Implementing and Sustaining Free Primary Education in Swaziland: the Interplay Between Policy and Practice
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IMPLEMENTING AND SUSTAINING FREE PRIMARY EDUCATION IN SWAZILAND: THE INTERPLAY BETWEEN POLICY AND PRACTICE by BETHUSILE PRISCILLA DLAMINI Submitted in accordance with the requiremments For the degree of DOCTOR OF EDUCATION In the subject EDUCATION MANAGEMENT at the UNIVERSITY OF SOUTH AFRICA SUPERVISOR: DR OC POTOKRI FEBRUARY 2017 DEDICATION This thesis is dedicated to all those who value and appreciate education and the benefits that can be derived from it. It is also dedicated to those who believe that through Free Primary Education many learners can be afforded access to education and equity ultimately realised. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I give my sincere thanks to the Lord Almighty God who saw me through this long journey starting in 2011. It has been a learning journey which has made me realise that knowledge is vast and the learning journey is infinite. I would like to thank my family for their unwavering support and the sacrifices that they have made for me to eventually complete my studies. I would like to thank in particular my brother, Bongani Mahlalela and his wife Portia Mahlalela, who took on some of my parenting duties during this time. I would also like to thank my mother, Thandi Mahlalela, who has been supportive throughout my studies and my daughters, Phumla and Phumlile Dlamini, who had to adjust their lifestyles as I pursued my dream. I would also like to thank Mrs Nonsizi Hlatswayo who supported me unwaveringly both morally and financially throughout this journey. I also thank Ms Turu Dube who always encouraged and prayed for with me. I would also like to thank Mr M. E. Khumalo who unwaveringly supported and encouraged me to press on and was always willing to provide me with policy documents I needed for my study. I would like to give my sincere thanks to Professor Vusumuzi Mncube for the brief supervisory role that he played at the proposal stage of my research journey. He inspired me to seek for knowledge and teach myself to learn. I would also like to thank Dr Onoriode Collins Potokri, my supervisor, who took over from Professor Mncube. I will forever be grateful for the supervisory role he played and the patience he displayed. I thank Dr Potokri for challenging my thinking and reminding me that this was a doctorate and much was required of me, always pushing me to challenge myself. I am indebted to him for his guidance. ii I would also like to express my gratitude to my colleague Lindiwe ‘Ngci’ Dube who assisted me in correcting the SiSwati grammar, spelling and punctuation of the translated findings. I also like to thank my supervisors at work who supported me throughout; in particular Dr Ntombenhle Dlamini my Director at the National Curriculum Centre and Mr Robert Khumalo my Head of Department, who bore with me and accommodated my occasional absences to attend to my studies. I would also like to thank my external examiners. iii ABSTRACT The aim of this study was to investigate the implementation and sustainability of Free Primary Education (FPE) in Swaziland in terms of the interplay between policy and practice. The study was undertaken in four schools in the Manzini region of Swaziland. The schools were purposively sampled on the basis of their location. The participants consisted of the head teacher, a teacher and a parent, and six learners from each of the schools. Two Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) officials were also included; a regional inspector for primary schools stationed at the Manzini Regional Education Offices (REOs) and a senior official stationed at MoET headquarters. A qualitative approach and a case study design were used. The participants were interviewed using semi-structured interview schedules, while the learners were engaged in focus group interviews at each school which were conducted according to a focus group interview schedule. Documents were also used as data sources. Data was analysed using a thematic and document analysis approach. The findings revealed a disconnection between policy and practice. FPE implementers are not well versed on the policies they are supposed to implement as they were not included in the policy-making process. Moreover, no consideration had been given to the legal framework underpinning FPE. It was found that the sustainability of FPE is threatened by certain indirect costs of schooling as well as the top-up fees that are being charged illegally by some schools, resulting in some learners dropping out of school – defeating the purpose of FPE and violating their right to access education. It would appear that the most contentious issue for FPE in Swaziland is the top- fee, although the head teachers were of the view that the FPE grant paid by government is inadequate for running schools and therefore top-up fees are necessary. Problems were also identified with the embezzling of school funds by head teachers. These issues have led to tension between schools and the MoET. iv Key terms: access to education, implementation of FPE, sustainability of FPE, education as a human right, modernisation, top-up fees, policies, monitoring of FPE v TABLE OF CONTENT DEDICATION……………………………………………………………………….. i ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS…………………………………………………………. ii ABSTRACT………………………………………………………………………… iv TABLE OF CONTENTS…………………………………………………………… vi LIST OF TABLES…………………………………………………………………. xii LIST OF FIGURES………………………………………………………………... xiii AUTHOR’S DECLARATION…………………………………….. ……………...xiv ABBREVIATIONS………………………………………………………………… xv CHAPTER 1 1.0 Overview of the study 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Background 5 1.3 Problem statement 10 1.4 Scope of the study 13 1.5 Rationale of the study 13 1.6 Aims and objectives 16 1.6.1 Specific objectives of the study 17 1.7 Reseach questions 17 1.8 Significance of the study 18 1.9 Operational and conceptual definitions 19 (definition of terms) 1.10 Preliminary philosophical and reasecrch 23 methodology 1.11 Organisation of chapters 26 1.12 Chapter summary 27 CHAPTER 2 2.0 Review of related literature 28 vi 2.1 Introduction 28 2.2 Free primary education policy: process and 29 content 2.2.1 Policy process and content 29 2.2.2 Policy players and processes 29 2.3 Implementation of free primary education 49 2.4 Impact of free primary education 55 2.5 Sustainability of free primary education 62 2.6 Free primary education in Swaziland 67 2.6.1 Free primary education in Swaziland: detailed 72 account 2.7 Free primary education: perspectives and studies 83 from outside Africa 2.7.1 Perspectives from developed countries 83 2.7.2 Perspectives from developing countries 90 2.8 Chapter summary 100 CHAPTER 3 Theoretical framework 102 3.1 Introduction 102 3.2 The system theory 102 3.2.1 Implementation theory 105 3.2.2 Sustainability theory 113 3.2.3 Human rights theory 117 3.2.4 Mordenisation theory 119 3.3 Chapter summary 121 CHAPTER 4 Research methodology 122 4.1 Introduction 122 4.2 Philosophical position 122 4.3 Research approach and design 125 4.3.1 Research approach 125 4.3.2 Research design 126 vii 4.4 Sample and sampling techniques 128 4.5 Data collection 131 4.5.1 Interview method 132 4.5.1.1 Semi-structured interviews 132 4.5.1.2 Focus group interviews 135 4.5.1.3 Observations 136 4.5.1.4 Document analysis 138 4.6 Trustworthiness 139 4.6.1 Credibility 141 4.6.2 Dependability 143 4.6.3 Transferability 144 4.6.4 Confirmability 145 4.7 Ethical considerations 145 4.8 Data analysis 149 4.9 Chapter summary 157 CHAPTER 5 Data presentation and analysis 158 5.1 Introduction 158 5.2 Categories and particpants 158 5.2.1 FPE and access to primary education 159 5.2.1.1 Access as main goal of FPE 159 5.2.1.2 Benefits of FPE 165 5.2.1.3 Effects of top-up fees on access 168 5.2.1.4 Other barriers to access 176 5.2.1.5 Access to education as a human right 181 5.2.1.6 Sustainability of access to education through 186 FPE 5.3 The top-up fees dilemma 198 5.3.1 Schools and top-up fees 198 5.3.2 Top-up fees and management of school funds 204 5.3.3 Headteachers perceptions of the FPE grant 211 5.3.4 The top-up fees monitoring mechanism 214 viii 5.4 Implenmetation of FPE in Swaziland 224 5.4.1 Stakeholders’ understanding of FPE policy 224 5.4.2 FPE policy implementation guidelines 229 5.4.3 Consultations 230 5.5 Administration of the FPE programme 237 5.5.1 Progress of the FPE and changes 237 5.5.2 Building of school infrastructure and the FPE 239 package 5.5.3 Sustainability of the FPE programme 247 5.6 Textbook management and distribution 250 5.6.1 Management of textbooks 250 5.6.2 Textbook shortages 261 5.7 FPE challenges 262 5.7.1 Quality of education 262 5.7.2 Teacher training 267 5.8 Teaching and learning 270 5.8.1 Classroom environment 270 5.8.2 Learner participation and behaviour 271 5.8.3 Curriculum and language of instruction 273 5.9 Chapter summary 279 CHAPTER 6 6.0 Findings, Summary and Conlcusion 280 6.1 Introduction 280 6.2 Research questions restated 280 6.3 Discussion of findings 281 6.3.1 Understanding of FPE 281 6.3.2 Understanding of the FPE policies 289 6.3.3 Consultation and policy formulation 295 6.3.4 Implementation of FPE 296 6.3.5 Stakeholders engagement in the FPE programme 296 6.3.6 Monitoring of the FPE programme 305 6.3.7 Other costs incurred by government 306 ix 6.3.8 FPE indirect costs, facilities and other resources 306 6.3.9 The FPE agenda 311 6.3.10 School development projects 314 6.3.11 The gaps between policy and practice 317 6.3.12 The sustainability of the FPE programme in 321 Swaziland 6.3.13 Sustainability of the FPE and the grants paid by 321 government 6.3.14 Political will and economic situation 325 6.3.15 Quality of teachers