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Thomas Baldwin ANARCHISM. the Term Anarchy Comes 69544_DHI_A_001-194.qxd 10/12/04 3:56 PM Page 66 ANARCHISM Butler, R. J., ed. Analytical Philosophy. 2 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, Russell, Bertrand. “On Denoting Mind.” 1905. In Logic and 1962–1965. Two collections of papers characteristic of mid- Knowledge: Essays, 1901–1950, edited by R. Marsh, 41–56. twentieth century analytical philosophy. London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1956. Russell’s presentation of Carnap, Rudolph. “The Elimination of Metaphysics through Log- his theory of descriptions. ical Analysis of Language.” 1932. In Logical Positivism, edited —. Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for by A. J. Ayer, 60–81. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959. Origi- Scientific Method in Philosophy. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court, nally published in German as “Uberwindung der Metaphysik 1914. Russell’s presentation of his logical-analytic method in durch logische Analyse der Sprache,” this is Carnap’s classic philosophy. statement of his logical empiricism. Strawson, P. F. Logico-Linguistic Papers. London: Methuen, 1971. —. “Empiricism, Semantics and Ontology.” Revue Interna- A collection that includes Strawson’s early criticisms of tionale de Philosophie 4 (1950): 20–40. Reprinted in Russell’s logic and his later reflections on logic and language. The Linguistic Turn: Recent Essays in Philosophical Methods, Wisdom, John. Problems of Mind and Matter. Cambridge, U.K.: edited by Richard Rorty. Chicago: University of Chicago Cambridge University Press, 1934. An early example of an ex- Press, 1967. 2nd ed., 1992. Carnap here introduces a distinc- position of “analytic” philosophy as such. tion between “internal” and “external” questions to clarify his Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Translated by defense of analyticity. Rorty’s collection is a useful resource, G. E. M. Anscombe. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. Wittgenstein’s and the 2nd ed. contains two interesting skeptical retrospec- later discussion of language-games, rule-following, and psy- tive essays. chological concepts. Cohen, G. A. Karl Marx’s Theory of History: A Defence. Oxford: —. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Translated by C. K. Clarendon Press, 1978. A work showing how analytical phi- Ogden. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1922. losophy can be applied to the study of Marxism; the starting Wittgenstein’s early attempt to present philosophy as logical point of “analytical Marxism.” analysis. Davidson, Donald. Essays on Actions and Events. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980. This collection includes Davidson’s Thomas Baldwin discussions of “logical form.” Derrida, Jacques. “Signature, Event, Context.” In his Margins of Philosophy. Translated by Alan Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Derrida’s critical discussion of Austin. ANARCHISM. The term anarchy comes from an ancient Frege, Gottlob. Begriffsschrift. 1879. In Frege and Godel: Two Greek word meaning “without a leader or ruler.” However, pro- Fundamental Texts in Mathematical Logic, edited by J. van ponents of anarchism have most often used the term to refer Heijenoort. Translated by S. Bauer-Mengelberg. Cambridge, to a natural state of society in which people are not governed Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970. Frege’s revolutionary by submission to human-made laws or to any external author- new logical theory. ity. Anarchism is above all a moral doctrine concerned with Fricker, Miranda, and Jennifer Hornsby. The Cambridge Com- maximizing the personal freedom of individuals in society. To panion to Feminism in Philosophy. Cambridge, U.K., and New achieve this end, leading anarchist social theorists have tended York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. A collection of pa- to offer critical analyses of (1) the state and its institutional pers showing how issues in feminist philosophy are addressed framework; (2) economics; and (3) religion. Anarchist hostil- by analytical philosophers. ity to the state is reflected in the rejection of the view popu- Montefiore, Alan, and Bernard Williams. British Analytical Phi- larized by contract theorists that a government’s sovereignty is losophy. London: Routledge, 1966. A useful collection in which legitimated by the consent of its subjects. Anarchists contend the British conception of analytical philosophy is expounded that no contractual arrangement among human beings justifies and discussed. Moore, G. E. “The Nature of Judgment.” 1899. In G. E. Moore: the establishment of a ruling body (government) that subordi- Selected Writings, edited by Thomas Baldwin, 1–19. London nates individuals to its authority. From their observations of and New York: Routledge, 1993. Moore’s early rejection of the historical development of the state, anarchist thinkers such the idealist theory of judgment. as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) and Peter Kropotkin —. Principia Ethica. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univer- (1842–1921) concluded that all forms of government have been sity Press, 1903. Rev. ed., edited by Thomas Baldwin. used as instruments for establishing monopolies that favor the Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Moore’s propertied and privileged. Anarchists also argue that the all- classic presentation of his analytical ethics. encompassing authority of the state allows it to exercise undue Quine, Willard van Orman. From a Logical Point of View: 9 influence over the lives of its citizens. It is further maintained Logico-Philosophical Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- by anarchists that the state, using laws and the organs of power versity Press, 1953. A collection which includes some of at its disposal, can control not only citizens’ public and private Quine’s early papers, especially “Two Dogmas of Empiricism” behavior but also their economic lives. As such, the state, in all in which he launches his critique of analyticity. its forms, is condemned as an unnecessary evil. —. Ways of Paradox. New York: Random House, 1966. A collection that includes two of his main papers on logical em- From an economic standpoint, most anarchists have iden- piricism, “Truth by Convention” and “Carnap on Logical tified themselves as members of the anticapitalist socialist Truth.” movement. In common with socialists, anarchists see capital- Rorty, Richard. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton, ism as a system ruled by elites, one that exploits the working N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979. Rorty here sets out his or productive members of society economically and represses skeptical critique of analytical philosophy. them culturally and spiritually. Accordingly, anarchists argue 66 New Dictionary of the History of Ideas 69544_DHI_A_001-194.qxd 10/12/04 3:56 PM Page 67 ANARCHISM that the emancipation of the worker will only be achieved by under capitalism was made famous in his book What is Prop- completely destroying the pillars of capitalism. erty? (1840). Proudhon’s main contributions to the anarchist view of society lay in his theories of mutualism and federal- Anarchists differ as to what form of economic arrangements ism. In the former he argued that the exploitative capitalist should replace capitalism. Collectivists and mutualists insist system could be undermined by creating economic organiza- that private ownership of the fruits of individuals’ labor is de- tions such as the People’s Bank, an institution of mutual credit sirable, while anarchist communists maintain that individual meant to restore the equilibrium between what individuals pro- freedom can only be achieved in a society where all material duce and what they consume. Because he believed that con- goods and natural resources are placed under common own- centrating political power in the hands of the state militated ership. Still another group of anarchists known as individual- against the economic forms he was proposing, Proudhon ar- ists have advocated a system of “labor for labor” exchange, gued for a society in which power radiated from the bottom which they believe could operate in accordance with natural upward and was distributed along federal or regional lines. market forces. Though he himself never belonged to any party or politi- Anticlericalism is another important dimension of anarchist cal organization, Proudhon’s writings inspired a substantial fol- thinking. Though most anarchists are materialists, they are not lowing among freethinkers, liberal intellectuals, and workers opposed to spirituality per se: indeed anarcho-pacifists such as across Europe, particularly in France and Spain. One of his Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) were self-identified as Christians. most famous disciples was the Russian anarchist Mikhail Rather, anarchists condemn organized religion, which they see Bakunin (1814–1876). Like Proudhon, Bakunin was an eclec- as an agent of cultural repression. They have, for example, at- tic thinker who was constantly revising and reformulating his tacked the Catholic Church among other religious institutions views on society. More so than Proudhon, who did not be- on the grounds that it has historically served as a means of em- lieve that the transition to an anarchist society demanded vi- powering church government and not of enriching the spiri- olent and sweeping changes, Bakunin gave both physical and tual lives of its adherents. Anarchists further contend that the ideological expression to the view that revolutionary upheaval church has consistently acted as an ally of secular governments was a necessary and unavoidable process of social development, and therefore forms part of the general system of state repres- a view summed up in his oft-quoted
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