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THE CASE of NDUMO GAME RESERVE, SOUTH AFRICA By FINDING THE COMMUNITY IN COMMUNITY-BASE NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF NDUMO GAME RESERVE, SOUTH AFRICA by Talia Meer Submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts at Dalhousie University Halifax, Nova Scotia August 2010 © Copyright by Talia Meer, 2010 DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENT STUDIES The undersigned hereby certify that they have read and recommend to the Faculty of Graduate Studies for acceptance a thesis entitled “FINDING THE COMMUNITY IN COMMUNITY-BASE NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF NDUMO GAME RESERVE, SOUTH AFRICA” by Talia Meer in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Arts. Dated: 18 August 2010 Supervisor: _________________________________ Readers: _________________________________ _________________________________ Departmental Representative: _________________________________ ii DALHOUSIE UNIVERSITY DATE: 18 August 2010 AUTHOR: Talia Meer TITLE: FINDING THE COMMUNITY IN COMMUNITY-BASE NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT: THE CASE OF NDUMO GAME RESERVE, SOUTH AFRICA DEPARTMENT OR SCHOOL: Department of International Development Studies DEGREE: MA CONVOCATION: October YEAR: 2010 Permission is herewith granted to Dalhousie University to circulate and to have copied for non-commercial purposes, at its discretion, the above title upon the request of individuals or institutions. _______________________________ Signature of Author The author reserves other publication rights, and neither the thesis nor extensive extracts from it may be printed or otherwise reproduced without the author’s written permission. The author attests that permission has been obtained for the use of any copyrighted material appearing in the thesis (other than the brief excerpts requiring only proper acknowledgement in scholarly writing), and that all such use is clearly acknowledged. iii TABLE OF CONTENTS LIST OF TABLES .......................................................................................................... vii LIST OF FIGURES ...................................................................................................... viii ABSTRACT ...................................................................................................................... ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED ............................................................................. x ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................ xii CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................ 1 1.1 INTRODUCTION ....................................................................... 1 1.2 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................... 3 1.2.1 A History of Conservation ...................................... 3 1.2.2 Community Livelihoods and the Livelihoods of Communities ................................................................ 10 1.2.3 Neoliberalism in action: The commodification of conservation ................................................................. 21 1.3 CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK .............................................. 26 CHAPTER 2 PLACE, POLICY AND PRESENT .............................................. 30 2.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 30 2.2 MAPUTALAND: THE AREA AND ITS PEOPLE ..................................... 31 2.2.1 The ‘Natural’ Landscape ...................................... 31 2.2.2 A Story of People and Place ................................. 33 2.3 THE STUDY SITE: NDUMO GAME RESERVE ..................................... 41 2.4 NATIONAL POLICY, LAND REFORM AND CBNRM IN SOUTH AFRICA ........ 45 2.5 RESEARCH METHODS .............................................................. 55 2.5.1 Qualitative Methods ............................................ 56 EXPERT INTERVIEWS…………….……………………………………...........................56 iv COMMUNITY-MEMBER INTERVIEWS……………………………………………………….57 2.5.2 Research Problems and Ethical Issues ................... 59 CHAPTER 3 FINDINGS ..................................................................................... 61 3.1 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................... 61 3.2 SOCIAL JUSTICE, RESTITUTION AND TRANSFORMATION: ESIQEWINI AS HOME, HERITAGE, AND TOURIST DESTINATION? ................................... 62 3.2.1 Community Views of Conservation, Past And Present ........................................................... 63 3.2.2 Contradictions of CBNRM: Conflict and Tensions Between Stakeholders ................................................... 69 COMMUNITY FRUSTRATIONS RELATED TO CBNRM………………………………..…...67 THE ROLE OF TRADITIONAL AUTHORITIES AND LOCAL CONSERVATION BOARDS IN CBNRM…………………………………………………..………………………………73 THE ROLE OF EKZN IN CBNRM………………………………………….......………...76 THE EMERGENCE OF INTER-COMMUNITY CONFLICT……………………………….…...79 3.2.3 Other Debates: Issues of Space and Race ............. 81 TRANSFRONTIER CONSERVATION AREAS…………………………………………….….81 STILL JUST BLACK AND WHITE: THE DYNAMICS OF RACE AND CONSERVATION …........84 3.2.4 Conclusion ......................................................... 85 3.3 ESIQEWINI AS A SOURCE OF FINANCIAL GAIN ................................ 86 3.3.1 From 'hand-outs' to CBNRM ................................. 87 3.3.2 Reliance on Alternative Livelihoods ....................... 94 3.3.3 TFCAs and Economies of Scale ............................. 95 3.3.4 Summary .......................................................... 97 3.4 CONCLUSION ....................................................................... 98 CHAPTER 4 CONCLUSION ............................................................................. 100 4.1 INTRODUCTION ................................................................... 100 4.2 SYNTHESIS ........................................................................ 100 v 4.2.1 Feelings of Loss and Just Compensation .............. 100 4.2.2 Power-sharing ................................................. 104 4.2.3 Fulfilling expectations ....................................... 106 4.2.4 Understanding the value of nature ...................... 110 4.3 CONCLUSION ..................................................................... 117 BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................... 120 APPENDIX A List of Interviews ......................................................................... 134 APPENDIX B Sample Recruitment Script for Interviews ....................... 137 vi LIST OF TABLES Table 1 Conditions for effective community conservation (CC) initiatives ............... 27 vii LIST OF FIGURES Figure 2 Sketch Map of Tribes and Territories in British South Africa (Great Britain, 1980: 1)…………………………………………………………………..37 Figure 3 Map of Greater Maputaland, showing study area (Adapted from Jones, 2006:7)……………………………………………………………43 viii ABSTRACT In South Africa Community-based Natural Resource Management (CBNRM) has recently gained popularity as the dominant approach to conservation due to its perceived environmental and social benefits and as a form of restitution for communities that were forcibly evicted from their land during apartheid. This dissertation investigates the disconnect between the rhetoric and reality of CBNRM in South Africa, by focusing on the case of Ndumo Game Reserve. It aims to critically evaluate the social justice and economic impacts of CBNRM on the neighbouring Mbangweni and Mathenjwa communities. It argues that there are significant tensions between the community focused rhetoric of CBNRM, the predominantly fortress-style of conservation, and the neo-liberal eco-tourism venture at Ndumo Game Reserve. I conclude that CBNRM at Ndumo is largely guided by western conservation and economic ideologies and driven by the support of state and private interests while alienating local people from their land and its management. ix LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS USED AFRA Association for Rural Advancement ANC Africa National Congress CAMPFIRE Communal Areas Management Programme for Indigenous Resources CBNRM Community-based Natural Resource Management CC Community conservation DAERD Department of Agriculture, Environment and Rural Development (Provincial Government) DEAT Department of Environmental Affairs and Tourism (National Government) DLA Department of Land Affairs EKZN/W Ezemvelo KwaZulu Natal/Wildlife IUCN International Union for the Conservation of Nature KZN KwaZulu Natal KZNNCS KwaZulu-Natal Nature Conservation Services KZNDC KwaZulu – Natal Department of Conservation LCB Local Conservation Board LCC Land Claims Commission LPP Lubombo Peace Park NCB National Conservation Board x RDP Reconstruction and Development Programme RLCC Regional Lands Claim Commission SA South Africa SANParks South African National Parks TA Traditional Authority TFCA Trans-frontier Conservation Area UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation xi ACKNOLWEDGEMENTS Although I may have contributed the words, at least the majority of them, this dissertation has very much been a group effort. It is my pleasure to thank the people who made this work possible. Dr. Matthew Schnurr was a dedicated and supportive MA supervisor. I don't think I can overstate my appreciation of his immense knowledge, sharp insights and careful editing, but even more, his incredible patience and unending encouragement. I may have given up without
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