AN ALTERNATIVE TO DEVELOPMENT FRAMEWORK: A STUDY OF PERMACULTURE AND ANARCHISM IN GLOBAL JUSTICE MOVEMENTS IN NEW ZEALAND By Tazia Gaisford A thesis submitted to the Victoria University of Wellington in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Development Studies Victoria University of Wellington 2011 2 Abstract This study is a response to calls for alternatives to development by post- development authors and critics of post-development alike. It asks “can the praxis of permaculture and anarchism provide an alternative to development?” Although alternatives to development arguably do not exist untouched by the dominant development paradigm, it is possible to imagine and to create the different possible organisations based on principles of mutual aid, direct action and self-management. Anarchism as a politically focused social philosophy and permaculture as an ecologically focused design philosophy are mutually beneficial in strengthening each other. The combined analysis of alternatives to development uses case studies in the Wellington Region, primarily Climate Camp Aotearoa, with permaculture and anarchist principles, and contributes another perspective to the post-development debate. The two approaches share converging central ethics, principles and struggles of praxis. They recognise that transformative change is necessary. Whether it is called a cultural revolution, transition or paradigm shift, the underlying recognition is that we need to live more harmoniously with each other and the natural environment by creating diverse post-industrial societies. Many tools, principles and processes advocated by alternative development and post-development are the same. However, the combination of those tools, principles and processes, and how they are designed and applied in relation to each other systemically, are significant in determining whether or not the intent is that of an alternative to development. Solidarity and stewardship, decentralisation and autonomy, tight multiple feedback mechanisms and a whole system design approach are some of the alternative people-focused solutions proposed by anarchism and permaculture. Fieldwork research was conducted using the qualitative ethnographic and action research methods of participant observation from a constructionist and post-development perspective. Global justice networks are given importance as examples of the anarchistic intent of alternatives to development. 3 Acknowledgements Firstly I’d like to thank my supervisor, John Overton, for his guidance and enthusiasm, and for introducing me to anarchism as “an interesting theory to do a thesis on.” I am grateful to Gary Williams, my Permaculture Design Course (PDC) teacher, for his valuable insights and for his support of this project from the start. A big thanks to all the Climate Camp Aotearoa local groups, particularly those in the North Island who I got to know most in 2009 and to the individuals within them who have been inspirational in so many ways. Thanks for being part of my personal paradigm shift. There are also many other individuals who have contributed intellectually in some way to this thesis or at least helped me through some difficult thought processes however briefly at different times. These conversations have been invaluable. I’d like to also thank my mother for laboriously trawling through drafts when I needed it most. 4 Table of Contents ABSTRACT ...........................................................................................2 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS .......................................................................3 CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION ................................................................7 1.1 INTRODUCTION..................................................................................................7 1.2 RESEARCH INTEREST, AIMS AND ANALYSIS.........................................................8 1.3 AN OVERVIEW OF THE THESIS CHAPTERS .......................................................... 10 CHAPTER 2: POST-DEVELOPMENT THEORY, ANARCHISM, PERMACULTURE AND THE GLOBAL JUSTICE MOVEMENT ................... 11 2.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 11 2.1.2 Origins of the environmental justice movement ........................................................11 2.2 POST-DEVELOPMENT THEORY .......................................................................... 12 2.2.1 Alternatives to development....................................................................................14 2.2.2 Global justice movements and alternatives to neo-liberalism...................................... 15 2.3 ANARCHISM ..................................................................................................... 17 2.3.1 Different strands of anarchism................................................................................18 2.3.2 Anarchism and (anti-)development......................................................................... 21 2.3.3 New anarchism and the global justice network.........................................................23 2.3.4 Anarchism, ecology and environmentalism..............................................................25 2.4 PERMACULTURE .............................................................................................. 25 2.4.1 Core ethics of permaculture ....................................................................................27 2.4.2 Design principles of permaculture ........................................................................... 27 2.4.3 Permaculture, post-development and anarchism ......................................................28 2.5 RESEARCH CONTEXT ........................................................................................ 29 2.5.1 Aim .....................................................................................................................30 CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH APPROACH .................................................... 32 3.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................ 32 3.2 POST-DEVELOPMENT THEORY AND THE CALL FOR ALTERNATIVES.................... 32 3.3 CONSTRUCTIONISM .......................................................................................... 33 3.4 ETHNOGRAPHY ................................................................................................ 34 3.5 PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION............................................................................. 36 3.6 CASE STUDIES .................................................................................................. 38 3.7 RESEARCH ISSUES AND LIMITATIONS................................................................ 40 CHAPTER 4: CASE STUDIES ................................................................. 46 4.1 INTRODUCTION................................................................................................ 46 4.2 CAMP FOR CLIMATE ACTION AOTEAROA ......................................................... 46 4.3 PARIHAKA AND THE BEGINNINGS OF MY INVOLVEMENT................................... 49 4.5 CAPITALISM AND HIERARCHY .......................................................................... 50 4.6 DIRECT DEMOCRACY ....................................................................................... 51 4.7 CONSENSUS DECISION-MAKING PROCESS.......................................................... 52 4.7.1 Key roles in the consensus decision-making process...................................................53 4.7.2 Hand signals for communication in the consensus process......................................... 54 4.8 ORGANISING AND DECISION-MAKING STRUCTURES (AND PROCESSES).............. 56 4.8.1 Local groups ......................................................................................................... 56 4.8.2 Working groups .................................................................................................... 58 4.8.3 Spokes council and spokes......................................................................................61 4.8.4 National meetings ................................................................................................. 62 4.8.5 Neighbourhoods at the Camp.................................................................................63 4.8.6 Working groups at the Camp .................................................................................64 5 4.8.7 Spokes meetings at the Camp .................................................................................65 4.9 NON-VIOLENT DIRECT ACTION (NVDA).......................................................... 65 4.9.1 Direct action......................................................................................................... 66 4.9.2 Non-violence......................................................................................................... 69 4.9.3 Affinity groups for NVDA .....................................................................................70 4.10 ELEMENTS OF THE CAMP REFLECTING PERMACULTURE ................................. 71 4.10.1 Sustainable living................................................................................................73 4.10.2 Participatory education........................................................................................75 4.11 PERMACULTURE HUI PARTICIPATORY TOOLS FOR LEARNING .......................... 75 4.11.1 Open