THE UNIVERSITY OF OKLAHOMA COLLEGE OF LIBERAL STUDIES CLS Journal of Museum Studies, Volume 8, Number 1 Journal of Museum Studies

e-Journal of the Museum Studies Program VOL 8 | NO 1 | DEC 2014

Foreword The Breadth of Natural History Research

by Michael A. Mares

Talking and Father : Preliminary Quantification of Curator and Contemporary Diné Success in Life Science Natural History () Art Collections by Daniel C. Swan and Dakota H. Stevens by Jessa L. Watters and Cameron D. Siler

Edited by Michael A. Mares CLS Journal of Museum Studies, Volume 8, Number 1

CLS Journal of Museum Studies, Volume 8 Number 1 (Dec. 2014) http://jms.ou.edu

CLS Journal of Museum Studies is currently published online by the College of Liberal Studies, MALS Museum Studies Program, the University of Oklahoma.

Your use of the CLS Journal of Museum Studies archives indicates your acceptance of the Terms and Conditions of Use, available at http://jms.ou.edu. Museum professionals, students, and other readers are encouraged to distribute the articles published in this journal as widely as possible, to use them in classes, and to reprint them as needed. For commercial use of any of these articles Cover Photograph: Mother Earth, Father Sky and the Yeis (e.g., charging for articles, republishing figures, tables, text, etc.), Dancers, 2006. Jackie Black, Diné (Navajo), Red Valley, New permission must be obtained from the Editor. All questions Mexico. Acrylic on canvas. Sam Noble Museum. relating to the journal should be directed to the Editor. Journal Editor Publisher contact information available at http://jms.ou.edu. Dr. Michael A. Mares, Director, Sam Noble Museum and Joseph Brandt Professor, Department of Biology, University of Each copy of any part of a CLS Journal of Museum Studies Oklahoma transmission must contain the same copyright notice that appears on the screen or PDF file of such transmission. Editorial Board Gail Kana Anderson, Assistant Director/Curator of Collections, CLS Journal of Museum Studies is an independent not-for-profit Fred Jones Jr. Museum of Art, University of Oklahoma publication dedicated to creating and preserving a digital archive of scholarly articles in the field of museum studies. For more Marcia Britton, Executive Director, Council for the information regarding CLS Journal of Museum studies, please Humanities, Laramie, WY contact Dr. Michael A. Mares at [email protected]. Byron Price, Director, University of Oklahoma Press and Charles Publication date: December 2014 M. Russell Center for the Study of Art of the American West, The CLS Journal of Museum Studies is issued annually (with University of Oklahoma individual numbers appearing as they are completed) by the College of Liberal Studies, MALS Museum Studies Program of Dr. Mary Jo Watson, Director and Regents’ Professor, School of the University of Oklahoma. The CLS Journal of Museum Studies Art and Art History, University of Oklahoma is designed to provide a worldwide e-journal as a publication outlet for students enrolled in the Museum Studies Program of Dr. Daniel C. Swan, Curator of Ethnology and Professor of the College of Liberal Studies of the University of Oklahoma. Anthropology, Sam Noble Museum, University of Oklahoma The journal is also designed for use by faculty in the CLS MALS program. Any topic of relevance to the field of museum studies is The CLS Journal of Museum Studies is published annually by the considered suitable for publication in the journal. College of Liberal Studies, MALS Museum Studies Program, the University of Oklahoma Contributions may be solicited by the Editor from museum professionals not affiliated with the MALS Museum Studies Manuscripts submitted for the Journal and all correspondence con- Program. Please contact the editor directly if you wish to publish cerning them should be addressed to Dr. Michael A Mares. Guide- in the CLS Journal of Museum Studies. lines for contributors are given on the last page of this volume.

All submissions are reviewed by one or more members of the Copyright © 2014 by the College of Liberal Studies, University Editorial Board or by outside reviewers. of Oklahoma. Designed by Traci Fuller, on a format established by Dr. Michael A. Mares.

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Table of Contents

iii Foreword The Breadth of Natural History Research by Michael A. Mares

1 Talking God and Father Peyote: Religious Pluralism and Contemporary Diné (Navajo) Art by Daniel C. Swan and Dakota H. Stevens

15 Preliminary Quantification of Curator Success in Life Science Natural History Collections by Jessa L. Watters and Cameron D. Siler

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Pentaceratops (world’s largest) on display at the Sam Noble Museum (left). Aquilops (smallest and oldest ceratopsian) skull placed on the Pentaceratops horn (right). Both are Sam Noble Museum specimens.

FOREWORD The Breadth of Natural History Research

Michael A. Mares Sam Noble Museum and Department of Biology University of Oklahoma

E-mail: [email protected]

niversity natural history museums, like Oklahoma’s Sam There are not many research organizations that deal with the Noble Museum, have a broad mandate that is driven complexity of life in all of its forms, past and present, and in the U by the great breadth of the museum’s collections (from complex interweaving of the cultures that make up our humanity. dinosaur fossils to tissues; from study specimens of living species Each object, organism, and concept illustrated through publications, from throughout the world to Native American art, artifacts, and exhibits, and programs, can not only be appreciated, but can be languages). Indeed, more than 120 countries are represented in the understood within the tapestry of life past and present. Museums 10 million objects and specimens that make up the museum’s many educate and entertain while at the same time helping us understand collection areas. our place in the world. In a sense, they give us hope that we are part of a continuum of life and living that traces its roots to the first In some respects, a large natural history museum is like a university, life forms, and that will go on into a future that we can only dimly where research and education cover an enormous range of topics. discern. Our ability to peer across time into the future in a limited Unlike most universities, however, university museums, while manner is enhanced by the stories and the research of the curators being research institutions where cutting edge research takes place, and their students as they interpret the collections. educate not only undergraduate and graduate students, but also K-12 students and non students, from the youngest children to the My friend, the late Stephen Jay Gould, used to tell a story about the most senior citizens. Museums are a place where society can gather importance of the primacy of objects in museums, where having for accurate information on science and culture—information the real object imbues those specimens and artifacts with almost supported with real objects and real specimens. talismanic status. He was working with blind people in an attempt

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to make their visits to the Air and Space Museum more meaningful. You need to know that in Air and Space, most of the aircraft are hanging from a very high ceiling, perhaps 40 feet above the visitor’s head. How does one make such objects meaningful to visitors who lack sight?

As a test, the museum produced a miniature copy of the Wright Flyer, the first ever airplane, and the one that lead to the marvelous array of airships and rockets and spaceships that we have today after the Wright brothers sailed over the Kill Devil Hills and into history in 1903. A blind person testing the model noted that the model was excellent and gave him a good feel for the airplane, but he said it only had meaning if it were placed exactly below, and in the exact same position, as the original Wright Flyer hanging from the ceiling. At that point the model became a real reflection of the plane and the visitor was able to experience the “real” Wright Flyer. Such is the power of the real object.

Museums separate themselves from other organizations in that museums are all about the original objects. In the Sam Noble Museum, these may range from the largest ceratopsian dinosaur (Pentaceratops, pictured above) to the oldest and smallest ceratopsian, Aquilops, which was described only this December. Untitled, 2014, Sammie Largo, Diné (Navajo), Mentmore, Both are in the museum’s collection and are shown above. These . Colored pencil on paper. Sam Noble Museum. specimens are the real reflection of dinosaur evolution over a 60 million year span of time and are unique. The second article, “Preliminary Quantification of Curator Success in Life Science Natural History Collections, by Dr. Cameron Siler The Sam Noble Museum also has extensive collections of Native (Curator of Herpetology) and Jessa Watters, both of the Sam Noble American materials, whether archeological artifacts from the Museum, examines and discusses the value of museum collections Caddoan culture of Oklahoma that reach back in time almost 1,000 and the contributions of museum scientists in university affiliated years, to art produced today by the people of the Nation and and standalone museum environments. These Sam Noble Museum many other tribes. Artists working today are seeking new forms for scientists surveyed curators across a large number of natural their art through well-established cultural memes. These artists are history museums in 11 countries to determine what the academic, producing the art that graces the museum’s Native art collection. intellectual, educational, and overall value of a museum curator is to a university and to a museum. They found that museum In “Talking God and Father Peyote, Religious Pluralism and curators, especially those at university-affiliated museums, are highly Contemporary Diné (Navajo) Art,” Dr. Daniel Swan (Curator of productive across all their duties, including receiving grant support Ethnology) and Dakota Stevens of the Sam Noble Museum examine for their research, publishing, teaching, and serving students and how the interactions of the Native American Church and traditional the community. Navajo religious practices have been responsible for imbuing modern art both within and beyond traditional limits. The work of two University natural history museums not only have a broad scope, living Navajo painters is examined in detail and their remarkable as illustrated by the two articles in this issue of the CLS Journal paintings, which are part of the Sam Noble Museum’s Native art of Museum Studies, but also have curators and professional staff collection, are examined in detail. The article is the type of analysis whose duties span the intellectual, educational, and scientific limits that permits a greater understanding of the artists and their art and of natural science. It is no simple task for museum professionals to will enrich visitors to the museum who wish to understand the spread themselves thinly across the spectrum of museum operations factors that may influence an outstanding work of art. The authors and programs, but they do so willingly and even remarkably. They note that this work “provides a great example of the role of the are able to contribute to a betterment of science and society. Their individual in the interpretation of mythic stories and oral histories… work across the disciplines and collections of museums has always in the creative moment.” shone a light into the darkness of ignorance.

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Talking God and Father Peyote: Religious Pluralism and Contemporary Diné (Navajo) Art

Daniel C. Swan Curator of Ethnology and Professor of Anthropology, Sam Noble Museum, University of Oklahoma 73072

Dakota H. Stevens Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Ethnology, Sam Noble Museum, University of Oklahoma 73072

Abstract: This paper examines the visual expression of religious pluralism Etsitty within broad historical and social contexts. We gain direction in contemporary Navajo society. We focus on artistic works that are in our analysis from the work of a cohort of young Navajo scholars influenced by the intersection of the Native American Church and anxious to counter the dominant narratives and reclaim intellectual traditional Navajo religious practice. We use this theme as a means to sovereignty over the discussion of Navajo identity construction in explore the work of two contemporary painters from the Navajo Nation, the twenty-first century. Sammie Largo and Garrett Etsitty. At interest here is an opportunity to discuss current themes associated with art, , and identity in The presentation and assessment of actual art works including the Navajo Nation. statements from the artist who create them are largely absent in scholarly discourse on Navajo art. The one area in which we do have he role of art in Navajo society and culture has received a comprehensive history and social contextualization of painting considerable attention from academics with an intense in Navajo society is Nancy Parezo’s comprehensive treatment of T focus on the relationships between art, language, dry paintings in contexts and the translation of the genre philosophy and worldview (Hatcher 1974; Mills 1983; Witherspoon into a major tourist product (Parezo 1983). The literature also 1977). In contrast, individual and community motivations for includes extensive discussion of the incorporation of design elements artistic production are largely absent in this literature. In this article from ritual dry paintings in Navajo textiles and comments on the we explore the intersection of traditional Navajo religion and the motivations of the weavers to incorporate these designs (Kaufman Native American Church through examples of contemporary and Selser 1985, Parrish et. al. 1983). The limited scope of most Navajo arts. We propose that religious themes and symbolism have scholarship on the relationship between Navajo art and religion long been important elements in Navajo fine arts and that syncretic is evidenced in the following assessment of the motivations of works comprise an important genre of contemporary Navajo art. contemporary Navajo artists and their misguided attitudes toward Our intention is to situate the works of Sammie Largo and Garrett their own works (Farnsted 1982:213):

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People who have only tenuous connections with traditional and spread to other pueblos and communities (Bernstein 1995:4). religion and knowledge have turned these to commercial During this time, more and more pueblos began to produce use. This is particularly true of Navajo artists. The most paintings, as well as furthering practices of painting on other obvious example is probably the sale of “sand paintings.” mediums, such as pottery. Most other artistic media are less obviously derived from the practice of traditional religion, and the content of their art is not so completely based in tradition. The works of young Navajo painters, however, are concerned with subjects which imply religious significance in works where none may exist (except in the minds of the artist).

We take considerable exception to this statement regarding the role of traditional religion in Navajo art and the marginal status assigned to artists with respect to their knowledge and participation in Navajo religion. The narrow definition of “tradition,” a problematic if not a false concept, obscures the enduring nature and dynamic qualities of Navajo society and its evolving expressive culture. Fig. 1. Petroglyph art near Santa Fe, New Mexico.

We intend to address these themes through the works and words of Increased access to manufactured goods, the transition from trading two contemporary Diné artists, Sammie Largo and Garrett Etsitty. to a cash economy and the advent of tourism heavily impacted the Our goal is to provide scholarly context for their comments and to history of Native American painting in the Southwest. The role of use their work as a means to address religious pluralism and identity the full time artist was solidified in the Southwest in the late 1800s construction in the modern Navajo Nation. The relationship and the early 1900s, as more and more tourists traveled to the area between traditional religious practice and Navajo art can be readily looking for souvenirs. The Indian artists rose to the challenge and addressed through the examination of representative works from began making curios for the tourists to carry home as mementoes of the Brown Collection of Native American Art at the Sam Noble their adventure. Painters were not separated from this development Museum, University of Oklahoma. as there was a market for works made on paper and as such “easel painting in the Southwest was born in earnest” (Van Ness Seymour NAVAJO PAINTING 1988:19). The history of easel painting in the Southwest, in general and among the Navajo, is long and storied, both in a literal and figurative sense. In the 1920s US Indian policy on education began to shift from Literally, painting by Native Americans in the Southwest began with strictly assimilationist agendas to one of social reform and Native early hunter-gatherers with examples of painting on the sides of rock rights (Bernstein 1995:3). This shift in policy allowed for the faces scattered throughout the Southwest (Fig. 1). Scholars agree that formation of what could be called the single most important force through the years the indigenous people of the Southwest produced in the development of Southwest Indian painting; the establishment paintings of various types from geometric to more realistic designs of the Studio run by at the Santa Fe Indian School on a range of objects and materials (Tanner 1973:8). Painting was in 1932 (Silberman 1978:19). Dunn and those who supported her, often deployed to invoke stories and to achieve a form of connection such as Kenneth Chapman, thought the establishment of an original with spiritual beings. This aspect of storytelling is seen in both the style would allow Indian artists to produce art that consisted of real ancient paintings on cliff walls and on the walls of kivas, as well as in worth in contrast to Indian curios sold for pennies on the dollar. the modern work of Native artists in every type of medium. Today, (Bernstein 1995:3). by enacting a form of tradition in the making of the art, Native artists reveal the stories of who they are, where they came from and From 1932 to 1937, Dunn served as director of the Studio where where they are going. she mentored many of the early great talents in Southwestern Native painting. Particularly, great Navajo artists, such as Harrison The development of western-style easel painting in the Southwest Begay who attended from 1934-1939, Andy Tishnahjinnie who was uneven, comprised of localized movements that involved graduated from the school in 1936, and Jimmy Toddy to name but small numbers of artists. Among these earliest easel painters were a few (Tanner 1973). The classes Dunn taught were so successful individuals from San Ildefonso Pueblo who, around 1908, began that through them Navajo easel painting was pushed out of the the process of developing what would later be called the American shadows and began to develop a main stream following with many Indian watercolor movement. In 1917, through the patronage of a artists becoming recognizable in Native communities, as well as number of individuals, the San Ildefonso School began to flourish the general public.

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Fig. 2, Yeibicai, 1938, Harrison Begay, Diné (Navajo). Tempera on paper. Sam Noble Museum Art/2000/1/18, Brown Collection.

In her classes, Dunn wanted her students, whose ages ranged from One of the best-known Navajo artists from the Studio School is early adolescence to their early twenties, to develop their own styles Harrison Begay (1917-2012). He was the son of a woman from to show themselves on the paper, not to mimic broader trends in the Red Forehead Clan and his father adopted the Zuni Deer the art world, and she intended to be a guide to her students not Clan (Tanner 1973:301). He attended the Santa Fe Indian School a teacher (Bernstein 1995, Rushing 1995). In doing this, Dunn and was taught by Dorothy Dunn from 1934-1939. During his once again sought to subvert the influences the traders in the region formative years, Begay said that he was influenced by Navajo were exerting on Native arts and allow artists to create an art form sand paintings made by medicine men. He has implied that it is more true to their experiences and circumstances. Dunn believed these designs he sought to reproduce in much of his art (Tanner there was an authentic style of Native American painting present in 1973:303). Working under Dunn, Harrison Begay developed his the Southwest and she found it in wall paintings and rock art. She own style, (Fig. 2) which went on to influence Native artists and found this naturalistic style, consisting of a flat, dimensionless, albeit especially Navajo painters for years to come, this is true even today narrative style to accurately depict a subject, to be the authentic as he is considered one of the greats. Throughout his career, Begay Indian painting (Bernstein 1995:15). Dunn’s desire to promote focused on ceremonial figures, including stylized Yeibechei figures and encourage a “true” Native American style of painting also ((Fig. 3) and other scenes from the ritual traditions of the Navajo included her preference for narrative genre scenes, preferably of people. Here, the ritual foot race that is a part of Kinalda (Frisbe ceremonials and other community gatherings. The fact that these 1993), the girls coming of age ceremony ((Fig. 4). scenes are so disconnected from the community circumstances in the 1920s-40s is significant. It is important to remember that A second foundational artist important to name here, Andy Dunn’s primary objective was to bring economic opportunity to Tsihnahjinnie (1918-2000) graduated from the Santa Fe Indian the Native communities of the Southwest through the production School in 1936. He is known to have gone through many moods of high quality works in the fine arts. as a painter (Fig. 5), each time seeming to reinvent himself,

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Fig. 3. Untitled (Kachinas on Hill), ca. 2010. Harrrison Begay, Diné (Navajo). Guache on board. Sam Noble Museum, art/2010/2/1. Brown Acquisition Fund. creating a concrete style before turning away to something new By the 1960s, the nostalgic style taught at the Studio could and entirely different (Tanner 1973:314) Originality is a trademark not withstand the disconnect with the social contexts in which of Tsihnahjinnie, especially as one examines the horses he painted Native artists worked and lived. This school of Native American in every conceivable size, shape, and color. painting was seen as ethnocentric, limiting an art form to an imposed set of standards and preferences of settler colonialism. Lastly, we consider the influence of Jimmy Toddy, also known as A critical development was the founding of the Institute of Beatien Yazz (1928-2013). Toddy also spent some time in Santa American Indian Arts (IAIA) in 1962. IAIA immediately Fe at the Indian School under the direction of Dorothy Dunn. sought to reject “Native American painting as it had developed While Toddy was growing up, there were no professional Navajo and emphasize a contemporary approach using American and artists, no made a good living making and selling pictures, European styles...the school introduced social commentary, and easel painting was virtually unknown among them at the time protest and activist stands” (Brody 1983:27). He is an outlier when it comes to Navajo painting; creating works that are not related to traditional Navajo ritual art, (Silberman 1978: 21). Led by its Trustees and faculty the IAIA but not really falling into other art categories either. It was not until promoted a break from the naturalistic style Dunn had taught for after 1950 that his painting (Fig. 6) came to fall in line with the rest years, which was seen as stifling the creative individuality of the of the pan-Indian Illustrative style (Brody 1983:28). Toddy took artists. Individualism was promoted at the school in “direct contrast what he observed and filtered it through his experiences, and then to the communal nature of many Native American societies” painted from a new and different perspective, all the while still being (Bernstein 1999:66). connected to his heritage as a Navajo.

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Fig. 4. A Race: Becoming a Woman Event, ca. 2010, Harrison Begay, Diné (Navajo). Guache on board. Sam Noble Museum Art/2010/2/11. Brown Acquisition Fund.

This shift to a new attitude and perspective on Native American PEYOTISM AND TRADITIONAL NAVAJO RELIGION painting in the late twentieth century brought a broader range of The Navajo were first exposed to the modern Peyote Religion in forms and methods to the situation in which Native artists felt the 1920s and 1930s through Ute communities in Southwestern freer to innovate and experiment. Despite these changes, religious Colorado (Aberle and Stewart 1957:27). Initial centers for Navajo imagery remains important in Navajo painting as illustrated in Peyotism developed in the Northern Frontier of the Navajo Nation the works of Elriggs Allen (Diné) and Jackie Black (Diné). These in Southeastern Utah (Aberle and Stewart 1957:41-42). Peyotism artists bring two very different approaches to a similar theme in their subsequently diffused southward to various Navajo communities respective works that feature Yei figures (Figs. 7-8). between Shiprock and Gallup, New Mexico. In the 1940s the Peyote Religion spread to the western districts of the Navajo The Navajo art and artists included in this study are highly selective, Nation (Aberle and Stewart 1957: 192- 193; Aberle 1982: 109; bounded by our desire to utilize works in the collections of the Wagner 1974: 156-172). Additional introduction of Peyotism in Sam Noble Museum and influenced by Swan’s on-going efforts the Navajo Nation came through a number of from to document Peyote arts in the Navajo community. At the risk of Oklahoma in the 1930s-50s (Aberle and Stewart 1957: 5, 6, 56- omitting important figures in this history, we feel compelled to offer 58; Stewart 1987: 296, 298). The history of Peyotism among the this incomplete list of Navajo painters to provide a preliminary Navajo is complex in both scale and chronology and much work sense of scale and impact. A partial list would include: Elriggs Allen, remains to fully address the growth and development of Peyotism Narcisco Platero Abeyta, Tony Abeya, Stanley Battese, Arthur C. among the Navajo. Begay Sr., Shonto Begay, Larry Benally, Vernon Bigman, Jackie Black, Beverly Blacksheep, Clifford Brycelea, Naniba Chacon, The Peyote Religion was illegal on the Navajo Nation, and early Mitchell Chee, Robert Chee, Lorenzo Clayton, Fred Cleveland, members were often arrested for violating the 1940 Tribal ban on James Cody, Grey Cohoe, Jason E. David, Adee Dodge, Robert D. peyote (Stewart 1987: 294-297). Subsequent State and Federal Draper, William B. Franklin, Carl Gorman, R. C. Gorman, Charlie legislation and the incorporation of the Native American Church Johnson, James B. Joe, David Johns, Elroy Kaye, Randlett Keedah, in New Mexico in 1945, and in 1946, provided limited Jerry Lee, Big Left Hand, Roger Abel Lewis, Gerald Nailor Sr., Sevier protection for the religious rights of Navajo Peyotists (Stewart Nelson, David Paladin, Andrew Pete, Nelson Dodge Shirley, Ryan 1987:299-300). Singer, Quincy Tahoma, Klah Tso, Bruce Watchman, Hosteen Wez, Bahe Whitethorne Jr., Bahe Whitethorne Sr., Emmi Whithorse, Despite continued persecution and the regular arrest of Peyotists Charles Yazzie, Melanie Yazzie and Peterson Yazzie, Tso Yazzy. on the Navajo Nation, the religion and its membership persevered.

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Fig. 5. Two Teis Who Saved a Hunter, ca. 1970, Andrew Van Tsinajinnie, Diné (Navajo), 1916-2000. Sam Noble Museum Art/1999/2/207. Brown Collection.

The guarantee of religious freedom for Peyotists did not receive TRADITIONAL NAVAJO PHILOSOPHY AND official support from the Navajo National Council until 1967 RELIGION when it sanctioned the Native American Church of Navajoland In her book “Reclaiming Diné History” Navajo scholar Jennifer Nez (Helms 2005). The initial resistance to Peyotism was based on Denetdale (2007:10) provides a clear and succinct interpretation the claims that it was not traditional, that it involved drug usage of the basic elements of creation according to traditional Navajo and intoxication and the behavior of Peyotists was anti-social and philosophy: divisive (Aberle 1982:221). The Holy People created the world as we know it today. Today the Navajo constitute the largest tribal participation in From the Holy People the Diné received knowledge, the Peyote Religion and its associated Native American Church material gifts, and and ceremonies for a proper organizations. Navajo Peyotists maintain memberships in a range of life. The Holy People also provided knowledge on proper formal organizations including Azeé Bee Nahagha (formerly Native relationships between the world and all beings. American Church of Navajoland), the Native American Church of North America, State NAC organizations (Arizona, New Mexico This worldview is based on the philosophical tenets of Hozho and and Utah) and numerous local chapters. The 2010 US Census Sa’ah Naagha Bik’eh Hozhoon (SNBH), concepts that encapsulate reported 332,129 self-identified Navajo people (US Census Bureau the essence of being a Navajo person. Accordingly, Navajo people 2012) and recent estimates suggest that 60-70% of the Navajo should strive to bring harmony and balance to their lives (Lee 2006: population is active in Peyotism (Moore 2003: 68). This formula 80-81). Another scholar from the Navajo Nation, Lloyd Lee (2014: would indicate that it is highly probable that today there may be 5-6) reminds us that SNBH is not a thing; it is not a rigid set of more than 250,00 Navajo who identify with the Native American rules but is instead a learning process that spans an individual’s Church and there is no indication that the popularity and growth entire life: of Navajo Peyotism has peaked.

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Fig. 6. Offerings to Kachina, 1967, Jimmy Toddy, Diné (Navajo). Guache on paper. Sam Noble Museum A/1999.2.202.

SNBH is a person’s life journey. A person’s life is his or a world view is only actualized through the life experiences of its her own to live, but a person is connected to family and adherents. These self-actualized events then contribute to theories community. SNBH is spiritually multi-dimensional and of identity and definitions of community. comprehensive. It is part of the identity of a person and a people. A central focus of Navajo religion (Reichard 1977, Wyman 1970, Zolbrod 1984) is to invoke intervention to restore The concepts of SNBH and Hozho also represent a four part learning balance on the continuum between good and evil. A variety of process that incorporates thinking, planning, living, and assurance. ceremonials, or chantways, are used by the Navajo to restore this These concepts and principles are intertwined and assist individuals balance and harmony. There are three major forms of Chant ways: and the community to teach, learn, live and reflect. This planning Holy Way (restoration of good), Evil Way (combating ghosts and and learning process is central to the Diné approach to life and is witchcraft) and Life Ways to deal with accidents (Frisbe 1992: focused on setting and attaining objectives and goals (Lee 2014: 460-62). The number of actual ceremonies or “ways” is difficult 6). These four aspects of Diné philosophy have been characterized to estimate but it is clear that the important ceremonies are five as “the cognitive (mental) physiological (physical), psychological to nine days in duration. They are extremely difficult to learn and (emotional) and intuitive (spiritual) aspects of human development complex in their organization and conduct. A complete ceremony and growth – or holistic living and learning” (Werito 2014: 27). Lee might involve hundreds of songs and recitations, complex dry (2006: 88-89, 91-92) provides an important reminder that Navajo paintings and logistical and economic considerations that may Peyotists and artists represent an incredibly diverse set of individuals involve hundreds of people (Bergman 1973: 221). who define their identity as a Navajo in a myriad of manners. His comparison of the generalized syntheses of academic anthropology Although often presented as a rigid and static system of great to more recent, individualized case studies conducted by members temporal duration, Navajo Religion has adapted over time to the of the Diné Nation contrast in significant ways, reminding us that circumstances in which it is practiced. Change in traditional Navajo

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Fig. 7. Mother Earth, Father Sky and the Yeis Dancers, 2006. Jackie Black, Diné (Navajo), Red Valley, New Mexico. Acrylic on canvas. Sam Noble Museum. A/2010.2.16. Brown Acquisition Fund. religion is well documented in the nineteenth century. Contact number of traditional Navajo medicine men had also with external communities in the 1830s and 40s introduced new become Roadmen in the Native American Church. religious practices, including the adoption of hand trembling from the and the incorporation of masked dancers from Pueblo It is increasingly clear that the Native American Church and traditions (Frisbe 1992:463-4). Internment at Ft. Sumner in the traditional medicine ways were never in any real conflict, and, in 1860s brought Navajo people who had lived in great isolation a form of inclusive syncretism, Peyotism became yet another new in their tribal territory into close and regular contact with one medicine way. This syncretism expressed itself in many traditions, another, a situation that fostered exchange and branching with including the appearance of Peyote ritual objects in Blessingway respect to religious ritual. Other rituals appear to have fallen out and the development of joint Peyote meetings (Frisbe 1992: 488). of use in this period. In the 1920s and 30s a range of Based on his work to document the development of Peyotism in gained entrée and adoption on the Navajo Nation, including the the western districts of the Navajo Nation, Wagner (1975:163) Native American Church and a range of Christian denominations identifies an interesting element in the evolving syncretism between (Frisbe 1992: 486). the Native American Church and traditional religious practices on the Navajo Reservation in that both forms of worship have long The relationship between the NAC and traditional Navajo religion established propensities to not only tolerate change and adaptation is aptly summarized by Leland Wyman, who spent his career but to inspire and demand it. Wyman (1983) was only able to documenting traditional Navajo religious practices (1983:536): document variant forms and classifications of Navajo chant ways as compared to the idealized versions collected by his predecessors. When the Peyote Religion of the Native American Church first appeared among the Navajo it was opposed by many Syncretism involves complex series of social and religious medicine men (although Peyotists were never antagonistic negotiations and subsumes a range of relationships and levels of to traditional Navajo Religion), and until the 1960s it integration. The distinction between syncretism in individual belief seemed to some observers that its influences might cause and integrative ceremonial structures are very different situations. At a decline in the traditional ceremonial system. However, one end of the syncretic spectrum between Peyotism and traditional this did not happen. By the 1970s the Native American Navajo religion, is the double meeting where the standard Peyote Church was seen by most Navajo people as simply another service incorporates a range of elements from traditional Navajo chantway, ‘azee’jì, or Medicine Way. Members of the NAS religious practice and belief. The double meeting was reported in were active in traditional ceremonialism, and a good earlier ethnographic research and was fully documented by Wagner

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Fig. 8. The Story of Creation, 2010. Elriggs Allen, Diné (Navajo), Arizona. Acrylic on canvas. Sam Noble Museum A2010.2.15. Brown Acquisition Fund.

(1975) in the mid 1970s. There is clear indication that the Shiprock, ashes. In this ceremony the Roadman uses bowls of water and pollen Santosee and Red Rock areas of the Navajo Nation were central in to identify the sin, and Christ is invoked to heal it. It is possible that the early development of this form of religious syncretism (Aberle this “way” only requires the participation of the practitioner and the 1982: 168, Wagner 1975:179). patient. Aberle also recorded the mention of a number of additional syncretic Peyote Ways including Eagle Way, Star Way and Pollen In the version documented by Wagner, the Roadman (leader of the Way (1982: 157, 168). Peyote ceremony) was also a traditional singer with knowledge of five chant ways. The crescent moon altar common to Peyotism is Various forms and levels of syncretism between traditional Navajo replaced by a dry painting of a large black star with multi-colored religion and Peyotism continue to be practiced on the Navajo Nation fringe at its points. Four large soil mounds of different colors, and predictions of increased occurrence of the double meeting have additional painted features, a runway and five large natural crystals come to fruition in other regions of the Reservation. Syncretism placed between the points of the star complete the ceremonial has remained in check with a lack of complete blending. Wagner setting. In this ceremony, a fairly regular form of Little Moon Peyote (1975: 178-79) attributes this to the desire to maintain the units service takes place until midnight when the usual water ceremony of both religions in an intact manner with syncretism characterized is replaced by an abbreviated form of the Evil Way chant, usually a as additive enhancements as opposed to complete replacements. five-day ceremony. In this variant, the healing power is concentrated in the crystals and then transferred to the patient. Following a one- NAVAJO PEYOTE ARTS hour performance of the condensed Evil Way chant, the regular A vibrant expressive culture, comprised of traditional, folk and fine Peyote service resumed (1975: 166-169). arts, complex musical repertoires and diverse ritual performances, has developed in association with the Peyote Religion. Throughout Aberle (1982:168) documented an additional syncretic form, a the twentieth century Peyote arts were responsible for the “Water Way” meeting in which the usual fire and crescent mound of continuation of traditional styles and techniques and also fostered Peyotism are replaced by a v-shaped altar constructed from coals and the development of innovative approaches and contemporary styles.

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Fig. 9. Textile, Unknown artist, Diné (Navajo). Wool, aniline dye. Sam Nobel Museum E/2012.1.7. Brown Acquisition Fund.

Looking back on this history from the early twenty-first century, decades. Today there are literally thousands of artists (and perhaps Swan (1999:99) asserts that the Peyote Religion has inspired one more than 10,000 artists) producing works in the Peyote genre on of the most vibrant and widespread genres of contemporary Native the Navajo Nation (Swan 2008:47). American art. In this manner, Peyote arts provide a means for the continued expression of community standards and preferences with opportunities for individual creativity and interpretation.

The Navajo people have a distinguished tradition of excellence in the arts with a demonstrated capacity to quickly adopt foreign materials and techniques into their repertoire. The Navajo also have a demonstrated capacity to consistently take these tools and materials to create a wide range of innovative and vibrant art forms, as best known through weaving and silversmithing. Navajo Peyote arts are no exception to this legacy (Swan 2008).

What we find most exciting is the tremendous innovation that Navajo artists have brought to this important genre of Native American art. The energy and creativity exhibited in contemporary Navajo Peyote arts are a testament to traditional Navajo philosophy Fig. 10. Bracelet, Unknown artist, Diné (Navajo). Sterling silver, turquoise. and the tremendous growth of Navajo Peyotism over the past three Sam Noble Museum E/2013.3.9. Brown Acquisition Fund.

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Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13

Fig. 11. Corn Blessing, Fan and Rattle set, 2013-14, Monty Claw, Diné (Navajo), Gamerco, New Mexico. McCaw feathers, leather, glass beads, gourd, horsehair, sterling silver. Sam Noble Museum E/2013.3.12 and E/2014.1.6. Brown Acquisition Fund.

Fig. 12. Rattle (detail), 2014, Monty Claw, Diné (Navajo), Gamerco, New Mexico. Glass beads, gourd, wood, leather. Sam Noble Museum, E/2014.1.6. Brown Acquisition Fund

Fig. 13. Corn Pollen, 2014, Patrick Scott, Diné, Tuba City, Arizona, Capercaillie feathers, leather, glass beads, trim feathers, thread. Sam Noble Museum E/2013.3.12. Brown Acquisition Fund.

The intersection of traditional Navajo religion and Peyotism is figures and rug designs in beadwork, and the adherence to a well evidenced in Navajo art. The emergence of Native American traditional Navajo color palette (Moore 2005, Swan 2008, 2014). Church themes and symbols rendered in traditional forms and media is a basic form of aesthetic syncretism. This can be seen THE ARTISTS AND THEIR WORKS in works produced in “traditional” Navajo forms including the Samme Largo was born in 1962 and was raised in Wide Ridge, a iconic Navajo media of silverwork and weaving, both historic small community near Crown Point New Mexico. Today he makes innovations in Navajo repertoires (Figs. 9-10). Considerable his home on a ranch near Mentmore, NM. Largo is employed in artistic syncretism has developed in recent years in the creation the Division of Behavioral Services with the Navajo Nation, is a of the ritual instruments used in the conduct of the Peyote Champion bull rider who continues to compete on the senior rodeo religious ceremony. This includes a core inventory of a ritual circuit, a talented artist in multiple visual mediums, a composer and staff, rattle, fan and drum kit. Among the Navajo these ritual recording artist of Peyote music and a ceremonial leader in both instruments provide an arena for the expression of a range of the Native American Church and traditional Navajo ceremonies. innovations and localized preferences (Figs. 11-13) including the Largo was born into a family that practiced both traditional Navajo incorporation of sterling silver ornaments, set stones, Yeibichei religion and Peyotism. His maternal grandparents possessed

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Fig. 14. Water bucket, ca 2006, Sammie Largo, Diné (Navajo), Mentmore, New Mexico. Sam Noble Museum E/2014.1.1. Media: Acrylic, commercial stainless steel bucket. Brown Acquisition Fund. medicine bags or Jish (Frisbe 1987), and were traditional healers. in the collection of the Sam Noble Museum. An additional feature His paternal grandfather possessed the Big Star Way ceremony and of this method is that the composition needs to be completed in his paternal grandmother was a Hand Trembler, “ways” that he has a single session, a requirement of the physical constraints of the learned and now practices (Largo 2004, 2013). medium and what we believe to be adherence to the process used in traditional Navajo dry paintings (Largo 2013: 1A). Largo is a self-trained artist and has established a strong reputation in multiple media, creating a range of ceremonial objects used in The composition contains a mix of images drawn from traditional Peyotism, including fans, smoke sticks, and water buckets (Fig. 14). Navajo religion and from the Native American Church. Largo He is also anxious to explore new media and forms, most recently related the purpose of his works in the following comments creating sculpted ceramic tiles and lamp bases that incorporate (2013:1A): a range of traditional Navajo and Native American Church symbolism. His primary forms are painting and drawing with several Talking God is in the middle and there is a crystal with of his Native American Church inspired paintings (Fig. 15) adopted the medicine inside and underneath there is a water as CD covers. Largo also works at larger scales, completing a mural bird. Water bird, Anhinga, in our story they use that in at the Crown Point Technical College campus. the Lighting Way ceremony. That Anhinga makes the connection with the lightning people so he’s the one that In this painting (Fig. 16) Largo created an image rendered in makes that sound to bring those lightning strikes down to mineral pigments that he collected, ground and mixed. This earth. So that’s why there is a water bird right underneath ability draws from his experience as a youth when he produced dry that crystal that I drew. You might think it’s a tipi- a lot pigments that his paternal grandfather used in traditional healing of people think it’s a teepee, but it is a reflection from the rituals. He eventually learned to create 72 different colors based on crystal. On this side you can barely see a little Talking God a palette of seven basic colors (Largo 2004:1A). Largo (2013) related –on the right side is a male and on the left side is a female that it is increasingly difficult to gather mineral pigments on the talking god- this one has twelve feathers and the other Navajo reservation due to the increased drought conditions in the has seven feathers. Also there is a mound in there. When Southwest. Wind blown soils are covering mineral deposits on the you go to get some medicine you go to the highest peak reservation at a raid rate. He relies on a mental map to visit known and make offerings and pray. You wont see anything until locations where it is now necessary to dig for the pigments. Largo you make offerings then the medicine will start coming created four paintings using this technique, one for himself, one up from the ground itself. So, that is some of the things for his father, one for his brother and one for the public—the piece that I have.

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Fig. 15. Untitled, 2014, Sammie Largo, Diné (Navajo), Mentmore, New Mexico. Colored pencil on paper. Sam Noble Museum A.2014.1.3

The use of the light rays seen through the crystal to suggest the poles the story is going to be attached, information that will of a tipi, the regular place of worship wherever the Peyote Religion be attached to it just by reading the story and looking at is practiced, is a clever device that speaks to the ambiguity that is the painting and looking at the colors. That will make it often inherent in syncretic compositions. The color of the rays that a healing to the person who is observing it. That is how I the diagnostician sees through the crystal is an important predictor put that together. of the prognosis for the patient, with certain colors suggesting a cure and recovery while others are less positive in their outcome. Largo places great emphasis on healing through his art. He has The white rays in this painting suggest a complete cure (Wyman previously (2004: 1A) stated that there must be a story behind the 1936:245). art, a teaching in order for it to be effective in its healing mission. An additional element in the painting is reference to the Northern Largo continues his narrative on this painting with mention of the Flicker (Colaptes auratus,) a small woodpecker, sitting on the tip purpose or intent in the art that he creates. Like many Native artists of a Golden Eagle feather. The central Talking God figure is also working in diverse media and with religious themes, there is a sense holding a single tail feather from a red Flicker. In Oklahoma the of responsibility in the manner in which these sacred elements and tail feathers of the Flicker are associated with religious doctoring, symbols are deployed. A majority share the belief that their works and fans constructed from these feathers are highly revered. Largo will have an impact after they leave the control of the artist: (2013: 1A) shares his thoughts on this bird:

Overall it’s the color green, there’s a lot of green- green is In the reflection from the crystal there is a Red Flicker on the a good color because it’s a healing color. It will heal just bottom that represents the whole creation of birds they say and by looking at that painting. It will heal somebody and he’s the one that brought fire from inside the earth to the top of the

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Fig. 16. Untitled, ca. 2000, Sammie Largo, Diné (Navajo), Mentmore, NM. Mineral paint on canvas. Sam Noble Museum A/2013.2.4. Brown Acquisition Fund. earth. He’s the one that made that first. Now when people come to It is interesting to note that a number of compositional elements your home they knock on the door (knocking noise) he’s the one that at first consideration might be viewed as representing themes that did that first and he brought fire on top of the earth. He came and beliefs from the Native American Church, including the Water to homes and he used his beak to knock on the door and they said bird and Flicker. As we can see from Largo’s comments, these are also who’s so and then, to find out, it was him. So he’s the one who important figures in Navajo myths and in the practice of traditional brought the fire back into the hogan setting and the home setting Navajo religion. This represents the duality of interpretation that is so once he opened his tail there was a fire inside so he set it down often at the core of syncretism and its visual representation. right in midst of the home and he flapped his wings four times and the fire lit back up. That is why all the inside of his feathers is Garrett Etsitty was born in 1985 and was raised in Chinle and orange color and his tail the other sides brown and his tails black Tucson, Arizona. He spent his early years watching his uncles so that’s where he set. When somebody knock or tap on your door paint and draw, and at an early age he began working with colors. you always remember the story so I always have the fire lit all the By the time he entered school, he had a growing interest in the time so maybe my spirit come to you for a good blessing to protect creative arts. Pursuing art training in high school, he later earned you. That is why I have that Red Flicker right there on the bottom an Associates of Arts degree from Diné College, Tsaile, Arizona on that painting. and a Bachelors of Arts degree from Fort Lewis College, Durango, Colorado. Throughout his education he was often at odds with

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Fig. 17. Untitled, 2014, Garrett Etsitty, Diné (Navajo), Phoenix, Arizona. Commercial tennis shoes, oil pens. Sam Noble Museum E/2014/1/9. Brown Acquisition Fund. his instructors who kept pushing him into forms that did not fit battles. In addition to these pursuits Etsitty also creates a range of his emerging style and approach. Etsitty has exhibited his works works in popular media and forms (Fig. 17). His current projects in exhibitions at Diné College Juried Student Exhibits, Tsaile, include an original comic book based on the traditional Navajo Arizona, the Fort Lewis College Art Gallery, Durango, Colorado, story of the Twin Warriors and acquisition of the skills needed to the Heard Museum, Phoenix, Arizona, the Sam Noble Museum, produce traditional style ribbon work (Etsitty 2013). University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma, the Navajo Nation Art Show, Windowrock, Arizona, and in numerous galleries In Soaking the Sun (Fig. 18) Etsitty provides a strong example of his and live art shows in New Mexico, Arizona and California. compositional style, blending representational realism with abstract Today Etsitty continues his formal training in the Masters of backgrounds. While his color selections often reflect his activity Fine Arts program at Arizona State University (Etsitty 2013). as a graffiti artist, this work is relatively muted. Etsitty’s (2013) Etsitty’s family has a long relationship with the Native American interpretation of this painting begins with a discussion of the role Church, and members of the family have served the Church in of religion in his motivation and intent for the piece: leadership capacities. In 2001 he began to attend Native American Church ceremonies and learned the songs that comprise a large part In the back you see the orange and the flicker was grabbing of the all night ceremony, learning Navajo, , and the staff and fan and everything. That is a protection piece songs with an emphasis on older styles. At the same time for a family home, for a family that takes medicine or a he began to attend traditional Navajo ceremonies and learned some family that’s prays together, sings together. I think that of the chants associated with Navajo healing ways (Etsitty 2013). anybody who purchased those pieces they will help them out in that way—they can stay protected. So what I aim Etsitty resides in Phoenix, Arizona where for over a decade he has for right there is that the male and female—that’s why worked in community arts programs for youth through a variety of you see them together most of the time—to restore that socially engaged, interdisciplinary projects. He currently works as an balance and I always do that. arts mentor at Circle of Healing Inc., in Phoenix. Etsitty, aka KRNG 1N3, has established a solid reputation as a significant graffiti artist Etsitty echoes the sentiment provided by Largo that the creative in the Phoenix area. His approach to painting represents a synthesis process behind paintings, or any works of art, include certain of narrative and abstract styles with a heavy influence from his obligations or requirements- they must invoke a story, and they experiences as a graffiti artist. He continues his career as a fine artist should have a healing process at the core of their creation. In this and participates in community art performances, live paints and art case the artist invokes the concept of balance and the ritual efforts

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Fig. 18. Soaking the Sun, 2012, Garrett Etisitty, Diné (Navajo), Phoenix, Arizona. Acrylic and oil crayon on canvas. Sam Noble Museum, A/2013/2/1. Brown Acquisitions Fund. undertaken to maintain and restore it through protective means. The told that when you have a certain individual that’s sick and presence of balance is symbolized in this piece through the mated not feeling too good, if it is a male or female you have to pair of the male and female flickers, a bird that figures prominently use that certain flicker. So for a male you use the orange in Native American ceremonialism, including Peyotism, and also flicker and a female use the yellow flicker to do for in the works discussed in this article. her. It’s like learning about true identity, about self true self and about the creation stories. I guess woodpecker In the diptych True Self, Etsitty (Figure 19) exhibits his abstract was really shy during that creation story when the world style with strict color control derived from a limited palette of was on fire and then it was flooded and these birds were highly saturated primary and secondary colors. This painting also up there. Everybody was looking around and they said acknowledges the influence of his work as a graffiti artist including we need fire to take care of ourselves and keep ourselves the strength of line, bold color contrasts and the symbolic drip lines warm. They wondered who would go down there and save that signal his activities in other media. His interpretation of this fire. They asked eagle and he was all mighty and said no, piece expands his discussion of the traditional role of the flicker in “I’m too big I can’t go down there.” They were looking Navajo society: around and they asked hawk and hawk said, “No I can’t do it and they asked what about that guy, woodpecker? He They said that the orange flicker represents the male and was really shy and bashful, just looking around. They said yellow hammer, yellow flicker represents the female. I was “Hey, what about you? Can you go down there to save it?”

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Fig. 19. True Self, Diptych, 2012, Garrett Etsitty, Diné (Navajo), Phoenix, Arizona. Acrylic and oil crayon on canvas. Sam Noble Museum ART/2013/2/2. Brown Acquisitions Fund.

He was like “Oh yeah, I could do that I could go down This lengthy narrative reflects the influences of several lines of there. If I go down there though I want you guys to traditional Navajo mythology regarding the creation of this, the remember me when I go down there and grab fire. I want fifth world and the creatures that inhabit it. Etsitty accesses the to be a bird that could heal people. Be a bird that could rich oral tradition that he experienced throughout his life and uses help you guys in a way, you know. When things go bad it to make sense of his feelings and attitudes as expressed in the about illness I want to be that bird that can fight against painting. This story also looks back to the time of creation in which anything that’s negative.” The other birds were like sure the world undergoes a series of transformations to bring affairs to go ahead. So he went down there and he grabbed fire the present condition. It is in one of these intermediary states that and the fire kind of got up to his tail and that’s why his flicker receives its healing powers- the ability to contradict negativity tail is orange. And he went up and he saved fire and the as a reward for his service in the harnessing of fire. birds were happy and he was kind of exhausted and female woodpecker was like nurturing and took care of him. I He does this in a manner described by Denetdale (2014: 73) as a was taught that through stories here on the reservation. process through which creation myths inform peoples impressions That’s the whole thing that came about with the flickers— regarding the present and the future- helping to place people, the male flickers and the female flickers. And that’s why I things and places into logical relationships. In this instance, created the male side and the female side in this painting. the reinforcement of gender roles can be seen in the mutually

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supportive roles that the male and female flicker assume to create Etsitty’s style is abstract and largely interpretive, using bold color a nurturing and healing relationship. The causative factor for the symbolism and fine-line detail to render highly symbolic works. different colored tail feathers of the red and yellow flickers is not As a graffiti artist Etsitty demonstrates a great talent for movement interpreted as a morphological marker of gender but rather a gender and flow. In his diptych, True Self, the flow of the lines brings based distinction in the proper type of flicker used to treat male to mind the symbolic aspects of the male and female flickers. In and female patients. each instance, Etsitty puts motion into his pieces along with strong symbolic elements that do not compete with each other, but work DISCUSSION together to create clear compositions. Our limited examination of contemporary Navajo painting is sufficient to introduce a number of refinements and enhancements While both artists access a similar oral tradition as inspiration for to the current literature on the topic. In particular, we take exception their works, they incorporate differing levels of visual and ritual to the view that Navajo artists only invoke religious symbolism syncretism. This situation provides a great example of the role of the in their works to enhance their appeal to a largely non-native individual in the interpretation of mythic stories and oral histories, marketplace. While this may be true for certain individuals and often a matter of emphasis and personal circumstance in the creative specific genres of touristic products, it is our experience that Navajo moment. In this case Largo is focused on the home setting, the artists access a deep inventory of images drawn from and inspired Hogan as a place of security and family while Etsitty uses the story by religious participation. Swan’s specific intent is to explore the to emphasize the reciprocal nature of gender roles in Navajo society. expressive culture of Navajo Peyotism and here reports on the The artists we discuss in this article, Sammie Largo and Garret Etsitty, increased appearance of visual elements inspired by traditional tell stories about themselves and their people through their artwork. Navajo philosophy and religious practice in traditional and fine art Both emphasize the healing properties of their paintings, refuting works executed in Peyote genres. the claim that such incorporation is superficial with little foundation in traditional culture and belief. While easel paintings certainly lack The appearance of designs, motifs and narrative vignettes the ritual context and process involved in Navajo dry painting, the associated with the Native American Church in pre-Peyote media sentiment behind the works is sincere in both underpinning belief and techniques, particularly weaving and silversmithing, quickly and explicit intent. The power of visual stimuli and positive thought developed after the introduction of the religion in the Navajo should not be underestimated in traditional Navajo healing practices. Nation. This is common wherever the religion has been adopted Largo’s painting takes this relationship to another level through his throughout its history. These works are overwhelmingly produced use of hand prepared mineral pigments, selecting healing colors from for a local, Navajo audience. This is in keeping with the fact that the Navajo color spectrum (Largo 2013). contemporary Peyote arts have never developed a significant market that extends beyond Church members and their families. The It is clear that a trajectory of continued religious pluralism and majority of Peyote arts available on and near the Navajo Nation increased syncretism between traditional Navajo religion and the today are evenly divided between trade or barter and purchase Native American Church will undoubtedly gain visual expression through retail outlets, flea markets and art shows (Swan in press). in the traditional and fine arts produced by Navajo people. These works provide important arenas for continued exploration of Sammie Largo and Garrett Etsitty represent the diversity and the intersection of art, religion and identity for individuals and individuality that is largely absent in the scholarly literature on communities in the Navajo Nation. Navajo identity and worldview. These studies emphasize normative behaviors that rarely, if ever, materialize in real world contexts. Largo ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and Etsitty are from successive generations, both born in the second The authors express their appreciation to Stephanie Allen, Collection half of the twentieth century and possessing different levels of formal Manager, Department of Ethnology, Sam Noble Museum, education, studio training, language proficiency, familial situation, University of Oklahoma for the object photographs that appear career tracks, and life experiences. Despite the tremendous divergence in this article. The works illustrated are from the Fred and Enid of style and approach in their respective works, Largo and Etsitty Brown Collection of Native American Art, Sam Noble Museum, access a similar set of stories regarding the flicker as motivation for University of Oklahoma. Several objects were obtained through the the paintings featured in this article. Largo’s piece is narrative in Brown Acquisitions Fund, University of Oklahoma Foundation. style and provides a more literal representation of the syncretism between traditional Navajo religion and the Native American Church. Largo’s work incorporates a strong adherence to clean lines and a complimentary color palette. In his work, the subject of the painting is in harmony with the background; neither detracting from the other, but both enhancing and allowing the other to be seen.

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REFERENCES Helms, K. 2005. Who Exactly can Buy and Sell Peyote? Gallup Aberle, D. F. 1982. The Peyote Religion Among the Navajo. Independent, January 18, 2005. Gallup, New Mexico. U. Chicago Press, Chicago. Kaufman, A. and C. Selser. 1985. The Navajo Weaving Tradition: Aberle, D. F. and O. C. Stewart. 1957. Navajo and Ute Peyotism: 1650 to Present. E. P. Dutton Inc., New York. A Chronological and Distributional Study. University of Colorado Series in Anthropology, Number 6. U. Colorado Press, Boulder. Largo, S. 2013. Artist interview. Gallup, NM. Original recording in the possession of Swan. Transcribed by Dakota H. Stevens. Bergman, R. 1973. A School for Medicine Men. American Journal of Psychiatry 130(6): 663-66. Largo, S. 2004. Artist interview. Window Rock AZ. Original http://www2.fiu.edu/~ereserve/010010102-1.pdf recording in the possession of Swan. Transcribed by Dakota H. Stevens. Bernstein, B. and R. W. Jackson. 1995. Modern by Tradition: American Indian Painting in the Studio Style. Museum of New Lee, L. L. 2014. Introduction, in Lloyd Lee (ed), Diné Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Perspectives: Revitalizing and Reclaiming Navajo Thought, pp. 3-1 . U. Arizona Press, Tucson. Brody, J. J. 1983.The Paintings of Jimmy Toddy (Beatien Yazz), in S. R. Warner, J. J. Brody, and B. Yazz (eds.) Yazz Navajo Painter, Lee, L. L. 2006. Navajo cultural identity: What can the Navajo pp. 25-56. Northland Press, Flagstaff. Nation bring to the American Indian identity discussion table? Wicazo Sa Review, Fall 2006: p. 79-103. Denetdale, J. N. 2007. Reclaiming Diné History: The Legacies of http://muse.jhu.edu/login?auth=0&type=summary&url=/ Navajo Chief Manuelito and Juanita. U. Arizona Press, Tucson. journals/wicazo_sa_review/v021/21.2lee.html

Denetdale, J. N. 2014. The Value of Oral History on the Path McGeough, M. 2009. Through their Eyes: Indian Painting in Santa to Diné/Navajo Sovereignty, in Lloyd Lee (ed.) Diné Perspectives: Fe, 1918-1945. Wheelwright Museum of the American Indian, Revitalizing and Reclaiming Navajo Thought, pp. 68-82. U. Santa Fe. Arizona Press, Tucson. Mills, G. 1959. Navajo Art and Culture. Taylor Museum, Etsitty, G. 2013. Artist interview. Chinle, AZ. Original recording Colorado Fine Arts Center, Colorado Springs. in the possession of Swan. Transcribed by Dakota H. Stevens. Moore, E. K. 2003. Navajo Beadwork: Architectures of Light. U. Fransted, D. 1982. The Secular Use of Traditional Religion and Arizona Press, Tucson. Knowledge in Modern Navajo Society, in David M. Brugge and Charlotte J. Frisbe (eds.), Navajo Religion and Culture Selected Parezo, N. J. 1983. Navajo Sandpainting: From Religious Act to Views: Papers in Honor of Leland Wyman, pp. 209-218. Museum Commercial Art. U. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Parrish, R., S. Brown McGeevy, N. Parezo, and K. Spencer Frisbe, C. J. 1993. Kinaaldá: A Study of the Navajo Girl’s Puberty Halpren. 1983. Woven Holy People: Navajo Sandpainting Textiles Ceremony. U. Utah Press, Salt Lake City. From the Permanent Collection. Wheelwright Museum of American Indian Art, Santa Fe. Frisbe, C. J. 1992. Temporal Changes in Navajo Religion: 1868- 1990. Journal of the Southwest 34 (4): 457-514. http://www. Reichard, G. A. 1977. Navajo Religion: A Study of Symbolism. jstor.org/stable/40170041. Princeton U. Press, New Jersey.

Frisbe, C. J. 1987. Navajo Medicine Bundles or Jish: Acquisition, Rushing, W. J. III. 1995. Modern by tradition: the studio style Transmission, and Disposition in the Past and Present. U. New of Native American painting, in Bruce Bernstein and W. Jackson Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Rushing III (eds.) Modern by Tradition: American Indian Painting in the Studio Style. Museum of New Mexico Press, Santa Fe. Hatcher, E. P. 1974. Visual Metaphors: A Formal Analysis of Navajo Art. American Ethnological Society, Monograph Series, Silberman, A. 1978. 100 Years of Native American Painting. The Volume 58. West Publishing Company. Oklahoma Museum of Art, Oklahoma City.

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Stewart, O. C. 1987. Peyote Religion: A History. U. Oklahoma Wagner, R. M. 1975. Patterns and Process in Ritual Press, Norman. Syncretism: The Case of Peyotism among the Navajo. Journal of Anthropological Research 31 (2):162-181. http://www.jstor.org/ Swan, D. C. Peyote arts in motion: religious diffusion, artistic stable/3629961. exchange, and museum collections, in Nancy Blomberg and John Lukavic (eds.) Art in Motion: Native American Explorations of Werito, V. 2014. Understanding Hózhó to Achieve Critical Time, Place and Thought. Denver Art Museum and U. Oklahoma Consciousness: A Contemporary Diné Interpretation of the Press. (In press). Philosophical principles of Hózhó, in Lloyd Lee (ed), Diné Perspectives: Revitalizing and Reclaiming Navajo Thought, pp. 25- Swan, D. C. 2014. Le Peyotisme, in Gaylord Torrence and Sophie 38. U. Arizona Press, Tucson. Chabonnière (eds.) Indiens des Plaines. Coédition Musée du Quai Branly and Skira-Paris, pp. 241, 266-269, 282-283, 302-303. Witherspoon, G. 1977. Language and Art in the Navajo Universe. U. Michigan Press, Ann Arbor. Swan, D. C. 2008. Contemporary Navajo Peyote Arts. American Indian Art Magazine, 33 (4): 44-55, 94. Wyckoff, L. L. 1996. Visions and voices: a collective history of Native American painting, in Lydia L. Wyckoff (ed.) Visions and Swan, D. C. 1999. Peyote Religious Art: Symbols of Faith and Voices: Native American Painting from the Philbrook Museum of Belief. U. Mississippi Press, Jackson, Mississippi. Art. The Philbrook Museum of Art, Tulsa.

Tanner, C. L. 1973. Southwest Indian Painting: A Changing Art. Wyman, L. 1983. Navajo Ceremonial System, in Alfonso Ortiz U. Arizona Press, Tucson. (ed.) Handbook of North American Indians, Volume 10, Southwest. Smithsonian Institution, pp. 536-557. Washington, DC: US US Census Bureau. 2012. The American Indian and Alaska Government Printing Office. Native Population: 2010. 2010 Census Briefs. Washington: US Department of Commerce. Wyman, L. 1970. Blessingway. U. Arizona Press, Tucson. http://www.census.gov/prod/cen2010/briefs/c2010br-10.pdf Wyman, L. 1936. Navajo diagnosticians. American Anthropologist Van Ness Seymour, T. 1988. When The Rainbow Touches Down. 38(2): 236-246. http://www.jstor.org/stable/662330. The Heard Museum, Phoenix. Zolbrod, P. G. 1984. Diné Bahane: The Navajo Creation Story.U. Wagner, R. M. 1974. Western Navajo Peyotism: A Case Analysis. New Mexico Press, Albuquerque. Microfilms International, Ann Arbor, Michigan.

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International field team of faculty, graduate students, and undergraduate students collecting data and processing specimens at a low- elevation campsite on Mt. Huraw in northern Samar Island, Philippines. The biodiversity survey resulted in observations, vouchered specimens, and genetic resources for more than 150 species of birds, mammals, amphibians and reptiles. Photo by Joseph Brown. Talking God and Father Peyote: Religious Pluralism and Contemporary Diné (Navajo) Art Preliminary Quantification of Curator Success in Life Science Natural History Collections Daniel C. Swan Curator of Ethnology and Professor of Anthropology, Sam Noble Museum, University of Oklahoma 73072 Jessa L. Watters Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History, University of Oklahoma; email: [email protected] Dakota H. Stevens Graduate Research Assistant, Department of Ethnology, Sam Noble Museum, University of Oklahoma 73072 Cameron D. Siler Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History and Department of Biology, University of Oklahoma; email: [email protected]

Abstract: In an era when budgets are tight for families, businesses, he extrinsic and intrinsic scientific value of natural history universities, and governments, it is sometimes difficult to see the value museums is well known and well documented. Museum in museums and their curators. Museums provide a necessary service T collections provide the historical basis for the fields to scientists and the public by housing specimens in a long-term stable of taxonomy and systematics in all fields of the life sciences and environment, providing specimens and data for research, training new paleontology (Allmon 1994, Lane 1996, Lieberman and Kaesler 2000, generations of scientists, bridging the gap between research, education, Winker 2004, Winston 2007, van den Elzen 2002), particularly in and public outreach, and working to develop new technologies to track regards to the long-term storage and maintenance of type and figured speciation, biodiversity, and environmental change, just to name a few. specimens (Jeram 1997, van den Elzen 2002). Museum specimens, The curators who conduct research in museums are integral to our overall and their associated components, are paramount to our understanding understanding of the life sciences, yet their livelihood is being challenged. of biodiversity, in supporting conservation efforts, and in educating In an effort to quantify the incredible resource represented by a museum and serving younger generations of students and the public alike curator, we conducted a survey, sent to email list-serves and online (NatSCA 2005). Museum loans provide outside researchers with groups, asking natural history curators to respond with details on valuable savings for specimen research, negating costs that would museum and university affiliation, time in position, collections overseen, otherwise be used to visit a museum (Suarez and Tsutsui 2004) or grant and publication success, teaching breadth, and student mentoring collect new specimens (Bradley et al. 2012). Collection data linked involvement. Our research indicates that curators have a great deal of to museum specimens also provide a significant resource to monitor scientific and monetary value to add to museums, affiliated universities, past and present global biodiversity (Frey 2009, Gippoliti 2005, Lane and our general education system through contributions from research 1996, Lieberman and Kaesler 2000, Rautenbach and Herholdt 1990, publications, grants, and teaching, and student mentorship. Suarez and Tsutsui 2004, Wehi et al. 2012, Winker 2004).

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In addition to their myriad scientific contributions, museum 2010, Weldon et al. 2004). Many museums are now going through personnel are integral to educating the public about scientific a process of modernization to make data and digital representations concepts (Allmon 1994, Ashby 2012,Tunnicliffe 2002), as well of specimens available in an electronic format, which can be readily as training the next generation of scientists (Humphrey 1991, shared with other researchers, students, and the general public via Krishtalka and Humphrey 2000, Pickering 1997, Soubiran 2010). a wide variety of thematic bioinformatics websites (Beaman and Natural history museums are particularly necessary as centers Cellinese 2012, Blagoderov et al. 2012, Cook et al. 2014, Flemons for teaching the scientific process through inquiry and hands-on et al. 2007, Graham et al. 2004, van den Elzen 2002). This process activities (Ramey-Gassert et al. 1994). Museum resources can also allows researchers to track changes in species diversity (Shaffer et be made available to educational institutions around the world al. 1998), range shifts (Frey 2009), or the effects of climate change due to current digitization efforts (Cook et al. 2014). In many (Johnson et al. 2011, Suarez and Tsutsui 2004). cases, these educational opportunities are provided to schools and educators free of charge. Informal education through museums can It is with these new developments that museum collections and the provide the necessary link between science research and the general curators that oversee them are most needed to maintain continuity public, making important discoveries available and understandable in scientific research and education. It has become necessary for to everyone (Selvakumar and Storksdieck 2013). museum personnel to directly champion for the importance of museums and curators, particularly to non-curatorial scientists, Even with the recognized contributions of natural history collections the general public, and administrators at university-based museums to research and science education (Cook et al. 2014), budget cuts (Baldwin-Corriveau 2014, EDIT and SYNTHESYS 2009, and economic hardships have taken their toll on these amazing Gippoliti 2005, McAlpine 1986, Viscardi 2013). At one university- resources. As a result, many natural history museums have begun to based museum, alumni are seeking donations and signing petitions lay off curators, research staff, and other personnel, or ask individuals in order to prevent pending lay-offs (McCann 2014). The Field to seek early retirement (American Alliance of Museums 2012, Museum in Chicago has restructured its several internal research Evans 2012, Foderaro 2013, Gillers 2013, Hathaway 2012, Pitz departments to create one large department called Science and 2013, Stetz 2010). Some museums even have reduced personnel to Education, which reflects their new goals (Gillers 2013). a “skeleton crew” only just to keep their doors open (Green 2013, Phillips 2013), while in others museum staff have resigned due to This study attempts to quantify preliminary data on the scientific, concerns over budget loss and proposed restructuring of the museum educational, and monetary value of life science curators to their away from research activities (Nelson 2014). Curators at museums museums (and associated institutions), in terms of success in grant have expressed concerns about the loss to scientific discoveries and funding, number of publications, number and types of courses educational opportunities for the public due to recent challenges taught, and number of students mentored. (Baldwin-Corriveau 2014, Shen 2012, Zlatos 2013). In many cases, university-based museums are the hardest hit as funds are reallocated METHODS for other needs (Ashby 2012, Mares 2009, Raath 1990). Recently, An anonymous survey entitled “Quantifying Curator Success non-museum based scientists have even challenged the validity of in Life Science Natural History Collections” was created via continuing to collect new voucher specimens (Minteer et al. 2014a), the online program Survey Monkey (www.surveymonkey.com; which has sparked a furious international debate amongst museum Appendix I). The survey and accompanying letter (Appendix II) and non-museum scientists (Krell and Wheeler 2014, Minteer et was administered on December 2, 2013 via two email list-serves, al. 2014b, Rocha et al. 2014). MUSEUM-L, NHCOLL-L and three programmatic sites housed on FacebookTM: VertNet (https://www.facebook.com/VertNet), These museum personnel losses are even occurring at a time when the Society for the Preservation of Natural History Collections museum usage in scientific research is actually on the rise due to (https://www.facebook.com/www.spnhc.org), and an independent new advances in technology. Both historical and modern museum Natural History Collections group (https://www.facebook.com/ specimens are now being used for stable isotope studies (Wehi et groups/232785306782255/). Individual requests were made to al. 2012) and genetic research (Stuart et al. 2006, Wandeler et al. curators and museum staff, who were asked to take the survey, 2007). Specimens and tissues can also be used for tracking emerging as well as share the announcement with their own colleagues zoonotic diseases such as Chagas disease (Pinto et al. 2010) and and discipline-based email list-serves. Participants in the study Hantavirus (Yates et al. 2002) or historical diseases like the black were self-selecting, based on their interpretation of the criteria plague and leprosy (Tsangaras and Greenwood 2012). Scientists also described in the accompanying letter (Appendix II). The survey are taking an active role in documenting the global spread of chytrid link remained active on Survey Monkey from December 2, 2013 fungus (Batrachochytrium dendobatidis) in amphibians though to January 2, 2014. The University of Oklahoma’s Internal Review preserved and fresh skin samples (Cheng et al. 2011, Puschendorf Board approved the survey on November 26, 2013 (IRB Approval et al. 2006, Shaw et al. 2013, Swei et al. 2011, Vredenburg et al. No.: 3703).

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After the survey’s completion, the dataset was downloaded from other museums and affiliates (i.e. American Museum of Natural Survey Monkey for analysis. Participants who did not accept the History, Global Biodiversity Information Facility, Smithsonian survey terms, or did not complete the survey, were removed from Institution), private/non-profit institutions (i.e. American Society further analysis. Responses to the open-ended questions #4, 6, of Mammalogists, Audubon Society, Conservation Center for Art and 8 were converted to rounded values for subsequent analysis and Historic Artifacts, Conservation International, Council on (i.e. if participant listed >100 or 100+ or ~100 for publications, Library and Information Resources, Earthwatch, Encyclopedia of the number used for analysis was 100). For the publication record, Life, Freshwater Mollusk Conservation Society, Genetic Resources only completed publications were included in summary statistics Conservation Program, MacArthur Foundation, Mellon Foundation, (publications described as in review or in press were excluded). For National Geographic, Slosson Research Endowment, Stanley Smith question #9, each individual’s response was carefully interpreted to Horticultural Trust, The Nature Conservancy, Turtle Conservation determine a total number of different courses taught in order to Fund), and state and government agencies (i.e. Institute of Museum summarize the breadth of teaching capability. and Library Services, Environmental Protection Agency, Mexican Biodiversity Agency, National Aeronautics and Space Administration, Summary statistics were calculated for the following responses to National Oceanic and Atmospheric Association, National Park assist in data interpretation: (1) Number of grants per focal time Service, National Science Foundation, Science Research Investment period; (2) Amount of funding support in dollars; (3) Number Fund, US Dept. of Agriculture, US Dept. of Defense, US Fish and of publications; (4) Number of courses taught; (5) Numbers of Wildlife Service, US Forest Service, US Geological Survey). Nearly undergraduate and graduate students mentored; and (6) Numbers 93% of survey participants indicated that they have completed one of postdoctoral researchers employed. With the possibility of or more publications, with a maximum of 465 publications and an responses being influenced greatly by the presence or absence of a average of roughly 49 publications. For a further analysis of grants direct association between the curator’s museum and a college or and publications by tenure as curator, see Table 1 and Figure 1. university, we calculated additional summary statistics separately for responses from university-associated museum curators and non- Table 1. Summary of survey responses for focal categories of interest. Values university-associated museum curators. given as range; median over (mean ± standard deviation).

1–2 Years 3–5 Years 6–10 Years RESULTS ALL DATA (N) 9 14 22 There were a total of 179 participants that accessed the survey, but No. grants 0–3; 0 0–18; 2 0–13; 4.5 (1 ± 1) (4 ± 5) (5 ± 4) only 107 agreed to fully participate by accepting the terms of the Grant funding ($) 467,000–802,400; 20,000–1,573,410; ,2,000–2,442,000; survey and answering all questions. Survey respondents spanned 634,700 855,642 680,000 (634,700 ± 237,164) (850,669 ± 576,702) (926,881 ± 752,192) 11 countries (Argentina, Australia, Canada, England, Germany, No. publications 0–19; 4 2–35; 12 0–127; 15.5 Jamaica, New Zealand, Panama, South Africa, Spain, and the (7 ± 7) (14 ± 11) (27 ± 32) ), 32 states within the US, and a total of 73 museums. No. courses taught 0–3; 1 0–5; 1.5 0–21; 3 (1 ± 1) (2 ± 1) (4 ± 4) No. undergraduate students1 1–10; 2 0–20; 7 0–20; 10 Survey participants covered a wide variety of sizes and types of (4 ± 3) (8 ± 7) (12 ± 8) No. graduate students1 0–5; 1 0–10; 2.5 0–16; 4 collection. The size of the collections ranged from 2300 specimens (2 ± 2) (4 ± 3) (4 ± 4) to 30 million, with an average size of 2.26 million. Survey No. postdoctoral researchers1 0–2; 0 0–8; 0 0–12; 0 (0 ± 1) (1 ± 2) (2 ± 3) respondents curated single collections (47.7%), multiple collections (28%), or entire museums (24.3%). For those respondents who 11–15 Years 16–20 Years 20+ Years curated single collections, Entomology represented the largest ALL DATA (N) 17 15 30 number of participants (23.5%), followed by Ornithology (15.7%), No. grants 0–25; 5 0–70; 10 0–91; 7 Botany (13.2%), Herpetology and Ichthyology (both 9.8%), (8 ± 7) (17 ± 19) (19 ± 25) Grant funding ($) 275,000–3,253,613; 5,000–12,000,000; 1,800–11,580,000; Mammalogy (7.8%), plus Invertebrates and Tissues/Blood (both 900,000 1,472,950 1,000,000 5.9%). Mycology, Paleobotany, and Invertebrate Paleontology (1,263,196 ± 916,129) (2,590,520 ± 3,499,207) (2,116,574 ± 2,854,401) No. publications 0–465; 19 7–310; 40 2–333; 66 were each curated by less than 4% of single collection participants. (51 ± 108) (67 ± 75) (90 ± 79) No respondents indicate that they curated only a Vertebrate No. courses taught 0–12; 3 0–6; 2 0–16; 1.5 Paleontology collection. (4 ± 4) (2 ± 2) (4 ± 5) No. undergraduate students1 0–20; 20 0–20; 8 0–20; 10 (13 ± 9) (8 ± 7) (11 ± 8) Over 80% of the survey participants received grants to cover the No. graduate students1 0–20; 5 0–20; 8 0–20; 1.5 (7 ± 7) (8 ± 6) (9 ± 8) cost of collection management and/or research. The total amount No. postdoctoral researchers1 0–4; 0 0–7; 0 0–20; 1.5 of grant funds received ranged in size from $1800 to $12 million, (1 ± 1) (2 ± 2) (3 ± 4) with an average of $1.54 million in total funding. These grants 1As the original survey set the maximum number of students at 20, the maximum values for many came from a wide variety of internal museum/university funds, student categories are likely underestimates.

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Fig. 1. Bar plots summarizing grant and publication success, and student and postdoc mentoring involvement across the six focal time intervals of the survey. Plots display mean values calculated for all data. To provide the amount of funding support on the same scale, each funding unit represents $100,000.

Grant funding ranges are included only for those who received funding of grants from university-affiliated curators was 11.67 grants. When asked about the types of courses taught, only 27 grants worth $1.53 million, whereas, non-university affiliated participants responded with none or not required. For those 80 curators collected 6.48 grants worth $1.56 million. Average participants who did teach courses, the total breadth of courses publication rates were similar between university and non- taught ranged in number from one to 21, with an average of 2.99 university affiliated curators with 49.78 and 48.31, respectively. types of courses. These courses ranged in style from discipline- The differences between the two types of curators are most specific courses (i.e. Herpetology, Mammalogy, etc.) to General apparent when looking at the breadth of courses taught and the Biology or Human Anatomy for non-majors. Many participants number of students mentored. Of the 27 participants who did indicated that they have taught survey courses and seminars to not teach any university courses, 18 worked for non-university both undergraduates and graduates, in addition to museum studies affiliated museums and 9 worked for university-affiliated or field trip-based courses. Nearly 85% of survey participants museums. University affiliated curators taught an average of 3.8 indicate they had served as a mentor to an undergraduate student, types of courses and non-university affiliated curators who may graduate student or postdoctoral researcher. The average number not have had teaching requirements still taught an average of of people mentored as undergraduates, graduates, and postdocs 0.69 types of courses. The average number of people mentored was 9.82, 6.21, 1.59, respectively. For a further analysis of courses as undergraduates, graduates, and postdocs by university- taught and students mentored per years in position, see Table 1 affiliated curators was 11.50, 6.85, 1.29, respectively. These and Figure 1. numbers decrease for non-university affiliated curators mentoring undergraduate (5.31) and graduate (4.52) students, but post-doc The survey also showed marked differences in respondents who mentorship actually increases (2.38). For a further analysis of worked in university-affiliated museums vs. those who did not. grants, publications, courses, and mentees by tenure as curator Seventy-eight participants worked for university or college based for both university and non-university affiliates, see Table 2 and museums, whereas the remaining 29 worked for private or Figure 2. government museums. The average number and total average

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Fig. 2. Bar plots summarizing grant and publication success, and student and postdoc mentoring involvement across the six focal time intervals of the survey, broken down for museums affiliated (Top) and non-affiliated (Bottom) with universities. Plots display mean values calculated for all data. To provide the amount of funding support on the same scale, each funding unit represents $100,000.

DISCUSSION The high cost of maintaining a museum is visible in any institution’s average grant funds of over half a million dollars in their first two annual budget, yet can be difficult to parse out into individual years, often from a single grant. By the time curators are in their departments, collecting events, or specimens (Blackmore et al. positions for 11−15 years, they have received an average of one 1997, Bradley et al. 2012, Kovačić 2009). Any net gain in outside million dollars in funding from eight grants, which increases to funding provides necessary support for additional research or over two million dollars from 17 grants by 16−20 years and 19 specimen curation and can assist the housing institution in the grants by 20+ years in the position. The maximum amount of form of overhead costs. Our data suggest that curators rise to rapid grant funding received was higher for university affiliated vs. non- productivity in their first few years in a curatorial position, with university affiliated museums across all years present in position.

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1–2 Years 3–5 Years 6–10 Years 1–2 Years 3–5 Years 6–10 Years UNIVERSITY AFFILIATED (N) 9 10 17 NON-UNIVERSITY AFFILIATED (N) – 4 5 No. grants 0–3; 0 0–8; 2 1–13; 5 No. grants – 1–18; 4 3–10; 3 (0 ± 1) (3 ± 2) (6 ± 4) (9 ± 9) (6 ± 4) Grant funding ($) 467,000–802,400; 20,000–1,573,410; 2,000–2,442,000; Grant funding ($) – 961,284–1,500,000; 25,000–500,000; 634,700 640,500 1,200,000 1,230,642 315,000 (634,700 ± 237,164) (755,676 ± 596,083) (1,056,257 ± 755,805) (1,230,642 ± 380,930) (280,000 ± 239,426) No. publications 0–19; 4 2–35; 12 0–127; 21 No. publications – 3–32; 13 0–61; 3 (6 ± 7) (13 ± 10) (28 ± 33) (19 ± 15) (26 ± 32) No. courses taught 0–3; 1 0–5; 2 1–21; 3 No. courses taught – 0–1; 0.5 0–2; 0 (1 ± 1) (2 ± 1) (5 ± 5) (3 ± 1) (0 ± 1) No. undergraduate students1 0–10; 2 0–20; 10 1–20; 15 No. undergraduate students1 – 0–2; 0 0–10; 0 (3 ± 3) (11 ± 6) (13 ± 7) (1 ± 1) (1 ± 5) No. graduate students1 0–5; 1 0–10; 3.5 0–16; 4 No. graduate students1 – 0–5; 1 1–12; 1 (2 ± 2) (4 ± 3) (4 ± 4) (1 ± 3) (6 ± 6) No. postdoctoral researchers1 0–2; 0 0–2; 0 0–12; 1 No. postdoctoral researchers1 – 0–8; 0.5 0–0; 0 (0 ± 1) (1 ± 1) (2 ± 3) (2 ± 4) (6 ± 0)

11–15 Years 16–20 Years 20+ Years 11–15 Years 16–20 Years 20+ Years

UNIVERSITY AFFILIATED (N) 11 10 21 NON-UNIVERSITY AFFILIATED (N) 6 5 9 No. grants 0–21; 7 2–70; 11 0–91; 13 No. grants 0–25; 3.5 0–15; 6 0–30; 4 (9 ± 6) (22 ± 22) (25 ± 28) (7 ± 9) (7 ± 7) (7 ± 9) Grant funding ($) 667,780–3,253,613; 17,228–7,000,000; 36,500–11,580,000; Grant funding ($) 275,000–1,300,000; 5,000–12,000,000; 1,800–4,000,000; 1,000,000 1,300,000 1,000,000 525,000 2,000,000 850,000 (1,552,540 ± 994,093) (1,897,916 ± 2,085,656) (2,439,561 ± 3,285,523) (742,376 ± 473,097) (4,668,333 ± 6,427,286) (1,416,767 ± 1,601,649) No. publications 0–465; 29 7–77; 50 2–333; 62 No. publications 2–53; 3.5 9–310; 30 8–210; 70 (66 ± 133) (54 ± 24) (95 ± 85) (23 ± 23) (88 ± 127) (76 ± 66) No. courses taught 0–12; 4 1–6; 3 0–16; 3 No. courses taught 0–3; 0 0–5; 1 0–3; 0 (5 ± 4) (3 ± 2) (5 ± 5) (1 ± 1) (1 ± 2) (5 ± 1) No. undergraduate students1 3–20; 20 2–20; 10 0–20; 14 No. undergraduate students1 0–20; 0 0–10; 0 0–20; 10 (17 ± 6) (11 ± 6) (12 ± 9) (1 ± 10) (1 ± 4) (1 ± 7) No. graduate students1 0–20; 13 3–19; 8 0–20; 10 No. graduate students1 0–4; 0.5 0–20; 4 1–20; 5 (11 ± 6) (9 ± 5) (10 ± 8) (7 ± 2) (2 ± 8) (9 ± 6) No. postdoctoral researchers1 0–3; 0 0–7; 1 0–6; 0 No. postdoctoral researchers1 0–4; 0.5 0–7; 0 0–20; 3 (1 ± 1) (2 ± 2) (2 ± 2) (1 ± 2) (7 ± 3) (8 ± 7)

1As the original survey set the maximum number of students at 20, the maximum values for many 1As the original survey set the maximum number of students at 20, the maximum values for many student categories are likely underestimates. student categories are likely underestimates.

Table 2. Summary of survey responses for focal categories of interest broken Table 2 (Cont.). Summary of survey responses for focal categories of interest down for museums affiliated and non-affiliated with universities. Values given broken down for museums affiliated and non-affiliated with universities. as range; median over (mean ± standard deviation). Grant funding ranges are Values given as range; median over (mean ± standard deviation). Grant included only for those who received grants. funding ranges are included only for those who received grants.

These data indicate that the amount of money that curators provide vs. non-university affiliated ones, though it is unclear why this to their affiliated museums and universities is substantial, and cannot distinction occurred and may be an artifact of the survey itself. be ignored. Although this survey did not allow us to determine how This survey strictly asked for the number of publications during funds were allocated, whether for research, education, or curatorial the curator’s time at their current museum, which we assumed to activities, nor the exact timing of the grant allocations, it is clear that be peer-reviewed journal articles, although many respondents did on average, curators have a documented history of securing millions not clarify their types of publications. Future research should delve of dollars for their museums and associated university institutions. into the other possible written works of curators, including books According to recent survey of museum curators in the United States or textbooks, popular science articles, educational materials, exhibit by the American Alliance of Museums, the median salary of curators displays, and online contributions, many of which are difficult to ranges from $53,000 to $56,150, depending on the ranking of quantify as part of an individual’s success rate (McDade et al. 2011). the curator, however only 7.1% of respondents were affiliated with Mentorship and courses taught are one of the most important ways natural history museums (American Alliance of Museums 2012). that curators can contribute to their museum and local universities These salaries seem a small investment in a museum’s future that (Humphrey 1991). According to our research, the average breadth can lead to a big pay-off in grant funding. of courses taught is fairly consistent, regardless of number of years in the position. This likely indicates that course loads for curators The number of publications increases linearly as time spent in the quickly become established within their academic community and position increases. Again, the maximum number of publications then remain constant until retirement. It is important to note that per category is nearly always higher in university affiliated museums many curators at museums not directly affiliated with a university

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In 2012, an analysis of scientific literacy standardized test scores was conducted by the Program for International Student Assessment. Out of approximately 510,000 15-year-olds in 65 countries or regions, the United States ranked 27th with average scores four points below the international average (Kelly et al. 2013). A recent survey conducted via phone by the Smithsonian Magazine indicates that adults feel that American students scored even lower on standardized tests, yet have difficulty with scientific literacy questions themselves (Pew Research Center 2013). One mission of natural history and science museums is to fill in the gaps between what is taught in school and what the public should know about science, in order to make educated decisions (Allmon 1994, Ashby 2012, Selvakumar and Storksdieck 2013, Tunnicliffe 2002). Bridging this gap would be extremely difficult without International field team during a 2014 biodiversity survey of vertebrate active curators advising the education and exhibits departments of species of northern Samar Island, Philippines. Collaborative expedition museums, yet very little advocacy is occurring to promote this aspect led by researchers from the University of Oklahoma’s Sam Noble Museum of museum and curator importance (Baldwin-Corriveau 2014, and the University of Kansas. The eight-week expedition was funded by Viscardi 2013). Museums are now reaching the public through the National Science Foundation. Photo by Cameron D. Siler (kneeling social media and crowd sourcing, and curators should accept an in front row, far right). active role as experts, in order to maintain scientific quality control (Proctor 2010). are still teaching a handful of classes, perhaps as adjunct instructors/ professors, or volunteers, at regional colleges or universities. Additional research on curator success should further elucidate the forms of teaching being completed by curators.

Undergraduate students supervised increases linearly until the 16−20 and 20+ year categories in which there is actually a decrease. Graduate student mentorship, however, increases consistently. The number of postdoctoral researchers supervised remains fairly constant across all categories, with an average of one to two postdocs. University-affiliated curators follow the same trend for all three mentorship categories; however, the non-university affiliated curators are distinct. Very few undergraduate students were mentored, whereas the number of graduate students and postdocs mentored were higher than in university-affiliated museums. Traditionally, private or governmental natural history institutions The collection of reptiles and amphibians (mostly fluid preserved) of the Sam would not have had teaching requirements for their curators, but Noble Museum. This collection of more than 50,000 specimens has been that trend is changing (i.e. American Museum of Natural History’s foundational for research and teaching at the University of Oklahoma for a Master of Arts in Teaching program). Regardless of affiliation, century, with several hundred scientific articles and dozens of theses being curators who work with students, either formally or informally, based on specimens in the collection. provide the backbone in educating new scientists and museum personnel. They also shape the nature of the university departments Several aspects of our survey design limited the number of they work with based on the type of courses they offer (Humphrey inferences that could be drawn from the results. First, many of 1991). Providing a broad base of scientific disciplines to the greater the answers were difficult to quantify, particularly the collection(s) university should be a goal of all museum curators. Natural history supervised and courses taught. Second, this study did not break as its own field of science is rapidly declining (Schmidly 2005, down productivity by years in the position. For example, for Tewksbury et al. 2014) and natural history museums remain a curators that supervised a total of five students or received a total key training ground for this discipline (Krishtalka and Humphrey of $2 million in grant funding at some point in their 20+ years of 2000), therefore it is vital that curators and their considerable role service, we are unable to determine at what point in their career are supported in education at all levels. these events occurred. Third, for several questions in our survey, definitions for key terminology may have standardized responses

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more appropriately. Examples include: (1) Question #4, defining our thanks. Special thanks go to Dr. Janet K. Braun for reading early a collection qualitatively would have aided participants in their versions of this manuscript and to the two anonymous reviewers at description of collection size and breadth; (2) Question #5, the CLS Journal of Museum Studies. first time category for number of years in the curator’s current position should have started at 0 years rather than 1. Although we REFERENCES feel many participants accurately inferred the meaning of this first Allmon, W.D. 1994. The value of natural history collections. category (1–2 years) as the earliest time period in a curator’s career, Curator: The Museum Journal 37:83–89. future surveys should start the earliest time period at zero years for curators in their first year of a new position; (3) Questions #6, 8, Ashby, J. 2012. How museums can support higher education: definitions and more detailed descriptions for the terms “grants” and engaging universities with museums. NatSCA News 23:21–24. “publications,” respectively, would have improved the comparative power of this preliminary dataset. Possible changes might include Baldwin-Corriveau, K. 2014. The Way of the Dodo? The Fate of defining publications as peer-reviewed research articles, or dividing 21st Century Natural History Collections and the State of Collections the category into multiple questions pertaining to quantities of Advocacy in Exhibits. Masters thesis, John F. Kenney University. different, specific types of publications; (4) Question #9, a more detailed and precise description of the term “taught” would have Beaman, R.S. and N. Cellinese. 2012. Mass digitization of clarified responses received throughout the survey. Future surveys scientific collections: New opportunities to transform the use of may wish to better define specific courses and types of teaching biological specimens and underwrite biodiversity science. ZooKeys in order to tease apart curator involvement in higher education 209:7–17, doi: 10.3897/zookeys.209.3313. courses, whole degree programs, single lectures, and workshops, among many others; and (5) Question #10, providing a precise Blackmore, S., N. Donlon, and E. Watson. 1997. Calculating definition of the term “advised” would have allowed for a more the financial value of systematic biology collections. In The Value robust comparison of mentorship within well-defined advising and Valuation of Natural Science Collections. Proceedings of the categories. International Conference, Manchester, 1995, J.R. Nudds and C.W. Pettitt, Eds., pp. 17–21. Geological Society, London, England. Improvements and additions to such surveys in the future should also include questions that deal with other measures of success Blagoderov, V., I.J. Kitching, L. Livermore, T.J. Simonsen, and as well, including metrics that quantify collection growth during V.S. Smith. 2012. No specimen left behind: industrial scale curator tenure, biodiversity metrics such as numbers of new species digitization of natural history collections. ZooKeys 209:133–146, identified, or quantifying ancillary data developed in association doi: 10.3897/zookeys.209.3313. with specimens (i.e. sequences added to GenBank: https://www. ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genbank/). One additional broader comparison Bradley, R.D., L.C. Bradley, H.J. Garner, and R.J. Baker. 2012. that cannot be made at this time pertains to university professors Cost of collecting and preparing mammal voucher specimens for in the same fields, who are, and are not, affiliated with museum life natural history collections. Occasional Papers Museum of Texas Tech science collections. In light of the trending decreases in support for University 313:1–14. museum curator positions (Gillers 2013, Nelson 2014, Pitz 2013), it would be interesting to quantify the similarities and differences Cheng, T.L., S.M. Rovito, D.B. Wake, and V.T. Vredenburg. between curator and full-time, university only faculty success. 2011. Coincident mass extirpation of neotropical amphibians Whether used to classify the life on our planet, support research with the emergence of the infectious fungal pathogen in all fields (i.e. agriculture, health, medicine, crime, etc.), educate Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis. Proceedings of the National students and the public, or simply provide a local and regional Academy of Sciences, USA 108:9502–9507. identity, museum collections and their associated curators play a critical role in numerous facets of our global environment (NatSCA Ellis, C.J. 2011. Predicting the biodiversity response to climate 2005). When considering educational utility, teaching breadth, or change: challenges and advances. Systematics and Biodiversity research output, or simply a cost-benefit analysis, the continued 9:307–317. support of curators is an incredibly sound investment. European Distributed Institute of Taxonomy (EDIT) and ACKNOWLEDGMENTS SYNTHESYS. 2009. Workshop report: Broadening the user base The authors would like to thank all the survey respondents for of natural history collections. Hosted by the Royal Belgian Institute participating, especially those who forwarded the email and survey of Natural Sciences, Brussels November 4–5, 2008. http://www.e- link to their colleagues and list-serves. The email list-serves and taxonomy.eu/collectionusers Facebook™ groups who allowed us to post the survey also deserve

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Evans, G. 2012. The impact of cuts on UK museums. A Report for biosphere response: Unlocking the collections vault. BioScience the Museums Association. http://www.museumsassociation.org/ 61:147–153. download?id=770702 Kelly, D., H. Xie, C.W. Nord, F. Jenkins, J.Y. Chan, and D. Flemons, P., R. Guralnick, J. Krieger, A. Ranipeta, and D. Kastberg. 2013. Performance of U.S. 15-Year-Old Students in Neufeld. 2007. A web-based GIS tool for exploring the world’s Mathematics, Science, and Reading Literacy in an International biodiversity: The Global Biodiversity Information Facility Context-First Look at PISA 2012. National Center for Mapping and Analysis Portal Application (GBIF-MAPA). Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo. Ecological Informatics 2:49–60. asp?pubid=2014024

Foderaro, L.W. 2013. Brooklyn botanic garden defends decision Krell, F.T. and Q.D. Wheeler. 2014. Specimen Collection: Plan to suspend science program. The New York Times. http://www. for the future. Science 344:815–816. nytimes.com/2013/09/23/nyregion/brooklyn-botanic-garden- defends-decision-to-suspend-science-program.html?_r=0 Krishtalka, L. and P.S. Humphrey. 2000. Can natural history museums capture the future? BioScience 50:611–617. Frey, J.K. 2009. Distinguishing range expansions from previously undocumented populations using background data from museum Kovačić, M. 2009. Is the scientific value of a biological collection records. Diversity and Distributions 15: 83–187. measurable? Croatian Natural History Museum 18:169–174.

Gillers, H. 2013. Field Museum cutting costs, losing scientists. Lane, M.A. 1996. Roles of natural history collections. Annals of Chicago Tribune. http://articles.chicagotribune.com/2013-07- the Missouri Botanical Garden 83:536–545. 31/news/ct-met-field-museum-scientists-20130731_1_field- museum-nancy-o-shea-local-museum Lieberman, B.S. and R.L. Kaesler. 2000. The scientific value of natural history museum collections: The concept of Gippoliti, S. 2005. Historical museology meets tropical completeness. Paleontological Society Special Publication 10:109– biodiversity conservation. Biodiversity and Conservation 14:3127– 117. 3134. Mares, M.A. 2009. Natural science collections: America’s Graham, C.H., S. Ferrier, F. Huettman, C. Moritz, and A.T. irreplaceable resource. BioScience 59:544–545. Peterson. 2004. New developments in museum-based informatics and applications in biodiversity analysis. Trends in Ecology and McAlpine, D.F. 1986. Curators and natural history collections: Evolution 19:497–503. Have we become islands in science? In Proceedings of the 1985 Workshop on Care and Maintenance of Natural History Collections. Green, A. 2013. On-campus museum set to lose $400,000 in Life Sciences Miscellaneous Publications, J. Waddington and D.M. funding. The Daily Texan. http://www.dailytexanonline.com/ Rudkin, Eds., pp. 7–14. Royal Ontario Museum, Ontario, news/2013/10/28/on-campus-museum-set-to-lose-400000-in- Canada. funding McCann, M. 2014. Alums Fight UT Museum Funding Cut. The Humphrey, P.S. 1991. The nature of university natural history Austin Chronicle. http://www.austinchronicle.com/gyrobase/m/ museums. In Natural History Museums: Directions for Growth, P.S. Issue?oid=1508687 Cato and C. Jones, Eds., pp. 5–11. Texas Tech University Press, Lubbock, Texas. McDade, L.A., D.R. Maddison, R. Guralnick, H.A. Piwowar, M.L. Jameson, K.M. Helgen, P.S. Herendeen, A. Hill, and Jeram, A.J. 1997. Criteria for establishing the scientific value of M.L. Vis. 2011. Biology needs a modern assessment system for natural science collections. In The Value and Valuation of Natural professional productivity. BioScience 61:619–625. Science Collections. Proceedings of the International Conference, Manchester, 1995, J.R. Nudds and C.W. Pettitt, Eds., pp. 61–67. Minteer, B.A., J.P. Collins, K.E. Love, and R. Puschendorf. Geological Society, London, England. 2014a. Avoiding (re)extinction. Science 344:260–261.

Johnson, K.G, S.J. Brooks, P.B. Fenberg, A.G. Glover, K.E. Minteer, B.A., J.P. Collins, K.E. Love, and R. Puschendorf. James, A.M. Lister, E. Michel, M. Spencer, J.A. Todd, E. Valsami- 2014b. Response. Science 344:816. Jones, J.R. Young, and J.R. Stewart. 2011. Climate change and

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National Sciences Collection Association (NatSCA). 2005. A Rautenbach, I.L., and E.M. Herholdt. 1990. Curators and Matter of Life and Death. Natural science collections: why keep the research collections of natural history museums – Their them and why fund them? http://www.spnhc.org/media/assets/ contribution to nature conservation in South Africa. In Natural AMatterOfLifeAndDeath.pdf History Collections: Their Management and Value, E.M. Herholdt, Ed., pp. 145–151. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, South Africa. Nelson, J. 2014. Changes stir concerns about San Bernardino County Museum’s future. http://www.sbsun.com/ Rocha, L.A., et al. 2014. Specimen collection: An essential tool. lifestyle/20140423/changes-stir-concerns-about-san-bernardino- Science 344:814–815. county-museums-future Selvakumar, M., and M. Storksdieck. 2013. Portal to the Public: Pew Research Center. 2013. Public’s Knowledge of Science and Museum educators collaborating with scientists to engage Technology. http://www.smithsonianmag.com/innovation/how- museum visitors with current science. Curator: The Museum much-do-americans-know-about-science-27747364/ Journal 56:69–78.

Phillips, N. 2013. Australian Museum left with a skeleton staff Shaffer, H.B., R.N. Fisher, and C. Davidson. 1998. The role of as tyrannosaurus exhibition opens. http://m.smh.com.au/nsw/ natural history collections in documenting species declines. Trends australian-museum-left-with-a-skeleton-staff-as-tyrannosaurus- in Ecology and Evolution 13:27–30. exhibition-opens-20131129-2yh6v.html Shaw, S.D, L.F. Skerratt, A. Haigh, B.D. Bell, L. Daglish, Pickering, J. 1997. The educational value of university natural P.J. Bishop, R. Summers, V. Moreno, S. Melzer, M. Ohmer, history museums. In The Value and Valuation of Natural Science S. Herbert, D. Gleeson, L. Rowe, and R. Speare. 2013. The Collections. Proceedings of the International Conference, Manchester, distribution and host range of Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis in 1995, J.R. Nudds and C.W. Pettitt, Eds., pp. 105–109. New Zealand, 1930–2010. Ecology 94:2108–2111. Geological Society, London, England. Shen, H. 2012. Chicago’s Field Museum cuts back on science. Pinto, C.M, B.D. Baxter, J.D. Hanson, F.M. Méndez-Harclerode, Nature. http://www.nature.com/news/chicago-s-field-museum- J.R. Suchecki, M.J. Grijalva, C.F. Fulhorst, and R.D. Bradley. cuts-back-on-science-1.12105 2010. Using museum collections to detect pathogens. Emerging Infectious Disease 16:356–357. Soubiran, S. 2010. Is research and teaching a key for preserving university collections and museums? University Museums Pitz, M. 2013. Carnegie Museum of Natural History offers and Collections Journal 3:21–30. http://edoc.hu-berlin.de/ buyouts to curators. The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette. http://www.post- umacj/2010/soubiran-21/PDF/soubiran.pdf gazette.com/local/city/2013/11/28/Carnegie-history-museum- offers-buyouts-to-curators.html Stetz, M. 2010. Natural History Museum forced to layoff staff. U-T San Diego. http://www.utsandiego.com/news/2010/Sep/16/ Proctor, N. 2010. Digital: Museum as platform, curator as natural-history-museum-forced-to-do-layoffs/ champion, in the age of social media. Curator: The Museum Journal 53:35-43. Stuart, B.L., K.A. Dugan, M.W. Allard, and M. Kearney. 2006. Extraction of nuclear DNA from bone of skeletonized and Puschendorf, R., F. Bolaños, and G. Chaves. 2006. The fluid‐preserved museum specimens. Systematics and Biodiversity amphibian chytrid fungus along an altitudinal transect before 4:133–136. the first reported declines in Costa Rica. Biological Conservation 132:136–142. Suarez, A.V. and N.D. Tsutsui. 2004. The value of museum collections for research and society. BioScience 54:66–74. Raath, M.A. 1990. Cinderellas of academe: The plight of university museum collections. In Natural History Collections: Swei, A. et al. 2011. Is chytridiomycosis an emerging infectious Their Management and Value, E.M. Herholdt, Ed., pp. 153–157. disease in Asia? PLoS ONE 6: e23179. Transvaal Museum, Pretoria, South Africa. Tewksbury, J.J., et al. 2014. Natural history’s place in science and Ramey-Gassert, L., H.J. Walberg, III, and H.J. Walberg. society. BioScience 64:300–310. 1994. Reexamining connections: Museums as science learning environments. Science Education 78:345–363.

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Tsangaras, K. and A.D. Greenwood. 2012. Museums and disease: APPENDIX I: SURVEY Using tissue archive and museum samples to study pathogens. 1. Project Title: Quantifying Curator Success in Life Science Annals of Anatomy 194:58–73. Natural History Collections Principal Investigator: Dr. Cameron D. Siler Department: Sam Tunnicliffe, S.D. 2002. The educational value of natural history Noble Oklahoma Museum of Natural History & Department of collections in learning about biodiversity. The Biology Curator Biology, University of Oklahoma 22:27–40. You are being asked to volunteer for this research study. This van den Elzen, R. 2002. Bird collections and biodiversity study is being conducted online. You were selected as a possible – Scientific contribution of natural history museums. Bonn participant because you are a curator of a life sciences natural history Zoological Bulletin 51:91–96. collection. Please read this information sheet and contact me to ask any questions that you may have before agreeing to take part Viscardi, P. 2013. A survival strategy for natural science in this study. collections: The role of advocacy. Journal of Natural Science Collections 1:4–7. PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH STUDY This survey is intended to accumulate baseline data highlighting the Vredenburg, V.T., R.A. Knapp, T.S. Tunstall, C.J. Briggs, and success and diverse utility of curator positions for natural history D.B. Wake. 2010. Dynamics of an emerging disease drive collections in the life sciences. The data will be kept anonymous, large-scale amphibian population extinctions. Proceedings of the with information received being used for summarizing the breadth National Academy of Sciences, USA 107:9689–9694. of success for curator positions with no ties to the individual researcher. Wandeler, P., P.E.A. Hoeck, and L.F. Keller. 2007. Back to the future: Museum specimens in population genetics. Trends in The project was designed to achieve two goals: Ecology and Evolution 22:634–642. 1) To provide the Department of Biology at the University of Oklahoma with a data-driven proposal supporting the approval Wehi, P.M., H. Whaanga, and S.A. Trewick. 2012. Artefacts, of future curator hires at the Sam Noble Oklahoma Museum of biology and bias in museum collection research. Molecular Ecology Natural History. 21:3103–3109. 2) To publish a study summarizing the general merits of such positions globally, particularly at a time when many natural history Weldon, C., L.H. du Preez, A.D. Hyatt, R. Muller, and museums are losing funding. R. Speare. 2004. Origin of the amphibian chytrid fungus. Emerging Infectious Disease 10:2100–2105. NUMBER OF PARTICIPANTS We hope to receive anonymous survey results from a maximum of Winker, K. 2004. Natural history museums in a postbiodiversity 100 participants who may take part in this study. All participants era. BioScience 54:455–459. would be professional curators of natural history collections in the life sciences. Winston, J.E. 2007. Archives of a small planet: The significance of museum collections and museum-based research in PROCEDURES invertebrate taxonomy. Zootaxa 1668:47–54. If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to briefly fill out a 10-question survey about curator productivity in research, funding Yates, T.L, J.N. Mills, C.A. Parmenter, T.G. Ksiazek, R.R. and teaching. You will not be asked to provide your name or title Parmebter, J.R. Vande Castle, C.H. Calisher, S.T. Nichol, K.D. and the data will be summarized as a group with no direct ties to Abbott, J.C. Young, M.L.Morrison, B.J. Beaty, J.L Dunnum, your program. R.J. Baker, J. Salazar-Bravo, and C.J. Peters. 2002. The ecology and evolutionary history of an emergent disease: Hantavirus LENGTH OF PARTICIPATION pulmonary syndrome. BioScience 52:989–998. The survey is expected to take roughly 5–10 minutes.

Zlatos, B. 2013. Natural history museum in the red. TribLIVE. RISKS AND BENEFITS http://triblive.com/news/allegheny/5182201-74/museum- There are no risks and no benefits from being in this study. carnegie-history#axzz2muyM2ID7

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CONFIDENTIALITY In published reports, there will be no information included that Mammalogy will make it possible to identify you. Research records will be Mycology stored securely and only approved researchers will have access to Ornithology the records. There are organizations that may inspect and/or copy Tissues/Blood your research records for quality assurance and data analysis. These Invertebrates organizations include the OU Institutional Review Board. Vertebrates Invertebrate VOLUNTARY NATURE OF THE STUDY Paleontology Participation in this study is voluntary. If you withdraw or decline Vertebrate participation, you will not be penalized or lose benefits or services Paleontology unrelated to the study. If you decide to participate, you may decline Paleobotany to answer any question and may choose to withdraw at any time. Other (please specify)

CONTACTS AND QUESTIONS 4. Size of collection. If you have concerns or complaints about the research, the researcher(s) conducting this study can be contacted at 5. Number of years in current position. University of Oklahoma 1-2 Years 2401 Chautauqua Ave. 3-5 Years Norman, OK 73072-7029 6-10 Years Phone: (405) 325-3718 11-15 Years Fax: (405) 325-7699 16-20 Years email: [email protected] 20+ Years website: www.cameronsiler.com 6. Number and amount of grants received while in your current Contact the researcher(s) if you have questions or if you have position. experienced a research related injury. If you have any questions about your rights as a research participant, concerns, or complaints about 7. Optional: List your sources of funding described in the previous the research and wish to talk to someone other than individuals question. on the research team or if you cannot reach the research team, you may contact the University of Oklahoma – Norman Campus 8. Number of publications while in your current position. Institutional Review Board (OU- NC IRB) at 405-325-8110 or [email protected]. 9. List and describe the university/college courses you have taught while in your current position. If you have not taught courses, please This study has been approved by the University of Oklahoma, state so. Norman Campus IRB. IRB Number: 3703 Approval date: 11/26/13 10. Number of students advised while in your current position. Undergraduate Students Please keep this information sheet for your records. By providing Graduate Students information to the researcher(s), I am agreeing to participate in Postdocs this study. I agree to participate APPENDIX II: SURVEY LETTER I decline Dear Colleagues and Natural History Collections, If you are a Curator of a Life Science collection (or a Director 2. Name of Institution. Please include University/College name, who actively manages Life Science collections) in a Natural History if affiliated. Museum or Science Center, please consider taking the anonymous survey below. The brief survey is intended to accumulate baseline 3. Type of specimens in collection (choose all that apply). data highlighting the success and diverse utility of curator positions Botany for natural history collections in the life sciences. The data will Entomology be kept anonymous, with information received being used for Herpetology summarizing the breadth of success for curator positions with no Ichthyology ties to the individual researcher.

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While these data will be used internally, we hope that a publication will also arise, provided we collect a good sample size. Please feel free to also forward this email on to other colleagues, both in the US and abroad.

It is our hope that this data can be used as data-driven evidence in direct support of collections-based research programs. We expect this survey will take 5–10 minutes of your time. It is anonymous and completely voluntary. Participation by curators in full or split positions that meet the criteria of this survey (Natural History Collections in Life Sciences) would be greatly appreciated.

If you agree to be in this study, you will be asked to briefly fill out a 10-question survey about curator productivity in research, funding and teaching. You will not be asked to provide your name or title and the data will be summarized as a group with no direct ties to your program.

To access the anonymous survey, please use the following link by December 20. https://www.surveymonkey.com/s/SNOMNH

This study has been approved by the University of Oklahoma, Norman Campus IRB. IRB Number: 3703 Approval date: 11/26/13

The University of Oklahoma is an equal opportunity institution.

Thank you for your assistance and time!

Sincerely, Cameron Siler

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