93.0 g/L), Mo (1.08–4.25 g/L) and Zn (15.5–55.9 g/L; Ghosh and Sen 2001). The high levels of these toxic metal ions produce an adverse effect on growth and development of plants, animals and humans. Therefore, it is essential that eco-friendly techniques are developed to reduce potentially damaging exposures to these metals.

Table 2.Detailed chemical composition of different iron ore slimes at selected mines in India.

Constituents Mine Locations in India

Daitari Bailadilla Barsua Kiriburu Donimalai Meghahatuburu Bolani Noamundi

Fe 59.8 61.2 52.5 60.3 57.9 57.8 59.3 26.8

SiO2 2.3 6.84 7.82 2.96 6.42 4 4.1 51.2

AlO3 4.52 2.81 9.88 4.96 6.28 8.3 4.8 1.82

MnO 0.08 0.8 0.1 0.12 0.08 0.03 0.03 0.08

CaO 0.09 0.11 0.11 0.14 0.12 0.08 0.09 0.11

MgO 0.06 0.05 0.07 0.07 0.05 0.04 0.06 0.06

LOI 7 2.34 7.4 5.1 3.9 5.2 5.2 4.05

LOI; Loss on ignition Source: Mohanty et.al, 2010

In addition to the two major wastes mentioned above mine waste water is also of major concern to the . Because mine water that is discharged or otherwise released to the environment can be a source of contamination, it is addressed in this section although it is not always a RCRA-defined waste (EPA, 1994). It includes mine and mill water. Mining, mineral processing and metallurgical extraction not only involves the removal and processing of rock and

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 403 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com the production and the disposal of solid waste, but also the production, use and disposal of mine water. The water commonly contains process chemical. At some stage of mining operation, water is unwanted and has no value to the operation. Such mine water is generated and disposed of at various stages during mining, mineral processing and metallurgical extraction. Water of poor quality requires remediation as it is uncontrollable discharge, heat, suspended solid, bases, acids and dissolves solids including process chemical, metals, , radioactive substances or salts. Such a release count results in a pronounced negative impact on the environment surrounding the mine site (Kachhap, 2010).

Water exposed to sulfur-bearing minerals in an oxidizing environment, such as open pits or underground workings, may become acidified and leading to acid mine drainage ( AMD ). “Acid mine drainage” (AMD) refers to the particular process whereby low pH mine water is formed from the oxidation of sulfide minerals. In fact, the acid stream draining such ores and rock can contain high levels of metals and metalloids that exceed standards and result in toxic effect to the aquatic life (Kachhap, 2010).

3. Environmental Impacts of Mining

The environmental problems associated with the iron ore mining are diverse. The removal of vegetation, topsoil, overburden/waste and ore, brings about the inevitable natural consequences, which manifest in many ways, deforestation, climatic change, erosion, air and and health hazards. A discussion of the potential environmental effects associated with iron ore mining is presented in the following sections. Specific examples from the iron ore mining zones of India are also included in this section, as appropriate.

3.1 Water Pollution

Exposed ore, overburden piles, waste rock and ore piles, tailings impoundments, and other disturbed areas can contribute sediment and increase the total solids load to surface water bodies. Other potential sources of surface and groundwater contamination include fuel spills, flotation reagents, cleaning , and other chemicals used or stored at the site. For iron recovered from sulfide-bearing ores, acid generation due to the oxidation of sulfides (e.g., pyrite and pyrrhotite) in the ore body, host rock, and waste material may be of concern. Trace elements and minerals often associated with iron deposits includes aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium,

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 404 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com cadmium, chromium, , lead, manganese, nickel, selenium, silver, sulfur, titanium, and zinc (U.S. DOI, Geological Survey, 1973). Lowering of pH increases the solubility of these constituents and may make them available for transport in both surface water and ground water. After a mine is abandoned, pumping is usually stopped, allowing the pit or underground workings to fill with water. Over time, this may lead to uncontrolled releases of mine water.

The Orissa State Pollution Control Board (SPCB) in its “State of environment report, Orissa” (Orissa State Pollution Control Board, 2006) has classified Joda–Barbil region of Keonjhar district as a highly polluted zone (Zone 1). During the rainy season, the water in rivers turns red with heavy concentration of particles of iron oxide and the total suspended solids often go up to 1000mg/liter. Overflow of mine seepage and effluents from beneficiation plants normally find their way to streams and pollute streams passing through the mines areas.

Goan (India) iron ore has a relatively high overburden to ore ratio (of an average of about 2.5 to 3:1) and thus generates a large quantity of waste material. Since the size of mining leases are small, mining companies often acquire land outside their lease area to dump waste material.(ISID , 2012) Lands being in short supply, waste dumps are typically steep with slopes greater than 30 degrees and height of 30-50 meters. Many waste dumps are situated in the upper part of the valley regions and during the rainy season runoff from dumps settle down on agricultural fields and in water bodies. A 2001 study by the Centre for Ecological of the Indian Institute of , Bangalore, pointed out that large-scale deforestation had resulted in an increased flow of silt and iron ore tailings into the Bhadra Reservoir. Water quality data from various iron ore mines presented in Central Pollution Control Board (2008), India show that in Goa mines different major parameters were within the prescribed standards. The pH, for example, varied from 5.3 to 9.6 with an average of 6.87 (out of 103 observations) as against the prescribed standards of 6.5 to 8.5.

TERI (1998) had concluded that the water of Goa‟s rivers “would fall in class B or C of Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) ambient water classification”. It also came to the conclusion that the major effect of mining activities on the river quality is the presence of high turbidity due to discharge of silt particles and the worst affected rivers were Bicholim, Madei and Khardepur. Another problem that is faced is that deepening of mines (located below the ground water level)

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 405 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com has led to loss of recharge area of the wells and springs that serve the nearby villages. NEERI (2009) had concluded that the drying up of the (Sirigaon) village dug wells could be attributed to the loss of recharge area as well as the deepening of the mine.

Take the case of Lamgaon village in Goa 30 kilometers (18.7 miles) east of Panaji, capital of India‟s Goa State, which is struggling with problems due to waste from the nearby iron ore mine. The waste from mining, mostly, fine clay, is dumped on hill slopes. From there it is washed down by monsoons rains into lakes, riverbeds and irrigation channels. The villagers complain that so much silt runs into the land that the level of the field has raised by about a third of a meter (3.29 feet). The fertile land which used to once yield more than two tons of paddy is buried under the clay from the mine on the hill. The channel that brings water to the fields in this field is also chocked by silt. Its depth has fallen more than a meter (3.29 feet) to 15 centimeters (6 inches) in the last decade. Many villages in the state have been hit by the activities of the 150 mines, which cover about 23,000 in the state (Venkatramani, 1992). Villagers and environmentalists have protested against the side effects of mining, but it is only recently that a series of public forums and a long march have drawn media attention and raised awareness of the problem

3.2 due to Dust and Noxious fumes

The primary sources of air contamination at mine sites are fugitive dust from dry surfaces of dry tailings impoundments, as well as overburden, waste rock, and ore piles. Often, tailings impoundments are not completely covered by pooled water; thus, dry tailings may be available for windblown transport. Deposition of windblown tailings provides exposure routes for contamination of ground water, surface water, and soil. Air pollution is also a major problem in the mines area, with concentration of suspended particulate matter (SPM) in ambient air much above the permissible limit in many places, particularly at crusher loading and transfer points.

Mining, especially surface mining, is extremely devastating, as witnessed in the vast deserts capes created in the iron ore belts of Goa, the limestone belts of Rajasthan, the hills of Uttar Pradesh , and the coal belt of east India, among other areas. In Goa, to the south of Mollem, the Verlem Forest block in the Netravali Sanctuary to the northeast of Cotigao is under pressure from manganese mining. Mountains of overburden are dumped on evergreen forests (Vagholikar, Moghe and Dutta, 2003).

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 406 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com

A large number of pine trees have been damaged due to mining activities in the Jhirauli magnesite mines area near Almora, in Uttaranchal. Thick layers (4.5 cm) of magnesite dust can be seen from a distance of 6.7 km away from the mine at Kaphligair. The dust accumulations have drastically influenced the ground flora - the epiphytic cryptogamic vegetation like grasses, herbs, mosses and lichens have completely vanished. connecting the mine sites to the main roads are extremely dusty. As vehicle pass, the dust particles blown in the atmosphere ultimately settle on the trees and grass leaves, causing severe physiological disorders (Upadhyaya and Pant 1988). The Report of Karnataka (2003), India stated that there were mine dust deposits on roadside agricultural land as well. The semi-arid climatic condition of the area combined with unscientific mining, especially by small miners and opting for semi-mechanized and manual mining methods have resulted in dust being the main .

3.3 Soil Erosion and Contamination

Environmental impacts to soils as a result of mining activities are most commonly associated with erosion and contamination. Erosion may be caused by land disturbances and removal of vegetation related to mining activities. Under these conditions, precipitation events, such as snowmelt, may lead to erosion of soils. Contamination of soils may result from water discharge, runoff, seepage from tailings impoundments, pits and mine workings, as well as from the overburden, waste rock, and ore piles directly to soils. In addition, deposition of windblown particulates from piles and dry tailings impoundments may also be a source of . Other sources of soils contamination include spills of fuels, flotation reagents, cleaning solutions, as well as other chemicals used or stored at the site.

4. in Mining Industries

Disposal of mine wastes historically involved either returning the materials to the mining site; dumping into the ocean, a stream, or lake; or placing them into a receiving pond. Today, surface containment of tailings within embankments remains a commonly used approach. In 1995, it was estimated that on an annual basis over 700 million kg of Metals in mine tailings were disposed on land (Warhurst 2000). Alternatively, tailings may be returned to the mine (in-pit storage or backfilling) or mixed with coarse mine waste (codisposal). However, they remain unstable and

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 407 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com subject to eolian dispersion and water erosion with the potential to contaminate nearby communities and environmentally sensitive areas.

4.1 Conventional Remediation

Conventional technologies for remediation of mine tailings have focused on physical and chemical stabilization. Physical stabilization entails covering mine waste with an innocuous material, generally waste rock from mining operations, gravel, topsoil from an adjacent site, or a clay capping, to reduce wind and water erosion. These solutions are often temporary in nature because of the impermanence of the capping process (Johnson and Bradshaw 1977). Engineering techniques such as soil washing, burning, excavation and removal are used to remediate heavy- metal-contaminated soils, but the cost of these procedures is very high (Pilon-Smits, 2005). For this reason, the development of low-cost, effective, and sustainable technologies to remediate heavy-metal-contaminated soils is very important and long overdue (LeDuc and Terry, 2005), and it should receive considerably more attention. At the same time, phytoremediation is a cost effective and eco-friendly “green” remediation technology for environmental cleanup. (Mohanty et al. 2010; Mohanty and Patra, 2011)

4.2 Phytoremediation

The concept of using plants is not new to clean up contaminated environments. About 300 years ago, plants were proposed for use in the treatment of wastewater (Hartman, 1975). Thlaspi caerulescens and Viola calaminaria were the first plant species documented to accumulate high levels of metals in leaves. In 1935, Byers reported that plants of the genus Astragalus were capable of accumulating up to 0.6 % selenium in dry shoot biomass. One decade later (Minguzzi and Vergnano, 1948) identified plants able to accumulate up to 1% Ni in shoots. More recently (Quartacci, 1977), reported tolerance and high Zn accumulation in shoots of Thlaspi caerulescens. The concept of using plants to absorb metals from contaminated soil was reintroduced and developed by Utsunamyia and Chaney (Chaney 1983), and the first field trial on Zn and Cd phytoextraction was conducted in 1991 (Baker et al. 1991). In the last decade, extensive research has been conducted to investigate the of metal phytoextraction. Although significant success, our understanding of the plant mechanisms that allow metal extraction is still emerging.

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 408 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com

4.2.1 Phytoremediation process

The phytoremediation process (Figure 1) can be divided into different classes (Pilon-Smits, 2005): (i) Phytostabilisation – the contaminant remains complexed in root tissues, thus being unable to move through the soil; (ii) Rhizodegradation – the contaminant, generally organic, is degraded by rhizosphere-specific microorganisms; (iii) Phytovolatilisation – the contaminant (inorganic or organic), once absorbed, is physically changed to a gaseous state by the plant‟s metabolism; (iv) Phytodegradation – similar to phytostimulation/ rhizodegradation but occurring in the aerial parts of the plant; (v) Phytoextraction – the contaminant is absorbed, and high concentrations are transported to the aerial parts of the plant, making it possible to harvest the aboveground plant parts containing the contaminant (Souza et al. 2013).

Fig. 1 Phytoremediation processes. (Source; ITRC, 2009)

5. Heavy Metal Uptake by Plants and Their Fate in Cellular Metabolism

Plants, like all other organisms, have evolved different mechanisms to maintain physiological concentrations of essential metal ions and to minimize exposure to non-essential heavy metals as

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 409 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com a first line of defense, many plants exposed to toxic concentrations of metal ions attempt to prevent or reduce uptake into root cells by restricting metal ions to the apoplast, binding them to the cell wall or to cellular exudates, or by inhibiting long distance transport. If this fails, metals already in the cell are addressed using a range of storage and detoxification strategies, including metal transport, chelation, trafficking, and sequestration into the vacuole. When these options are exhausted, plants activate oxidative stress defense mechanisms and the synthesis of stress-related proteins and signaling , such as heat shock proteins, hormones, and reactive oxygen species (Manara, 2012).

6. Phytoremediation for Reclamation of Abandoned Mine Sites

The restoration of a dense vegetation cover is the most useful to physically stabilize the mine wastes and to reduce metal pollution effects. Different plant species that are well-adapted to the local conditions, capable of excluding and accumulating heavy metals without showing toxic symptoms are the ideal species that should be considered for early stages of revegetation of the „green corridor‟ or establishment of „green belt‟. Several of the grasses, legumes and trees can be a suitable material for this purpose. Bermuda grass (Cynodondactylon), has been suggested for stabilizing metalliferous soils. Populations of a variety of higher plant species are known to colonize degraded mine soils in which other cultivated plants cannot survive. Thus, the plant community tolerant to heavy metals plays a major role in remediation of degraded mine soils. So far, approximately 400 metal hyperaccumulators have been identified. The success of any phytoremediation technique depends upon the identification of suitable plant species that hyper- accumulate heavy metals and produce large amount of biomass using established crop production and management. Tree-grass-legume association was found to be the best combination for restoration of mica, copper, tungsten, marble, dolomite, limestone, and mine spoils of Rajasthan state and elsewhere in India.

Bioremediation of mine spoil dumps is being conducted since 1989, which enabled restoration of soil productivity over 247 hectares of mine soil dumps/ (including coal mines) and restoration of silted soil in 2004 at different locations in India (M.N.V.Prasad, 2011). Knowledge of the diversity of plant responses in contaminated sites having different metals and toxicity levels is important to study the composition of plant community that was established on degraded soils or

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 410 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com mine spoil, which would serve as a basic approach for mine remediation(Mukhopadhyay and Maiti, 2010). Plant species suitable for revegetation of mine spoils and commercialization of integrated biotechnological approaches for reclamation of abandoned mines are shown in Table. 3. The selection of trace element tolerant species is a key factor to the success of remediation of degraded mine soils. For long-term remediation, metal tolerant species are commonly used for revegetation of mine tailings and herbaceous legumes can be used as pioneer species to solve the problem of nitrogen deficiencies in mining wastelands because of their N fixing ability (Lan et al., 1997).

Table. 3. Plant species suitable for revegetation of mine spoils (Prasad, 2007)

Mine spoil category Suitable plant species

Bauxite mined area of Madhya Grevillea pteridifolia. Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Shorea robusta Pradesh

Eucalyptus hybrid, Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Acacia Coal mine spoils of Madhya auriculiformis,Acacia nilotica, Pradesh Dalbergia sissoo, Pongamia pinnata

Salixte trasperma, Leucaena leucocephala, Bauhinia retusa, Acacia Limestone mine spoils of outer catechu, Ipomea cornea, Eulaliopsis binata, Chrysopogon fulvus,

Himalayas Arllndodonax, Agave americana, Pennisetum purpureum, Erythrina subersosa

Pennisetum purpureum, Saccharum spontaneum, Vitex negundo, Rock-phosphate mine spoils of Rumeshastatus. Mimosa himalayana, Buddlea asiatica, Dalbergia Musoorie sissoo, Acacia catechu, Leucaena leucocephela and Salix Tetrasperma, etc.

Lignite mine spoils of Tamil Eucalyptus species, Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia and Agave Nadu

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Acacia tortilis. Prosopis juliflora, Acacia Senegal, Salvadora Mica, copper, tungiston, oleoides, Tamarix articulata. marble, dool, mite, limestone, Zizyphus nummularia, Grewia tenax, Cenchrus setigerus. and mine spoils of Cymbopogon, Cynodon dactylon. Rajasthan Sporobollis marginatus, D.annlllalum

Iron ore wastes of Orissa Leucaena leucocephala

Haematite, magnetite, manganese spoil from Albizia lebbeck Karnataka

Maiti and Nandhini (2005) reported that nine plant species grown on Fe tailings as a part of their pilot scale study conducted in Noamundi, Tata- Steel were able to survive the tailings and Maximum accumulation of Fe was found in Oxalis (7442 mg kg -1) whereas Mn and Zn accumulation was maximum in Blumealacera(88 mg kg-1) and Averaaspera(109 mg kg-1 ) respectively.In another field study conducted by Das and Maiti (2007) in an abandoned copper mine tailings (Rakha mine, Jharkhand, India), to find out accumulation of metals (Cu, Ni, Mn, Zn, Pb, Cd and Co) in the naturally colonizing vegetation. It was observed that out of 11 species, growing on copper tailings, in Ammannia baccifera levels of Cu accumulation in the root parts was found even more than 1000 mg kg-1 dry weight (DW). Metals accumulated by A. baccifera were mainly restricted to root tissues.

In a field study, mine wastes containing Cu, Pb and Zn were stabilized by grasses – Agrostis tenuis for acid lead and zinc mine wastes, Agrostis tenuis for copper mine wastes, and Festuca rubra for calcareous lead and zinc mine wastes (Smith and Bradshaw, 1979; (Mukhopadhyay and Maiti, 2010).

In a field trial conducted by Yang et al. (2003) at Lechang Pb/Zn mine tailings of Guangdong Province, Southern China to compare growth performance, metal accumulation of Vetiver (Vetiveria zizanioides) and two legume species (Sesbania rostrata and Sesbania sesban) grown on the tailings amended with domestic refuse and/or fertilizer. It was observed that the

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 412 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com combination of domestic refuse and artificial fertilizer significantly improved the survival rates and growth of V. zizanioides and two Sesbania species.

Bech et al. (2002) reported the results of the screening of plant species from three different mining areas in South America: a copper mine in Peru (Mina Turmalina), a silver mine in Ecuador (Mina San Bartolomé) and a copper mine in Chile (Mina El Teniente). Among the grass species (Poaceae), the highest concentration of as was observed in the shoots of Paspalum sp. (> 1000 mg kg−1) and Eriochloa ramosa (460 mg kg−1) from the Cu mine in Peru, and in Holcus lanatus and Pennisetum clandestinum (> 200 mg kg−1) from the silver mine in Ecuador.

Konstantinou and Babalonas, 1996 studied the metal uptake capacity by Caryophyllaceae species (Dianthus, Minuartia, Scleranthus and Silene) from metalliferous soils in northern Greece, having different concentrations of Cu, Pb, Zn, Cd, Ni, Cr, Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg and concluded that Scleranthus perennis subsp. Perennis showed the highest Cu concentration (205 mg kg-1), whereas Minuartia cf. bulgarica hyper accumulated Pb (1175 mg kg-1).

Dinelli and Lombini (1996) collected Mine spoil dump material and plants Silene armeriu (Caryophyllaceous), Salix spp. (Salicaceae) and Populus nigra ( Salicaceae) samples at 4 different growing stages in order to study their respective metal uptake pattern from the pyrite- chalcopyrite mining area of Vigonzano (Northern Apennines, Italy). The results indicate that metal concentrations increase with plant ageing, the highest concentrations being observed in leaves.

In a study conducted by Blaylock et al. in 1999 at a lead-contaminated site in Trenton, New Jersey, the soil was treated for phytoremediation using successive crops of B. juncea combined with soil amendments. Through phytoremediation, the average surface soil Pb concentration was reduced by 13%. In addition, the target soil concentration of 400 mg/kg was achieved in approximately 72% of the treated area in one cropping season. It is found that the integration of specially selected metal accumulating crop plants (Brassica juncea (L.) Czern.)With innovative soil amendments allows plants to achieve high biomass and metal accumulation rates (Mukhopadhyay and Maiti, 2010).

Citation: Nilima Chaturvedi et al. Ijsrm.Human, 2016; Vol. 5 (1): 397-420. 413 www.ijsrm.humanjournals.com

7. CONCLUSION

The contamination of soil, air and water resources with heavy metals is one of the major environmental concern today. Metals and other inorganic contaminants are among the most prevalent forms of contamination found at waste sites, and their remediation in soils and sediments is technically most difficult due to their persistent nature. The high cost and ineffectiveness of existing cleanup technologies have led to the search for certain low-cost, low- impact, visually benign, and environmentally sound cleanup strategies. Under these circumstances, phytoremediation can be a better alternative to the environmentally destructive traditional remediation technologies. No doubt, phytoremediation technologies are still in research and development phase but various field applications have shown potential for success. This, in turn, has helped to increase interest and research in both public and private sectors, in an attempt to develop phytoremediation into a commercially viable industry. However, Some key technical hurdles must be overcome for an industry to adopt this plant-based technology on commercial scale like identifying more species with remediation abilities, appropriate plant selection and agronomic practices optimizing phytoremediation processes, understanding more about the mechanism of uptake, translocation, and metabolization of the contaminant concerned, to identify or genetically construct plants that are hardy enough to tolerate high shoot metal concentrations and still produce large amounts of biomass which in turn can reduce the required number of cropping cycles to a minimum, identifying genes responsible for the tolerance of the concerned plant species with respect to a particular contaminant and extensive research under field conditions. Furthermore, the technique must be tailored to the physicochemical characteristics (pH, cation exchange capacity, electrical conductivity, and metal content) of individual mine tailings sites. Sufficient and honest advertisement of the successful ventures must be made to the scientific community as well as public to enhance its acceptability as global sustainable technology.

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