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Anthropogenic Pollution of the Lusushwana River at Matsapha, and Prospects for Its Control: Kingdom of Swaziland (Eswatini) By: Phindile Precious Mhlanga-Mdluli

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Anthropogenic Pollution of the Lusushwana River at Matsapha, and Prospects for Its Control: Kingdom of Swaziland (Eswatini) By: Phindile Precious Mhlanga-Mdluli This item was submitted to Loughborough’s Institutional Repository (https://dspace.lboro.ac.uk/) by the author and is made available under the following Creative Commons Licence conditions. For the full text of this licence, please go to: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/2.5/ Loughborough University, Department of Civil & Building Engineering, United Kingdom. Anthropogenic Pollution of the Lusushwana River at Matsapha, and Prospects for its Control: Kingdom of Swaziland (eSwatini) By: Phindile Precious Mhlanga-Mdluli A Doctoral Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the Award of a Doctor of Philosophy of Loughborough University, United Kingdom January, 2012 ©Mhlanga-Mdluli, P.P. 2012 Acknowledgements ii Acknowledgements Unsurpassed gratitude is to my Lord and Saviour, for his never ending favour upon my study. A thesis of this magnitude could have not been accomplished by my intelligence alone, for all man has is limited knowledge, but that of God is infinite and transcendent knowledge. I am deeply grateful to my supervisor Mr. Mike Smith for his knowledgeable supervision and tactful guidance and wisdom. Literature on guidance for obtaining a PhD discourages one-man supervision, but Mike is an experienced and versatile Supervisor, and I cherish the good working relationship we maintained throughout my term of study. I thank Professor M.S. Sohail for his support and for keeping me focused. He told me the first day I set foot in Loughborough that ―it is your research and you have to do it yourself‖. His words lingered on and they remained a source of inspiration throughout my study. A special tribute is owed to Dr. Andrews Nkansah who provided invaluable assistance in proof reading this thesis, I have also benefitted from his advice and support. I thank Dr. Philip and Nana Tamuno for their friendship and assistance in formatting this thesis. I thank Dr. Chinwe Isiandiso for the visio lessons, Peter Mburu for his assistance with questionnaires, and my son Menzi for the sophisticated computer skills displayed in this thesis. I thank Mancoba Zwane for his continued supply with information from Swaziland, and for his support and dedication during data collection. I thank Jayshree Bhuptani for the tutorial on water and wastewater analysis, and John Salisbury for his technical systems support. I highly appreciate Tricia Jackson‘s profound knowledge of the Water Engineering Development Resource Centre. Finding information was never a hassle, which eased my study and anxiety. I would not have enjoyed the experience of studying at Loughborough University without the caring and constant reminders of Helen Newbold the Civil and Building Engineering Research Administrator. I am indebted to the Commonwealth Scholarship Commission for the funding to undertake such a prestigious degree in one of the United Kingdom‘s top and internationally acclaimed university. I thank the Matsapha Town Board and Government of the Kingdom of Swaziland for facilitating my scholarship application. Worth mention are Gciniwe Fakudze, J. Mlipha, Mpendulo Ndzinisa, and Anna O‘Flynn. I thank management and staff at Matsapha Town Board, Ministry of Natural Resources and Energy - Department of Water Affairs, Swaziland Environmental Authority, Manzini City Council, University of Swaziland, Swaziland Water Services Corporation, industries at Matsapha, and riparian communities of Etingulubeni, Ngonini and Dwaleni for the support and cooperation during data collection, which led to the successful completion of this study. I specially thank Lungile Gumbi, Meshack Dlamini, Jabu Sigwane, Freedom Lukhele, Vusi Malinga, Mduduzi Dlamini, Thabile Mkhaliphi, Sifiso Shongwe, Themba Shabangu, Mhlanga, Sibiya, Mancoba Khumalo, John Carmichael, Robert Mnisi, and Professor Mtetwa. I thank all the families, friends and colleagues that I have not mentioned, brethrens at Zakhele Fee Evangelical Assemblies, and New Springs International for their immense support, and prayers. In particular, I am deeply indebted to my brother Prince Sydney, sister inlaw Princess Phumelaphi, and my aunt Khabonina. I am extremely grateful to God for my children, Londiwe, Ayanda, Vumile, Menzi, Nzama, and the new baby, ―Bubbles‖. I cannot measure the love, cooperation, and thoughtfulness my children showed throughout the challenging years of my study. I pray that God bless and make you fruitful. ©Mhlanga-Mdluli, P.P. 2012 Dedication iii Dedication This is devoted to three women whose inspiration and past advices have been the pillars of all I hold dear today. Their wisdom and loyalty has been the driving force in my learning. It‘s my utmost regret that they are not here with us today to share in my success. These paragons of unshakable and deep family values are Ennie Khalani Magongo-Mdluli (grandmother), Hildah Siphiwe ―Lakhiza‖ Mdluli (mother), and Rosemary Busisiwe Shongwe (sister). R.I.P! ©Mhlanga-Mdluli, P.P. 2012 Abstract iv Abstract The Lusushwana River, which is within the Maputo River Basin, forms the western boundary of Matsapha, the most industrialized town in Swaziland. Current findings suggest that the Lusushwana River is polluted by industries within the town. What is not clear is the establishment of an association between the industries and the river quality, the extent of pollution in the river, and whether the river can meet national water quality objectives. Further, literature implies that the pollution causes impacts on the riverine ecosystem, health and livelihoods of the riparian communities; and that environmental monitoring, application and enforcement of legislation are weak. There is therefore a need for a detailed investigation on the pollution of the Lusushwana River to establish whether there is an association between the industries and the river quality; and the health and livelihoods impacts on the riparian communities and riverine ecosystem, with a view to recommending intervention measures to minimize the pollution taking into account social, technical, environmental, financial and institutional factors. The research was carried out at Matsapha, Swaziland. A mixed research methodology was adopted, which enabled the researcher to employ multiple data collection methods, which in turn provided the opportunity for data triangulation and as such enhanced the study‘s rigour, validity and reliability. The research took a deductive approach, and entailed a longitudinal experimental and cross-sectional survey design. Non-probability sampling methods in the form of snowball and purposive sampling were used to select an appropriate and representative sample that can be generalized. Data were collected using technical experiments, biotic index, semi-structured open ended questionnaires, interviews, and field observations. The questionnaires were self administered to 121 riparian communities‘ households, 3 environmental monitoring agencies and 26 proprietors of companies at Matsapha. Additionally, 15 key informants were interviewed. Water and wastewater samples were taken along the Lusushwana River, and at the wastewater treatment plant and industries. Statistical analysis of the data using PASW Statistics and Microsoft Excel led to the various findings from the research. The findings confirm the claim from literature that the anthropogenic activities at Matsapha pollute the Lusushwana River. The evaluation of the Lusushwana River showed microbiological, physical, organic and inorganic pollution to be most acute; but concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium were low. The biotic index showed the absence of macro-invertebrate species (e.g. damselflies) that are highly sensitive to oxygen-depletion pollution. The riparian communities suffer human health impacts, especially diarrhoea and skin problems, and are restricted in meeting their domestic and livelihood water needs by the quality of the Lusushwana River. This study has led to the conclusion that the Lusushwana River is polluted by the anthropogenic companies in the Matsapha industrial estate, but has revealed that there is also pollution upstream of Matsapha. The companies at Matsapha have environmental management procedures that are insufficient or ineffective; environmental awareness, education, monitoring and legislation enforcement is lacking, the riparian communities suffer health and livelihood impacts, and their complaints are not effectively addressed. Therefore the study recommends that effective monitoring, legislation enforcement, and collaboration of all stakeholders should be used to achieve effective wastewater management and to minimize pollution of the Lusushwana River and the associated impacts. The empirical findings of the study regarding the pollution of the Lusushwana River and its impacts on the riparian communities, as well as the need for effective monitoring, enforcement of legislation and collaboration of the stakeholders contribute to professional knowledge, academic research, policy and practice. Potential areas recommended for further research include studies on assessment of companies that need pre-treatment in order to minimize environmentally significant discharges into the Lusushwana River; and on how much pollution the river can receive and still meet national water quality objectives. Keywords: Matsapha Industrial Estate; Lusushwana River; Anthropogenic Water Pollution; Impacts on Riparian Communities; Environmental Monitoring, Legislation Enforcement, Control Measures. ©Mhlanga-Mdluli, P.P. 2012 Table of Contents v Table of Contents Acknowledgements
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