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Home , Analytical Marxism, Contemporary anarchism, Federica Montseny, Feminist philosophy, Leo Tolstoy

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Butler, R. J., ed. Analytical . 2 vols. Oxford: Blackwell, Russell, Bertrand. “On Denoting .” 1905. In and 1962–1965. Two collections of papers characteristic of mid- : Essays, 1901–1950, edited by R. Marsh, 41–56. twentieth century analytical philosophy. London: G. Allen and Unwin, 1956. Russell’s presentation of Carnap, Rudolph. “The Elimination of through Log- his theory of . ical of Language.” 1932. In Logical , edited —. Our Knowledge of the External World as a Field for by A. J. Ayer, 60–81. Glencoe, Ill.: Free Press, 1959. Origi- Scientific Method in Philosophy. Chicago, Ill.: Open Court, nally published in German as “Uberwindung der Metaphysik 1914. Russell’s presentation of his logical-analytic method in durch logische Analyse der Sprache,” this is Carnap’s classic philosophy. statement of his logical . Strawson, P. F. Logico-Linguistic Papers. London: Methuen, 1971. —. “Empiricism, Semantics and .” Revue Interna- A collection that includes Strawson’s early criticisms of tionale de Philosophie 4 (1950): 20–40. Reprinted in Russell’s logic and his later reflections on logic and language. The : Recent Essays in Philosophical Methods, Wisdom, John. Problems of Mind and Matter. Cambridge, U.K.: edited by . Chicago: University of Chicago Cambridge University Press, 1934. An early example of an ex- Press, 1967. 2nd ed., 1992. Carnap here introduces a distinc- position of “analytic” philosophy as such. tion between “internal” and “external” questions to clarify his Wittgenstein, Ludwig. Philosophical Investigations. Translated by defense of analyticity. Rorty’s collection is a useful resource, G. E. M. Anscombe. Oxford: Blackwell, 1953. Wittgenstein’s and the 2nd ed. contains two interesting skeptical retrospec- later discussion of language-games, rule-following, and psy- tive essays. chological concepts. Cohen, G. A. ’s Theory of History: A Defence. Oxford: —. Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus. Translated by C. K. Clarendon Press, 1978. A work showing how analytical phi- Ogden. London: K. Paul, Trench, Trubner and Co., 1922. losophy can be applied to the study of ; the starting Wittgenstein’s early attempt to present philosophy as logical point of “.” analysis. Davidson, Donald. Essays on Actions and Events. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1980. This collection includes Davidson’s Baldwin discussions of “logical form.” Derrida, Jacques. “Signature, , Context.” In his Margins of Philosophy. Translated by Alan Bass. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1982. Derrida’s critical discussion of Austin. . The term comes from an ancient Frege, Gottlob. Begriffsschrift. 1879. In Frege and Godel: Two Greek word meaning “without a leader or ruler.” However, pro- Fundamental Texts in , edited by J. van ponents of anarchism have most often used the term to refer Heijenoort. Translated by S. Bauer-Mengelberg. Cambridge, to a natural of society in which people are not governed Mass.: Harvard University Press, 1970. Frege’s revolutionary by submission to human-made laws or to any external author- new logical theory. ity. Anarchism is above all a moral doctrine concerned with Fricker, Miranda, and Jennifer Hornsby. The Cambridge Com- maximizing the personal freedom of individuals in society. To panion to in Philosophy. Cambridge, U.K., and New achieve this end, leading anarchist social theorists have tended York: Cambridge University Press, 2000. A collection of pa- to offer critical analyses of (1) the state and its institutional pers showing how issues in are addressed framework; (2) economics; and (3) religion. Anarchist hostil- by analytical philosophers. ity to the state is reflected in the rejection of the view popu- Montefiore, Alan, and . British Analytical Phi- larized by contract theorists that a government’s sovereignty is losophy. London: Routledge, 1966. A useful collection in which legitimated by the consent of its subjects. Anarchists contend the British conception of analytical philosophy is expounded that no contractual arrangement among human justifies and discussed. Moore, G. E. “The Nature of Judgment.” 1899. In G. E. Moore: the establishment of a ruling body (government) that subordi- Selected Writings, edited by Thomas Baldwin, 1–19. London nates individuals to its authority. From their observations of and New York: Routledge, 1993. Moore’s early rejection of the historical development of the state, anarchist thinkers such the idealist theory of judgment. as Pierre-Joseph Proudhon (1809–1865) and —. Principia Ethica. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge Univer- (1842–1921) concluded that all forms of government have been sity Press, 1903. Rev. ed., edited by Thomas Baldwin. used as instruments for establishing monopolies that favor the Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1993. Moore’s propertied and privileged. Anarchists also argue that the all- classic presentation of his analytical . encompassing authority of the state allows it to exercise undue Quine, Willard van Orman. From a Logical Point of View: 9 influence over the lives of its citizens. It is further maintained Logico-Philosophical Essays. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard Uni- by anarchists that the state, using laws and the organs of power versity Press, 1953. A collection which includes some of at its disposal, can control not only citizens’ public and private Quine’s early papers, especially “Two Dogmas of Empiricism” behavior but also their economic lives. As such, the state, in all in which he launches his critique of analyticity. its forms, is condemned as an unnecessary evil. —. Ways of Paradox. New York: Random House, 1966. A collection that includes two of his main papers on logical em- From an economic standpoint, most anarchists have iden- piricism, “ by Convention” and “Carnap on Logical tified themselves as members of the anticapitalist socialist Truth.” movement. In common with socialists, anarchists see - Rorty, Richard. Philosophy and the Mirror of Nature. Princeton, ism as a system ruled by elites, one that exploits the working N.J.: Princeton University Press, 1979. Rorty here sets out his or productive members of society economically and represses skeptical critique of analytical philosophy. them culturally and spiritually. Accordingly, anarchists argue

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that the emancipation of the worker only be achieved by under capitalism was made famous in his book What is Prop- completely destroying the pillars of capitalism. erty? (1840). Proudhon’s main contributions to the anarchist view of society lay in his theories of mutualism and federal- Anarchists differ as to what form of economic arrangements ism. In the former he argued that the exploitative capitalist should replace capitalism. Collectivists and mutualists insist system could be undermined by creating economic organiza- that private ownership of the fruits of individuals’ labor is de- tions such as the People’s Bank, an institution of mutual credit sirable, while anarchist communists maintain that individual meant to restore the equilibrium between what individuals pro- freedom can only be achieved in a society where all material duce and what they consume. Because he believed that con- goods and natural resources are placed under common own- centrating political power in the hands of the state militated ership. Still another group of anarchists known as individual- against the economic forms he was proposing, Proudhon ar- ists have advocated a system of “labor for labor” exchange, gued for a society in which power radiated from the bottom which they believe could operate in accordance with natural upward and was distributed along federal or regional lines. market forces. Though he himself never belonged to any party or politi- Anticlericalism is another important dimension of anarchist cal organization, Proudhon’s writings inspired a substantial fol- thinking. Though most anarchists are materialists, they are not lowing among freethinkers, liberal , and workers opposed to spirituality per se: indeed anarcho-pacifists such as across Europe, particularly in and Spain. One of his (1828–1910) were self-identified as Christians. most famous disciples was the Russian anarchist Mikhail Rather, anarchists condemn organized religion, which they see Bakunin (1814–1876). Like Proudhon, Bakunin was an eclec- as an agent of cultural repression. They have, for example, at- tic thinker who was constantly revising and reformulating his tacked the Catholic Church among religious institutions views on society. More so than Proudhon, who did not be- on the grounds that it has historically served as a means of em- lieve that the transition to an anarchist society demanded vi- powering church government and not of enriching the spiri- olent and sweeping changes, Bakunin gave both physical and tual lives of its adherents. Anarchists further contend that the ideological expression to the view that revolutionary upheaval church has consistently acted as an ally of secular governments was a necessary and unavoidable process of social development, and therefore forms part of the general system of state repres- a view summed up in his oft-quoted dictum, “The urge to de- sion that operates against the common person. stroy is also a creative urge.” At the core of his creed was col- lectivism, by which he meant that the land and means of Because the heyday of anarchism as an ideological move- production should be collectively owned and that future soci- ment was during the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, ety should be organized around voluntary associations—such the focus here will be on the core beliefs of key anarchist the- as peasant or trade unions—that were not regu- orists in this period. Thus a discussion of other, less histori- lated or controlled by any form of government. Too impatient cally significant anarchist strands such as and to set forth a systematic exegesis of his antiauthoritarian be- will be mentioned only in passing. The impact liefs, Bakunin tended to express his concepts in tracts that that classical anarchist theory has had on recent political and could be used by revolutionary bodies (for example, the Al- social movements will be summarized in the concluding liance of ) with which he was associated. In- section. deed Bakunin’s most enduring legacy to anarchism resides in his conception of revolutionary transformation. According to Anarchist Principles in Context him, the dispossessed and most repressed elements of society— The ideas associated with modern anarchism can be traced to particularly the working classes and peasantry in economically the period of the French (1789–1799), although backward countries such as Spain, Italy, and —were by they did not crystallize into a formal political doctrine until nature revolutionary and only needed proper to rise the middle part of the nineteenth century. The first book that up against their oppressors. Because he adamantly rejected the offered the clearest intimation of the anarchist conception of Marxian notion that conquering political power was a pre- society was ’s An Enquiry concerning Political condition for overthrowing capitalism, Bakunin was convinced and Its Influence upon General and Happiness that the exploited masses should be led into revolt by a small (London, 1793). In this, Godwin identifies the state as the and dedicated group of individuals who were acting in their main source of all social ills. In order for humans to live freely interests. It was his that revolution could not be achieved and harmoniously, Godwin advocates the establishment of a until the state was completely abolished, which brought him in which individuals are no longer subject to into conflict with Karl Marx and his followers, who insisted the economic exploitation of others. Despite its antistatist mes- that a “dictatorship of the ” was a necessary phase , the ideas found in Godwin’s magnum opus belong to a in the transition to a stateless society (). tradition of British political that cannot be classi- fied as anarchist. In fact his work had its greatest influence on Bakunin’s antipolitical conception of revolutionary change the liberal thinkers of his age as well as on , John as well as his forceful repudiation of the authoritarian com- Gray, and other early socialist reformers. munist principles embodied in the Marxism of his day drove a wedge between his adherents in the First International Of far greater significance to the development of modern (1864–1876) and those of Karl Marx, thus establishing a di- anarchist is the French social philosopher Pierre- vide in the European socialist movement that would never be Joseph Proudhon, whose indictment of bridged.

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However, not all anarchists were hostile toward the idea of the exceedingly negative image of anarchists that was communism. Another Russian aristocrat turned revolutionary, projected by the popular press and government authorities. Peter Kropotkin, developed over the course of his lifetime a sociological theory of anarchism that combined the antiau- The violent practices that were now associated with anar- thoritarian beliefs espoused by his predecessors in the anarchist chism were largely the product of an ill-defined tactic known movement with those of communism. Unlike Proudhon and as “propaganda by the deed,” a direct-action policy advocated Bakunin, both of whom believed in the right of individual pos- by some anarchists from the late 1870s on. That violent and session of products produced from one’s labor, Kropotkin even criminal deeds were necessary to advance the anarchist advocated an economic system based on the communal own- movement appealed especially to a small number of disaffected ership of all goods and services that operated on the socialist idealists who were convinced that the only way to intimidate principle “from each according to his abilities, to each ac- the ruling classes and overturn the capitalist system was to dis- cording to his needs.” By distributing society’s wealth and re- rupt the daily routines of bourgeois society. Killing public fig- sources in this way, Kropotkin and other anarchist communists ures close to the centers of political and religious power was believed that everyone, including those who were unproduc- one way of doing this. Bombing cafés, robbing banks, and de- tive, would be able to live in relative abundance. stroying churches and similar hierarchical institutions were also seen as justifiable means to a revolutionary end. Kropotkin’s greatest contributions to anarchist theory, however, were his attempts to present anarchism as an empir- A number of the perpetrators of “propaganda by the deed” ically verifiable worldview, one that was based on “a mechan- were influenced by a highly individualistic strain of anarchist ical explanation of world phenomena, embracing the whole of thought that became popular among déclassé intellectuals and nature.” Following in the positivist tradition laid down by artists around the turn of the twentieth century. A seminal fig- Auguste Comte (1798–1857), (1820–1903), ure in the individualist branch of anarchist thinking was the and other forerunners of modern social science, Kropotkin be- German philosopher Max Stirner (1806–1856). In his The Ego lieved that the study of society was analogous to that of the and His Own (1845), Stirner espoused a philosophy that was world of nature. In Modern Science and Anarchism (1912), for premised on the belief that all freedom is essentially derived example, Kropotkin contends that the anarchist method of so- from self-liberation. Because he identified the “ego” or “self ” ciological enquiry is that of the exact natural sciences. “Its aim,” as the sole moral compass of humankind, he condemned gov- he says, “is to construct a synthetic philosophy comprehend- ernment, religion, and any other formal institution that threat- ing in one generalization all the phenomena of nature—and ened one’s personal freedom. It was his abiding concern with therefore also the life of societies.” In developing his views on the individual’s uniqueness and not his views as a social re- human nature, Kropotkin went farther in extending the anal- former that made Stirner attractive to certain segments of the ogy between society and the natural world. Like the Social anarchist community at the end of the nineteenth century. Darwinists of his era, Kropotkin maintained that all human This was particularly true not just of the devotees of behavior was a reflection of our biological condition. But while in Europe but also of the nonrevolutionary individualist an- most Social Darwinists argued that a “tooth and nail” impulse archists in the . For example, the foremost rep- in the struggle for was the dominant gov- resentative of this strand of anarchism in the United States, erning the evolution of human behavior, Kropotkin insisted Benjamin R. Tucker (1854–1939), took from Stirner’s phi- that the instinct of cooperation was an even more important losophy the view that self-interest or egoistic desire was needed factor in this process. According to him, it is the species in na- to preserve the “sovereignty of the individual.” ture that shows the greatest tendency toward mutual aid—not cutthroat competition—that is the one most likely to survive Spiritual anarchism and anarcho-. Parallel and flourish over time. By arguing in this way, Kropotkin was to the terrorist acts committed at this time, the Christian paci- attempting to demonstrate that anarchism was a highly evolved fist Leo Tolstoy (1828–1910) was developing an antiauthori- state of human nature but one that could not be obtained un- tarian current of thinking that, in its broadest sense, can be til the state and other coercive institutions were completely regarded as belonging to the anarchist tradition. Tolstoy pro- abolished. moted a form of religious anarchism that was based on the “law of supreme love” as defined by his personal (anti-doctri- The relationship between anarchism and violence. The nal) reading of the Scriptures. Though he did not see himself efforts of Kropotkin and other anarchist thinkers to define an- as an anarchist, he nevertheless believed that in order for men archism as a rational and practicable doctrine were overshad- and women to live in a morally coherent world it was neces- owed by the negative publicity generated by the violence-prone sary to destroy the state and its institutions. Because of his re- elements of the movement. Beginning with the assassination jection of the use of force and violence, Tolstoy and his of Tsar Alexander II in 1881 and continuing up to the turn followers advocated , or nonviolent resis- of the century, when the American president William tance, as a means of achieving the stateless and communally McKinley was murdered in 1901 by a lone gunman, anarchists based society they envisioned. everywhere were viewed as sociopaths who terrorized society by throwing bombs and assassinating heads of state. The fact that It was also around this time that anarchist doctrine expe- not all of these public outrages were committed by anarchists rienced another significant metamorphosis. From the late (Alexander II was killed by nihilists) or individuals who were 1890s until the 1930s, anarchist activity was increasingly cen- representative of the movement as a whole did little to dispel tered in working-class cultural and economic organizations,

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and the tactics and strategy of the movement were grounded Anarchism has also been enriched by the thinking of some in the theory of revolutionary syndicalism. While not wholly of the twentieth century’s leading philosophers, political ac- abandoning the use of violence, the anarcho-syndicalists be- tivists, artists, and intellectuals. , Herbert lieved that, against the organized forces of big government and Read, Mahatma , Martin Buber, Camus, Michel monopoly capitalism, the revolutionary élan of the workers Foucault, , Lewis Mumford, and Noam could be most effectively channeled through or- Chomsky are among the notable figures who have been asso- ganizations. Using tactics such as the , which was ciated with anarchist beliefs and values. meant to paralyze the economy by linking shutdowns in dif- From the late twentieth century on, anarchism has con- ferent industries, the anarcho-syndicalists believed that it tinued to branch out in different directions. Anarchist ideas would be possible to create the general conditions for a com- have been influential in the development of plete collapse of capitalism and the state. Anarcho-syndicalism and the Green and antiglobalist movements that have spread became an important force in the labor movements in parts across Europe and the Americas. Contemporary anarcho- of Latin America (Mexico, Argentina) and in European coun- feminism has its roots in the writings and activism of histori- tries such as Italy, France, and Spain. Its greatest impact was cally important figures like , Voltairine de felt in Spain. During the Second Republic (1931–1936) and Cleyre, and . Goldman was among the first continuing through the civil war period (1936–1939), anarcho- female anarchists to emphasize that the emancipation of syndicalism developed into a powerful mass movement. At its women in society must begin with psychological change within peak the anarcho-syndicalist organizations known as the CNT- women themselves. By calling on women to struggle against FAI (National of Workers and Federation of the repressive and hierarchical structures that dominated their Iberian Anarchists) counted more than 1.5 million adherents. personal lives, Goldman anticipated late-twentieth-century Their influence over the course of events during the civil war anarcho-feminists, who have insisted that the “personal is po- was most dramatically illustrated by the fact that they set up litical” and have developed a radical critique of everyday life. and ran thousands of industrial and agricultural collectives Anarchist principles also have been adopted by some of the throughout the Republican zone. The triumph of Franco’s Na- more radical ecological movements of postindustrial societies. tionalist forces in 1939, followed by the outbreak of another Libertarian social ecologists such as have global world war that same year, sounded the death knell for attempted to extend the traditional anarchist demand to eman- anarcho-syndicalism not only in Spain but in other Western cipate society from government rule to our natural environ- European countries as well. ment, calling for an end to human beings’ dominating and It deserves mention here that, by the time World War II exploitative relationship with nature. began, anarchism’s reach extended across the globe. Besides Perhaps because of its shock value in an age crowded by taking root in the Americas, the doctrine had penetrated parts political neologisms, the anarchist label has also been applied of East Asia and even the subcontinent. In both China and to groups that do not properly belong to the anarchist tradi- Japan, for example, Western anarchist ideas influenced lead- tion. For example, the term “anarcho-capitalism” is sometimes ing social thinkers such as and labor organizers used to refer to libertarian economic and social thinkers such who were seeking to establish in those countries. as , David Friedman, and other pro-capitalists who However, the emergence of authoritarian and totalitarian hold strong antistatist views. But even though they share the regimes of both the right and left in the 1930s and late 1940s anarchist’s contempt for state authority, their commitment to effectively quashed the libertarian tendencies that had been de- free enterprise and laissez-faire principles places them com- veloping up to then. It would take another forty years before pletely at odds with classical anarchist thinking and practice. anarchist ideas would be resurrected by tiny protest groups Ever since the Cold War ended in 1991, small groups of an- (mostly in Japan) that wanted to express their cultural and in- archists around the world have been in the forefront of the tellectual dissatisfaction with the status quo. antiglobalization movement. Like their predecessors, modern anarchist activists seek to expose the adverse power relationships that affect our daily lives. They are particularly concerned with While the , World War II (1939–1945), the impact that the global expansion of corporate leviathans has and the rise of totalitarian communist regimes after 1949 were had on society, not least because of the seemingly unlimited events that effectively ended the further development of the ways in which this advanced form of capitalism can manipulate historical anarchist movement, anarchist ideas and sensibilities and control the lives of individuals. While a few anarchist groups were not as easily repressed. The political and cultural protest still resort to direct-action methods to get their revolutionary movements of the 1960s and 1970s in Europe and the message across, a growing number are turning to advanced tech- Americas saw a resurgence of interest in anarchism. Feminists, nologies like the Internet to promote their cause. In short, ecologists, student radicals, pacifists, and others who were ea- whether one admires or abhors anarchist principles, it cannot ger to question the prevailing social and moral preconceptions be denied that anarchism offers a critical perspective of author- of modern society held by both the left and the right were ity that appears to be endlessly relevant to those who want to drawn above all to the doctrine’s iconoclasm. At this time, el- sharpen their awareness of the boundaries of personal freedom. ements from a variety of nonlibertarian groups—the Situa- tionists in France, for example—freely borrowed anarchist See also Communism; Feminism; Marxism; Protest, Politi- ideas in developing their own ideological positions. cal; Social Darwinism; Socialism.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY ANCESTOR WORSHIP. Ancestor worship is the rev- erent devotion expressed by descendants for their deceased PRIMARY SOURCES forebears through a culturally prescribed set of rituals and ob- Bakunin, Mikhail. Michael Bakunin: Selected Writings. Edited by servances. The prominence of ancestors as a focus of worship Arthur Lehning. Translated by Steven Cox and Olive Stevens. within a broader religious tradition is common in many parts New York: Grove Press, 1973. Bookchin, Murray. Post-Scarcity Anarchism. 1971. 3rd ed., of the world, including Asia, Africa, and Native America, but Oakland, Calif.: AK Press, 2004. there are few unifying characteristics cross-culturally. Com- Chomsky, Noam. Radical Priorities. 1981. Edited and introduced monalities include: by Carlos Otero. Exp. 3rd ed. Edinburgh and Oakland, Calif.: Only those deceased of appropriate relationship to the AK Press, 2003. living and who have undergone the necessary rites de Cohn-Bendit, Daniel, and Gabriel Cohn-Bendit. Obsolete Com- munism: The Leftwing Alternative. Translated by Arnold Pomer- passage are worshiped. ans. Harmondsworth, U.K.: Penguin, 1968. Those that are worshiped usually are recognized by Debord, Guy. The Society of the Spectacle. 1973. Reprint, New name or title, often a special posthumous one. York: Zone Books, 1994. De Cleyre, Voltairine. Anarchism and American Traditions. Services to the ancestors frequently include offerings and Chicago: n.p., 1932. libations. Goldman, Emma.. Anarchism, and Other Essays. 1910. Reprint, with a new introduction by Richard Drinnon, New York: That ancestor worship is related to the animistic belief in Dover, 1969. a spirit or soul surviving the body after death, as proposed by Goodman, Paul. Growing Up Absurd. New York: Random House, early anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor (1832–1917), is 1960. reasonable, since it is this spirit essence of the ancestor that is Kropotkin, Peter. The Conquest of Bread. 1906. In The Conquest of believed to continue its relationship with descendants. That Bread and Other Writings, edited by Marshall Shatz. Cambridge, ancestor worship is related to the earliest stage of religious ex- U.K., and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1995. pression among humans, however, as Tylor’s theory further —. Modern Science and Anarchism. Translated from the suggested, is certainly debatable. Other controversies in the Russian by David A. Modell. Philadelphia: The Social Club study of ancestor worship include whether practices in honor of Philadelphia, 1903. 2nd ed., London: Freedom Press, 1923. of the deceased constitute actual worship; the extent to which —. Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution. London: Heinemann, linear versus collateral relatives comprise the worshiping group; 1902. the ways in which the living are influenced by the dead; and Proudhon, Pierre-Joseph. What Is Property: An Inquiry into the the individual, family, kin group, or regional variability in Principle of Right and Government. 1890. Translated by practice that can be present in a single cultural tradition. Donald R. Kelley and Bonnie G. Smith. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 1994. Puente, Isaac. Libertarian Communism. 1932. Sydney: Monty Ancestors in Africa and Asia Miller Press, 1985. In his work among the Tallensi of Ghana, Meyer Fortes em- Reclus, Élisée. An Anarchist on Anarchy. London: Press, phasizes the significance of ancestor worship to patrilineage 1897. unification and lineage or segment differentiation. In particu- Rocker, Rudolf. Anarchosyndicalism. London: Secker and lar, the father–oldest surviving son relationship is emphasized, Warburg, 1938. the latter having the primary responsibility for performing the Stirner, Max. The Ego and His Own. Translated by Steven T. appropriate rituals and service. In general, placement of an Byington. New York: Benj. R. Tucker, 1907. African ancestral shrine and the performance of its services can Tolstoy, Leo. What I Believe. Translated by Constantine Popoff. also relate to and influence descendants’ genealogical position London: Elliot Stock, 1885. and seniority. Tucker, Benjamin J. Instead of a Book. 1893. Reprint, New York: Arno Press, 1972. In China, Daoist, Confucian, Buddhist, and folk concepts have contributed to the practice of ancestor worship in which SECONDARY SOURCES heads of patrilineages are emphasized but other patrilineal rel- Guérin, Daniel. Anarchism. Translated by Mary Klopper. New atives are included. There are three prominent sites for ances- York: Monthly Review Press, 1970. tor worship: family shrines, lineage halls, and tombs or Joll, James. The Anarchists. 2nd ed. Cambridge, Mass.: Harvard graveyards of relatives. Proper placement and orientation of University Press, 1980. the latter will take geomancy (feng-shui) into account. Physi- Marshall, Peter H. Demanding the Impossible. London: Fontana, cal remains of the deceased are laid to rest in the tomb/grave- 1991. yard, which serves as the site of public rituals; ancestral tablets Miller, David. Anarchism. London: Dent, 1984. represent the deceased in shrine and temple, in which their Pennock, J. Roland, and John W. Chapman, eds. Anarchism. New spirits are housed, and for which more private and personal York: New York University Press, 1978. observances are made. While the ancestors wield significant Sonn, Richard D. Anarchism. New York: Twayne, 1992. Woodcock, George. Anarchism. New ed. Harmondsworth, U.K.: authority and influence in the lives of their living descendants, Penguin. the latter care for and look after their ancestors—for example, by burning paper money at New Year’s to contribute to their George Esenwein ancestors’ bounty or prosperity.

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