THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY GROUP

July 2008 Bulletin

CONTENTS

ECG Bulletin – July 2008

Sir Frank Fraser Darling...... 2 Achieving the European Union’s 2 °C target through carbon trading ...... 2 Having our climate cake and eating it: reduced emissions from deforestation...... 10 ‘Cool Earth’...... 13 Accounting for biofuels: green, black or shades of grey?...... 15 A glimpse of the interior of a rainforest on the Tutoko River Track, Fiordland National Park, New Zealand. The Biophysical remediation of petroleum protection of rainforests through the financial incentives contaminated in Yorkshire.. 18 offered by carbon trading schemes was described in this The National Centre for Atmospheric year’s ECG DGL ‘The Science of Carbon Trading’ pp 2-18. Graduate Summer School in Atmospheric Measurement ...... 21 RSC ENVIRONMENTAL CHEMISTRY GROUP OFFICERS Meeting report: 2008 Environmental Chemistry (Until March 2009) Group Distinguished Guest Lecture and Symposium...... 22 CHAIRMAN VICE- HONORARY HONORARY Dr Brendan Keely, CHAIRMAN TREASURER SECRETARY Attributing physical and biological impacts to Department of Dr Leo Salter, Dr Ruben Sakrabani, Jo Barnes, anthropogenic climate change ...... 24 Chemistry, Cornwall College, Building 37, National Air Quality Unit, Sustainable management of arsenic contaminated University of York, Trevenson , Soil Resources Cornwall College Heslington, water and soil in rural areas of Latin America Pool, Redruth, Institute, Camborne, York YO10 5DD Cornwall School of Applied Opie Building, Trevenson ...... 26 Tel: 01904 432540 TR15 3RD Science, Road, Electronic delivery of the ECG Bulletin...... 26 [email protected] l.salter@cornwall. Cranfield University, Pool, Redruth, ac.uk Cranfield MK43 0AL Cornwall TR15 3RD Forthcoming meetings for environmental r.sakrabani@cranfield. Tel: 01209 616385 scientists ...... 27 ac.uk [email protected]

Previous issues of the ECG Bulletin may be seen at: BULLETIN EDITOR ASSOCIATE EDITORS http://www.rsc.org/Membership/Networking/Int erestGroups/Environmental/bulletin.asp Dr Rupert Purchase, Dr Ruben Sakrabani, Jo Barnes, 38 Sergison Close, Building 37, National Soil Air Quality Unit, Haywards Heath, Resources Institute, Cornwall College West Sussex RH16 1HU School of Applied Science, Opie Building, [email protected] Cranfield University, Trevenson Road, Cranfield MK43 0AL Pool, Redruth, [email protected] Cornwall TR15 3RD

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Sir Frank Fraser Darling, ecologist, 1903-1979

oxygen in exchange … But Now 40 years on the carbon dioxide ‘Wilderness and Plenty’, The Reith problem is very real, and commands the Lectures 1969. Published by the unfortunately we are cutting attention of politicians, economists as British Broadcasting Corporation, the virgin wildernesses all the well as scientists. This year’s ECG 1970. time and reducing tree cover DGL and symposium ‘The Science of in so many places … the Carbon Trading’ addressed a few of the “Now, there is a much greater issues raised by Fraser Darling. In the activities of industrial and change to which we are main lecture, economist Terry Barker technological man in our day explained the financial leverage exerted contributing, this time in the are adding carbon dioxide and by carbon trading as a way of reducing planetary atmosphere … I am overall CO2 emissions. Preservation of also injuring the capacity of alluding to the rise of carbon tropical rainforests was the concern of the to redress the two of the speakers in the supporting dioxide in the atmosphere … balance.” symposium, Jon Lovett and Matthew There is a carbon dioxide Owen. While the vexed question of whether the use of biofuels can reduce cycle which naturally keeps These prescient and compelling words the levels of greenhouse gases was are from the transcript of one of Dr levels right. It is a system of tackled in the remaining talk by Nigel Frank Fraser Darling’s BBC Reith Mortimer. great age and stability which Lectures delivered nearly 40 years ago. we are now taxing with the He went on to foresee the effects of In 1969, Fraser Darling thought that global warming on the oceans and on immense amounts of carbon ‘not nearly enough data are being marine fauna, and the consequences for dioxide we are adding from gathered’ about the effects of global the polar icecaps. At the time, Fraser warming. That, at least, is no longer the the fuel we burn. Vegetation Darling wrote that ‘the carbon dioxide case, and Stephen Ball analyses a problem is as yet remote’, but scorned is a great buffer: the forested recent article in on the impact those who said the ‘posterity must look wilderness removes a great on physical and biological systems due after itself’, instead ‘we should be to anthropogenic climate change. deal of the carbon dioxide … delving ecologically into the future’. sequesters it, giving out RUPERT PURCHASE

Achieving the European Union’s 2 °C target through carbon trading

Dr Terry Barker, University Intergovernmental Panel on Climate that their destruction for land or timber Change (IPCC) scenarios. The reason benefits individuals but the loss of the of Cambridge, UK to be pessimistic about future emissions resource and the climate-change costs (IPCC 2007c, Fourth Assessment are collective. ECG Distinguished Guest Report, AR4) is that there are very substantial reserves of fossil fuels, Impacts of climate change Lecturer 2008 especially coal, available at prices that make them economic for power Knowledge about the potential impacts Introduction generation, even more so with the of climate change is provided by both higher levels of gas prices seen in The Stern Review (2007) and the IPCC The climate-change problem recent years, gas being one of the main 2007 Working Group 2 (IPCC, 2007b) alternative fuels. Report. The first impacts of The climate-change problem is anthropogenic climate change appear to Adding to the economic pressure to use essentially one of accumulating stocks be already evident in the European heat coal, there is a political pressure for of greenhouse gases (GHG) in the wave of 2003, the Katrina hurricane of countries that might otherwise be atmosphere. Economic behaviour and 2005, and the widespread fires in importing gas, to use domestic coal to the availability of fossil fuels have led Greece and California in 2007 − to greatly increased greenhouse gas maintain or increase energy security. Deforestation also contributes to the although variation in weather events emissions from human activity, and the makes attribution difficult. These unrestrained future increase in emissions, but the motivations and institutional behaviours here are more events are all consistent with higher emissions is likely to end in dangerous average temperatures and more energy climate change. complicated. There is a very long-term global trend in the loss of virgin forests in the atmosphere as a result of higher Figure 1 shows the expected increases and grasslands, also arising from their greenhouse gas (GHG) concentrations. in GHG emissions from a wide range of availability as common resources, so

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to stop emitting GHG into the Figure 1: Global GHG emissions for 2000 and projected baseline emissions for 2030 and atmosphere as soon as possible without 2100 from IPCC Special Report on Emissions Scenarios (SRES) and post-SRES literature excessive cost. We should be considering just how fast economies can GtCO2 a year reduced their emissions without any 180 serious damage to government, business 160 and household finances. Figure 2 from the Report shows the ranges from 140 assumptions about climate sensitivity in 120 converting from temperatures to GHG F-Gases concentrations, and the implications of 100 N2O the concentrations for the GHG emission 80 CH4 trajectories 2000-2100, with the range CO2 60 coming from the different models’ estimates. The link between the two 40 charts in Figure 2 comes through the 20 colour coding for groups of scenarios. 0 Note that there are no estimates below about 450ppm CO -eq, because there A2 A2

B1 B2 B2 B1 2 5th 5th A1T A1T A1B A1B 95th 75th 25th 95th 75th 25th 2000 A1F1 A1F1 were too few studies in the literature for 2030post SRES 2100 post SRES m edian m edian SRES SRES a reliable estimate.

The economics of dangerous The attribution of such extreme events risks of catastrophe. It presents six to global warming is supported by the scenarios from the literature on the scale climate change unexpectedly high increase in CO2 of action required. For a chance less In the traditional Cost-Benefit Analysis concentrations reported by Raupach et than 50:50 that the target will be met, the (CBA) of climate change (reviewed by al, 2007, in turn attributed to faster- scenarios suggest that global CO2 van den Bergh, 2004 and Barker, than-expected global economic growth emissions will have to be between 50% 2008), the damages to human life and and the increased use of coal in China to 85% below 2000 levels by 2050, and health are usually discounted at rates and other developing countries for becoming negative (through many times the 0.1%pa taken by Stern electricity generation. sequestration and storage) by 2070 and as the pure rate of time preference. beyond. The important feature of future climate This is a very odd ethical position change that to the damages is the Therefore to be reasonably sure of because it implies that human lives and expected increase in frequency and avoiding dangerous climate change health of people living, say, 20 years severity of extreme climatic events over defined as a 2 °C rise or less, the world ahead, are valued at a fraction of those the next millennium at least. The should be aiming for complete living today. Since this feature is average temperatures and sea level rises decarbonisation by 2050 or earlier. All hidden in the mathematics (including should be seen as indicators of the risks sectors in all countries should be aiming those of The Stern Review), it has not of such events, rather than as widespread small and gradual changes. What may appear to be a favourable Figure 2: Average global temperatures, GHG concentrations and emissions 2000- 2100 outcome, e.g. a milder climate in Range comes from northern Europe, may turn out to be Range comes from diferent models alternative estimates of more variable winters and summers, climate sensitivity Post-SRES (max) 35 with more floods and droughts. As the Stabilization targets: temperatures go up, the frequency and E: 850-1130 ppm CO2-eq 30 D: 710-850 ppm CO2-eq severity of the extreme events seems C: 590-710 ppm CO2-eq likely to rise too. The problem of 25 B: 535-590 ppm CO2-eq A2: 490-535 ppm CO2-eq scientific reticence (Hansen et al, 2007) A1: 445-490 ppm CO2-eq 20 means that the underlying situation may be much more serious that portrayed in 15 the last IPCC Report. The economics 10 of the problem suggest that the risks to increase over preindustrial increase over (°C) human life and health, along with the (GtC) Emissions CO2 Wold 5 Equilibrium global mean temperature escalating value of the net loss of life Post-SRES (min) and health without discounting, imply 0 unbounded costs of business as usual. -5 2000 2010 2020 2030 2040 2050 2060 2070 2080 2090 2100 GHG concentration stabilization level (ppmv CO2-eq) The IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4) WG3 Summary for Policymakers Note lack of studies below 450ppmv-CO -eq Multigas and CO2 only studies combined 2 (2007a) gives an indication of just how deep the cuts will have to be to avoid Source: IPCC WG3 SPM 2007

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In the atmospheric emissions with Figure 3: EU temperature target, Stern’s concentration range and GHGs, I include soot, other fine “safe” and “feasible” concentration targets particles, SO2 and the chemical surfaces of the particles (as well as the chemical where we are now! soup cooked up by the sun and weather) as an inherent part of the problem and their reduction as an “safe” inherent part of the . Luckily for us, the biosphere appears to absorb about half our current GHG emissions, EU interpretation: so if we stop emissions altogether (very global mean unlikely, but an iconic target) then temperature increase at concentrations will fall. However, this less than 2ºC above pre- feature of the is weakened

industrial level preindustrial increase over (°C) by the higher temperatures, ocean and Equilibrium global mean temperature mean global Equilibrium forest acidification and , so we risk damaging this natural service as well, making the problem worse. The GHG concentration stabilization level (ppmv CO2-eq) reduction in other associated Stern 450-550 with GHG emissions is important Source: IPCC WG3 SPM 2007 because the literature suggests that this “feasible” side benefit of GHG mitigation may be substantial, indeed comparable with the been recognised that a more consistent level for scientific study is assumed to direct costs of the mitigation (Barker et and indeed in my mind a more ethical be 400ppm CO -eq, whilst the safe 2 al, 2007, section 11.8). Fortunately treatment would yield the level for the 2 °C target, allowing for these do not accumulate, but get overwhelming costs I have mentioned. climate sensitivity, would be more like washed out of the air much sooner than 380ppm CO -eq (Hansen et al, 2008). This is obvious intuitively if we 2 GHGs, so that abatement has postulate that: immediate benefits in terms of The central question for improved air quality. 1. Business as usual emissions are likely to to concentrations climate policy Table 1 shows the reductions in above 750ppmvCO2-eq, and So we must re-direct our economic emissions required for the different target ranges. For the most stringent 2. The damages are likely to rise thinking towards a risk assessment. range shown of 445-490ppm CO -eq, steeply as average temperatures The central question for climate policy 2 GHG emissions have to be at least 50% rise over the next century. is how to reduce all damaging emissions from human activity as soon below 1990 levels by 2050, preferably The costs rise as the damages to life as possible, recognising the risks and much more and much earlier, and and health increase for the rich, who uncertainties and the opportunities for emissions have to peak before 2015. can afford to protect themselves, and improving human well-being. far more so for the poor. The CBA solution in this case is one of costs so high that immediate and instantaneous elimination of all GHG emissions is Table 1: Long-term mitigation justified as well as the use of all our resources in a massive programme to remove CO2 from the air. This of Stabilization % reduction in course in not going to happen and I Global Mean temp. Year CO needs to level 2 2050 compared agree with Marty Weitzman (2008) that increase peak this makes CBA meaningless and (ppm CO2-eq) at equilibrium (ºC) to 2000 useless. Figure 3 shows various targets for 445 – 490 2.0 – 2.4 2000 - 2015 -85 to -50 climate stabilisation in terms of 490 – 535 2.4 – 2.8 2000 - 2020 -60 to -30 temperature increases above pre- industrial levels, and GHG 535 – 590 2.8 – 3.2 2010 - 2030 -30 to +5 concentrations in the atmosphere in CO2-equivalent parts per million (ppm). 590 – 710 3.2 – 4.0 2020 - 2060 +10 to +60 The current level is about 430ppm CO2- 710 – 855 4.0 – 4.9 2050 - 2080 +25 to +85 eq, but this is affected by SO2 and other non-GHG emissions that have a net 855 – 1130 4.9 – 6.1 2060 - 2090 +90 to +140 cooling effect. The Stern Review range is 450-550ppm CO -eq, but a feasible 2 Source: IPCC WG3 SPM 2007

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The costs and benefits of earth”, by which I mean initially the waste, even the USA, will have a very coral reefs and tropical forests, these small effect on the global stock. accelerated decarbonisation treasures of evolved over Cooperation with others is necessary to We need short-term modelling to millions of years of climate stability, reduce costs and achieve substantial explore the costs and benefits of but ultimately the favourable climatic reductions. accelerated decarbonisation of the conditions that have allowed life to Figure 4 shows the carbon prices as global economy, so I am very taken flourish on earth. they have emerged in the scheme over with Klaus Hasselmann’s call for an Of course this depends on the mix of the three years 2005-2007 covering international forum to be established to policies available, but we can find a clue Phase 1 of the ETS. It shows the actual provide information and help to explore to the scale of feasible reductions from prices of Phase 1 and the future prices details of the economic the studies of the costs of ratifying the for use of allowances in 2008 and 2011 (Hasselmann and Barker, 2008). for the USA. These during Phase 2. The future prices move Carbon trading is one of the critical postulated a 30% reduction in CO together and have averaged between policy instruments in that solution, 2 emissions below business as usual over a €20 and €25 per tonne of CO2. which brings me to the main theme of 3 to 4 year period. With US emissions my talk. It is in this context that I should like to more or less static, this in turn implies a consider carbon trading. Political economy has been portrayed reduction of some 7% a year (Barker and by Thomas Carlyle as the dismal Ekins, 2004). I shall discuss later how The European Union’s Emission much this might cost. science, but on the contrary, I am Trading Scheme (EU ETS) for heartened by the fact that a new CO emissions understanding of the economy leads me Carbon trading and other 2 to assert that it need not cost much, and policies for mitigation The European Union’s Emission if we choose a good mix of policies Trading Scheme (EU ETS) for CO2 such action will benefit economic The major problem for climate policy is emissions is by far the largest and most performance and improve human well that the atmosphere is a common comprehensive action yet taken in being. resource, which makes the problem mitigation policy. It has the potential to almost intractable and the outlook for Just as Malthus was wrong (so far!) in achieve the 2 °C target, but it will have effective action bleak. As Stern says, his predictions of population growth to become global and incorporated the use of the atmosphere for waste leading to economic collapse within national policy portfolios disposal represents the greatest market (Trewavas, 2002), so I think traditional including regulation and perhaps ecotax failure the world has ever known. In economists are wrong in arguing that reform if it is to be effective, efficient the economic behaviour underlying rapid decarbonisation will ruin our and equitable in doing so. economic growth and development, no economies, and for much the same government, business or household has The role of the carbon price generated reasons: technological change, but with a direct self-interest in reducing through trading is pivotal in realising a twist. In addition to food-producing emissions. Each has an interest in the mitigation potential in all sectors. technologies to feed us (“the green using the atmosphere as disposal of the The carbon price re-enforces the effects revolution”), we now need GHG- waste gases of combustion, but action of regulations improving efficiency reducing technologies with carbon by any single group in reducing its standards in vehicles, appliances and trading and carbon taxes “to save the buildings. It suggests the appropriate levels of carbon taxation for the non- traded sectors in an environmental Figure 4: EU Emission Allowance Prices: January 2005 to fiscal reform. It induces technological February 2008 in €/tCO2 change, because investment in low- carbon technologies is increased and 40.00 Phase I Allowances costs fall as their scale rises, leading to Phase II Allowances 2008 35.00 Phase II Allowances 2011 more take-up of the technologies. UK gas price peak 30.00 Finally, at a global scale, it offsets the Phase II begins cheapening effect of increasing energy 25.00 efficiency on the real costs of using energy, and so offsets any potential 20.00 rebound effects (Sorrell, 2007). The

EUA Price (Euros) EUA 15.00 earlier and stronger the actions to make the future carbon prices sufficiently 10.00 high and reliable, then the higher are

5.00 Price collapse in response the investments and the lower the to news about over-allocation eventual costs. 0.00 /05 /05 /05 /05 /06 /06 /06 /06 /07 /07 /07 /07 /08 /08 /01 /04 /07 /10 /01 /04 /07 /10 /01 /04 /07 /10 /01 /04 01 01 01 200501 01 01 01 200601 01 01 01 200701 01 01 Source: European Energy Exchange (EEX, 2008)

Figure kindly provided by Aoife Brophy, Electricity Policy Research Group, University of Cambridge

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Why a carbon price is two main market-based instruments to There are prices around. The most manage the climate problem: carbon recent results for the UK, are given in a essential taxes and emission-permit schemes. A report for the 2007 Energy White Paper The impact of carbon pricing carbon tax is a highly specific and (Strachan et al, 2007). The Shadow targeted way of tackling the global Price of Carbon from this report to The main reason why technology alone warming problem: the necessary fiscal achieve a 60% reduction in CO2 by is very unlikely to solve the mitigation system is already largely in place, the 2050 below the year 2000 levels is £65 problem is this “rebound effect” administrative and compliance costs are to £176/tCO2 (year 2000 prices) by (Sorrell 2007). This effect comes about exceptionally low compared with those 2050 with a central estimate of £105. through improvements in energy of many other taxes, the tax revenues At year 2000 exchange rates the range efficiency leading to reductions in costs will tend to grow with incomes, and the converts to $98 to 267 with a central of a technology, which then leads to expected responses to higher prices are estimate of $159 for 2050. As an aside, higher use, so that the energy-saving such that revenues will continue to rise contrast this price with that proposed by from the technological improvement if even as there is substantial erosion of Defra (Price et al, 2007), converted to offset by increased demand for energy. the tax base as emissions decline. the same basis, of $76 (£50)/tCO2 by Therefore any technological However taxes are disliked, particularly 2050. The Defra price was chosen not breakthrough without a carbon price to by the energy industries. on the basis of achieving the 60% deter extra use of carbon will lead to In contrast, the externality can also be target, let alone the 2˚C target, but from higher incomes and more use of energy a cost-benefit analysis with an outdated in general, weakening the effect in managed by creating a market in legally enforceable rights to emit GHGs, such estimate of the costs of climate change reducing GHG emissions especially at a that substantially discounts the value of global level. A carbon-price signal is as the EU ETS and then restricting those rights, and auctioning all or part health and lives of future generations needed to provide a pervasive and long- and ignores the significant risks of term signal for investment decisions so of them. The rights or allowances can catastrophe. Although no one pays the that low-GHG options are chosen. be given to the emitters as an incentive to participate, as in Phases 1 and 2 of shadow price, it does enter the cost- Most important, the R&D decisions benefit analyses of major projects, such would also be influenced by the the EU ETS, a crucial advantage as the third runway at Heathrow airport, expected carbon price. compared to taxes. The schemes, in contrast to carbon taxes, provoke an and may affect planning decisions, such Basically the low-cost trajectories institutional response in that a new as those for the proposed coal-fired towards stabilization in the literature market is created, and companies tend power station at Kingsnorth on the involve the strong expectation that to seek out new ways of reducing Thames estuary. The current Defra carbon prices will rise to very high emissions. However, there are several price of half or less than the one from levels, so that new investments objections to such schemes: they more relevant modelling seems likely (supplying energy in the form of power acknowledge rights that may not have to undermine the achievement of UK plants and demanding energy for existed up to that point, no actual CO2 targets. power, comfort, light and monetary compensation is normally The global carbon prices required transportation) are designed, deployed provided for those who will suffer to reach the 2 °C target and installed as low-GHG depending damage from future pollution, the on their lifetime. The low carbon price schemes are open to abuse by collusion, The global carbon prices required to in the near term reduces the cost of and transactions costs can be high, reach the 2 °C target are not in the premature obsolescence; the especially for small non-business literature, but we can extrapolate from expectation that they will be high later sectors. So far the schemes have been what is available at least at ranges that encourages R&D and investment in confined to cover large fixed business may achieve the 450ppm CO2-eq, the long-lived low-GHG capital, and uses of carbon, predominantly power most stringent level recommended in reduces risks of lock-in. The outcome generation. the Stern Review. Barker and Jenkins should be seen in terms of rapid (2007) estimate a range of $24 to adaptation of the energy system to low Level of long-term carbon prices 173/tCO2-eq year 2000 prices by 2030, or negative GHG emissions without This brings me to the issue of what depending on the treatment of excessive costs and making the most of level of long-term carbon prices is technological change in the models, the no-regrets technical (e.g. in needed to decarbonise the global with the lower value assuming a dwellings) and institutional economy. This question cannot be technological break-though in the form (environmental tax reform) answered with any certainty because of a low-cost, low-carbon source of opportunities and the potential for the underlying literature is insufficient energy in unlimited supply (a “back- induced technological change. If the in quantity and quality. In any case we stop” technology). policy is successful eventually no should refer to a range of prices to As a rule of thumb, given all the sector will need to pay for carbon achieve a quantitative target, which uncertainties and a precautionary because the emissions will cease, but itself is chosen by taking into account approach, a carbon price rising to the price signal must be credible and the risks and uncertainties of not $100/tCO -eq by 2020 for OECD should escalate to give time for 2 achieving the target. And, crucially, we countries seems to be a good starting adjustment. should keep in mind that business as point. This could emerge from Carbon prices are social prices with usual is the most dangerous and risky emission trading schemes for the their levels generated by policy through of the options available in the literature. energy sector with a stringent GHG

6 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 reduction target by 2020 of at least 30% vehicles, or exploiting no-regrets low-quality dwellings occupied by low- below 1990 levels by 2020. Such a options in buildings). The market income households. In such cases the carbon price is a market price similar to failure in innovation comes about portfolio should include measures to the world oil price, but applying mainly because those doing the investment, improve the energy efficiency of to CO2 emissions from electricity even allowing for patents, are unable to dwellings. generation. It converts to $45/barrel of capture all the benefits, which accrue to One complement to the market-based oil and would be paid on CO2 emissions all those able to copy and exploit the carbon prices is the use of the from burning coal and gas (the innovation. In consequence not enough traditional regulatory command-and- electricity sector does not use much oil innovation is done in a market system control approach, which involves for generation), essentially raising (Jaffe et al, 2005). agencies (such as Pollution electricity prices (by 70% in the US on Governments usually have a wide range Inspectorates) fixing and forcing energy year 2005 fossil-fuel use). However, of policy instruments at their disposal and GHG standards. Climate, air there is a the crucial difference to achieve their targets for climate quality and energy-security objectives compared to 2007-2008 oil-price policy. Indeed, the focus of the IPCC are all served by technology-forcing increases on a similar scale: the WG3 Report is on the sectoral options policies of the sort pioneered in increase in carbon prices would be for mitigation (7 out of 13 chapters), California over the past 15 years spread over several years and the providing a rich source of detail on the (Jänicke and Jacob, 2004). The main revenues from auctioning the emission economic potential for mitigation at objection has been their potential allowances would accrue to the different carbon prices in energy, inefficiency, but they can be targeted to countries regulating the emissions, not transport, buildings, industry, correct market failures and support to the oil producers, and so they can be , forestry and waste investments that are profitable given used to compensate those who lose management. Good policy portfolios social as opposed to private costs and employment and to provide incentives for GHG mitigation will be specific to discount rates. for low-carbon alternative sources of each country depending on their energy. If the energy sector responds political systems, the available rapidly and switches to renewables, The potential for renewable and other energy resources environmental tax reform nuclear and other low-carbon sources, and the energy efficiency of the stocks then the CO2 allowance costs will fall of buildings and equipment. Such There is one particular benefit that may rapidly. However, emission trading portfolios will combine policies and be important for economies with schemes are less suitable for other measures to produce outcomes that are chronic problems of unemployment or sectors, especially for emissions from effective at achieving the main underinvestment: the potential use of transportation and buildings, and wider objective, efficient with low costs, or the revenues to reduce taxes that bear portfolios of policies, in which even benefits, as regards effects on on employment and investment. The institutional and technical barriers to GDP, and equitable in that the most distortions of the current tax system change are addressed, are more vulnerable groups affected will be most may be so great that a large number of appropriate. likely to benefit. Most important for jobs could be created, at no net fiscal policies to achieve a wide social cost and at little risk to inflation, by a Portfolios of economic consensus, they should also address reform of the tax system (Patuelli et al, instruments for mitigation: other potential social benefits, such as 2005). This is feasible because a 60 carbon prices, low-GHG improvements in air quality with the percent cut in emissions is only 2.3 associated better human health and percent a year over 40 years. If the incentives and regulation higher crop productivity, the increased price incentives are in place, especially The literature on mitigation is comfort from better insulated buildings, if they can be anticipated, the economy concerned mainly with quantitative or reductions in traffic-related can move gradually and efficiently GHG targets, as required by any pollution. towards a sustainable level of emissions without sacrificing economic welfare. stabilization target, which has to be It is a great advantage that climate However, this requires the use of absolute in relation to the prospective policies, both for adaptation and efficient instruments such as the carbon stocks of GHGs in the atmosphere. mitigation, are inherently equitable. tax, and it also requires social However, the economic system driving This is because mitigation has its main acceptance of long-term radical change, the emissions is market-based, in which and central benefit the avoided costs of in which people with a preference for prices play a critical role in allocating climate change and adaptation also carbon-intensive lifestyles are liable to resources and encouraging avoids the effects of climate change. lose out. technological change. The low-cost The climate change damages are policies all require the use of market focused on those who cannot re-locate instruments via carbon prices, or otherwise protect themselves against The costs of achieving the combined in portfolios with regulation climate-related damages, i.e. those on 2 °C target and subsidies targeted at clear market low incomes, especially in developing Before I finish, I would like to give an failures, most critically the pervasive countries with relatively large estimate as to how much this will cost. general market failure in innovation agricultural sectors in flood plains or This is a surprisingly difficult and and the specific market failures in the drought-prone regions. However, there controversial issue because economists energy markets (e.g. achieving more are major exceptions, e.g. energy use are by no means agreed on how to rapid penetration of hybrid and plug-in per capita may be particularly high in represent and model these costs.

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The energy system costs inertia in the climate system, as a result signals for the scale of action required of the long lifetime of CO (the main in the whole economy. We can find one estimate of these 2 greenhouse gas) and the slow response sectoral costs from the price of the The way forward is in international of the oceans, means that adaptation allowances times their number, since agreement to establish a global carbon will be necessary. There is also a risk this is what has to be paid to achieve a market, with the ultimate aim of that the international co-operation target if all the allowances are decarbonising the global economy. A required for successful mitigation will auctioned. Thus if we expect total UK good starting point is a scheme not be achieved. covering international activities such as CO2 emissions to be 30% below 2000 levels by 2020, the revenue (assuming The Stern Review and the IPCC Reports aviation and shipping, with a cap-and- prices of £66/tCO converted from in 2007, together with the experiences trade scheme to achieve zero net 2 emissions by 2050, and auctioning of $100/tCO ) would be £25bn in 2000 of early pilot mitigation policies in the 2 revenues to support low-carbon prices. It is important to put this into European Union and its Member States, alternatives to fossil fuels in developing perspective. Total UK environmental have provided the information and countries through a greatly expanded taxes were £35bn in 2005, current analysis sufficient for global policies to clean development mechanism. Such a prices, representing 7.7% of total tax be developed. And the reception of the scheme, if well managed, could provide and social security revenues1. In other reports suggests that the seriousness and magnitude of the problem is a strong, rising and predictable carbon words, the revenues from CO2 emission price to provide the signal for more trading are likely to be less than 10% of recognized and that the key messages have been understood more generally. general national and international total tax revenues, even at the $100 action. carbon price for 2020. However, these However, effective action requires an costs are one-sided and partial. They unprecedented co-operation of policies show what the system is projected to by the very large emitters involving References many governments world-wide acting pay for the rights to emit CO , but do 2 urgently. This is almost unprecedented, Barker, T. (2008), ‘The economics of not take into account the wider picture. with the success of the Montreal avoiding dangerous climate change: an These costs are also simultaneously Protocol on ozone depletion giving the editorial essay’. Special Issue of revenues for the government that can be best indication of the way forward. Climatic Change on “The Stern Review used to support alternative low-GHG and its Critics”, forthcoming. technologies or to reduce burdensome The most effective policies appear to be taxes. A more complete assessment of those that combine: Barker, T.; Bashmakov, I.; Alharthi, A.; Amann, M.; Cifuentes, L; Drexhage, J.; costs is given by a macroeconomic • the carbon-price signal, analysis.1 Duan, M.; Edenhofer, O.; Flannery, B.; • environmental tax reform for small Grubb, M.; Hoogwijk, M.; Ibitoye, F. The macroeconomic costs and mobile domestic sources, I.; Jepma, C. J.; Pizer, W. A.; Yamaji, K. (2007), ‘Mitigation from a cross- To give a flavour of the likely costs, we • and emission trading schemes for sectoral perspective’, In Climate can look at the studies of the costs of large fixed and international Change 2007: Mitigation. Contribution the US ratification of the Kyoto sources of GHGs; of Working Group III to the Fourth Protocol (Barker and Ekins, 2004). The with: Assessment Report of the US government published a study for • direct incentives for low-GHG Intergovernmental Panel on Climate the US reducing CO emissions by 30% 2 innovation, Change [B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R. over 3 to 4 years, and reported costs of • and R&D funded from tax revenues Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer (Eds.)], about 1% of GDP under Kyoto trading. and emission permit auctions. Cambridge University Press, Other studies showed benefits, Cambridge, UK. especially if the reductions in air Such portfolios of market-based pollution are included. Furthermore I instruments can be made even more Barker, T.; Ekins, P. (2004), ‘The costs expect that technological change will effective if complemented by of Kyoto for the US economy’, The accelerate and costs fall sharply as the technological forcing via standards, Energy Journal, 25 (3), 53-71. scale of effort moves towards 100% such as a requirement for carbon Barker, T.; Jenkins, K. (2007), ‘The reduction. The traditional, equilibrium capture and storage by a specified date costs of avoiding dangerous climate thinking arguing that GDP costs will on all new coal plant. change: estimates derived from a meta- rise as the scale of effort rises does not There is also evidence from energy- analysis of the literature’, Briefing take induced technological change and efficiency studies that many sectors, Paper for UN Human Development developing countries’ particularly buildings, have substantial Report, 2007. underemployment into account. opportunities for no-regrets mitigation, hdr.undp.org/en/reports/global/hdr2007008/paper requiring tailored policies to reduce or s/barker_terry%20and%20jenkins_katie.pdf Conclusions remove barriers, with the policies often Hansen, J. E. (2007), ‘Scientific Although mitigation can reduce climate led by higher enforced standards on reticence and sea level rise’, Environ. change and the need to adapt, the energy efficiency. Carbon trading has a Res. Lett., 2, 024002, crucial role to play in these portfolios doi:10.1088/1748-9326/2/2/024002. by establishing market prices for CO2 1 Hansen, J.; Sato, M.; Kharecha, P.; emissions to achieve CO2 reduction http://www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads/theme_ec targets. These prices can provide the Beerling, D.; Masson-Delmotte, V.; onomy/ET635.pdf

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Pagani, M.; Raymo, M.; Royer, D. L.; Price, R.; Thornton, S.; Nelson, S. of the Tyndall Centre’s Integrated Zachos, J. C. (2008), ‘Target (2007), ‘The social cost of carbon and Modelling programme of research and Atmospheric CO2: Where Should the shadow price of carbon: what they Chairman of Cambridge Econometrics. Humanity Aim?’ 31 March 2008. are, and how to use them in economic http://www.columbia.edu/~jeh1/2008/TargetCO2 appraisal in the UK.’ Defra, UK. He was a Coordinating Lead Author in _20080407.pdf http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/climatecha the IPCC Third Assessment Report Hasselmann, K.; Barker, T. (2008) ‘The nge/research/carboncost/pdf/background.pdf (2001) and the Fourth Assessment Stern Review and the IPCC Fourth Raupach, M. R.; Marland, G.; Ciais, P.; Report (2007) for the chapter on Assessment Report: implications for Le Quéré, C.; Canadell, J. G.; Klepper, mitigation from a cross-sectoral interaction between policymakers and G.; Field, C. B. (2007), ‘Global and perspective, covering the climate experts’, Special Issue of regional drivers of accelerating CO2 macroeconomic costs of mitigation at Climatic Change on “The Stern Review emissions’, Proceedings of the National national, regional and global levels in and its Critics”, forthcoming. Academy of , 104, 10288- the short and medium term (to 2030). 10293. IPCC (2007a), ‘Summary for http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/104/24/10288 Research interests are in GHG Policymakers’, In: Climate Change mitigation policy, large-scale Sorrell, S. (2007), The Rebound Effect: 2007: The Physical Science Basis. computable energy-environment- an assessment of the evidence for Contribution of Working Group I to the economy and world energy modelling. economy-wide energy savings from Fourth Assessment Report of the He has directed and co-ordinated many improved energy efficiency, UK Energy Intergovernmental Panel on Climate large projects building and applying Research Centre, October. Change [S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. large-scale economic models of the Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Stern, Nicholas (2007), The Economics UK, the European Union and the global Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller of Climate Change: The Stern Review, economy. He has edited or authored (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge University Press, some 12 books and 100 articles and Cambridge, UK. Cambridge, UK. papers.

IPCC (2007b), ‘Summary for Strachan, N.; Kannan, R.; Pye, S. Web link: Policymakers’, In: Climate Change (2007), ‘Final report on DTI-Defra http://www.landecon.cam.ac.uk/staff/pr 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and scenarios and sensitivities, using the ofiles/tbarker.htm Vulnerability. Contribution of Working UK MARKAL and MARKAL-

Group II to the Fourth Assessment MACRO energy system models’, PSI, Cambridge Centre for Climate Report of the Intergovernmental Panel London, May. on Climate Change [M.L. Parry, O.F. Change Mitigation Research (4CMR) Canziani, J.P. Palutikof, P.J. van der Trewavas, A. (2002), ‘Malthus foiled Linden and C.E. Hanson, (Eds.)], again and again’, Nature, 418, 668-670 The Centre’s objectives are ‘to foresee Cambridge University Press, (8 August 2002) | strategies, policies and processes to Cambridge, UK, pp 7-22. doi:10.1038/nature01013 mitigate human-induced climate change IPCC (2007c), ‘Summary for van den Bergh, J. C. J. M. (2004), which are effective, efficient and Policymakers’, In: Climate Change ‘Optimal climate policy is a utopia: equitable, including understanding and 2007: Mitigation. Contribution of from quantitative to qualitative cost- modelling transitions to low-carbon Working Group III to the Fourth benefit analysis’, Ecological energy-environment-economy Assessment Report of the Economics, 48, 385-393. systems.’ The Centre aims to be at the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate forefront of research in the area of Weitzman, M. L. (2008) ‘On modeling climate-change mitigation through Change [B. Metz, O. R. Davidson, P. R. and interpreting the economics of Bosch, R. Dave, L. A. Meyer (Eds.)], technological change induced by use of catastrophic climate change’, economic instruments, such as the EU’s Cambridge University Press, http://www.economics.harvard.edu/faculty/weitzma Cambridge, UK. n/files/modeling.pdf Feb 8 2008 emission trading scheme, applying a multi-disciplinary approach and Jaffe, A.; Newell, R.; Stavins, R. TERRY BARKER informing national and international (2005), ‘A tale of two market failures: policy-making. The research is Technology and environmental policy’. Cambridge Centre for Climate Change organised around energy-environment- , 54, 164-174. Mitigation Research (4CMR), economy (E3) econometric and Department of Land Economy, Jänicke, M.; Jacob, K. (2004), ‘Lead simulation modelling at UK, European University of Cambridge, Markets for Environmental and global levels. 19 Silver Street, Cambridge CB3 9EP Innovations: A New Role for the Nation State’, Global Environmental Web link: Politics, 4:1, 29-46. Biographical details http://www.landecon.cam.ac.uk/researc h/eeprg/4cmr/index.htm Patuelli, R.; Nijkamp, P.; Pels, E. Dr Terry Barker is an economist. He (2005), ‘Environmental tax reform and is Director of the Cambridge Centre This article is based on a presentation by the double dividend: A meta-analytical for Climate Change Mitigation Dr Barker at the ECG’s 2008 performance assessment’, Ecological Research (4CMR), Department of Distinguished Guest Lecture and Economics, 55 (4) 564-583. Land Economy, University of Symposium ‘The Science of Carbon Cambridge. Dr Barker is also Leader Trading’.

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Having our climate cake and eating it: reduced emissions from deforestation Jon Lovett, University of Byrd-Hagel Resolution the economy (Box 1) [1]. The Senate thus considered the Kyoto Protocol to Resolved: That it is the sense of the Twente and University of be both unfair and damaging to York and Senate that − prosperity. As the USA was at this (1) The United States should not be time the major emitter of greenhouse Margaret Skutsch, a signatory to any protocol to, or gases, from this point on the Kyoto University of Twente other agreement regarding, the Protocol was irreparably wounded. United Nations Framework Nonetheless, other countries, which had Introduction Convention on Climate Change of ratified the Kyoto Protocol, continued 1992, at negotiations in Kyoto in to implement policy aimed at meeting The chemistry behind reduced December 1997, or thereafter, their Kyoto commitments. In 2003 the emissions from deforestation is which would − European Union passed the European straightforward. Plants sequester (A) mandate new commitments to Parliament Directive 2003/30/EC atmospheric carbon through limit or reduce greenhouse gas which promoted greater use of biofuels photosynthesis and this is released emissions for the Annex I Parties, for transport as “part of the package of when forests are degraded or cleared. unless the protocol or other measures needed to comply with the Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas and agreement also mandates new Kyoto Protocol…”. so policies that limit the level of specific scheduled commitments to deforestation will help meet the But, as with other climate change limit or reduce greenhouse gas ultimate objective of the 1992 United policies, Kyoto was only one of three emissions for Developing Country Nations Framework Convention on major policy objectives in the directive. Parties within the same compliance Climate Change (UNFCCC) for The other two were creating new period, or “stabilization of greenhouse gas opportunities for rural development and concentrations in the atmosphere at a (B) result in serious harm to the the strategic need to reduce energy level that would prevent dangerous economy of the United States; and import dependency. The example of the biofuels directive neatly illustrates anthropogenic interference with the (2) Any such protocol or other climate system.” the fact that policy-makers are keen to agreement which would require the have their climate cake (Kyoto Following the 2007 Intergovernmental advice and consent of the Senate to th compliance) and eat it too (multiple Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)’s 4 ratification should be accompanied additional policy objectives). The same Assessment Report, there is now by a detailed explanation of any is true for reduced emissions from increased certainty that observed legislation or regulatory actions that deforestation, a policy that was a major changes in the Earth’s climate can be may be required to implement the topic of discussion at the UNFCCC attributed to human activities. This has protocol or other agreement and Bali meeting and which we now cover given rise to much concern and there should also be accompanied by an in more detail. appears to be strong political will to analysis of the detailed financial deal with human-induced climate costs and other impacts on the Reduced Emissions from change, for example, the then British economy of the United States which premier Tony Blair said when he took would be incurred by the Deforestation in Developing up the presidency of the G8 at implementation of the protocol or countries (REDD) Gleneagles in 2005 that climate change other agreement. is “probably, long-term the single most The recent Stern Review on the important issue we face as a global Box 1: Byrd-Hagel Resolution from the economics of climate change [2] points community”. 1st Session of the 105th Congress of out that 20-25% of global green house the United States of America expressing gas emissions are from tropical However, the politics of climate change the sense of the Senate regarding the deforestation and suggests that reducing are far from clear cut. The current conditions for the United States deforestation emissions is a cost- becoming a signatory to any British prime minister, Gordon Brown, efficient mitigation option. Putting in international agreement on greenhouse in a speech two weeks before the 2007 place policy measures to reduce UNFCCC meeting in Bali – the first gas emissions under the United Nations (Passed by the Senate 95-0). tropical deforestation also potentially since the IPCC report – said that “… meets two other major objectives. the role of government from now on is Similar concerns can be seen in the Firstly, about a billion people are transformed. Once government famous Byrd-Hagel resolution of 1997 dependent on forests in the tropics. objectives were economic growth and in which the United States Senate voted Many of these are the poorest of the social cohesion. Now they are unanimously not to be a signatory in poor and helping them to improve their prosperity, fairness and environmental any agreement that contained the livelihoods could help to meet the care.” It is important to note that principle of ‘common but differentiated Millennium Development Goal of environmental care is linked with two responsibilities’ in which developed poverty alleviation. Secondly, much of other governmental objectives: countries bore the burden of mitigating the world’s terrestrial biodiversity is prosperity and fairness. climate change or which might harm

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found in tropical forests. Protecting a specific project as in the case of the carrying out their own inventories and these forests will go a long way current clean development mechanism. monitoring of their carbon stocks. towards fulfilling the objectives of the Use of the carbon payments would be a Convention on Biological Diversity. matter of national sovereignty to be Community forestry used however the government sees fit. Analysis of country-level emissions Large scale logging and land clearance with and without forestry shows both This proposal is contentious. A generally requires capital for the the magnitude of forest-related country, such as India, which has equipment needed; almost by emissions and their spatial distribution historically looked after its forests, will definition, this does not involve poor (Table 1). When forestry is included have a lower rate of deforestation as a people. However, when forests are then developing countries with high reference scenario than a country such used by local people for their deforestation rates have per capita as Brazil, which has a high rate of subsistence needs (for firewood, emissions comparable to, or exceeding deforestation. Brazil thus stands to grazing or low level shifting those of developed nations. Under the gain more through changes in its cultivation) they can lose carbon Kyoto Protocol Clean Development deforestation rate. The proposed through degradation. Until recently Mechanism (CDM) it is possible to national-level scheme of payments is very little attention has been paid to the obtain funds for afforestation and designed to prevent a country lowering methodology of measuring this type of reforestation by planting new forests to deforestation in one part of the country degradation, though it has certainly act as new carbon sinks. These funds whilst stepping it up elsewhere. This been grossly underestimated. The are for new plantations in areas not kind of safeguard is necessary for the potential for avoiding loss of carbon covered by forest in 1990 and come integrity of the policy. However, this through degradation is the linking with many restrictions and high means that if some stakeholders work factor between REDD compensation transaction costs. So far only one hard to reduce deforestation in one area policy and poverty alleviation. project has been approved, in China, while others continue to destroy forests Implementing community forest and in no way does this process counter elsewhere, there will be no overall gain management with funding from REDD the problem of deforestation. and therefore no financial payment, could form the basis for large-scale which means that setting up an internal Table 1: Estimates of country emissions involvement and empowerment of per capita per year with and without payment system to encourage actors forest dependent people in combating forestry [3] based on UNFCCC and such as community groups to maintain carbon emissions. World Resources Institute sources their forest, is rather complicated. The numbers are compelling. If we Country Emissions Emissions There is also disagreement take the example of seven dry forest per per internationally about how the countries in southern and eastern Africa capita/year capita/year funding would work. Some Parties where there is no primary undisturbed without with to the UNFCCC support a market forest remaining, and where we forestry forestry based system with credits to trade estimate off-take of products through USA 23.91 21.06 against emission reduction targets of community use to result in a net annual 13.31 13.48 the industrialised countries, while reduction of biomass stock of 0.9-2.3 Malaysia 7.20 37.30 others, such as Brazil, would prefer Brazil 4.90 13.00 tons/ha/year, then the total carbon the establishment of an Indonesia 2.40 14.80 emissions due just to this degradation is internationally managed fund to help Nepal 1.30 6.70 on the order of 178m tons CO2/year for counter deforestation. the seven countries. Payments based In contrast, the policy of Reduced There are also concerns about the rights on opportunity costs needed to prevent Emissions from Deforestation in of people traditionally dependent on degradation are $0.7-$1.8 per ton CO2 Developing Countries (REDD), which forests. Local people could be [7], so if we take a relatively low value was introduced by Papua New Guinea alienated from forests in the name of of $10/ton for compensation of and Costa Rica in 2005 [4] and which is “conservation” and carbon funds might avoided CO2 emissions, then REDD currently under discussion by the be used to enforce restrictive laws could generate around $1424 UNFCCC [5,6] includes deforestation, without consideration of local needs. million/year for poverty alleviation degradation and sustainable This rises of the question of who owns through community forestry in the management. The option being the carbon. One may assume that seven countries. considered is that a reference scenario where forest land is held privately, the Community forest management is a for national rate of deforestation is carbon savings are the property of the well development instrument and established for each country land-owner, but in cases where local institution in many countries including participating. Then, over the communities live in, and have for Tanzania, Nepal, Philippines and commitment period, the actual rate of generations utilised forest that is Mexico. Under most CFM deforestation is monitored and nominally state owned, the situation is arrangements the rights and compared to the reference scenario. not so clear. Furthermore, the responsibilities with regard to natural Improvements in deforestation rate are biodiversity conservation objective may forest management are vested in local translated into tonnes carbon equivalent also need value attached to it. In the communities, including rights to and some form of compensation will be rest of the article we will focus on products in kind and income from sales paid. The scheme would be entirely community forestry and discuss the of timber and non-timber forest voluntary and the payments would be possibility of local communities products. made on a national basis, rather than for

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Management is usually administered by Conclusion [5] E. Zahabu, M. M. Skutsch, H. a local committee through by-laws on Sosovele and R. E. Malimbwi, Reduced off-take, plus protective measures such REDD policy is still under discussion emissions from deforestation and as fire prevention and patrols against by the UNFCCC and is not without degradation, African Journal of unauthorised exploitation. Rewards problems. Some environmental lobbies , 2007, 45, 451–453. may be distributed in different ways, oppose it on the grounds that emissions http://www.blackwell- often through a village fund. Thus from forests are not of the same nature synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365- 2028.2007.00886.x developing a REDD policy which as emissions from fossil fuels. includes opportunities for community However, it has been give a very [6] M. M. Skutsch and E. Trines, forest management to receive financial favourable review at the Bali Report from the UNFCCC meeting in rewards also helps over come some of conference and a wide range of Bali, African Journal of Ecology, the equity concerns associated with different Parties are agreed that some 2008, 46, 1–2. http://www.blackwell- policy in this area is needed. synergy.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/j.1365- national-level payments mentioned 2028.2008.00943.x earlier. The discussion at the moment is on the [7] M. M. Skutsch, E. Zahabu, M. K. details: A REDD policy based on community McCall, S.P. Singh, E. Trines, J. C. • Will only the carbon emissions forest would be building on a well Lovett, J. J. Verplanke, B. S. Karky, P. avoided by stopping deforestation established model, about 17% of the van Laake, K. Banskota and R. Basnet, be rewarded, or will emissions world’s forest is under community Forest degradation, poverty and the from reducing degradation rates control and the proportion is increasing, carbon market, Proceedings of the also be included? though not all of this is managed National Academy of Sciences U. S. A., • What about the additional carbon sustainably or in a ‘planned’ way. in review. Much of this area involves poor that is sequestered when forests communities. If it where possible for stop degrading and start to return JON LOVETT & MARGARET there to be community measurement of to their original healthy state? SKUTSCH the forest carbon stock, then there could • How will changes in deforestation University of Twente, The Netherlands be grounds for a local ‘claim’ on the and degradation rates be measured carbon and the communities would be and verified? Jon Lovett has researched both the empowered to manage their forests. • Will the money come from carbon potential impacts of climate change, particularly in Africa, and the Moreover, local measurement would be credits or from a fund managed by cheaper than professional forest an international panel? institutional economics of community inventories and so reduce the forest management. He is founding Debates in the coming months will be director of the Centre for Ecology, Law transaction costs of implementing the crucial to resolving these issues and to policy. and Policy at the University of York, formulating a policy which is effective and is also Professor of Sustainable from a carbon point of view, straight Development at the University of Kyoto: Think Global Act forward to implement, and of benefit to Twente in the Netherlands. millions of forest-dependent people. Local project Margaret Skutsch is Associate The Kyoto: Think Global Act Local References Professor at the Technology and (K:TGAL) project is currently working Group at the on 25 sites in seven countries (Senegal, [1] J. C. Lovett, 1997 Kyoto Protocol, University of Twente. She has worked Mali, Guinea Bissau, Tanzania, Nepal, Journal of African Law, 2005, 49, 94- on community forest management India and Papua New Guinea) with four 96. (Available as a pdf from the issues in Africa and Asia since 1980, regional teams. The project trains Journal of African Law web site) and is currently heading an people to measure the carbon stock [2] Nicholas Stern, The Economics of international research project “Kyoto: changes in their forest and assesses the Climate Change: The Stern Review, Think Global, Act Local” which is carbon impact of community forest Cambridge University Press, 2007. investigating the potential for community forest management to management together with quantifying [3] E. Trines, N. Hoehne, M. Jung, M. combat emissions from deforestation the transaction costs of carbon credits Skutsch, A. Petsonk, G. Silva-Chavez, and degradation. and potential social benefit of carbon P. Smith, G-J. Nabuurs, P. Verweij and credits. B. Schlamadinger. Integrating Contact: Margaret Skutsch, The results are encouraging. Villagers agriculture, forest and other land-use Technology and Sustainable with 4-7 years primary education can in future climate regimes. Netherlands Development Group, CSTM, handle mapping and inventory with Programme on Scientific Assessment University of Twente, The Netherlands. only limited support necessary, and Policy Analysis, (WAB) Climate Email: [email protected] especially for maintenance of Change, 2006. Web link: computers. The community forests [4] M. Skutsch and H. T. A.. Bressers, http://www.communitycarbonforestry.org assessed are accumulating carbon at 5- Power, motivation and cognition in the 10 tons CO /ha/year, not including an This article is based on a presentation by 2 construction of climate policy: the case Professor Lovett at the ECG’s 2008 allowance for degradation avoided. of tropical forestry. In V. Grover (Ed.), Transaction costs are highly subject to Distinguished Guest Lecture and What Future for the Kyoto Protocol? Symposium ‘The Science of Carbon economies of scale related to , Oxford, 2007. supervision costs. Trading’.

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‘Cool Earth’

Cool Earth is a UK based The variety of tropical forests means The earliest that barriers to global trade they occupy different positions on the in deforestation carbon abatement can charity launched in 2007 to marginal cost abatement curve, with be dismantled is 2012. A hiatus in fund the conservation of estimates varying by location and land- significant abatement of deforestation rainforests as a means of use from under $1 to $2000 /tCO2 [4]. until then is untenable. Urgent action is tackling climate change. Cool We nonetheless estimate that at least required by the UK and like-minded half of deforestation emissions could be partners to guarantee the future Earth currently has 20,000 prevented through investments redeemability of forward investments. members, who have funded equivalent to less than $5 per tonnes of This will unlock the potential for rapid the conservation of over 9 CO2e. growth in finance flows for cost effective abatement through reduced million tonnes of CO stored 2 Rainforests and carbon deforestation in developing countries. in endangered tropical trading rainforests. Matthew Owen How can tropical rainforests from Cornwall College The UNFCCC/Kyoto agreement be protected? established a partial global carbon outlines the significance of market infrastructure, but explicitly Cool Earth has achieved much through tropical rainforests in barred trade in abatement through public support for targeted conservation balancing the global carbon reduced deforestation. As a result, of endangered forest. To scale-up the forest carbon in developing countries is efforts of the NGO community, budget. not currently priced. This makes global national level governance and mitigation unnecessarily expensive, and leadership is critical. Why conserve tropical discriminates against developing rainforests? countries, who are not able to realise Forest protection considerations need to the global market value of their natural be fully integrated into national poverty The atmospheric CO2 concentration is carbon assets. But developed (Annex I) reduction and growth plans. A range of currently growing at a rate 1.9 ppm/yr countries are allowed to set off their schemes to support this are being [1]. This increase is primarily through carbon targets against their domestic established, such as the World Bank’s fossil fuel use and land-use change, forest sinks. This disparity is unethical, Forest Carbon Partnership Facility roughly 80% and 20% respectively, economically inefficient, and (FCPF) – which will help countries with tropical deforestation and environmentally dangerous. prepare to take advantage of future degradation accounting for 96% of REDD benefits and provide a limited land-use emissions [2]. Only the carbon market can deliver the fund which will purchase credits from required scale of abatement through successful emissions reductions The role of tropical forest is reduced deforestation. In a perfect programmes. The Congo Basin Forest nonetheless understated. If left market each unit of carbon – sunk, Initiative and GEF will also offer undisturbed, tropical forests are emitted or avoided – would be assistance to developing nations. estimated to sequester 4.4 GtCO2e/yr accounted for globally and floated to (15% of all anthropogenic emissions) achieve a global market-clearing carbon The specificities of forest types, [1]. Reducing deforestation and price equilibrium. communities and opportunities means degradation therefore not only that forest protection will ultimately be decreases the release of CO2 emissions However, carbon price stability is secured through projects – ideally, but but also moderates the effects of crucial during the transition period to a not necessarily, fitting into a coherent emissions by preserving a sink. low carbon global economy. Jon Lovett national programme. From the wealth has described the Reduced Emissions of experience and lessons available, Pristine tropical forests also provide from Deforestation in Developing certain principles for successful many other varied services at the local Countries (REDD) scheme, which projects are clear: to global scales. Rainfall generated promotes carbon trading as a means to from the Amazon supplies the Rio Plata reduce deforestation (see 1. Finance mechanisms are needed basin, which generates 70% of the GDP accompanying article). Compensation that promote new forest business of southern South America. under the REDD scheme could perhaps models that will provide local and Deforestation of the Congo basin has be further exploited to decrease the global services, and been linked to reduced precipitation by global emissions cap to a level needed support communities who depend 5-15% less in the US Great Lakes and for a 2 °C stabilisation. In this way the on forests for their livelihoods. 25% less in the region north of the cost of global mitigation can be 2. Forests can be fenced. Protected Black Sea [3]. Once rainforests are reduced, while maintaining the stable area programmes can work, but removed, replanting may not restore carbon price essential to drive they need to integrate poverty these complex global weather patterns. technological transformation. reduction and alternative livelihoods elements and address tenure/rights issues.

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3. Sustainable Forest Management, order to attract the scale of investment College, where his research interests developed with and for needed, some level of precedent-setting include carbon finance and communities, will often be the best investment by a developed nation environmental resource trading. He is way to prevent deforestation and at would be required, ideally for a also directing the Eliasch review into the same time contribute to poverty duration greater than 15 years. Financing Mechanisms for Avoided reduction objectives. Forest Deforestation and Clean Energy communities know best how to Cool Earth is working to develop a commissioned by the Prime Minister in protect their forests assets. Carbon better understanding of these September 2007. Matthew is Acting finance will often work best as a opportunities on the part of capital Director of Cool Earth, a UK-based supplement to other forest-derived markets. Ultimately, a global carbon organisation that is pioneering avoided income streams. price will stabilise around the lowest deforestation as a credible means of 4. Successful projects need to employ cost of emission mitigation. Avoided tackling climate change. Cool Earth sophisticated monitoring and deforestation is the most likely supplier Action is a registered charity, launched verification techniques to ensure of such mitigation and it will have to in June 2007 with the backing of Sir the market credibility of their play a central role in future negotiations David Attenborough and Sir Nicholas carbon assets. concerning the post-2012 carbon Stern. It has 14,000 members in 14 market. countries and has secured over twelve In order to obtain sufficient finance million tonnes of CO2 in 36,000 (particularly from the private sector) for References individually sponsored acres of the establishment of large-scale forest endangered rainforest. Prior to joining protection schemes, successful projects [1] IPCC (2007). ‘Summary for Cornwall College, Matthew was a need to generate desirable and credible Policymakers’, In: Climate Change director with Morgan Stanley. forest assets. These assets are likely to 2007: The Physical Science Basis. incorporate carbon and non-carbon Contribution of Working Group I to the Web links elements and should be capable of Fourth Assessment Report of the being integrated into the future carbon Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Cool Earth: http://www.coolearth.org/ market. Change [S. Solomon, D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Stern Review on the Economics of What financing mechanisms Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller Climate Change: (Eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, http://www.occ.gov.uk/activities/stern.htm are appropriate? Cambridge, UK. Rainforest Protection Organisations There are various options for attracting [2] Houghton, R.A. (2003). Revised institutional investment to the (Reproduced with the permission of Ben protection of rainforests. These range estimates of the annual net flux of carbon to the atmosphere from changes Jones, [email protected]) from the securitisation of mixed incomes generated from pooled in land use and land management Conservation International projects, to taking equity control over 1850–2000, Tellus, 55B, 378-390. Pdf www.conservation.org forest-derived carbon assets. But the available at http://www.blackwell- Fauna & Flora International www.fauna- success of any of these financial tools synergy.com/toc/teb/55/2 flora.org depends upon establishing a fundable Friends of the Earth www.foe.org carbon credit scheme. [3] Global Canopy Programme (2007). Forest Council http://vivocarbon.org/main.php?m=3 www.fscoax.org Global Forest Watch Capital markets have little experience [4] See ‘Stern Review’, Chapter 25 www.globalforestwatch.org of investing in forest product Greenpeace International derivatives. The international timber and Conrad, K. (2007). Environmental www.greenpeace.org trade is dominated by Swiss, Chinese Change Institute Climate Change and IUCN: The World Conservation Union and Lichtenstein registered producers. the Fate of the Amazon Conference www.iucn.org Domestic trades are similarly opaque http://www.eci.ox.ac.uk/news/events/07 Native Forest Network www.nfn.org.au and account for up to 80% of demand 0320amazonconference.php Rainforest Action Network www.ran.org in nations such as Brazil. Rainforest Alliance www.rainforest- MATTHEW OWEN, alliance.org Rainforest Foundation UK As such, it is doubtful that the potential Cornwall College, Pool, Redruth, Cornwall www.rainforestfoundationuk.org volatility in carbon pricing could be Rainforest Information Centre accommodated in a fixed income www.forests.org/ric instrument. This leaves an equity This article is based partly on a Rainforest Rescue www.arborday.org mechanism as the more likely way of presentation by Matthew Owen at the Tourism Concern securing funding. ECG’s 2008 Distinguished Guest www.tourismconcern.org.uk Lecture and Symposium ‘The Science of The Nature Conservancy The Kyoto Protocol’s Joint Carbon Trading’, and also on Matthew’s www.nature.org/rainforests/ World Rainforest Movement Implementation mechanism offers the involvement with the charity ‘Cool Earth’. Matthew Owen is head of www.wrm.org.uy best chance of success since it would World Wide Fund for Nature www.wwf.org allow forest-derived credits without research at the Cornwall Business affecting price stability. However, in School (CBS), part of Cornwall

14 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

Accounting for biofuels: green, black or shades of grey? Nigel Mortimer, North by drying or other pre-treatment, possible methodologies for assessing converting it to a biofuels and then the total GHG emissions associated Energy Associates Ltd. distributing it to eventual consumers. with biofuels production. These consist Examples of current biofuels and their of the Renewable Fuels Agency (RFA) Current controversy biomass feedstocks are summarised in Technical Guidance (RFA, 2008), the “Biofuel” is a term which covers a Table 1. British Standards Institution (BSI) PAS 2050 (BSI, 2008), and the European range of liquid of gaseous fuels which Table 1: Current biofuels and Commission (EC) Draft Renewable are produced from organic materials biomass feedstocks and can be used as alternatives to Energy Directive (EC, 2008). The conventional transport fuels, such as Biofuel Biomass differences between these accounting diesel and petrol that are derived from feedstock methodologies, with regard to co- fossil fuels. Since these organic Biodiesel Recycled product allocation and reference land materials, or biomass feedstocks, vegetable oil use, are summarised in Table 2. absorb the same amount of carbon Tallow Jatropha dioxide (CO2) as they release Methodological effects subsequently when the biofuels is Oilseed rape burnt, they offer apparent prospects of Oil palm Differences between accounting being “carbon neutral”. Soy bean methodologies can cause significant Bioethanol Maize/corn differences in estimates of the total However, the actual benefits of Sugar beet GHG emissions associated with biofuels, as potential means of assisting Sugar cane biofuels. Relevant and subsequent the mitigation of global climate change, Wheat results have been derived from the depend on many factors and complex Biomass Environmental Assessment interactions. In particular, it is Table 2: Main differences between Tool (BEAT) which has been produced necessary to determine the total accounting methodologies for the Department for Environment, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions Accounting Co- Reference Food and Rural Affairs (DEFRA) and associated with their production and method- product land use the in the United use. In addition to CO2, other GHG ology allocation Kingdom (DEFRA, 2008). emissions, such as methane (CH4) and RFA Substitution No In particular, BEAT has been used to nitrous oxide (N2O), have to be taken Technical credits reference into account. Guidance land use estimate the net GHG emissions BSI PAS Price Direct land savings of biofuels which measures the Depending on the biomass feedstock 2050 use percentage reduction in total GHG and its original source, how and where change emissions from any given biofuel it is cultivated or otherwise derived, EC Energy Direct land relative to those of the conventional and how it is converted into a biofuels, Renewable content use transport fuel which it replaces. total GHG emissions can vary from a Energy change Examples of the effect of applying very low, or, indeed, negative, value to Directive different co-product allocation very high values that exceed those from procedures to the production of the production and use of conventional Various considerations throughout the bioethanol from wheat are shown in transport fuels. Whilst such results full process chain have to be Figure 1. The main co-product of have been interpreted in different ways accommodated and the details of how bioethanol production from wheat is by people with different perspectives, this is achieved are governed by distillers’ dark grains and soluble the Biofuels Working Group of the accounting rules or methodologies. (DDGS) which is normally sold as Royal Society concluded that “each There are a number of different animal feed. In this case, using biofuels option needs to be assessed methodologies which are proposed and substitution credits which subtract individually on its own merits” (Royal these have different approaches to two GHG emissions associated with soy Society, 2008). essential aspects of the LCA of meal animal feed that is displaced by biofuels. One aspect concerns “co- DDGS generated the lowest net GHG Life cycle assessment product allocation” which determines emissions savings. Whilst co-product how GHG emissions are divided allocation by price produces The necessary scientific approach to between the different outputs that can intermediate net GHG emissions resolving the current controversy over arise during the production of certain savings, using the energy content of the biofuels involves the application of life biofuels. bioethanol and DDGS results in the cycle assessment (LCA). This highest net GHG emissions savings. established technique consists of The second aspect addresses “reference evaluating the full process chain of any land use” which is a means for Although the current version of the biofuels, including cultivating, incorporating the GHG emissions RFA Technical Guidance excludes harvesting and transporting or effects of alternative uses of the land reference land use, this is being re- otherwise collecting the biomass for growing biomass feedstocks. At the considered in the light of the United feedstock, preparing it for processing moment, there are at least three Kingdom review of the Renewable

15 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

Figure 1: Effect of co-product allocation procedures Figure 2: Effect on net GHG emissions savings for on net greenhouse gas emissions savings of biodiesel production from oilseed rape of reference bioethanol production from wheat land use

Transport Fuels Obligation (RTFO). It currently the most controversial is possible that all accounting Technological effects consideration for biofuels production. methodologies will be modified to Before considering the important issue The basis of this issue is quite simple. include the effects of direct and indirect of indirect or displaced land use further, It is possible that biomass feedstocks land use change (LUC). It is relatively it is necessary to address the effects of grown on land for biofuels may easy to accommodate the GHG technological choices on the total GHG displace the cultivation of other crops, emissions effects when alternative land emissions of biofuels production. especially for food production, into uses do not involve the creation of a These can have a significant influence other areas of the world leading to the useful product such as food. on net GHG emissions savings as damage or destruction stocks or sinks of carbon in the soil and vegetation. However, when food or other demonstrated in Figure 3 and Figure 4 This could result in the release of production is displaced by the for biodiesel production from oilseed substantial quantities of GHG cultivation of a biomass feedstock, it is rape and bioethanol production from emissions that would equal or exceed necessary to determine the nature of the wheat, respectively. the net GHG emissions savings of the displacement and its effects on total There are many different technological original biofuels. GHG emissions. Deciding the location choices in the design of biofuels and implications of alternative process chains including different Potentially, this amounts to a powerful production is not simple but the agricultural practices, different means case against biofuels production as a consequences for on GHG emissions of providing heat and electricity for means of mitigating global climate can be dramatic as shown in Figure 2. processing and different uses for the co- change (Fargione et al, 2008; This illustrates the effect of net GHG products. It can be seen from Figures Searchinger et al, 2008). This concern emissions savings for biodiesel 3 and 4 that the use of combined heat is a major focus of the RTFO review in production from oilseed rape in the and power and co-products for fuels the United Kingdom. Thorough United Kingdom with no reference land can improve net GHG emissions analysis is required to form robust use, with cultivation on maintained savings substantially. conclusions and subsequent policy. fallow land and with cultivation on land However, it is clear that the outcomes used to grow oilseed rape for food from any rigorous analysis will always which is now switched, for example, to Displaced land use be heavily qualified. In particular, Australia (Mortimer, 2006). The issue of displaced land use is given the existing state of knowledge, it

Figure 3: Effect of technological choices on net GHG Figure 4: Effect of technological choices on net GHG emissions savings for biodiesel production from emissions savings for bioethanol production from oilseed rape wheat 16 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

indirect land use change, the development and commercialisation of future biofuel technologies which may result in very high net GHG emissions savings need to be encouraged.

Conclusions A number of important conclusions can be drawn from this brief examination of biofuels. There is a need to harmonise accounting methodologies for the evaluation of total GHG emissions associated with biofuels production and, indeed, all proposed measures for mitigating global climate change to ensure consistency and clarity with results. Such results should form the basis for science-based policies which Figure 5: Potential biodiesel production in the United Kingdom incorporate targets for net GHG emissions savings. These policies will require sound methods of accreditation for their implementation. Additionally, these policies should promote good technological choices for current biofuels production and encourage the realisation of new biofuels technologies. Above all, land use displacement and the destruction of carbon stores, globally, should be avoided. This is a conclusion which not only affects biofuels production but also has serious implications for the agricultural industry, generally, along with rural and urban development and, ultimately, future human behaviour and lifestyles.

Figure 6: Potential bioethanol production in the United Kingdom is impossible to be totally confident productive purposes. This has over the precise and complete chain of implications for the total amount of References land displacement that potentially link biofuels which can be grown, as British Standards Institution (2008) the cultivation of any given crop to suggested by Figures 5 and 6. These “PAS 2050 – Specification for the indirect and remote GHG emissions. indicate the net amount of biodiesel and Assessment of Life Cycle Greenhouse Greater understanding which enables bioethanol, respectively, that can be Gas Emissions of Goods and Services” this issue to be resolved will only obtained from set-aside land in the Publicly Available Specification, emerge over time. Despite this, broad United Kingdom in comparison with London, United Kingdom. guidelines can be established. In proposed targets for production in particular, the destruction of any 2010. Whilst the existing target cannot Department for Environment, Food and significant carbon stores, such as be achieved with biodiesel production Rural Affairs (2008) “Biomass continuously grown forest, wetlands, from oilseed rape, it is more attainable Environmental Assessment Tool, peatlands and permanent grasslands, with bioethanol production from wheat Version 2.0” prepared by AEA Group should be avoided anywhere for any and, particularly, sugar beet. This plc and North Energy Associates Ltd, purpose as this is directly responsible, demonstrates that target setting is quite website launch expected June 2008. as an act in itself, for global climate complex and requires qualification to European Commission (2008) change. Hence, emphasis should be realise real GHG emissions savings. “Proposal for a Directive of the placed on growing biomass feedstocks Apart from anything else, the type of European Parliament and of the for current biofuels in areas which does biofuels, its biomass feedstock and Council on the Promotion of the Use of not result in land displacement. where this is produced has to be Energy from Renewable Sources”, accommodated within essential target- Within the United Kingdom, this would Version 15.4, Commission of the driven policies. As well as avoiding the consist of agricultural land, such as set- European Communities, Brussels, worst consequences of direct and aside, which is not currently used for Belgium.

17 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

Fargione, J., Hill, J., Timan, D., NIGEL MORTIMER, consultancy contract work on a broad Polasky, S., and Hawthorne, P. (2008) range of projects in the United North Energy Associates Ltd., “Land Clearing and the Biofuel Carbon Kingdom and elsewhere. His current Watsons Chambers, Debt” Science Express, work involves the evaluation of 5 – 15 Market Place, www.sciencexpress.org. primary energy inputs and greenhouse Castle Square, gas emissions associated with biomass Mortimer, N. D. (2006) “The Role of S1 2GH, energy technologies, biomaterials and Life Cycle Assessment in Policy and United Kingdom biochemicals. Clients for this work Commercial Development: The Case of include the European Commission, the Liquid Biofuels in the United Tel: +44 (0) 114 201 2604 Department for the Environment, Food Kingdom” 5th Australian Life Cycle E-mail: and Rural Affairs, the Department of Assessment Conference, Melbourne, [email protected] Business, Enterprise and Regulatory Australia. Reform, the Environment Agency, Renewable Fuels Agency (2008) Biographical details British Sugar plc, Biofuels Corporation “Carbon and Reporting Nigel Mortimer is one of the founding plc and the Northeast Biofuels within the Renewable Transport Fuel directors of North Energy Associates Consortium. Nigel is a member of the Obligation” London, United Kingdom. Ltd. This consultancy company has Royal Society’s Biofuels Working Group which recently published Royal Society (2008) “Sustainable been involved in the practical implementation of “Sustainable Biofuels: Prospects and Biofuels: Prospects and Challenges” Challenges. London, United Kingdom. development since 1991. Nigel has a BSc in and a PhD in Energy This article is based on a presentation by Searchinger, T., Heimlich, R., Technology. Nigel formerly held the Dr Mortimer at the ECG’s 2008 Houghton, R. A., Fengxia Dong, Chair of Sustainable Energy Distinguished Guest Lecture and Elobeid, A., Fabiosa, J., Tokgoz, S., Development at Sheffield Hallam Symposium ‘The Science of Carbon Hayes, D., and Tun-Hsiang Yu (2008) University where he was the Head of Trading’. “Use of US Croplands for Biofuels the Resources Research Unit. His Increases Greenhouse Gases through specific expertise within North Energy Emissions from Land Use” Science includes life cycle assessment. He has Express, www.sciencexpress.org. managed and undertaken research and

Biophysical remediation of petroleum hydrocarbon contaminated soil in Yorkshire Our industrial past has left us Contaminated land b. pollution of controlled waters is being, or is likely to be, with a large number of legislation caused. brownfield sites, many of In the UK, new policy initiatives and Part II(a) was extended in 2006 to which contain elevated various pieces of specific legislation for include radioactivity in England and concentrations of dealing with contaminated land have Wales, but this currently only applies to been introduced since the 1990 human exposure to radioactivity. contaminants in the soil and Environmental Protection Act. groundwater. These Local Authorities Local Authorities substances pose potentially Part II(a) of the Environmental are responsible for the inspection of Protection Act 1990 Part II(a) of the contaminated land and for ensuring significant human health risks Environmental Protection Act 1990 was remediation is undertaken where as well as impacting on introduced under Section 57 of the necessary. Local Authorities also groundwater, surface water, Environment Act 1995 and came into maintain a Public Register detailing the effect in England and in 2000 regulatory actions that they have and flora and fauna. and Wales in 2001. implemented. The Environment Agency has a complementary role with Under Part II(a), the statutory definition specific responsibilities such as acting ECG committee member of contaminated land is: James Lymer from the as the enforcing Authority for • land which appears to the Local designated special sites. engineering and Authority in whose area it is environmental consultancy situated to be in such a condition, Planning Contaminated land is also a firm, Wardell Armstrong LLP, by reason of substances in, on or consideration within the Local under the land, that: Authority planning system. When describes some of the a. significant harm is being planning permission is sought for the regulatory and practical caused or there is a significant development of a site that is considered considerations of cleaning-up possibility of such harm being to be potentially contaminated, the local planning authority will take this into contaminated land in the UK. caused; or

18 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

geological maps and industrial profiles. A qualitative risk assessment is then performed for the site based on the conceptual model. Where the Phase I Desk Study identifies potentially significant source- pathway-receptor linkages, then a Phase II (Site Investigation) may be carried out to provide quantitative information on the contaminant source, to assess pathways and the risk to the receptors as part of a Generic Quantitative Risk Assessment (GQRA). Phase II involves obtaining soil and/or groundwater samples and submitting them for chemical analysis. Soil and rock samples are obtained by the drilling or excavation of the ground. Contaminant concentrations in soil and groundwater are compared with available generic assessment criteria Figure 1: Conceptual model of source-pathway-receptor linkages used in and if concentrations are particularly risk assessment of contaminated land. Diagram courtesy of Wardell elevated, then a Detailed Quantitative Armstrong LLP. Risk Assessment (DQRA) can be performed. A DQRA involves the use account and may require investigative Contaminated land of computer models to derive site work to be completed by the applicant. investigation specific assessment criteria for Developers (applicants) often comparison with contaminant commission specialist environmental Source-pathway-receptor models concentrations. consultants to conduct contaminated A key tool in the investigation and land investigations on their behalf. The assessment of potentially contaminated Remediation resulting assessment of these land is deriving and updating a investigations can then be submitted conceptual model through various Remediation is usually required when with the planning application to the phases of work. A risk assessment of the results of the GQRA or DQRA Local Authority for approval that the the source-pathway-receptor linkages indicate that contaminant site is suitable for the proposed use. identified in the conceptual model can concentrations pose a significant risk to then be performed. A typical critical receptors. Planning permission may be granted on conceptual model is shown in Figure 1. condition that the site is remediated to Remediation may involve: Regulation of contaminated land the satisfaction of the Local Authority • Contaminant source removal, depending on the results of any sites An important factor for destruction or conversion to investigation. New planning guidance safeguarding human health is the less mobile or toxic forms; (PPS23) was launched in November proposed use of the brownfield site. 2004, and this includes an Annex 2 The redevelopment of land for • Blocking the pathway between which gives more detailed guidance residential purposes is more sensitive the source and receptors; than development for commercial use. about development on land affected by • Changing the receptor, e.g. from . Local Authorities have regulatory residential to commercial land responsibility for the protection of use. The main difference between Part II(a) human health from exposure to possible and PPS23 is that under the planning contaminated land sites. The Plates 1 and 2 illustrate a contaminated system, risks have to be assessed based Environment Agency is responsible for land site, which is currently undergoing upon the new or intended use of the the regulation of groundwater and remediation. land, rather than on the existing use, surface water protection by ensuring which was a criterion in the Part II(a) that there are no discharges of Petroleum regime. For more information on the contaminants into groundwater or regulation of contaminated land, refer surface water. In the UK, oil or petroleum to Defra Circular 01/2006 and Planning hydrocarbons are considered to be Policy Statement 23 (see references for The risk assessment process A significant contaminants in soil and details). Phase I (Desk Study) involves the groundwater systems, particularly as identification of potential sources of elevated concentrations may pose a risk contamination, pathways and receptors to human health and the environment. by assessment of desk based Hydrocarbon contamination is information such as historical plans,

19 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

TPH free product was disposed off site at a suitable facility. Summary The site was found to be contaminated with aromatic hydrocarbon fraction C21-35 in soil and groundwater. Results from the DQRA indicated that the elevated concentrations posed a risk to human health. A remedial target of 9,000mg/kg was agreed and then achieved within 3 months using ex situ bioremediation with windrow turning. ◄ Plate 1 and ▲Plate 2: A contaminated land site undergoing Soil and groundwater samples taken remediation. Photograph courtesy of during the remediation period were Wardell Armstrong LLP. used to validate that the remedial target had been met as part of a validation frequently encountered in site target of 9,000mg/kg for aromatic C21- report which was agreed by the Local investigations at brownfield locations. C35 in soil was generated. A Detailed Authority. The Planning Condition was Quantitative Risk Assessment revealed then discharged for the commercial Petroleum hydrocarbons (or TPH as no significant risk to groundwater but development. they are commonly referred to) there was a potential risk to human comprise a range of organic compounds health. JAMES LYMER (, , BTEX and PAHs). Wardell Armstrong LLP, Unit 4 With this complexity, several methods Remediation: soil Newton Business Centre, Newton of classification of TPH in groundwater Ex situ bioremediation was considered Chambers Road, Thorncliffe Park, and soil have been developed. a cost-effective and appropriate Chapeltown Sheffield S35 2PH The Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon measure to reduce the TPH soil Criteria Working Group (TPHCWG) concentration and also the risk to any References approach derived during the 1990s is a future occupiers of the proposed land commonly used classification method use. Ex situ biophysical remediation is Defra Circular 01/2006, Environmental for TPH. In this approach, petroleum a commonly used technique in the UK, Protection Act 1990: Part 2A, hydrocarbons are divided into aromatic and in this case windrow turning was Contaminated Land, September 2006, and aliphatic hydrocarbon fractions employed to meet the remedial target of Crown Copyright. between C5-C35 and then further 9,000mg/kg. http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/l divided into a total of 13 fractions. The Windrow turning (a term borrowed and/contaminated/pdf/circular01- fractions are based on the fate and from a composting technique in 2006.pdf transport properties of the compounds agriculture) involves the mechanical Planning Policy Statement 23: Planning which differ for aromatic and aliphatic excavation of TPH-contaminated soil and Pollution Control, 2004, Crown compounds. and placement into thick layers or Copyright heaps. Regular mechanical turning and http://www.communities.gov.uk/public An example of an tilling of the heaps is then carried out to ations/planningandbuilding/planningpol assessment and the improve the aeration of the soil. icystatement23 Naturally occurring micro-organisms in remediation of a brownfield the soil facilitate biodegradation of the Total Petroleum Hydrocarbon Criteria site petroleum hydrocarbons and thereby Working Group: Volume 5. Human reduce the source concentrations to a Health Risk Based Evaluation of Assessment Wardell Armstrong LLP site specific remedial target. Petroleum Release Sites: Implementing in Sheffield was commissioned to the Working Group Approach, June assess TPH contamination in soil and Remediation: groundwater 1999. groundwater at a site in North Groundwater samples containing http://www.aehs.com/publications/catal Yorkshire. It was discovered that a significantly elevated concentrations of og/contents/tph.htm TPH were considered to contain mainly significant spill of TPH had occurred in ECG or other RSC members who free product. It was agreed that as part the past and was most likely sourced are interested in attending a future of the proposed remedial work, any from on-site storage containers. meeting on contaminant fate TPH free product and groundwater Samples obtained from the site and environmental and health encountered was to be pumped out of indicated elevated concentrations of issues associated with the excavation and treated by passing TPH of aromatic fraction C21-C35; up contaminated land and the mixture through an oil/water to 35,000mg/kg in soil and 21,000mg/l groundwater, please contact James separator followed by a granular in groundwater. As these Lymer jlymer@wardell- activated carbon filter. The separated concentrations were considered to pose armstrong.com. a risk to human health, a remedial

20 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 The National Centre for Graduate Summer School in Atmospheric Measurement

The National Centre for Atmospheric Science (NCAS) Graduate Summer School in Atmospheric Measurement is an annual two-week field course for atmospheric science PhD students beginning their second year of research. Cambridge University student, Ailsa Benton, reports on her time at the 2007 Summer School.

In September 2007, I joined around twenty other early-stage Ph.D. students on the Isle of Arran, Scotland to participate in the second NCAS (NCAS) Graduate Summer School in AtmosphericMeasurement 2007. summer school on atmospheric One of the meteorological challenges we encountered! measurement. The ten-day period started at the tranquil Kildonan hotel on • deducing boundary layer profiles course comprises a week of lecture- the south of the island, where we had from meteorological data. based presentations outlining aspects of lectures on all aspects of the atmospheric science (e.g. Atmospheric The scope for applying these skills atmosphere, ranging from chemistry, to Chemistry & Field Measurements; coming to our Ph.D. studies was meteorology, to the atmospheric Synoptic Meteorology; Atmospheric evident. For my work, the application structures of other planets. Aerosols), delivered by experts drawn of meteorological data to chemical from the UK Universities and Research It was eye-opening to realise just how species measurement is invaluable in Institutes. The second week involves broad a subject it is and to see what making sense of data and its origins. practical exercises in Atmospheric different educational backgrounds Teamwork and planning for extreme Measurements, including weather brought people into studying the weather (see photograph), particularly forecasting, measurement of pollutants fascinating topic of our planetary when climbing a mountain such as Goat and use of radiosondes. The course is atmospheres. The setting provided an Fell are essential skills for application based upon the island of Arran, and is ideal opportunity to discuss with our to my varied work on research ships, in held in September every year. peers the challenges we had so far remote locations and even in urban Bursaries are available for NERC- found in our post-graduate studies. We areas! were also fortunate enough to gain a funded PhD students. Further details wide overview of the subject from The summer school finished with the are obtainable from the course website, http://ncasweb.leeds.ac.uk/summerscho experts in the specific fields − an participants having the opportunity to ol2008/ . experience that cannot be gained present some of their own work, and to plan future field campaigns with simply from undergraduate courses. Other web link: The National Centre mythical budgets. I hope that some of for Atmospheric Science The course wasn’t just limited to these will be realised in the near future! http://www.ncas.ac.uk/ theoretical lectures. We also travelled to the north of the island to a field AILSA BENTON centre used by students of many ages nd and academic disciplines to carry out a 2 Year NERC studentship Ph.D. number of field studies including: Student,

• tracking sondes University of Cambridge

• measuring the carbon monoxide NOTE: The National Centre for concentration of air in different Atmospheric Science (NCAS) Graduate regions Summer School in Atmospheric Measurement is an annual two-week • calculating back-trajectories for air field course, aimed at atmospheric packets science PhD students who are about to start their second year of research. The

21 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 Meeting report: 2008 Environmental Chemistry Group Distinguished Guest Lecture and Symposium

The Science of Carbon In spite of the policy focus on GHG Matthew argued that the problems emission reduction and the introduction inhibiting the universal success of Trading of support for biofuel use, there was schemes such as those funded via

th and is little recognition of the need for a REDD are often linked to issues within The 35 RSC Environmental Chemistry policy response to deal with the 20- the community (e.g. tenancy). Such Group Distinguished Guest Lecture and 25% of global GHG emissions which issues need to be reconciled before the Symposium took place in the Council are consequent on tropical creation of a community asset class Room of Burlington House on th deforestation. Reducing deforestation- associated with communal forestry Wednesday March 12 2008. An linked emissions is a demonstrably management. enthusiastic and well-informed cost-effective mitigation option with Matthew also argued that deforestation audience heard four talks on carbon the added collateral advantages of is easy to monitor (as shown by the trading and related topics. The quality targeting poverty alleviation for a satellite mages in his talk) and much of the presentations was matched by the billion people in the tropics and cheaper than other carbon reduction range of questions from those protection for forest biodiversity. attending, reflecting the scientific, interventions. However, the global political, commercial, and economic The Kyoto Protocol offers some requirement to bring 3.8 million aspects of this year’s chosen subject. support for afforestation/reforestation hectares of land into production each (new forests as carbon sinks) but this year (a response to ‘Appetite Growth’) Jon Lovett (University of York and support is heavily restrained. It applies and the high value of timber as an asset University of Twente) commenced the only to areas not covered by forests in class compete against REDD targets – symposium by discussing the key 1990, only to the planting of new trees, and governance and transaction costs environmental milestones which have has high transaction costs and in no for REDD (e.g. establishing clear legal influenced policy responses to way acts to counter deforestation. ownership of the land) are high. deforestation and degradation: A new policy (Reduced Emissions from As with many foresight environmental 1. The 1992 UN Framework Deforestation in Developing Countries programmes difficulties arise with the convention on Climate Change (REDD)) was first proposed by Costa implementation of REDD because (which recognised the need to Rica and Papua New Guinea in 2005 associated market systems are not in stabilise greenhouse gas (GHG) and its adoption would imply the place. For instance, although the concentrations); creation of a reference scenario for the carbon market itself seems to be 2. The oppositional 1997 Byrd-Hagel national rate of deforestation for each shifting from a nascent to a fledgling Resolution (which states the US country – for each country, any future state, it is still the least significant position of not ratifying the Kyoto improvements in lowering the financial market. deforestation rate are compensated via Protocol until developing countries It is still true for instance that most carbon credit funding. also did and until it was clear that transactions are linked to companies no serious harm would come to the What is important for the effectiveness alleviating their corporate-social US economy). of REDD compensation is that the responsibilities rather than genuine Kyoto requires the first world to take income to the sovereign government demand for carbon as an asset class. the main responsibility for GHG should be targeted for the local Additionally REDD is excluded from emission reductions until such time as communities who manage the forest the market (but aforestation and the emissions of sovereign states resource – 17% of the world’s forests reforestation are not). are under community control and this is converged. But the Byrd-Hagel Even though deforestation accounts for increasingly managed in a sustainable Resolution effectively removed the US 25% of carbon emissions globally, fashion from the Kyoto process. there is no scope for its inclusion in the (www.communitycarbonforestry.org). It is in this context that the 2003 market prior to 2012 (and probably not European Parliament Biofuels Directive Jon Lovett’s lecture discussed the ways until 2010 when it will be traded in a 2003/30/EC was formulated to ensure in which the difficulties in engendering segregated market). Coincidentally, the th EC support and compliance for Kyoto. local community action can be March 13 edition of Nature (Issue However, its policy thrust was layered overcome by identifying local Number 7184) has two articles on first by the inclusion of collateral communities as the financial precisely the themes promulgated in economic policy statements about beneficiaries of REDD income and by Jon and Matthew’s talks − albeit with supporting sustainable, harmonised, developing their role as custodians of slightly different points of view: “Race rural development (e.g. in Bulgaria and forests. against time to save the Amazon rainforest” pp 134-138). Rumania) and secondly by including Matthew Owen (Cornwall College) statements about the policy’s support continued this theme in his paper Nigel Mortimer (North Energy for European energy security. “REDD Bull: What can rainforest Associates Ltd) followed these two protection do to halt climate change?” presentations with a discussion on the accounting of biofuels. His paper 22 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 focused on the ways in which Life Having identified a scenario target, investment in low GHG Cycle Analysis (LCA) could bring a Terry Barker went on to develop the technology perspective to the current differing symposium theme that the achievement • The introduction of supporting views around biofuels. These range of the target depended on the critical policies (regulation, eco-taxes, from ‘ . . . there is no such thing as a policy instruments which drive reform etc.). sustainable biofuel’ (George Monbiot) decarbonisation and GHG removal to ‘assess each biofuel on its own technologies. The EU Emissions • And the use of fiscal instruments to merits ‘ (Sustainable Biofuels: Trading scheme is the largest encourage all sectors to progress Prospects and Challenges” The Royal mitigation policy action and carbon the planned phasing out of GHG Society, January 2008). ‘taxation’ is its driver. And he emissions and decarbonisation. cautioned that simple increases in When LCA is applied to biofuels for energy efficiency tend to lead to The symposium ended with questions GHGs, co-product allocations (all increased energy use unless the carbon which emphasised both the importance biofuels have side and waste products) price remains high enough to act as an of policy interventions and the lack of and land use has considered and there incentive for decarbonisation. global political will to operate them. are competing accounting The future operation of carbon trading, methodologies by which these can be In order for the policy instruments to its success, the difficulties in extending evaluated. The Renewable Fuels act effectively carbon trading has to it across sectors, and the uncertainties Agency Technical Guidance, BSI have credibility and currently its involved were clearly enunciated and – PAS2050 and the European credibility resides in its creation as a to a certain extent – agreed. Commission government policy instrument with two Directive all use different approaches to strands: a carbon tax and an emission However, although the symposium did pose many unanswered questions it accounting for land use and GHG permit scheme. Such schemes are open consequences. Harmonisation of to collusion and transaction costs are does seem certain that there is little accounting processes is needed, GHG high, but time left for continued inaction. If putting into practice the various forms emission savings need to be accurately “Policies that provide a calculated (as do displaced foods and of carbon trading is indeed the only real or implicit price of carbon store destruction), and good viable solution, then it’s time the carbon could create market began in earnest. (and new) technological choices have incentives for producers to be made. and consumers to invest Dr LEO SALTER The ECG 2008 Distinguished Guest significantly in low-GHG Cornwall College, Lecture examined the way in which products and Pool, Redruth, Cornwall carbon trading could achieve the EU 2 technologies.” March 2008 ºC target. Dr Terry Barker (4CMR, There are difficulties in policy Dept. of Land Economy, University of implementation: Cambridge) began by noting the 70% increase in greenhouse gas (GHG) • How can the market potential be emissions which occurred between estimated in relation to private 1970 and 2004. He suggested that the costs? existence of good fossil fuel reserves combined with strong demands for • How can the economic potential be energy security will further increase weighed against the social costs? GHG emissions; as will the long term • And how can the discrepancies trends in grassland and virgin forest between the government target removal – generally consequent on the carbon dioxide price ($30 per desire for private gain at the expense of tonne) be balanced against that public loss. obtained by projecting current The 2 ºC (above pre-industrial) target is prices to 2010 ($70 per tonne)? set by the EU as one for which serious But data show that the cost of stringent anthropological climate change can be mitigation measures introduced now avoided and it is recognised that GHG (i.e. sufficient to achieve the 2 ºC emissions have to start being reduced as target) would have a 3% impact on soon as possible (the 2 ºC target is global GDP by 2030 (for the US, -0.7% effectively equivalent to stabilising by 2010 and zero % by 2020) – a carbon dioxide in the range 445-490 negligible macro-economic cost for ppm (cf. Stern: 450-550 ppm)). All global GDP. countries and sectors will have to decarbonise to restrain climate change In the UK an effective policy needs even though it is the industrialised several strands: countries which are currently • A rising real carbon price ($100 per responsible for the forcing inputs. tonne by 2030) guaranteed by government to reduce the risks of

23 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 ‘Attributing physical and biological impacts to anthropogenic climate change’ In the May 15th 2008 issue of systems. Last year’s Fourth Assessment longitude grid box. This is a binary Report from the Intergovernmental decision: the grid box is labelled Nature, a group of scientists Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) “consistent with warming” if more than from the USA, Australia, concluded that, globally, it is likely that 80% of the reported changes therein are China, the West Indies, and many natural systems are being in the direction expected for a warming countries in Europe and in affected by anthropogenic climate climate; less than 80% and the grid box change [5] (in the strict language of is “not consistent with warming”. The South America analysed the IPCC reports, “likely” means a 66 to inhomogeneous geographical scientific evidence which 90% probability). distribution of the observational data (see Figure 2 in the Nature article) links the IPCC’s conclusions In the Nature article, Cynthia means that many grid boxes play no Rosenzweig and her colleagues seek to on climate change with the part in the analysis because no studies extend the IPCC’s assessment from the modifications that are have been conducted at those locations global to the continental scale by or they have not observed any occurring in physical and mapping the spatial distribution of statistically significant climate-induced natural systems’ responses onto the grid biological systems on all changes. Thus 183 grid boxes around of observed temperature changes. Their continents and in most of the the globe were identified as having analysis considers 829 and ≈ 28,800 experienced an aggregate change in oceans of our planet. changes in physical and biological biological and/or physical systems, and Atmospheric and systems, respectively, reported in in 88% of those the aggregate change nearly 80 recent publications. To be ECG committee member was consistent with warming. included, a data set must span at least Furthermore, most of the grid boxes Stephen Ball provides a 20 years and, according to its original where an aggregate change (in either commentary on the authors, show that a physical or direction) had been identified have biological system has undergone a methodology and the experienced a “significant warning” or statistically significant change in the conclusions of the Nature a “warming” according to the period 1970 - 2004. The direction of the HadCRUT3 grid of observed article. system’s response is categorised as temperature changes used in the IPCC either “consistent” or “not consistent” ‘Attributing physical and biological reports. The figure below reproduces with warming and must be statistically impacts to anthropogenic climate the global results, and the Nature article significant: indeed, studies where no change’, Cynthia Rosenzweig [+13 co- additionally shows histograms for the statistically significant changes were authors], Nature, 2008, 453, pp 353- different continental areas. 357. detected are excluded from this analysis, the justification being that null The authors then performed statistical Natural systems respond – have always results tend to be under-reported in the tests to assess whether the geographical responded – to variations in climate. scientific literature. distribution of system changes could Thus a warm spring might prompt the have arisen from natural climate The next step was to aggregate all the early return of migratory birds or variability (due to volcanic activity, reported (statistically significant) advance the flowering of certain plants variations in solar irradiance) or could [1]. Many physical systems also changes within a given 5° × 5° latitude- be attributed to anthropogenic climate respond to climate: the advance/retreat of glaciers, the timing of peak flows in Global data: significant system responses streams and the springtime thawing of sea ice or frozen rivers [2]. In Europe in 60 particular [3], there has been a history of making observations of the timing of 50 Grid boxes with aggregate natural events in relation to climate system changes consistent (mainly temperature), including studies 40 with warming in dedicated phenological gardens. 30 Grid boxes with aggregate There are also instances of records system changes not going back centuries compiled by non- 20 consistent with warming scientists who noted the dates of natural events, either simply as a pastime or to 10 discern the optimum timing for agricultural practices [4]. Percentage of gridboxes 0 Today’s climate is being influenced by Significant Warming Cooling Significant natural variability and by additional warming cooling forcings due to human activities, and Observed tempertaure change within grid box the latter is beginning to impact natural

24 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 change. Pattern congruence statistics grid box pulling predominantly in the Hegerl agree that the sheer number of were used to compare the spatial same direction of “consistent with changes considered across vastly distribution of aggregated system warming” (such as there might be in differing biological and physical changes consistent and not consistent Europe) yields just one piece of systems outweighs the sampling with warming with, firstly, the sign of aggregate information for the pattern limitations and conclude that this type the observed temperature change within congruence tests. Also as discussed in a of statistical analysis is currently the the grid boxes and, secondly, a measure review of Rosenweig et al’s article in most effective way to link regional and of the natural temperature variability the same issue of Nature by Zwiers and global impacts to anthropogenic climate within grid boxes calculated from a Hegerl [6], the pattern congruence tests change. range of climate models. These tests are insensitive to some of the more found that the global pattern of system subtle aspects of climate change References responses is very unlikely (<<1%) to be attribution because they implicitly [1] T. H. Sparks and A. Menzel, explained by the climate’s natural assume that the effects of local climate Observed changes in seasons: an variability. On the continental scale, the change are manifested locally within overview, International Journal of probability that the correlated pattern of the same grid box. Instead, it is likely Climatology, 2002, 22, 1715-1725. system responses and temperature that changes span multiple grid boxes. changes is due to natural variability is For example, a species of migratory [2] R. Sagarin and F. Micheli, Climate less than 5% for Asia and for North bird might adjust its behaviour due to change in non-traditional data sets, America and only around 10% for changing conditions at the location Science, 2001, 294, 811. Europe. For other continents, the where it spends the winter, or where its [3] A. Menzel et al, European pattern congruence is less significant arrival in spring is recorded as a phenological response to climate due to the paucity of observational data phenological event, or a combination of change matches the warming pattern, (also tropical and subtropical regions changes along its route. Global Change , 2006, 12, have less pronounced temperature Furthermore, Rosenzweig et al’s “joint 1969-1976. seasons making phenological events attribution” approach is still only a two harder to discern). In contrast, the [4] T. H. Sparks and P. D. Carey, The step process where (i) an aspect of pattern of system responses correlates response of species to climate over two climate change (in this case well with observed temperature centuries: an analysis of the Marsham temperature change) is attributed to changes for the global data and for phenological record 1736-1947, anthropogenic forcing (in this case by many continents and, since the IPCC Journal of Ecology, 1995, 83, 321-329. the IPCC) and then (ii) changes in has concluded that most of the observed natural systems are subsequently [5] The IPCC reports are available temperature changes are very likely attributed to climate change. Zwiers online at: www.ipcc.ch (>90% probability) to be due to and Hegerl argue that it would be better anthropogenic greenhouse gases, [6] F. Zwiers and G. Hegerl, to employ an end-to-end analysis to Rosenzweig et al conclude that Attributing cause and effect, Nature, examine all of the main processes “anthropogenic climate change is 2008, 453, 296-297. driving variability in a chosen system having a significant impact on physical and hence attribute any observed and biological systems globally and in response unequivocally to some continents”. STEPHEN BALL anthropogenic effects on climate. There There are issues with using a binary have been a few end-to-end studies, but Department of Chemistry, indicator to aggregate climate impacts. their number is dwarfed by the ≈ University of Leicester, For example, a large number of studies 30,000 data sets contributing to the Leicester LE1 7RH within one 5° × 5° latitude-longitude Rosenzweig analysis. Thus Zwiers and

25 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

Sustainable management of arsenic contaminated water and soil in rural areas of Latin America

Final project summary (Chile) and Cornwall College (UK). and to offer simple and affordable The dissemination workshops were solutions which may be implemented at This two-year project has been an open to interested stakeholders from the community level. international partnership investigating local and regional government the sustainable management of arsenic environmental departments, local Continuation of this project is unlikely contaminated water and soil in rural activist groups and the public. in the immediate future due to the lack areas of Latin America. The target of availability of EU funding for zones are near Calama in the During the first day, the project arsenic contamination research. Antofagasta region of northern Chile participants from each of the target However, it is hoped that the valuable and the province of south-east Cordoba zones presented information about the partnerships forged during this project in the Chaco-Pampean plains of health and socio-economic effects of may be maintained and further Argentina. In both areas high levels of the high levels of soil and arsenic water investigations into field trial volcanic arsenic are affecting rural in the target zones and similarities with remediation in the target zones resumed water supplies and agriculture through other arsenic-contaminated regions when funding does become available. contaminated and irrigation water. around the world. The second day In Antofagasta, Chile, mining is focused on monitoring and remediation JO BARNES an additional source of arsenic methods, including soil washing, Cornwall College, contamination. phytoremediation and water treatment Pool, Redruth, Cornwall technologies. It was vital to inform [email protected] A previous account of this EU-funded stakeholders without causing alarm, project appeared in the ECG Bulletin July 2007. The final meeting for the project was held early in December 2007 in Bell Ville, Argentina, one of the sites of the Argentinean field trials. The meeting was divided into an update and briefing session for the partners, and included a field visit to a local dairy farm, which had participated in trials measuring arsenic concentrations in milk, as well as a two-day workshop.

The meeting was attended by partners from the Agrarian Technological Institute of Castilla y Leon (ITACYL) (Spain), University of Valladolid (Spain), the Centre for Transdisciplinary Studies on Water Resources (C.E.T.A) (including the Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad de Buenos Aires) (Argentina), the Scientific Technological Mining Research Centre A dairy farm at Bell Ville, Cordoba, Argentina: a possible site of arsenic (including Universidad Católica del contamination Norte and Universidad de Antofagasta) Electronic delivery of the ECG Bulletin

Would you like to download your copy and, to reduce costs, the ECG is version. Jo Barnes (ECG Honorary of the ECG Bulletin electronically as a proposing to email a link to a Secretary) will be emailing you to pdf instead of being sent the printed Members’ only area of the RSC where obtain your views but if you would like bulletin? Or, perhaps, your preference the Bulletin may be downloaded. to register your opinion, please email is to receive both the printed and pdf Members who are not contactable via her at [email protected] or versions? More than 70% of our email or non-respondents would of write to the address on the front cover. Members are now contactable by email course continue to receive the printed

26 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008 Forthcoming meetings for environmental

European nuclear power Dioxin 2008 — 28th International Accelerated Carbonation for London Symposium on Halogenated Environmental and Materials 30th June – 1st July Persistent Organic Pollutants Engineering www.platts.com/Events Birmingham Rome 17th – 22nd August 1st – 3rd October Improving the quality of recycled http://dioxin2008.org/ http://w3.uniroma1.it/ACEME/ material London of the Earth's Biodegradeable Lubricants 1st July Surface 8 (GES8) Cardiff University www.MRWrecycledmaterial.co.uk London 6th – 7th October 18th – 22nd August http://www.imarest.org/events/event.as and the http://www.minersoc.org/GES8.htm p?ID=5448 consumer University of York 5th International Conference on Sustainable Innovation 08 Future 1st – 2nd July Environmental Products, Technologies And www.rsc.org Belfast Industries 31st August – 3rd September Malmo, Sweden Renewable Energy in the Urban http://www.centacat.qub.ac.uk/5icec/in 27th – 28th October Environment dex.html http://www.cfsd.org.uk/events/tspd13/i Berlin ndex.html 7th – 11th July 3rd International Conference on http://www.ies- Environmental Effects of Contamination on existing uk.org.uk/events/Urban_Renewables_1 Nanoparticles and Nanomaterials residential developments 1Jul08.pdf University of Birmingham Leeds

15th – 16th September 13th November http://www.gees.bham.ac.uk/research/n www.ciria.org.uk/events Swindon anonet/conference 9th July Electrical and electronic www.swig.org.uk Contaminated Land and equipment and the environment

Brownfield Remediation London Impact of Analytical Innovation London 19 – 20th November on Geochemical, Environmental, 16th – 17th September www.shop.era.co.uk Exploration & Food Science http://www.newzeye.com/conferences_ London education/conferences_display.cfm?ite Introduction to Chemistry for 15th July m_ID=123 Contaminated Land http://www.ies- Nottingham uk.org.uk/events/events.html PUrE International Conference 26th November on the Impacts of Pollution in a http://www.lqm.co.uk/training NCAS Mesoscale Modelling Changing Urban Environment Workshop The University of Manchester, UK National Centre for Atmospheric University of Reading 17th – 19th September Science (NCAS) Conference 18th July www.pureconference.org.uk Bristol http://www.ies- 8th – 10th December uk.org.uk/events/events.html 2008 http://ncasweb.leeds.ac.uk/conference2

Skiathos, Greece 008/ 20th International Symposium on 22nd – 24th September Gas Kinetics http://www.wessex.ac.uk/conferences/2 Chemistry For Risk Assessment University of Manchester 008/air08 Nottingham 20th – 25th July 10th December www.gk08.org.uk http://www.lqm.co.uk/training

27 Environmental Chemistry Group Bulletin July 2008

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