Forests and trees help to build the city image in a time of increased competition for investment: the city of Dalian, China Cecil Konijnendijk

Trees and Cities - Growing together MAGAZINE NUMBER 13, DECEMBER 2004 NUMBER 13,

While human societies throughout history have largely component of urban and periurban been rural, currently the majority of the world’s green structures, including forests, population lives in cities and towns. Increasingly land is parks, orchards and any other tree needed for urban areas to cater for the needs of the system, which are referred to collectively inhabitants, which often a detrimental effect on forests as urban and periurban forestry (UPF). and other green areas. This is a particularly interesting topic, since urban agriculture and forestry are here is tremendous pressure on policy often mentioned together but in practice makers to develop sustainable cities appear to be treated as quite separate T where inhabitants can enjoy a high areas. This issue of UA Magazine tries to quality of life and a healthy environment. bridge these worlds and show that they The policy makers thus have to tackle a have many similarities as well as much to wide range of associated challenges. The learn from each other. In the quest for Second World Urban Forum (held in healthy, liveable and sustainable cities, Barcelona, September 2004) looked at urban green (productive) spaces have an many of these challenges faced by cities. important role to play. By providing a The participants emphasised, among range of goods and services, they can help Editorial other things, that trees and their related provide livelihoods, moderate harsh ecosystems are very important, urban climates, conserve biodiversity and multifunctional components of urban contribute to better public health. green structures. In recent years

www.ruaf.org integrative and strategic approaches have TREES AND FORESTS FOR therefore been developed and SUSTAINABLE CITIES ______implemented across the globe to promote The challenges related to urbanisation are Cecil Konijnendijk and develop tree-based resources that clear and present, such as the provision of WoodSCAPE Consult cater for multiple urban demands. food and housing, sanitation, and employment (especially in the developing Michelle Gauthier In earlier issues of UA Magazine a number world). What is the role of trees and Forestry Department, FAO of the challenges facing cities were related forests in and around urban areas in to the topic of urban agriculture, and addressing these challenges? Experience René van Veenhuizen innovative approaches to improving shows that these and other green spaces RUAF Programme, ETC urban environments were highlighted. form more than just a “supplementary” Foundation This issue will focus on the tree urban infrastructure. URBAN AGRICULTURE Role of trees outside the forest Establishing wooded lots in villages and near urban centres relieves the pressure on natural forests for fuel wood, poles and fodder. In Tunisia initiatives include establishing a green belt around Tunis, creating parks, lining boulevards and motorways, planting coastal esplanades and implementing a national programme for heritage trees. In Mali, about 22,000 ha of plantations have been established in villages and urban areas since 1986, and there has been additional planting along roadways. Iran has been active as well, with a network of urban and periurban planted forests and parks.Often,

however, problems arise when irrigation cannot be Stella Odurukwe sustained in the long term because of water shortages. Urban Agriculture in Dzorwulu next to the power station The use of treated wastewater from cities is therefore seen as an opportunity to support urban and periurban Economic and livelihood values Africa, for example, are still tree planting in several countries. Poverty alleviation and food heavily dependent upon fuel Source: FAO 2003, p. 16. security are high on the agenda of wood. Urban and periurban many international institutions forests also provide non-wood and development aid forest products such as programmes, and in previous mushrooms, berries, (medicinal) issues of UA Magazine, it was herbs, rattan, seeds, leaves, and so argued that urban agriculture can forth (see for instance the article play an important role in this on Abia State in Nigeria by respect. Indeed, many countries Odurukwu on page 8). have a long tradition of urban Urban Forestry in the city of Curitiba dwellers supplementing their Environmental and biodiversity Curitiba is known beyond Brazil’s national border for its diets and/or incomes with local values policies in favour of well-ordered urban development, a agricultural produce. In this issue, Urban forests and trees have sophisticated public transportation system and Thaman illustrates this (on page major effects on the urban environmental conservation, which have given Curitiba 12) by providing an overview of, environment. The large majority the character of a modern model city in Latin America. often tradition-rich, urban of households in the Abia State of For the last 30 years, Curitiba has focused on its urban agricultural systems on the small Nigeria have demonstrated their planning. A master plan for an orderly urban islands of the Pacific. awareness of the positive impacts development was implemented in 1971. The that trees and agroforestry development of the master plan was supported by the Farmers involved in integrated systems have on their IPPUC (“Research and Urban Planning Institute of agriculture and forestry systems, environment, for example Curitiba”) and permanent discussions throughout agroforestry, can enhance urban through their efforts to improve society (“Tomorrow’s Curitiba” seminars). Today, the agricultural production by soil fertility and reduce erosion. city is moving forward to extend its solutions to the growing trees together with crops Important in both the developed whole metropolitan area such as “zoning and land use” or by combining cultivation with and developing worlds is the role with time tables for execution. A significant part of the animal husbandry, thereby adding urban vegetation plays in water population is involved in Curitiba’s environmental value through the enhancement of management. Trees reduce storm programmes. The most successful environmental the microclimate and growing water runoff and can assist with project in Curitiba with respect to local participation is conditions, or through the processing wastewater. Many the communal planting project “Plantios Comunitários”. diversification of produce (see also cities have established and With the supported of the Environmental Education the article by Oosterbaan on page conserved forests in order to Department, native (fruit) trees are planted together 23). Forest systems can also protect their drinking water with the local people. When suitable areas are found, provide fodder for animals, as resources (Konijnendijk 1999). In the Department contacts local representatives and shown by Akinbamijo in his arid regions, forest shelterbelts involves them in the planning process. The areas article on Gambia (page 40). In the around cities help combat designated for planting are always public areas, mostly case of small-holder dairy farming desertification. Trees and other threatened by erosion or inundation like steep slopes or in and near urban areas of central vegetation also intercept particles riparian zones. The local people are also provided with Kenya described in this issue, and gaseous pollutants and thus knowledge about the tree or shrub species to be planted. woody species such as shrubs are help reduce air pollution (see the These activities are not restricted to the city centre but essential for providing protein- article by Mock on page 29). This have an emphasis especially on the periphery of the rich fodder (Wambugu and function of urban forests has been urban agglomeration. Franzel on page 18). Timber and recognised in countries like China, Source: FAO, 2002b. (Proceedings TOF expert consultation, other wood products are very as mentioned by Liu et al. on page November 2001) important in urban areas; large 15. parts of the urban population of

2 UA-Magazine In this issue

The level of biodiversity of urban green city forests is not always seen as an 08 Agroforestry in Periurban Cities of areas is often surprisingly high, important or attractive issue by urban Abia State, Nigeria representing nature close to where people planners) or simply unwillingness to 10 Promoting the Integration of live. Cities such as Rio de Janeiro and make urban green a priority, the fact is Agroforestry in Urban and Periurban Singapore still have tracts of tropical that urban greening is not yet universally Kisumu rainforest within their boundaries. In integrated in city planning. There is a 12 Urban Gardening on the Small Europe, national parks are found at the need for integrative and comprehensive Islands of the Pacific gates of large cities such as Warsaw, approaches to planning and management 15 Urban Forestry in China: status and Moscow and Vienna (see also UA of urban and periurban green spaces to prospects Magazine no. 6). optimise the many benefits discussed 18 Fodder Shrubs for Increasing the above (also see Wolf on page 31). Incomes of (Peri)urban Livestock Social and cultural values Owners The recreational values of forests, parks, UPF AS AN INTEGRATIVE AND 20 Urban Fodder Forests in The Gambia gardens and other urban green areas are STRATEGIC APPROACH 21 Grazing Animals as Park Managers especially well documented in the Given the complexity of natural resource 23 Multipurpose Plantations as a Tool Western world. Urban woodlands in planning and management in highly for Periurban Agroforestry Europe attract as many as several dynamic urban societies, approaches are 24 Designing Spaces to Work the Land thousand recreational visits per hectare needed that extend beyond traditional and Build Communities per year (Konijnendijk 1999). People often boundaries and involve a wide range of 26 Urban Forestry Development in appreciate diverse landscapes that include disciplines as well as stakeholders. In the Beijing: A Historical Perspective trees as a main element. Ledin describes case of urban and periurban forestry, as 29 Building a Sustainable Urban Forest (on page 21) how grazing is used in well as urban agriculture, new 31 Economics and Public Value of Sweden to create more diverse and approaches should recognise the multiple Urban Forests attractive recreational landscapes. The benefits provided, as well as the role these 34 The Policy, Legislative and presence of large herbivores, moreover, areas can play in sustainable Institutional Framework for Urban provides an attraction of its own. development. Forestry in Zimbabwe Oosterbaan mentions (on page 23) how The concept urban and periurban forestry 36 Urban Greening and Health: merging agricultural and forestry elements can be (UPF) has its roots in North America and the issues in Kenya combined to create multifunctional, open can build on a history spanning close to 38 Community forests in North East urban and periurban landscapes with 40 years. It has gradually gained broad England high recreational values. acceptance among scientists and 41 Launching a Policy Initiative in practitioners, although the concept is still Botswana Recently the health impacts of urban being adapted to local conditions. green have also been studied (e.g., Grahn and Stigsdotter 2003; see also the Miller (1997) defined UPF as “an contribution of Wolf on valuation on page integrated, city-wide approach to the “urban forest” in the United States refers 31). Urban green can have a positive planting, care and management of trees in to the sum total of all vegetation growing impact on people’s physical and mental the city to secure multiple environmental in urban and community areas, including health, for example by providing settings and social benefits for urban dwellers”. A the city centre, inner-city residential for physical exercise, reducing ultraviolet more comprehensive definition was areas, suburbs and the suburban fringe. radiation and air pollution, and reducing provided by Grey and Deneke (1986): The three main components of a stress. By being actively involved in tree “Urban and periurban forestry is defined sustainable urban forest are a healthy tree planting and management, local as the planned, integrated and systematic resource, comprehensive management communities can be strengthened (as in approach to the management of trees in and community-wide support. The UPF the UK experience described on page 38). urban and periurban areas for their concept is attractive to urban planners In many developing countries, trees often contribution to the physiological, because it is: have cultural and spiritual values that sociological, and economic well-being of - dynamic in time and space could assist new urban dwellers in finding urban society. Urban forestry deals with - integrative and comprehensive their place in cities and towns. Today’s woodlands, groups of trees, and - strategic green spaces and the ways they are used individual trees where people live - it is - multidisciplinary and multisectoral and managed often have strong historical multifaceted, for urban areas include a - participatory roots (see the articles by Liu et al., great variety of habitats (streets, parks, - multifunctional Thaman, and Cai et al.). derelict corners, etc.), and it is concerned with a great range of benefits and The UPF concept seeks to incorporate Despite these benefits, the value of trees problems”. As introduced by Mock in this different elements of urban greening and and forests within city limits is not always issue, the concept of urban and periurban it promotes a holistic view of green acknowledged by municipal leaders and forestry (UPF) has been evolving and structures. Moreover, it aims for more policy makers or by urban inhabitants. implemented during past decades as a integrated land-use systems, and as such Whether this is due to a lack of particularly promising approach to addresses forestry, agriculture, and awareness, misinterpretation of the integrated planning and management of recreational needs (see also the articles by concepts (as with agriculture, the term urban tree resources. What is called an Liu, Mock, and Oosterbaan). For instance,

December 2004 3 in mountainous areas protected forests example from Zimbabwe illustrates (on strategies for the promotion of urban and will be integrated into watershed page 34). Access to resources and land is a periurban forestry as well as action plans management and justified by the need to major issue, as described for example by and programmes for specific cities is of avoid land slides, infrastructure damages Odurukwe in the case of urban strategic importance in the process of and human loss, while in lower areas, agroforestry in Nigeria. This development identifying viable solutions. In the particularly in arid and semi-arid areas of true partnership approaches often decentralisation to local authorities, FAO they help provide forage for animals or requires the development of new facilitates dialogue between save energy by cooling the environment institutions (see Kisumu on page 36 who municipalities, governmental (see box). describes links made between the work of organisations, NGOs, CSOs and the trade unions and urban greening. private sector. Its experience in The concept advocates the development community-based forest resource of longer-term policies and plans for As described in several articles, UPF conflict management (FAO, 2002c) and urban tree resources, connecting forestry highlights the provision of multiple facilitation of equitable partnerships to different sectors, agendas and benefits by urban greening, stressing the between corporate and smallholder programmes. Various examples of this economic, environmental and socio- partners is put to good use in the urban strategic and planning dimension have cultural goods and services it can provide forum. Cities are encouraged to support been described in earlier issues of UA for urban society. each other in the areas of capacity Magazine and are highlighted again in this building and implementation of good issue (e.g., Cai et al., Lattuca et al. and Considering the dynamic of the practices through partnerships (city Davies and Scurlock). urbanisation process, there is a need to twinning-). promote tree-based systems in the most Furthermore, UPF is built on the appropriate and sustainable way. UPF INNOVATIVE APPROACHES involvement of experts from a wide range includes all aspects related to Urban agriculture and UPF should be of disciplines, including not only natural establishing, conserving and managing based on, and include, positive resource managers, but also urban trees in the forest and “trees outside experiences and good practices from planners, social scientists, economists, forests”, including the agroforestry across the world, some of which are and so forth, and it is aimed at developing systems. A comprehensive and inclusive discussed in this magazine. Mutual partnerships between multiple vision is necessary. learning and integration of these stakeholders. As in community forestry experiences is the challenge for the approaches, it emphasises the The Food and Agriculture Organization of future. Some of the lessons learned so far involvement of all segments of local the United Nations is one the institutions involve the following areas. communities in managing and using tree that have actively promoted UPF as a tool resources (see Davies and Scurlock on for developing more sustainable cities, Awareness raising page 38). Urban forests and agriculture especially in the context of food security The development of UPF in the United comprise both public and private land, and poverty alleviation in developing States gained force only after major and therefore legal arrangements often countries and countries with economies lobbying efforts by NGOs, such as have to be put in place to incorporate in transition (see Box). Assisting the American Forests, that recognised the private land in UPF strategies, as the countries in developing their national benefits of a strategic approach to urban tree planting and management. Awareness-raising by NGOs led to strong links between research, policy and FAO, in its Strategic Framework (2000-2015) and Medium Term Plan implementation of UPF (Johnston 1996). (2004-2009), promotes urban and periurban forestry as a development tool, Likewise, the National Urban Forestry paying particular attention to developing countries and countries with Unit (NUFU), an independent economies in transition. The Forest Resource Assessment (FRA) organisation, has provided assistance to a programme and the FAO prospective studies of the forest sectors supply large number of local and regional urban urban-related information on the current status of forests and foreseeable forestry initiatives in the United Kingdom trends to 2020. Advice to member countries and policy makers is given (Konijnendijk 1999). See for example the through these national, regional and international processes of data case in Northern England described on collection, methodology development and multi-stakeholder dialogue. For page 38. The role of high-level politicians instance, the current Forestry Outlook Study for West and Central Asia in awareness raising is important. Large- (FOWECA) to 2020 aims to analyse the trends and driving forces that will scale tree planting campaigns can be a shape the forestry sector during the next two decades and to identify tool to raise political commitment as well policies, programmes and investment options that can enhance the sector’s as public awareness. Eighty thousand contribution to sustainable development. Multidisciplinary actions in residents of Puerto Princessa City in the urban development are facilitated through the Priority Area for Philippines, for example, were made Interdisciplinary Action (PAIA) on “Food for the Cities”. Urban and aware of the benefits of UPF through periurban agriculture and forestry together address complex issues such as their involvement in a massive food security, income generation, environmental management and reforestation project in their city (Palijon planning. 2002).

4 UA-Magazine From resources assessment to local New technology and knowledge generation Canadian National Forest Strategy experiences New technologies and knowledge for (2003-2008) Very often little is known about the optimising management and the Urban Canadians’ perceptions of the characteristics and potential of forest and provision of UPF goods and services need forests surrounding towns and cities often trees resources, or about the best ways to to be developed. In the United States, the shape their views of forests in general, plan and manage them. Country-wide USDA Forest Service, through special whether they be in their backyard or assessments of urban and periurban urban forestry research centres, has across the country. The forests in rural forest resources have been virtually non- generated extensive new knowledge on areas affect people living in towns and existent. urban forests and trees and their benefits. cities because of the contributions to the But the development of knowledge and economy, environmental functions (for Information on the collection of data and technologies also needs to take place at example cleansing groundwater and development of assessment the grassroots level, as the example of regulation water flows) and recreational methodologies related to trees located urban farmer experiments in Kenya in opportunities the forests offer. People outside forests have been mandated to this issue shows (Wambugu and Franzel living in urban areas are increasingly the FAO Forest Resource Assessment on page 18). shaping forest policies by their (FRA) Programme by the FAO expert participation in decision making at local, consultation on Global Forest Resources Institutional capacity regional and national level. The Canadian Assessment at Kotka III and IV in Finland Institutional capacity and municipal National Forest Strategy (2003-2008) was (FAO, 2001a; FAO, 2002a). The FRA policies related to urban forests and trees developed through a public consultation published “Trees outside forests – are often insufficiently developed. process and actively engaged Canadians in towards rural and urban integrated However some significant efforts have sustaining the diversity of the forests’ resources management” as a contribution been made. Singapore, for example, has benefits. Forest Champions will lead and to the FRA 2000 report. Assessments of strongly institutionalised urban green promote collective implementation of the research activities and higher education space planning and management and it Strategy’s themes, including “urban forest on urban forests and trees were made by has developed a proposal for an island- and public engagement in sustainability”. COST (Urban Forests and Trees), a wide park connector network (Yuen 1997, Source: (National Canadian Forest Strategy, European expert network supported by cited by Palijon 2002). The Chinese 2003) the European Union. government has recently incorporated UPF in its national policies, for example FAO also compiled a series of country for afforestation and the establishment of case studies on urban forestry in Egypt shelterbelts around urban areas (see also uses the planting and management of (Cairo), Ecuador (Quito), Brazil (Rio de the articles by Cai et al. and Liu et al.). forests and trees as vehicles for social, Janeiro), Iran (Tehran), Senegal (Dakar), economic and environmental Mauritania (Nouakchott), Burkina Faso Policy and legal strengthening regeneration of 12 large urban (Ouagadougou), Niger (Niamey), Although urban forestry is hardly agglomerations in the country (see the Ethiopia (Addis Ababa),Hong Kong recognised in the national policies and article on page 38). (China), Kuala Lumpur (Malaysia) and legislation of Zimbabwe, municipal by- Singapore. These case studies showed laws have often been used to safeguard In order to maintain the attractive and that urban development has included cities’ ornamental tree resources (see the liveable image of the rapidly growing city important social forestry initiatives and contribution by Makonese and of Hyderabad (Pakistan), the local provided important lessons for cities that Mushamba on page 34). The authorities have set up an extensive are at early stages in the development of development of legal frameworks and the greening programme. Keeping the city their urban forestry programmes. means to implement them at national competitive – for example as a high-tech (El Lakany et. al. 1999) and sub-national level need to be centre - by keeping it attractive has been developed. This is a very complex issue as a major objective (Zwingle 2002). Many of the services provided by urban it involves many departments (e.g. forests and green space are difficult to forestry, agriculture, environment, Information sharing and dissemination quantify in monetary terms, which makes planning), central and decentralised Networking between researchers, policy it difficult to capture the full attention of bodies of governmental and local makers, practitioners as well as other politicians. Recent attention in the North authorities. Guidelines for policy and stakeholders is crucial in relatively newly has shifted to assessing the economic decision makers at governmental and emerging fields such as urban forestry impacts green space can have in terms of municipal level would assist them in and urban agriculture. In recent years, contributing to attractive and safe cities designing their own frameworks and some good examples have emerged. for people in which to work, live and regulations in response to their national Apart from the aforementioned COST recreate. In her contribution to this issue, needs. See also boxes. Action E12, networking among the Wolf demonstrates how economic research community on urban forestry valuation has been used in North In the UK, the government has developed has been facilitated by the International America to derive green space values, for a forestry strategy that focuses on urban Union of Forest Research Organizations example related to environmental and periurban areas. This strategy is (IUFRO). In the developing countries, services, real estate prices, and human implemented in part through the health estimations. Community Forests programme which To be continued on page 7

December 2004 5 Coordination of greening efforts Linear Urban Agriculture in Hong Kong In Hong Kong six government Accessing ‘the commons’ for food security, a healthier environment and community development bureaux (out of 16 policy- formulation bureaux) and 15 magine thousands of kilometres of and the timing of some farming tasks are departments (out of 38 linear space throughout urban areas: clearly limited, and security operations departments) are involved in I roads and their verges, electric and may be time consuming at and near greening issues. The division of other utility right-of-ways, railroad tracks, harvest time. tree administrative duties is based fences and walls, airport runways, rivers on a range of criteria, including and streams and their banks, and more. Utility right-of ways (ROWs) are being put land ownership, land Recognise that most of the urban to agricultural use more often than fences administration, land use planning, infrastructure is linear. Consider that most or roadside verges, but they are often not land use, development agent, land of this space, horizontal and vertical, is ‘the farmed as intensely as would be optimal. user, planting agent, vegetation commons’. It is public space that belongs Rio de Janeiro and Los Angeles both have management agent and so forth to all of us. very well-conceived and implemented (Works Branch, 1994a; 1994b). programmes. However, in too many cities Each relevant department has to Linear urban/periurban space is a very utility ROWs are used mostly for livestock follow nebulous policies and large underutilised development resource. grazing and for providing a green guidelines that include many This potential at its simplest may be the infrastructure rather than for intense food uncertainties and overlaps. Both fence around a playground. Imagine this production. government and private land users fence, typically two metres high, exploited have to deal with a bewildering to produce beans, cucumbers, peas, The most well-known linear green array of often ambiguous and tomatoes, squash, grapes and other foods. infrastructure is street trees. In the sometimes conflicting duties, rules Consider that this garden can be the core majority of the world’s cities street trees and requirements. of an education programme for the are primarily utilised for their beauty and The departments often operate in children using the playground and a the cooling shade they provide. However isolation, oblivious of one source of fresh healthy food for the in many cities street trees also provide another’s information base and families using and maintaining the food, medicinal products and inputs for decision rationales. playground. handicraft industries. Source: (Jim, 2002) This potential exists on fences Thies, Senegal, and Port au Prince, Haiti, surrounding, protecting, and defining are two among many cities that use Neem Cecil Konijnendijk many public institutions including: trees at street side for medicine and schools, libraries, hospitals, prisons, golf handicraft production as well as for courses, airports, museums, reservoirs and beautification and greening. Argentina much more. To use this public facility for and Chile have programmes to produce the further public good a small number of fruit on their street-side verges for social prerequisites will have to be put into place service agencies. including: a.) an enabling policy, b.) legally binding agreements between owner and Linear urban farming has several benefits: user, c.) health supervision, d.) security a.) the farmer does the maintenance, services, and e.) extension/education which saves municipal costs, b.) the crop services. reduces erosion on transport verges and steam banks, c.) carbon dioxide and ozone Roadside and railroad-side verges are are cleansed from the air, d.) groundwater being farmed in many cities worldwide aquifers are enriched and cleansed, e.) the from Oslo, Norway, to Windhoek, quality of food is improved, f.) street Namibia; but they are not being farmed in traffic is reduced [fewer ‘food miles’], g.) a great many more cities. As with farming the population’s economic base is on fences, all the prerequisites a. through enlarged and stabilised, h.) jobs are e. noted above are needed. It is also generated [especially for women, young necessary to regulate the time of day/week people and the elderly], and i) the urban during which certain activities can take youth is connected to the food system. place. Many roadside verges now have REFERENCES fences, thus offering a double Smit, Ratta & Nasr. 1996. Urban Agriculture: Food, opportunity. However, the types of crops Jobs & Sustainable Cities, UNDP, Habitat II, Volume One In tropical cities such as Kuala Lumpur, Viljoen, A.; K. Bohn; J. Howe (editors), 2004. street and park trees play a crucial role ______Continuous Productive Urban Landscapes: in providing shade and moderating the Jac Smit, TUAN Designing urban Agriculture for Sustainable Cities, Architectural Press city climate. ✉ [email protected]

6 UA-Magazine Continued from page 5 Legislation In Turkey, urban forests are covered by forest law, with 270 wooded recreational areas being governed by forest legislation FAO has played a major role through its the door to various kinds of partnerships. (FAO, 1993b). In Sudan, forestry policy, publications and the annotated In addition, the forthcoming year 2005 dating form 1986, considers recreation as a bibliography of urban forestry in the will be crucial for the revision of the function of the forest. In Kenya, tree- developing countries (FAO 1995). Millennium Development Goals up to planting in periurban zones is encouraged, Information about UPF is also 2015. Events such are the IUFRO World and management plans are required in disseminated via organisations such as Congress 2005 in Brisbane, Australia, in order to fell such trees (Profous and Loeb, the Resource Centre for Urban August 2005 and the Third World Urban 1990, cited in Carter, 1995). In Vienna, Agriculture and Forestry (RUAF) and the Forum in Vancouver, Canada, in 2006, Austria, an environmental protection law European Urban Forestry Research and offer unique opportunities to put urban covers trees on both public and private Information Centre (EUFORIC). The forestry and agriculture on the map, land (Carter, 1995). In Brazil, the Curitiba importance of extension services that build strategic partnerships (at all levels) municipal code specifies that tree-cutting demonstrate UPF benefits and methods and develop adequate support. in urban areas requires prior authorisation to local communities is described in from the Secretariat for the Environment. several of the articles in this issue of This UA Magazine has been supported Such authorisation is subject to the UAM. by FAO Forestry Department condition that two trees must be planted (www.fao.org) and the European Urban or donated to the city. In green areas PERSPECTIVE Forestry Research and Information Auracaria trees cannot be felled without a The experiences described in this UA Centre (EUFORIC) www.sl.kvl.dk/euforic special permit (Spathelf, 2000). Magazine show the importance of urban Source: FAO, 2002b. greening. The concept of UPF offers important lessons and emphasises the References Canadian National Forest Strategy (2003-2008). need to join forces with other initiatives (http://nfsc.forest.ca/strategies/strategy5.html) aimed at sustainable urban development. El Lakany, H. et al (Ed.). 1999. Urban and peri-urban Further development of the concept of forestry: case Studies in developing countries. FAO, Rome. FAO, 2003. State of the world’s forests 2003. FAO, UPF and its contribution to sustainable FAO 1995. An annotated bibliography of urban Rome. 151 p. urban development requires a strategic forestry in developing countries. FAO, Rome. Grahn, P. and U.A. Stigsdotter. 2003. Landscape plan- ning and stress. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening approach. Mock identifies the need to http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/10169/en FAO, 2001a. Trees outside forest (TOF) – Towards 1(3): 1-18. develop a healthy tree resource, rural and urban integrated resources management. Grey, G.W. and F.J. Deneke. 1986. Urban forestry. John comprehensive management and Contribution to the Forest Resources Assessment Wiley and Sons, New York. Johnston, M. 1996. A brief history of urban forestry in community-wide support (page 29). 2000 Report. FAO, Rome. FRA Working papers on case studies. the United States. Arboricultural Journal 20: 257-278. Furthermore, UPF needs to be linked to a (http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/9536/en) Konijnendijk, C.C. 1999. Urban forestry in Europe: A broad range of issues and agendas, like FAO, 2001b. Les arbres hors forêts – bibliographie Comparative Study of Concepts, Policies and Planning for Forest Conservation, Management and urban agriculture, but also to the many annotée. FAO, Rome. 155 p. (english version in press) FAO, 2002a. Trees outside forests – towards better Development in and around Major European Cities. related urban issues mentioned above. awareness”. Conservation guide no. 35. FAO, Rome. Research Notes No. 90. Faculty of Forestry, 215 p. (http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/9535/en) University of Joensuu. Konijnendijk, C.C. and T.B. Randrup. 2002. Editorial. The problems faced by cities in the 21st FAO, 2002b. Expert consultation on enhancing the contribution of trees outside forests to sustainable Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 1(1): 1-4. century cannot be effectively resolved livelihoods – Proceedings. Rome, 26-28 November Konijnendijk, C.C. Saclio, S. Randrip, T.B. and without a coherent alliance of all forces at 2001. FAO, Rome. 191 p. Schippeijn1. 2003. Urban and Peri-urban Forestry for Sustainable Urban Development. Paper presented at local and international levels. Initiatives FAO, 2002c. Community-based forest resource con- flict management. A training package. FAO, Rome. the XII World Forestry Congress, Quebec, Canada, for cooperation and city-twinning open Volumes 1 (321 p.) and 2. (338 p.). September 2003. Kuchelmeister, G. 2000. Trees for the urban millenni- um: urban forestry update. In UNASYLVA, 51 (200) 2000/2001. Special issue “trees outside forests”. FAO. Johannesburg City Parks Agency Miller, R.W. 1997. Urban forestry: planning and man- aging urban greenspaces. Second edition. Prentice As the city tries to implement more efficient, business-like policies, various Hall, New Jersey. services have been reorganised into self-contained “utilities” and “agencies”. Murray, S. 1997. “Urban and peri-urban forestry in Utilities have been formed for services that can be charged directly to Quito, Ecuador – A case-study” (Silvicultura urbana y periurbana en Quito, Ecuador. Estudio de Caso”. individual consumers, such as electricity and water, while agencies have FAO, Rome, 1997. 104 p. been created to look after the city’s roads and parks. These agencies then http://www.fao.org/forestry/site/10169/en charge the city council for services rendered. Johannesburg City Parks is Palijon, A.M. 2002. Urban forestry in Asia: state of the art. Paper presented at the IUFRO European Regional run by a managing director and a board of directors who report to the city Conference ‘Forestry serving urbanised societies’, 27- manager. How does this benefit the taxpayer? Previously parks services 30 August 2002, Copenhagen. were fragmented across The idea is that, with a more business-like Zwingle, E. 2002. Cities. National Geographic 2002(5): 72-99. approach, responsibilities are more clear, and the agency will be able to build and maintain more parks within the existing budget. Source: http://www.johannesburg.gov.za

December 2004 7 Agroforestry in Periurban Cities of Abia State, Nigeria

Abia is one of the 36 states of Nigeria and is located in the southeastern geopolitical zone of the country. The state encompasses two main urban cities, namely Aba and Umuahia, and many other periurban cities such as Bende, Ohafia, Isikwuato, Uzuakoli, Mbawsi and Obehie. These areas have attained the status of periurban either as a result of their nearness to the larger cities Aba and Umuahia or as a result of being local government headquarters. Stella Odurukwe

Benefits of urban agroforestry can be realized if policies ensure adequate planning

his study examined the level and high income of between N92,000 and the vegetables. On average, 72% of the purpose of agroforestry practices N61, 000 from the sale of various products households involved in this activity T carried out by inhabitants of three of multistory home gardens such as fruits, employ the services of almost all the of these periurban cities: Uzuakoli, food crops, vegetables, leaves, seeds, bark, members of the family. Both men and Obehie and Isikwuato. A total of 180 fuelwood, etc. Medium amounts of women are involved in the cultivation of households (60 households per city) were between N60,000 and N30, 000 were multipurpose trees and shrubs (MPTS) randomly selected and interviewed in generated by 52% of the respondents, around home gardens, such as citrus, oil 2003. The result reveals the underlying while only about 31% reported incomes palm, coconut, mango, avocado pears, reasons for the involvement of from the sale of these products that were pawpaw, Africa pear and guava . In 89% households in agroforestry, access and below N30,000. of the interviewed households, annual control over lands, gender division of Border planting is common on both crops such as maize, cassava, yam, okra labour, and problems and prospects of government and individually owned and garden egg are planted in agroforestry. The results of the research lands. The respondents reported using combination with the vegetables and the findings are presented below. border planting to enhance the aesthetic MPTS. This activity involved more value of their surroundings, demarcate women than men, who feature TYPES OF AGROFORESTRY boundaries, control water and wind prominently in yam cultivation since yam PRACTICES erosion, cultivate live fencing, and is commonly regarded as a men’s crop in The different agroforestry practices supplement their supply of food, fodder the study area. Women and children are reported by the households corresponded and fuelwood. The choice of plants used solely responsible for weeding to the various needs of the households for this purpose included timber species agroforestry farms, maintaining soil and their land tenancy arrangements. such as Gmelina arborea, neem, and fertility and watering the plants Multistory home gardening was reported Eucalyptus sp.; perennial fruit trees such (especially vegetables) during the dry by 31% of the respondents, all of whom as Elaeis guinensis (oil palm), Cocos season. are landowners. They attributed their nucifera (coconut), mango, Citrus sp., and involvement in this practice to the need shrubs such as Vernonia amydalina (bitter ACCESS TO AND CONTROL OVER to ensure family food security, provide leaf), Pitangia cherry, etc. Wildlife LAND different fruits all season long, maintain agroforestery for cane-rat production was About 58% of the interviewed households soil fertility and generate additional reported by 6% of the households and involved in agroforestry are owners of the income. As much as 17% of the bee pasturage was reported by 3%. land where agroforestry is being respondents reported that they earned a practiced. These landowners exercise full GENDER DIVISION OF LABOUR control over the land, what is planted, and ______Women and children dominate in the how the proceeds are used. 36% of the Stella N. Odurukwe maintenance of home gardens for respondents carry out this practice on Federal University of Technology Owerri, vegetable production. They clear the land government residential quarters and Imo State, Nigeria. adjoining residential quarters and private offices. They are allowed control over the ✉ [email protected] houses, prepare the ridges, plant and tend planted crops but not over the land, and

8 UA-Magazine they thus run the risk of losing their crops maturity because they wanted to carry close to high-tension electric wires were if a new occupant moves in to such an out development projects on the land. also reported by 25% of the respondents. office or residential quarter due to their 7% of the households reported incidences own transfer, retirement, retrenchment or BENEFITS AND POTENTIALS FOR of armed robbers climbing into the termination. Such a tenant has only a PERIURBAN DWELLERS compound through the fruit trees planted temporary hold on the crops cultivated An assessment of the benefits and close to the fence. About 27% of the and his legal control over such crops is potentials of agroforestry among the respondents believe that practicing dependent on his continual occupation of respondents revealed that agroforestry agroforestry close to residential buildings the office or residential quarter. Some impacts positively on their lives. They constitutes a health hazard since it respondents gave this as one of the attributed both economic and encourages the breeding of insects reasons they limit the kind of crops environmental protection benefits to (mosquitoes, cockroaches, etc.), rodents usually cultivated to fruit trees such as agroforestry. All the respondents and snakes. citrus, mango, pineapple; perennials such considered the most important benefit of as oil palm, coconut, plantain, banana; the agroforestry to be provision of family food RECOMMENDATIONS AND POLICY annuals maize, cassava, yam; and security since it ensures the availability of INTERVENTION different varieties of vegetables including different food varieties all year round. City farmers should form cooperatives Amaranthus sp, waterleaf, and Telfaria 75% of the households reported having and make formal requests for state land to bitter leaf. increased their income from the sale of be used for agricultural production. agroforestry products and by-products The state and local governments should Only 16% of households practice including fruits, wood, leaves, seeds, fibre, develop policies aimed at proper agroforestry on government-owned etc. In addition, 91% claimed that wastelands and open spaces, and lands agroforestry has improved their Both economic and environ- belonging to other individuals. Land environment by improving soil fertility, mental protection benefits are belonging to another individual is usually reducing wind and water erosion, attributed to agroforestry held on trust and a special agreement is purifying the surrounding air, and reached between the landowner and the beautifying the environment. Only 3% of tenant. Such tenants cultivate all varieties the respondents reported that it provides allocation of public vacant lands to of crop combinations from perennial food for their livestock. This low response registered city farmers. The state MPTS to annual crops and vegetables. corresponds to the small number of environmental protection agency should These tenants have the least control over periurban dwellers who keep livestock. intensify efforts towards proper planning, the land they plant on and they run the monitoring and management of amenity risk of losing everything planted at the PROBLEMS plants and farming activities around the least provocation of the individual land The need to reap the advantages of urban cities. Agroforestry practitioners are owner or the government parastatal that agroforestry has resulted in many advised to carry on these activities some owns the land. Their continual cultivation incidences of reckless planting of MPTS distance away from the buildings in of such lands despite the high level of on areas reserved for other purposes, which people live. insecurity is attributed to constraints in thereby causing obstructions as reported access to land (as they are mostly aliens), by 68% of the respondents, and SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION in addition to a strong desire to ensure encroachments on public lands as opined Agroforestry practices in some periurban family food security and earn additional by 54%. About 36% of the respondents cities of Abia state show a high degree of income. Thirteen of the respondents reported cases in which trees planted on diversity in crop combinations and belonging to this category reported cases dual carriageways caused road accidents purposes. The main purposes are food in the past in which the original land when such trees were felled by either security, economic empowerment and owners bulldozed the crops planted on thunder or heavy trucks. Cases of environmental protection. Periurban the land even before they reached electrocution arising from trees planted agroforestry in the state showed a strong potential for generating cash income, TABLE 1: POPULATION ACTIVE IN AGROFORESTRY enriching family diets, and reducing family expenditures on food, fuelwood Agroforestry practice Percentage of the population and land improvement inputs such as Multistory home garden 31 fertilisers. Land ownership status was Woodlots 11 found to limit the type of agroforestry Amenity planting 39 usually adopted by the periurban Live fences 53 dwellers, and the legal arrangements on Alley cropping 0 government-owned lands do not respect Improved fallow 5 tenants’ agricultural development on such Taungya system 18 lands. Therefore, the great benefits of Dispersed multipurposetrees 68 periurban agroforestry can be fully Border planting of trees 76 realised only if policies are put in place to Trees and shrubs on eroding sites 58 ensure adequate planning, management Wildlife agroforestry 9 and monitoring of these practices by the relevant government agencies.

December 2004 9 Promoting the Integration of Agroforestry in Urban and Periurban Kisumu

The dramatic increase in the urban population of Kisumu demands corresponding attention to food, fuel and shelter. Improving the quality of life thus calls for design strategies which include agroforestry.

isumu is the third largest city in Kenya and a growing K commercial, fishing, industrial and communication Sammy Carsan centre in the Lake Victoria basin. Transportation is a major constraint to urban tree product Kisumu city covers an area of traders- transporting Eucalyptus poles to the Market from a peri urban approximately 417 km2, with an location in Kisumu estimated population of 345,312 (GoK 1999 census), which is farming practices is the farming and institutional growing at a rate of 2.8% per progressive elimination of tree perceptions all constitute annum. The city lies at a height of and shrub cover to allow constraints to urban farming. over 1100 metres above sea level maximum space for cultivation, Kisumu district has neither and has a humid climate with an inadvertently exposing the soils to gazetted forests nor any forest on average annual rainfall of 1245 natural forces of degradation. Trust land. No area in the district mm. Over-cropping has resulted in used public utility has been set degradation of the once highly aside for afforestation purposes. URBAN AGRICULTURE IN fertile soils in the region. Most However, pockets of privately KISUMU poor urban farmers are unable to owned forests and woodlots are Urban and periurban farming afford the high cost of fertiliser, present within the district (SOE practices in Kisumu largely and they sometimes apply Report 2003). include small-scale rain-fed mixed household and livestock waste farming, small-scale river- directly on the fields. Farmers BENEFITS OF irrigation, wetland farming, fish around the city’s Nyalenda AGROFORESTRY farming and free range livestock sewerage ponds have been noted Urban and periurban agriculture keeping. The most intensive to apply wastewater from the could benefit from including agriculture is practised along the dysfunctional ponds to fertilise agroforestry technologies ready lake shore in the lower-lying flood their crops, oblivious of the for application in limited intra- plains of Nyalenda and Dunga, associated health risks. urban spaces as well as open areas and in the wetlands to the south The present urban agriculture characteristic of periurban areas. of the city. Larger plots under land use practices often result in For example, ICRAF has been agriculture are found along the high crop failure owing to working with tree nursery foothills to the east bordering the hitherto poor farming practices, operators who produce a diverse periurban fringe. There is no data unreliable rains, drought and range of tree species on small showing the extent and coverage frequent floods in the flood-prone urban spaces for a diverse range of urban agriculture in Kisumu areas of Kadibo. Kisumu city is of clientele. The operators have city. thus a net food importer and been trained in better nursery Agriculture in the larger Kisumu suffers from a food deficit. practices, marketing and ______district is still characterised by The present municipal policies entrepreneurial skills. They now Sammy Carsan mainly small-scale subsistence pay little attention to agroforestry conduct their activities in the form World Agroforestry Centre, plots, consisting commonly of practices and to urban agriculture, of an association, which helps (ICRAF), Nairobi, Kenya. maize, groundnuts, beans and even though incidences of dust solve the common challenges they ✉ [email protected] sorghum. Rice and sugar cane is storms and wind destruction of face while conducting their George Wesonga also common in the smallholder property have increased in recent businesses in the Kisumu urban Director Environment, irrigation schemes. Cultivation of years (SoE Report 2003). Poor setting. Kisumu Municipal Council crops such as kale, tomato and urban planning that doesn’t In addition, food and non-food ✉ [email protected] local vegetables for the urban incorporate urban tree planting as products from diverse trees and Miriam Wambugu market is reported to be a means to earn a livelihood, lack shrubs can improve the nutrition Ministry of Lands and increasing. of a policy framework and and incomes of poor urban Settlement A common feature in all these institutional support for urban farming households. This could be

10 UA-Magazine POSSIBLE SPECIES AND THEIR USES FOR URBAN AND PERIURBAN KISUMU environment. Many partners are already working FRUITS FODDER MEDICINAL TIMBER, POLES together with ICRAF around Kisumu, PRODUCTS FUEL WOOD including Kisumu Consortium (CoSoFaP), Grafted mango (Mangifera Calliandra calothyrsus Warburgia Gevillea robusta Urban Agriculture and Livestock Forum indica) varieties ugandensis for Kisumu, Municipal Council of Tree tomato (Cyphomandra Leuceana Azadirachta indica Giant Bamboo Kisumu, Ministry of Planning, Ministry of betacea) trichandra Dendrocalamus giganteus Agriculture (NALEP), Kenya Forestry Grafted avocado (Persea Morus alba Moringa oleifera Eucalyptus spp Research Institute (KEFRI), Farm Africa, Americana) varieties nursery operators, local NGOs and CBOs. Tamarindus indica Glericidia sepium Mondia whytei Trichilia emetica Zizyphus mauritiana Desmodium sp. Salvadora persica Albizia species Syzingium cuminii Acacia species Make tree planting a priority Casuarina at the design level, rather equisetifolia than a fill up activity for realised by better integrating diverse fast- attempts to characterise and investigate building sites growing tree species and shrubs in the the dynamics and map typologies of urban and periurban areas. Already tested existing urban and periurban land tenure The majority of the partners have and proven tree species that provide fruit, and agroforestry practices. provided support on project planning and medicinal products, timber and fuel wood Initiatives by the World Agroforestry implementation, and have helped to build could be popularised to enrich existing Centre (ICRAF) to introduce high-value a common understanding of the farming practices. trees within close proximity of the city possibilities of urban agroforestry. Many urban residents in Kisumu and boundaries appear to have triggered some Workshops, seminars and networking indeed other cities in the developing world minimal introduction of such species. will be further used for information rely on biomass fuels for cooking and sharing and for defining the roles partners heating. The scarcity of wood in the entire can play in more scaled-up project district has indeed led to rapid fuel wood activities expected in the near future. commercialisation. Policy recommendations are likely to It is important to note that trees do emerge on how to incorporate urban provide food and non-food needs and also agroforestry in land-use plans, strategic help in correcting urban challenges plans and master plans developed by the ranging from impairment of human local authorities and the city inhabitants. health, nutrient cycling, damage to the This project seeks to make tree planting a Sammy Carsan ecosystem and economic losses. Selling of traditional vegetable in a peri priority at the design level, rather than a Agroforestry fertiliser trees that are useful urban market in Kisumu city. fill up activity for building sites and other especially for the periurban fringe are urban projects, and by extension to available to support soil enrichment Other initiatives include integration of include a social dimension in urban options. Some species that also offer environmental management plans by the planning. Urban planning has to take into additional benefits such as traditional Ministry of Land settlement in account the dynamics of land use and vegetables, fodder and firewood include collaboration with the Green towns’ uncontrolled expansion in the cities. Crotalaria brevidens, Sesbania sesban, movement. Currently, trees have to be fit in after Leuceana trichandra, Calliandra calothyrsus, Several initiatives are currently underway everything else is included in a proposed Glericidia sepium and Tithonia diversifolia in Kisumu that give strategic design. Newly developed layout maps will consideration to urban agriculture. Some also be useful in planning strategies for A PILOT INITIATIVE of these are included in the City city development and in sorting out Recognising the emerging dynamics of Development Strategy (CDS), a ownership and management rights. urban agriculture, a multidisciplinary and compilation of priority development multi-institutional team from the concerns and an investment framework REFERENCES Municipal Council of Kisumu, Ministry of reached through a highly inclusive and Carter, J. E. (1994), The Potential of Urban Forestry in Developing Countries: A Concept Paper. Forestry Department, Food and Agricultural Lands and Settlement and the World democratic consensus-building process Organization of the United Nations, Rome, Italy. Agroforestry Centre (ICRAF) highlighted involving grassroots communities and all Government of Kenya (2001), The 1999 Population and Housing Census,”Counting Our People for Development”, Volume I. Central the potential benefits offered by urban development sectors in Kisumu. The Bureau of Statistics, Ministry of Finance and Planning, Republic of Kenya, agroforestry and selected Kisumu City for environmental report for Kisumu (MCK, Nairobi. Kisumu District Development Plan (2002 – 2003), “Effective Management a pilot urban agroforestry project. The SOE 2003) highlighted various priorities for Sustainable Economic Growth and Poverty Reduction”. Ministry of Finance and Planning. Nairobi. pilot project focuses on research, physical to address current environmental Lee-Smith, D., (1998) African urban agriculture policy: Issues and priori- planning and policy issues on urban challenges in the Kisumu district. The ties. Background paper for the international conference on productive urban space management, Pretoria, South Africa, 3-5. agroforestry and agriculture in Kisumu. national land policy developed in Kenya Onganga, O. (1990), “Urban Forestry Development in Kenya” in The aim is to further promote and provides yet another platform upon Proceedings of the Fifth National Urban Forest Conference, Los Angeles, California. integrate agroforestry technologies into which to build consensus on more robust Otieno Nyunja, M. (2003) State of the Environment (SoE) Kisumu district (2003) present periurban and urban farming national urban land planning that pays National Environment Management Authority (NEMA) Kenya. practices in Kisumu. This pilot programme keen attention to a healthy urban

December 2004 11 Urban Gardening on the Small Islands of the Pacific

Pacific Island countries historically have been almost entirely dependent on subsistence and commercial agricultural, wildland and fisheries production in rural areas as the foundation for sustainable development. Today, however, these small-island states are among the most rapidly urbanising areas of the world.

rban gardening is seen as perhaps Craig Elevitch the most culturally and cost- Planting taro under coconut and bananas in a small clearing near Pago U effective means of simultaneously Pago, Tutuila, American Samoa. addressing many of the economic, cultural, nutritional and environmental This study is based on several other Random surveys of home gardens in Port problems arising out of urbanisation and studies conducted over the past twenty Moresby, Papua New Guinea; Suva, Fiji; globalisation. years (Thaman 1988, 2002) in Papua New Nuku’alofa, Tonga; South Tarawa, Guinea, Fiji, Tonga, Kiribati and Nauru, Kiribati; Nauru Island; and “Location”, Increasingly large proportions of the New Caledonia, Solomon Islands, the contract-worker settlement on population no longer have access to their Vanuatu, Samoa, Niue, the Cook Islands, Nauru, indicated that at least 85, 114, 79, traditional inherited holdings. As a result, Tuvalu and French Polynesia. 61, 33, and 65 different species or distinct most Pacific Island countries are types of food plants, respectively, were The two main types of Pacific Island cultivated in home gardens in these areas. urban gardening are categorised here as These plants included: staple root crops, Trees constitute a particularly 1) “houseyard” gardening adjacent to supplementary non-tree fruits and important economic and residences, and 2) gardening on idle or vegetables, a great variety of food trees, nutritional resource on small, undeveloped land within urban areas, spice plants and beverage, stimulant, and low-lying islands but usually at a distance from the depressant plants. Many of these plants residence. The term gardening is used, were found to be present in a majority of increasingly, and dangerously, dependent rather than “agriculture”, because the home gardens. on imports. Food security is a major focus is more on production for concern in all of the independent island subsistence, although some periurban In addition to these plants, there is an states and the people of the Pacific agriculturalists plant crops, such as almost endless variety of useful non-food Islands have some of the highest rates of seasonal vegetables, taro and cassava, on plants found in home gardens. These nutrition-related non-communicable a larger scale for commercial sale. include important handicraft plants such diseases. Furthermore, trees, cropland as Pandanus cultivars, the leaves of which and coastal and mangrove forests are HOUSEYARD GARDENING are treated and used to make mats, cleared for urban expansion, leading to “Houseyard” or “dooryard” urban thatching, baskets, hats and a wide range the loss of fuelwood reserves and a wide gardening is a ubiquitous feature of of other plaited ware; paper mulberry range of medicinal plants, destruction of almost all Pacific Island urban (Broussonetia papyrifera), the treated bast habitats for many animals and increased landscapes, even in very densely settled fibre of which is used for bark cloth or vulnerability to erosion, saltwater urban areas in the atoll micro-states, such tapa cloth; annatto (Bixa orellana) and incursion and flooding. as urbanised South Tarawa in Kiribati or Java cedar (Bischofia javanica) (both Fogafale Islet on Funafuti Atoll. Even in sources of dyes); Leucaena leucocephala, areas not renowned for agricultural an important renewable fuelwood diversity, such as Kiribati, Tuvalu and resource; a great range of medicinal ______Nauru, urban gardens contain a wide plants; plus countless other plants of Randy Thaman range of food trees, non-tree staple and considerable technological, economic, University of the South Pacific, Suva, Fiji Islands supplementary food plants, and non- social, ecological, and ornamental value. ✉ [email protected] food plants (see Thaman, 1995). There is a great cultivar diversity among

12 UA-Magazine the more important food and handicraft the contract-worker settlement in Nauru, The most important food tree species include a range of bananas and plantains (Musa clones), coconut (Cocos plants. As stressed by Soemarwoto et al. where little or no space for gardening nucifera), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), edible pandanus (1985) in their study of Javanese home exists, let alone tree cropping, and where (Pandanus spp.), a range of citrus trees (Citrus spp.), including oranges (C. sinensis), tangerines or mandarin oranges (C. gardens, true plant diversity is far greater a high proportion of plants are grown in reticulate), lemons (C. limon and C. medica x limon), limes (C. than indicated by species differences, artificial boxed beds or containers. Apart aurantifolia), sour orange (C. aurantium), pommelo (C. maxima) and Calamondin orange or kalamantsi (C. mitis), since many species are represented by from bananas and scattered coconut mango (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica papaya), guava numerous cultivars. In Tonga, for palms, other trees found there are (Psidium guajava), avocado (Persea americana), soursop and sweetsop (Annona spp.), Malay apple and water apple example, there are numerous distinctly commonly non-bearing juveniles. (Syzygium malaccense and S. aquea), hog plum or vi apple named breadfruit cultivars, the (Spondias dulcis), Tahitian chestnut (Inocarpus fagifer), oceanic litchi (Pometia pinnata), beach almond (Terminalia catappa) commonest of which are ma’ofala, Trees constitute a particularly important and fig (Ficus spp.). maopo, puou, loutoko, kea and ‘aveloloa. economic and nutritional resource on There is similarly great cultivar diversity small, low-lying islands, such as the atolls among other crops such as coconuts, of Kiribati, Tuvalu and the Marshall dyes, ornamentation, perfumes and mangoes, yams, , and sweet potatoes all Islands, where, apart from giant swamp deodorants, livestock feed, shade, of which add economic, ecological and taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis), generally construction materials and other nutritional stability to urban gardening reserved for special occasions, the main purposes are also important components systems. There are also countless “weed” staples are all tree crops: coconut, of urban gardens. Medicinal plants, for species, which are important breadfruit, banana or plantain clones, example, are a critical economic, health components of urban agroforestry. pandanus, and the native fig (Ficus and cultural resource, given the tinctoria). Trees are also very important in extremely high, and rapidly increasing, The most common plants, in terms of home gardens on high islands as well. costs and unavailability of some imported cover abundance, are often traditionally Falanruw (1985) reports that on Yap, “tree medicines. Particularly on the smaller, important staple root crops. These gardens” developed by ancestors of the more densely-populated islands of Tonga include taro (Colocasia esculenta), cassava current generation “for the planting of and Kiribati most medicinal plants can be (Manihot esculenta), tannia or cocoyam food and other useful trees about found cultivated or protected in home (Xanthosoma spp.), sweet potato (Ipomoea homesteads, and in the drained areas gardens. The importance of sacred or batatas), greater yam (Dioscorea alata) and created by the excavation of taro patches perfumed plants in urban gardens is also sweet yam (D. esculenta), giant taro and construction of paths between considerable. Of some 49 species (Alocasia macrorrhiza), and giant swamp homes and villages involved about 50 considered by Tongans to be sacred taro (Cyrtosperma chamissonis). Colocasia species of food trees alone.” plants (‘akau kakala), 36 were found aro is particularly well suited to urban present in a survey of home gardens in conditions because it can be grown on Trees of particular importance to the the capital of Nuku’alofa. In addition to small plots, either as a staple for its Indian population of Fiji (mostly their sacredness, such plants constitute a corms, or for its leaves, which constitute descendents of indentured labourers, very significant economic resource. Their the most common leafy vegetable or who currently make up over 40% of Fiji’s flowers, leaves, fruits and bark are used “spinach” in many areas. Cassava, by far population) include jackfruit (Artocarpus in leis and ornamentation for the the most common plant in urban Suva heterophyllus), horseradish or drumstick expanding tourist industry, and they are and the most important locally-produced tree (Moringa oleifera), curry leaf or the main scents used in body oil (coconut staple food in Fiji, is abundant in Indian bay (Murraya koenigii), and oil), perfumes and deodorants, for which houseyard gardens, open lots and along tamarind (Tamarindus indicus). In there is a rapidly expanding export road frontages. addition, they also plant most of the market. The imported substitutes for other common fruit trees in towns and in these scented products are also extremely Supplementary non-tree food crops houseyard gardens on smallholder cane expensive and often not as culturally are also extremely diverse in Pacific farms. acceptable. Island houseyard gardens. They include vegetables, beans, sugarcane and corn Fruit trees that are common to occasional Urban agroforestry systems yield and constitute a critical nutritional and in houseyard gardens in Papeete, Tahiti firewood, building material, dyes, economic resource. In some areas more and in urban villages on some atolls in livestock feed, insect repellants, temperate vegetables, such as lettuces the Tuamotu Archipelago in French handicrafts, fish poison, etc. Of particular (Latuca sativa), radishes (Rhaphanus Polynesia, in New Caledonia and in Port note in urban Apia, the capital of Samoa, sativus) and carrots (Daucus carota) are Vila, Vanuatu (where there has been is the poumuli tree (Flueggea flexuosa), a occasionally cultivated, during the cooler French and Chinese influence), but not fast-growing tree favoured for use as months. normally found elsewhere in Pacific houseposts in traditional Samoan houses Island urban areas are litchi (Litchi (fale), which can be found in a majority of Although staple root crops are most sinensis), Spanish lime (Melicocca bijuga), houseyard gardens. numerous and cover the largest area in longan (Dimocarpus longan), inga (Inga most gardens, food trees and other edulis) and Otahiti gooseberry CROPPING PRACTICES useful trees are commonly the dominant (Phyllanthus acidus). In terms of actual area under food crops and most permanent plants of urban and their spatial distribution, there is garden lands especially in long-settled A wide array of Non-food plants used great diversity. Whereas some areas. An exception would be at Location, for handicrafts, fuel, medicines, fibre, households have only a few scattered

December 2004 13 trees, such as mangoes and urban plots also leads to declining coconuts are common, but fertility and loss of soil structure, unless ornamental and shade trees, ameliorative measures are taken. Both many of which are water shortage and poor soils, however, systematically planted by city often make trees a more attractive councils or the government, proposition than short-term ground as well as by individual crops which require water and higher soil households, are dominant. fertility. Living fences of fruit trees and other useful species, such as Insufficient land and insecurity of tenure Polyscias spp., Leucaena are problems in most areas. Insecurity of leucocephala, Erythrina tenure seems to be a major problem and variegata, Hibiscus tiliaceus, a strong disincentive to urban gardening. Hibiscus rosa-sinensis, City Council regulations, although not Casuarina equisetifolia, and the strictly upheld, were also considered to recently introduced madre de be a disincentive and they discourage cacao (Gliricidia sepium) are cultivation of ground crops and trees harvested, pruned, pollarded, along road frontages. Other problems or “grazed” and constitute include diseases, insects, birds, rats, dogs, important sources of food, mongooses and noxious weeds; theft of fodder, firewood, medicines, produce, especially of banana bunches and flowers, as well as being and tree fruit. Craig Elevitch Taro planted under coconuts on Tongatapu, Tonga. of considerable ecological importance. The importance of urban gardening and fruit trees and vegetables, many cultivate its implications for planning are not food crops on over 50% of their It must be stressed, however, that despite clearly understood by most planners and allotments. Trees become increasingly the current importance of gardening on policy makers in the Pacific Islands dominant in long-settled areas, as cash undeveloped urban and periurban land, because of a lack of quantitative data on incomes increase, soils decline in fertility, it is these areas that are most severely its nature, extent, and cultural and and tree seedlings mature and affected by wanton deforestation because ecological significance. However, increasingly shade garden areas. of insecure tenure and undefined increasing interest has recently been Ornamentals are commonly planted ownership. This scramble for wood and shown by some city planners and closest to the home, often in front yards, associated deforestation is clearly visible administrators, like in Vanuatu, Tonga, as well as in containers, often on front and rapidly increasing in Pacific Island Kiribati, Tuvalu, the Federated States of porches. Medicinal plants, sacred or urban areas. Micronesia, and the Marshall Islands, fragrant plants, and other culturally where urban food dependency and valuable, commonly multipurpose plants, IMPORTANCE AND CONSTRAINTS increasing incidences of nutritional are scattered amongst the food plants Despite the considerable importance of disorders have become serious problems. and ornamentals. urban gardening in the Pacific Islands, there are a number of problems faced by

URBAN GARDENING ON urban gardeners. Unfavourable climate, REFERENCES UNDEVELOPED LAND poor soils, cost and availability of land Falanrnw, M.V.C. 1985. Traditional agriculture and resource Cultivation on idle or undeveloped land and water, insufficient time and labour, management systems in the high islands of Micronesia. Prepared for the Office of Technology Assessment Project on in urban areas is also very widespread in theft, and lack of government assistance Integrated Renewable Resource Management for US Insular the Pacific Islands and provides an were most commonly mentioned by Areas. Yap Institute of Natural Science, Yap, Federated States important source of produce, including those surveyed. of Micronesia. Soemarwoto, O.M., Karyono, I., Soekar, Tadiredia, W.M. and limited commercial production. Raman, A. 1985. The Javanese home garden as an integrated Undeveloped or idle lands in urban and The problems relating to drought include agro-ecosystem. Food and Nutrition Bulletin 7(3):44-47. periurban areas are important sources of the high cost of water, distance to Thaman, R.R. 1988. Environmental issues in the Pacific Islands: Constraints to sustainable island development. Pacific food and products such as timber, fence community faucets, water cancellations Issues 1:1-77 (complete). Pacific Circle Consortium, Woden, posts, fuelwood, handicrafts medicines, and fear of City Council regulations Canberra, Australia. leaves, flowers, fruits and nuts. Such against the use of water for gardening Thaman, R.R. 1995. Urban food gardening in the Pacific Islands: A basis for food security in rapidly urbanising small- areas include road frontages, empty purposes. The atolls are also periodically island states. Habitat International 19 (2):209-224. allotments, river banks and valleys, right- affected by prolonged droughts, which Thaman, R. R. 2002. Trees outside forests as a foundation for of-ways for proposed or existing paths commonly lead to the death of a sustainable development in the Small Island Developing States of the Pacific Ocean. The InternationalForestry Review 4 and roads, and open land in general, significant proportion of breadfruit and (4)(December): 268- 276. including hillsides, swampland, etc. citrus trees and other trees and food Thaman, R.R. and Clarke, W.C. 1993. Pacific Island agro- plants that are only marginally suited to forestry: Functional and utilitarian diversity. Chapter 2 in Clarke, W.C. and Thaman, R.R. (eds.), Pacific Island agro- The most common species in the atoll environment. Urban gardeners forestry: Systems for sustainability. United Nations University “undeveloped areas” are again the staple commonly have to contend with infertile Press, Tokyo. Pp. 17-33. root crops. Along road frontages, fruit poor soils. Continual cropping on small

14 UA-Magazine Urban forestry management has been accepted by both scientists and policy makers as one important strategy to improve living Urban Forestry in China: and working environments (Jiang 2003). In the middle of the 1980s, Shen et al. introduced the term “urban forestry” to China (see Li et al. 2004), and Gao (1984) published the book Urban Status and Prospects Forest in Chinese. In recent years, research projects have been initiated to better plan the development of urban forests in some cities (Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences & Huadong Normal University, 2002), education programmes on urban forestry have been launched in some colleges, and a special research journal, Journal of Chinese Urban Forestry, was established (in Chinese in 2003).

Over the last 20 years, a rapid process of urbanisation has taken place in China due to increasing economic development. Between 1983 and 2003, the number of cities and towns in China increased 2.5 times to about 50,000, and the urban population reached the level of about 40% of the total population in the country. Chunjiang Liu

Temples near a city are commonly important parts of its urban forest: Daming Temple, Yangzhou, Jiangsu Province.

ith the increase in the number of windbreak, as beautiful scenery, to urban areas and in the total urban provide food sources with fruits and W population, environmental problems leaves, etc. Traditionally, some people have become more and more serious, e.g. also planted trees or a stand around their in terms of too few outdoor leisure areas houses to create or keep a good Feng-Shui for city dwellers, mass destruction of for the houses. In addition, there is a long natural landscapes, loss of biodiversity, tradition of establishing gardens and

water source pollution, CO2 emission, parks for the imperial family and higher- and so forth. This paper gives a brief ranking officials. For instance, in the introduction to the development of urban Summer Palace in Beijing, the most forestry in China, highlighting common famous imperial park remaining in China, problems and potential ways to solve the Wanshou Hill is almost fully covered them. with two of the most common evergreen conifers in northern China, Chinese pine ______HISTORICAL DEVELOPMENT (Pinus tabulaeformis) and Platycladus Chunjiang Liu In historical China, city dwellers rientalis. Even today, these forests are still Xiaohui Shen primarily used the natural forests and important parts of the city’s urban forest. Pisheng Zhou trees within and around a city for Shengquan Che hunting, gathering fruits and plants, At the beginning of the 20th century, Yanling Zhang collecting fuelwood, and the like. On the some Chinese scholars who had studied Dept. of Landscape Science and other hand, in ancient Chinese cities, it abroad brought the ideas of modern Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, was also very popular to plant trees along forestry as practised in Western countries China the rivers and streets and maintain a to China. With a better understanding of Guangrong Shen small patch of tree stands around the forest functions in terms of Dept. of Resources and Environment, houses. These trees and small areas of environmental protection and recreation, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, China forest were managed for multiple these Chinese scholars began an attempt ✉ [email protected] purposes, e.g., for shade, to serve as a to establish forests in the areas around

December 2004 15 Several years ago, the Shanghai government started to rent out environmental conditions, long-term also medium and small cities have land for urban forestry purposes to private companies based on a planning of urban forestry was made part become involved in the planning and contract. According to the contract between the government and a company, 60% of the land rented by the company must be used of a national development strategy development of their urban forests. to grow forest, and the remaining 40% can be used for during the 1990s (Gao, 2003). According establishing a tree seedling and flowers nursery which can bring commercial benefit to the company within a short period of time. to the planning of China’s urban forest A second change that has occurred since In addition, in order to support private companies in establishing development, the overall goal is to the 1980s is that urban forests are now urban forests, the government also provides certain economic supplements to the companies according to the area of the land expand the cover of urban forests and being managed for multiple purposes, so rented. After 10 years, the government will get these forests back trees to 45% in 70% of cities by the year that they can fulfil their potential roles in from the companies. In this way, the government can solve the issue of a shortage of funds. 2050. Today there are some cities, e.g. recreation, water sources protection, Changchun, Nanjing and Guangzhou, biodiversity conservation, atmospheric

with a forest cover of more than 40%. CO2 sequestration, air pollution reduction, and so forth. Of course Since the 1980s, developing urban forests different cities located in different parts Beijing and Nanjing with the purpose of has become an important part of conserving water and soils, as well as to municipal planning as a whole, and provide opportunities for recreation. urban forests have been established most of the Chinese Starting in 1949, the new Chinese according to a design which is based on urban forests are government launched a movement of the need for recreation opportunities and monocultures massive afforestation in areas near cities environmental protection. In 1989, as well as in remote areas. In Beijing, the Changchun, the capital of Jilin province, of the country may emphasise different new capital of China, for instance, many began to carry out a programme of functions of urban forests. Due to the plantations were established around the developing a “forest city”, thus being the heavy air pollution in most Chinese cities, city aimed at water and soil conservation first city to have this as a goal of city however, all of the trees and forests in a and at offering recreation opportunities development (Jiang, 2003). In 2001, the city are expected to have a high capability

for city dwellers (see article by Jianming planning of urban forest development of retaining dust and absorbing SO2,

et al. on page 26). was worked out for Shanghai, the biggest NO2, and other pollutants (Guan & Liu, city in the country, with the goal of 1999; Wu et al., 2004). In the 1980s, with a rapidly growing reaching a 35% forest coverage by 2020.

economy, urbanisation intensified in This figure was calculated based on O2 A third change is that private companies

China, causing new environmental emission, CO2 sequestration, water have become involved in developing challenges. In this context, modern urban sources protection, recreation, etc. urban forests, just as they are engaged in forestry was introduced to China as the (Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences & other commercial activities in China. In country opened up to the outside world, Huadong Normal University, 2002). In the past governments had to call for and and terms such as “urban forest” and 2002, a plan for urban forest organise people to establish forests, but “urban forestry” became popular in development was made for the capital now this work can be done as a kind of scientific literature and the news media city of Huaining county (Jiang, 2003). commercial activity, which has added a (Li et al., 2004). In order to improve urban This means that not only big cities but new driving force for urban forest development in China.

The Yanzhong Green-space with an area of 210,000 m2, located at the city centre, is The fourth feature of China’s new urban the largest public green-space in Shanghai. For this green-space, 306 units, 165 forestry policies is that managing urban privately owned enterprises and 6736 households have been moved. forest is done as a way of reducing poverty in local areas. In Beijing, for instance, forests in suburban areas have been attracting more and more tourists, especially during weekends and holidays (Qu, 2003). These visitors not only create many jobs at local hotels, restaurants, and the like, but provide an opportunity for farmers to sell their agricultural produce, such as fruits, vegetables, and handicrafts mostly made of wood and stone. At the same time, this opens a window for the exchange of information between people living in urban areas and those living in rural areas. This stimulates the enthusiasm of local people to get involved in urban forestry.

PROBLEMS In China, the major share of funding for Chunjiang Liu

16 UA-Magazine managing urban forests comes from the most important task magazines, TV, etc. In addition, it is also governments. However, governmental is to raise awareness important for researchers and managers funding alone is not enough to satisfy the about the role of forests to assist with preparing information urgent need for planting new trees and materials aimed at tourists and local forests in many cities. Generally, private inhabitants such as leaflets or posters companies are not interested in forest of urban trees and urban forests to global about their projects or specific urban management, mainly because it does not change, e.g. acid rain, ozone, ultraviolet forest stands. deliver direct and fast economic benefits. radiation, global warming, etc.; 3) technology for establishing multipurpose In China, generally, one important In order to get a fast “greening effect” forests; 4) the mixture of tree species in limiting factor for developing urban along streets or in open areas people urban forests; 5) control of diseases and forests in a city is shortage of funds, prefer to transplant “big trees” rather insects harmful to the trees and forests; 6) mainly because these forests do not than plant seedlings. These big trees are application of GIS (geographic produce direct economic benefits, and usually more than 20 and sometimes information system), RS (remote sensing) they thus do not attract private even up to 100 years old. Unfortunately, and GPS (Global Positioning System) companies. It is necessary for the they are at greater risk of dying due to technology in urban forestry. Policies, government to invest in urban forestry, as water deficits during the transportation laws and regulations concerning urban one aspect of a city’s infrastructure, but period or because they cannot adapt to forestry should be changed or developed diversification of fund raising should also the new environment; and even if they to adapt to the current needs and be advocated. Due to the exceptional survive their growing potential is not as mentioned problems. Studies are also position of Beijing as the capital city, good as that of the trees grown from needed on how to account for urban several international cooperation seedlings. forests’ induced economic benefit, and programmes support its urban forest how to levy taxes to compensate urban development. In addition, as discussed Due to easier operations in silviculture forestry. In addition, the practice and above, the government’s policy of and a lack of techniques for planting experience of developing urban forests providing economic compensation to mixed stands, most of the Chinese urban commercially as done in Shanghai should private companies in Shanghai might be forests, and especially those established be studied further in order to find more considered for other municipals as a way during recent years, are monocultures. ways to generate funding for urban of raising funds for developing urban These pure stands are susceptible to the forestry. forests. outbreak of pests and they have a negative impact on the landscape From a research perspective, some long- ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The authors thank Dr. C. Konijnendijk for his aesthetic. In Beijing, for instance, the term observation stands should be comments on the manuscript and language urban forest landscape is dominated by established so that a set of complete data checking and gratefully acknowledge the help of the evergreen conifers Pinus on urban forests can be compiled. In Mr. Zhiwei Huang for our data collection. tabulaeformois and Platycladus orientalis addition, based on different conditions in and the deciduous broadleafs Quercus terms of climate, species composition, REFERENCES variables and Robina pysedocasia. During and urban environment, it is good to Chinese Academy of Forestry Sciences & Huadong Normal the period from late autumn to early establish demonstration forests. Results University. 2002. Development Planning of Modern Urban Forests in Shanghai. Project 3, Studies on Development of spring, the canopy of deciduous trees from studies and experiments in these Modern Urban Forests in Shanghai. Key Project financially looks a bit ugly without leaves. Aside areas can then guide future urban supported by Ministry of Science and Technology of People’s from the natural secondary mixed stands forestry practice. In European and Republic of China and Committee of Science and Technology of Shanghai. (In Chinese) on Sheshan Hill in Shanghai, almost all American cities, there is a longer Gao F. 2003. Development strategy of China urban forestry. urban forests established in China during tradition of establishing and managing Journal of Chinese Urban Forestry 1: 12-13. (In Chinese) the last 10 years are monocultures, urban forests as an approach to tackling Gao Q. 1984. Urban Forest. National Institute for Compilation and Translation, Taibei, China. (In Chinese?) although there are plenty of sources for environmental problems (Konijnendijk, Guan, D. & Liu, Q. 1999. The Role of Guangzhou Urban selecting other tree species in silviculture. 1997; Hunter, 2001). It is necessary to Vegetation in Removing Atmospheric Sulfur. Acta Scientiarum strengthen the exchange of silvicultural Naturalium Universitatis Sunyatseni 38: 109-113. (In Chinese) Jiang Z. 2003. Urban forest development and ecologically Uneven distribution of urban trees and and other knowledge, as well as policy- sound urban development. Journal of Chinese Urban Forestry stands is another problem. In Chinese making experiences between China and 1: 4-11. (In Chinese) cities, it is rare to see a large area of forest these countries. Hunter I. R. 2001. What do people want from urban forestry?— The European experience. Urban Ecosystems 5: 277-284. within a city. More trees and patches of Konijnendijk, C.C. 1997. A short history of urban forestry in stands need to be planted within the city There is also a need to increase the Europe. Journal of Arboriculture 23: 31-39. limits. involvement of the public and local Li H., He X., Chen, W. & Xu W. 2004. Current situations and trend of investigations on urban forests in China. Chinese inhabitants and tourists in particular in Journal of Ecology 23: 55-59. (In Chinese?) DEVELOPING URBAN FORESTRY the development of urban forests in Qu H. 2003. Forest tourism in Beijing. Journal of Chinese Developing urban forests in China China, a country with a rather short Urban Forestry 1: 52-54. (In Chinese) Wu Z., McBride J. R., Nowak D. J., Yang J. & Cheng S. 2004. requires strengthening research on urban history of modern urban forest Effects of urban forest on air pollution in Hefei city. Journal of forestry theory, technology, and policy management. In this aspect, the most Chinese Urban Forestry 1: 39-43. (In Chinese) making. The following aspects are important task is to raise awareness Zhang L., Wu J., Zhen Y. & Shu J. 2004. A GIS-based gradient analysis of urban landscape pattern of Shanghai metropolitan important: 1) the ecophysiological about the role of forests in improving the area, China. Landscape and Urban Planning 69: 1-6. properties of trees; 2) possible responses environment by means of newspapers,

December 2004 17 Fodder Shrubs for Increasing the Incomes of (Peri)urban Livestock Owners

In Kenya, there are about 650,000 smallholder dairy farmers and most are near cities and towns, where milk demand is high and marketing costs are relatively low. Milk is highly perishable, which is a primary reason why it is produced in and around urban areas. Anthony Njenga. airying is an important economic Sixty percent of participating farmers in central enterprise in urban and periurban Kenya were women D areas of East Africa. Approximately 80% of dairy animals in central Kenya are kept in confined systems. The importance The main feed source for dairy cows is farmers and researchers first identified of the dairy enterprise in smallholder napier grass supplemented during the dry Calliandra calothyrsus, a leguminous farms has increased in recent years due to season with crop residues. Research fodder shrub originating in Central liberalisation in the dairy sub-sector in conducted in Embu area by Murithi in America, as the most promising species Kenya, which has resulted in 1998 found that 45% of the farmers buy that could be grown on farms and used as redistribution and an increase of the commercial dairy meal (which is a substitute for commercial dairy meal. overall social and economic benefits of composed mainly of maize bran, wheat Other species later introduced and market-oriented smallholder dairying bran, cotton seed cake, soybean meal, and evaluated by farmers include Leucaena (Omore et al., 1999). In 1997, the dairy fish meal and is nominally 16% crude trichandra, Morus alba (mulberry), sector accounted for 30% of the value of protein) to supplement their cows’ diet. Chamaecytisus palmensis (tree lucerne) output of smallholder dairy farmers in However, farmers often complain that the and a herbaceous legume, Desmodium central Kenya; this proportion has likely price of dairy meal is high and that they intortum. increased in recent years with the decline lack the cash to buy it, and that it is of the coffee industry. Smallholder difficult for them to transport dairy meal Due to the limited size of farms, dairying is also a rapidly growing from the market to the homestead. Many researchers and farmers have focused on enterprise in periurban areas of western also have doubts about its nutritive value, integrating the fodder shrubs into the Kenya and in the highlands of because of scandals in Kenya concerning existing cropping system, rather than neighbouring countries, such as fraudulent maize seed and agrochemicals planting them in pure-stand fodder Tanzania, Uganda, and Rwanda. Dairy sold to farmers (Franzel et al., 2004). banks. On-farm trials confirmed that the production provides the household with fodder shrubs could be planted between cash and improved nutrition, as well as Unfortunately, acute protein shortages upper-storey shrubs on farm boundaries, manure for improving crop production. reduce milk production and force many in hedges around homesteads, on farmers to spend some of their precious contour bunds, and in lines in napier The farms in urban and periurban areas income on commercial dairy meal grass. On-farm feeding trials have are small, making the feeding of the dairy supplements. Fast-growing shrubs and confirmed the effectiveness of fodder animals a major constraint. Most dairy herbaceous legumes have the potential to shrubs both as a supplement to the basal farmers practice zero-grazing, growing alleviate the farmers’ feed problems. diet and as a substitute for dairy meal. napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) on Fodder from these shrubs is rich in For example 1 kg of dry calliandra was small plots and feeding it to their protein and, unlike the grass species, the found to have roughly the same amount confined animals. Farmers keep a shrub leaves maintain their levels of of digestible protein as about 1 kg of portion of milk to feed their families and protein even during the dry season. dairy meal. On a fresh weight basis, 3 kg the rest is sold, providing much-needed of calliandra gives similar results in milk income for everything from staples like FODDER SHRUB OPTIONS production as 1 kg of dairy meal. The sugar, flour and rice to medicine, clothing In the early 1990s, on-farm trials started effects of calliandra and dairy meal were and school fees. in Embu District by the National found to be additive, suggesting that the Agroforestry Research Project, a two feeds are nutritionally ______collaborative project implemented by the interchangeable. Project research Charles Wambugu Kenya Agricultural Research Institute, indicates that a farmer would need about ✉ [email protected] Regional Research Centre, Embu, the 500 shrubs to feed one cow throughout Steven Franzel Kenya Forestry Research Institute, and the year at a rate of 2 kg dry matter (6 kg ✉ [email protected] the World Agroforestry Centre. Among fresh material) a day (Roothaert et al., World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi, Kenya the indigenous and exotic species tested, 2001). The average smallholder dairy

18 UA-Magazine Farmer experimentation has been helpful in providing new farmer in central Kenya has 1.7 cows and On the negative side, fodder shrubs may innovations that have spread to other farmers. In one case, feedback on a farmer innovation has resulted in a change in those with fodder shrubs have about 340 slightly reduce the yields of adjacent extension recommendations. Farmers in Kandara Division, (Wambugu et al., 2001). In fact, a typical crops. However, if the shrubs are Maragua District, Kenya, conducted experiments on soaking calliandra seeds before planting and found that seeds soaked for periurban farm of 0.4 ha and one cow trimmed in a timely fashion, as they are 48 to 60 hours in water at room temperature had higher could easily find space for 500 shrubs on nearly all farms, then this effect is germination rates than those soaked for the recommended 24 hours in hot water. Researchers confirmed the farmers’ findings along internal and external field negligible. and extension staff now recommend the longer soaking time. boundaries, along contour bunds, or This has also an added advantage since farmers sometimes kill around the homestead. Researchers and In 2001, farmers in central Kenya with the seeds by accidentally boiling them. farmers are seeking to diversify fodder about 500 calliandra shrubs earned an Department for International sources, by testing other fodder shrubs additional $US 98 to $US 124 per year Development) and implemented by the and herbaceous legumes. In the East from their dairy enterprises by growing Oxford Forestry Institute and ICRAF is African region the extension staff have calliandra, beginning in the second year helping a range of partner organisations recently begun disseminating Leucaena after planting. The benefits were the to increase the adoption of fodder shrubs trichandra, an exotic shrub species, Morus result of either increasing their milk in five countries: Kenya, Uganda, alba (mulberry, a naturalised shrub), and production or in savings from reducing Rwanda, Tanzania, and Ethiopia. Desmodium intortum, a herbaceous their purchases of dairy meal. The Facilitators are helping to train the legume. potential benefits if 20% of Kenya’s extension staff of a range of different smallholder farmers adopted calliandra organisations, including government, FARMER MANAGEMENT AND or similar fodder shrub species in Kenya’s NGOs, churches, community-based INNOVATIONS smallholder dairy sector would amount organisations, farmer groups and private Periurban farmers usually produce to about US $ 104-132 million per year. sector firms. The project is also helping to seedlings of calliandra and trichandra in These estimates depend in part on link seed production with demand. Seeds group nurseries and transplant them increasing milk demand, which is are available in certain rural localities, onto their own individual farms. Others expected to be strong because of such as western Kenya and south-western purchase the seedlings from commercial increases in population and incomes. Uganda but demand is highest in nursery operators or manage their own Omore et al. (1999) projected that milk periurban areas around cities, such as on-farm nurseries. The shrubs grow demand would increase by 58% to 73% Nairobi, Kampala, and Kigali, where the rapidly and by the end of the first year are between 1998 and 2010. dairy sector is rapidly increasing. The ready to be pruned for feeding to project is helping to facilitate the livestock. Most farmers grow the trees in SCALING UP THE BENEFITS TO development of private seed producers hedges, cutting them at a height of about REACH MORE FARMERS and dealers, and to help link them to 1 metre and trimming several shrubs per During 1999-2001, KARI, ICRAF, and the periurban areas where seed demand is day in order to provide leaves for their International Livestock Research highest. The SLP- and DFID-financed livestock. Keeping the shrubs at a height Institute collaborated in a project of the projects are providing important lessons of 1 metre or lower ensures that they do Systemwide Livestock Programme (SLP) about how to scale up the adoption of not shade the adjacent crops. Calliandra of the CGIAR to scale up the use of fodder fodder shrubs. We are confident that and trichandra leaves may be fed fresh or shrubs in central Kenya. A project sharing these lessons will help increase dried and stored. Mulberry is planted extension facilitator, working with a the contributions that agroforestry makes using cuttings. range of government and NGO partners, to improving urban and rural livelihoods. assisted 180 farmer groups comprising BENEFITS FOR FARM HOUSEHOLDS 3200 farmers across 7 districts to REFERENCES Planting fodder shrubs does not involve establish nurseries and plant fodder - Franzel, S., Wambugu, C., and Tuwei, P (2004). The adoption and dissemination of fodder shrubs in central Kenya, any cash costs; rather, it allows farmers to shrubs. The approach proved to be very Agricultural Research and Network (AGREN) Series Paper substitute small amounts of land and effective for facilitating the spread of the No. 131. Overseas Development Institute, London, UK labour for cash that would otherwise be practice. By 2002, each farmer had an - Murithi, F.M. (1998). Economic evaluation of the role of live- stock in mixed smallholder farms of the central highlands of needed for purchasing dairy meal. average of 340 shrubs and each had given Kenya. PhD thesis. University of Reading, Reading, UK. Farmers value the fodder shrubs as a information and planting material (seeds - Nyeko, P. (in press) Farmers’ experiences in the management supplement to their basal feeds or as a or seedlings) to an average of six other and utilisation of Calliandra calothyrsus in Uganda. Agricultural Research and Network (AGREN) Series (in partial substitute for commercial dairy farmers (Wambugu et al., 2001). Most of press). Overseas Development Institute, London, UK meal, which they find to be expensive these farmers could be termed urban or - Omore, A., Muriuki, H., Kenyanjui, M., Owango, M., and and of unreliable quality. The shrubs are periurban, as their proximity to cities and Staal, S. (1999) The Kenyan Dairy Sub-sector: A rapid appraisal. Smallholder Ministry of Agriculture/Kenya also useful for conserving the soil, for towns provides markets for their milk. Agricultural Research Institute/ International Livestock supplying firewood and for providing bee Research Institute. forage needed for honey production. Sixty percent of participating farmers in - Roothaert, R., Karanja, G.M., Kariuki, I., Paterson, R., Tuwei, P., Kiruiro, E., Mugwe, J., and Franzel, S. (2001) Calliandra for Some farmers earn money from the sale central Kenya were women. However, livestock. Technical bulletin no. 1. Nairobi: of seed. Calliandra is also appreciated as surveys showed that female-headed KARI/KEFRI/ICRAF. an ornamental, an important households planted fewer fodder shrubs - Technoserve and ICRAF (2002) Calliandra calothyrsus: sus- tainable planting material distribution and marketing sys- characteristic for urban and periurban than male farmers and had lower survival tems. Technoserve, Nairobi. farmers. When used as a supplement, rates, probably because of labour - Wambugu, C., Franzel, S., Tuwei, P., and Karanja, G. (2001). fodder leaves may also improve animal shortages. A project financed by the Scaling up the use of fodder shrubs in central Kenya. Development in Practice 11:4, pp. 487-494. health and reduce the calving interval. Forestry Research Program of DFID (UK

December 2004 19 Urban Fodder Forests in The Gambia

There is a growing presence of new animal genetic resources in West African cities geared to boost the local production base for meat and milk. Access to good quality feeds and supplements is becoming difficult for the farmers.

n the Gambia, the local N’Dama breed

of cattle, well known for its innate Akinbamijo Yemi I resistance to trypanosomosis, is High-density cultivation of Moringa in Banjul. artificially inseminated with exotic semen to produce hybrids destined for the Important research questions for the In a short-term animal response study growing periurban dairy industry. These Moringa as an urban feed resource are its using growing crossbred animals, crossbred animals need to be raised in sustainability and nutritive value. Under animals fed with Moringa leaves as areas with minimal environmental high-density cultivation as part of the on- supplements did attain a higher growth challenges of health, management and station Market-Oriented System rate of 440 grams per day (g/d) compared nutrition. The animals are raised on a zero Improvement Programme (MOSIP) at the to their counterparts that were offered grazing basis for many demographic and ITC in Banjul, biomass yields of over 15 conventional locally available ecological reasons (e.g. lack of inner city tonnes DM/ha in a 60-day growing cycle concentrates (1:1 mixture of groundnut grazing areas). have been obtained. This volume of high- cake and rice bran) and that grew at the quality biomass is overwhelming in the rate of 385 g/d. However, this difference Oilseed cakes are available only at export semi-arid context of the Gambia. did not attain statistical significance. As prices and grazing/fodder reserves in the Moringa leaves are fondly relished by the expected, the animals offered either city fringes are declining by the day. human population, Moringa will readily Moringa or concentrate supplements out- Consequently, feeding the urban address both human and animal performed their counterparts that were ruminants (especially the crossbreds) to nutrition gaps. offered only groundnut hay and that make optimal use of their potential is a gained only 274 g/d. The growth rate of challenge. Urban farmers are therefore YIELDS the control animals was thus significantly obliged to develop alternative feeding Biomass yield obtained by estimating the lower than those of their supplemented strategies for their high-yielding animals. dry matter content of the materials counterparts. The predictions obtained There are currently some 25 farmers recovered in a 1 m2 area indicated the under conditions were positively rearing 121 crossbred cattle in and around possibility of obtaining up to 20 tonnes validated by growing bull calves (Nouala, the Greater Banjul area. DM/ha in a 50-day growing cycle. 2004). The implication is that high- However, for the purposes of easy quality plant protein feed resources can THE URBAN ALTERNATIVE communication to the ultimate be readily produced in a space of two Moringa oleifera, also known as drumstick beneficiaries, it is recommended that the months even in urban backyard gardens. tree, “never die”, or “miracle tree”, has cutting cycle be rounded to once in two been systematically investigated for the months rather than every fifty days. An The findings at the ITC show that last three years at the International added advantage of the 60-day cutting Moringa can truly be the ‘Miracle Tree’ in Trypanotolerance Centre, Banjul (ITC). interval is the possibility of harvesting urban ruminant nutrition that it promises The Moringa plant is well known for its young, readily digestible biomass under to be, if fed to the animals at between 20- high biomass production. It promises to optimum agronomic conditions. Data 40% inclusion in a groundnut hay-based be the “plant of the future” for urban from our on-farm experiences under a diet. Further information on Moringa ruminant animal-feed supplementation. rain-fed system are currently being utilisation can be obtained from ITC, the Although not completely strange in the processed. The biomass produced in the Gambia. West African biosphere, the plant has a rainy season can be used in a variety of lot to offer as a food and fodder resource ways to address ruminant nutrition issues REFERENCE in the sub-region. , the success of plant as in the dry and wet seasons. Nouala, F. S. 2004. Comparison of plant cell wall degrading community in the rumen of N’Dama a feed resource is overwhelming. and N’DamaXJersey crossbred cattle in relation to RUMINANT NUTRITION in vivo and in vitro cell wall degradation. PhD thesis Animal response to Moringa as a submitted to University of Hohenheim. 88pp ______supplement to a groundnut hay-based ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Yemi Akinbamijo diet showed that there is no significant The authors acknowledge the financial support of International Trypanotolerance Centre, Banjul, difference in performance when the International Development Research Centre (Cities feeding People), Ottawa, Canada, towards Gambia compared with animals supplemented the realisation of this work. ✉ [email protected] with groundnut cake-based concentrate.

20 UA-Magazine Grazing Animals as Park Managers? using animals in the management of urban green areas

Interest in using grazing animals in the management of parks and other urban green areas has grown in Sweden in recent years. Through grazing and trampling these animals create the conditions for a rich flora and fauna. This study was undertaken to document the use of grazing animals for management of urban green areas in Swedish municipalities.

questionnaire with 40 questions result. The choice of animal species and concerning the activities, breed depends on the properties of the A organisation, results, reactions from land that is going to be grazed and the the public, etc., was sent to the persons desired grazing result. Since the grazing

responsible for the management of green land is in an urban area it is also Inger Ledin areas in 49 (of a total of 290) necessary to consider the affected public. More than 70% of the municipalities in municipalities that used animals in urban Smaller animals are perceived as less the study used sheep areas. dangerous than big animals, but on the other hand there are often fewer potentially harmful objects like plastic COMMON CHARACTERISTICS OF problems with vagrant dogs and injured bags or metal pieces and making an MUNICIPALITIES animals if cattle and horses are used. inventory of the vegetation. Most of the municipalities were in areas with a vegetation period of >190 days The most common situation was that the The type of fencing used for the areas and they consisted of cities or larger animals were privately owned, but in differed depending on the animal species towns. It is probable that in areas where some cases the animals were owned by used and the functional and esthetical the vegetation period is shorter, people the municipality or various associations demands. The fence should be efficient will have less interest in making all the and not dangerous for animals or necessary arrangements to keep grazing children. From an esthetic point of view animals. The same can also be said of the fence should not disturb the general rural communities that have small central view of the landscape and it should be urban areas and limited park land and fitting in areas of historical interest. that are moreover surrounded by farms with grazing animals. The grazed areas PLANNING LAND MANAGEMENT varied to a great degree but most areas The written management plans generally were between 0.3 and 5 ha in size. The contained some background description Inger Ledin primary reason for the activities was a Seeing the animals makes me happy with possible historical aspects, a desire to keep the land open, but another description of the present character of important motive was to keep or recreate such as riding schools. Using privately the area, visions for the future, starting a certain flora including especially owned animals was in the short term the measures, maintenance measures, time valuable trees. most economic alternative and plan, and a plan for evaluation and experienced people were available and budgeting. The management measures CHOICE OF ANIMAL SPECIES willing to take responsibility for the consisted of recommendations for shrub More than 70% of the municipalities in animals and observe laws and clearing, pasture trimming, species of the study used sheep. Some regulations. animals to be used, if the use of fertilisers, municipalities used more than one herbicides or supplementary feeding species on the grazed area, e.g. sheep and PRACTICAL PREPARATIONS ARE were allowed, etc. The visions concerned cattle, which often gives a better grazing NEEDED the number of trees in the area and the Most municipalities had done some look and condition of the sward. The ______preparatory work before letting the result of the grazing was reported to be Inger Ledin, Anna Jonasson animals in for grazing e.g. clearing of satisfactory, even better than had been Swedish University of Agricultural shrubs and unwanted trees, sowing of achieved with mechanical management. Sciences, Uppsala, Sweden special plants, building of fences around ✉ [email protected] especially valuable trees, removal of

December 2004 21 Grazing result The animals Miscellaneous To maintain the positive attitude of the public it is also important to consider and Positive comments Positive comments Positive comments improve facilities for other activities in -Seeing the animals -Get people out in the the area. Discussions should be held -Beautiful open makes me happy. (A urban green areas. with, for example, the health office landscape. frequent comment!) -Nice place for an (allergies, manure), the leisure office -The grove has -The animals give outing or a picnic. (tracks for riding, skiing and running), returned. variety. -Children come into and the building and planning office for -Lots of berries now -Seeing animals is contact with living suitable locations of gates and openings that the area has been relaxing. animals. in the fence. Informative and easily read opened up. -To be able to meet, -Children learn to take signs about the objective of the grazing -The landscape is caress and maybe feed responsibility for the and the animals will also help to get the “alive” in a different the animals is a factor animals. support of neighbours in protecting the way. of great satisfaction. -Highly appreciated animals. -More flowers. place for visits for -A pastoral view of the Negative comments school children and EVALUATING THE METHOD landscape. -Don’t appreciate the nursery schools. It was not considered possible to get the -Fewer seeds from animals’ dung, -Combine business with same results with more conventional weeds found their way especially by the gate. pleasure, teach about management methods, and subsequently into the nearby -The animals smell and animals. it was not meaningful to put any price tag gardens. bleat. -Opportunity to learn on the activities. It was concluded that -The animals attract about the relation extensive work at considerable costs flies. between humans and would have been necessary to achieve at -The animals are too animals. least similar results. The alternative was close when people -Neighbours help each often no management at all, and even if want to have a picnic. other to look after the this method is cheaper than grazing, a -Negative when the animals - creates a value can be put on keeping the area animals break through feeling of solidarity. attractive for people. the fence. -The animals may cause Negative comments PRACTICAL IMPLICATIONS allergies. -Not nice with barbed It is very clear from the study that the -People scared of wire. preparations and the way the grazing animals are afraid to -The fence poles are left project is started are crucial for the be in the area during the winter. success of the project. This concerns the -Difficult to pass land, the animals, the owners of the through styles and animals and the affected public as well as gates. the vision for the area and the desired grazing result. Careful planning and preparations for all aspects, e.g POSITIVE PUBLIC RESPONSE Some problems recorded were vagrant documents concerning management Formal evaluations conducted among the dogs, destroyed fences and molesting or plans and contracts with the owner of the neighbours after the grazing season were slaughtering of animals. The animals, and a clear idea about what all positive. Some of the comments municipalities that used only sheep or should be achieved, will have a major expressed are listed in the table below. sheep in combination with another influence on the success of the grazing The positive comments were mainly from species were over-represented among project. neighbours and parents of small children, those who had problems. while the negative comments were made The present study relates to the situation by tourists and senior citizens. The majority of the affected public in Sweden, however, the positive effects perceived the animals as something very of grazing as a management tool for the positive; and aside from their effect on vegetation can be obtained anywhere. the landscape and the environment, the Other factors such as availability of animals, had an important social function animals, ethical opinions on and interest as well. To get continuous positive for animals, interest of the community responses from the public it is important officials etc. will determine whether it is that the animals are not only well looked possible to use the method successfully. after, but that it is apparent that the These factors are site specific and have to animals are comfortable. Contaminated be looked into in each case. drinking water or lack of feed or shelter are likely to catch the attention of the neighbours and result in negative reactions.

22 UA-Magazine Multipurpose Plantations as a Tool for Periurban Agroforestry

Multifunctional plantations offer a valuable contribution to mixed ways of periurban agriculture and forestry. They exist of a combination of trees with agriculture and produce a variety of products, offering a kind of nature citizens ask for. Anne Oosterbaan Walnut plantation uite a radical change in thinking MULTIPURPOSE PLANTATION within (urban) forestry in a lot of DESIGN Alder landscape European countries is that (city) The core of “multipurpose plantations” are In many parts of The Netherlands Black Alder (Alnus glutinosa) Q used to be the framework tree species in the landscape. In the inhabitants have to be involved in the multipurpose trees and multipurpose northern of The Netherlands pilots are being set up to combine education and recreation functions in small towns. By planting design and management of their green crops, preferably interacting in a positive “quality trees” and fruit-bearing shrubs along the devastated alder environment. It is important then to know way. Multipurpose trees are those trees line plantations, in combination with a natural shrub and rough low vegetation zone and a foot-path, several aims can be reached, what citizens are asking from forests and that deliver a variety of tangible products like higher nature values; recreation; education and recreation other green elements, so as to improve like fruits, leaf, bark, twigs, timber , roots and diversity in production. Other aspects under discussion are for example water design of the green space. Multipurpose and matters for medicine or other use. management. plantations may contribute here, while Besides these direct products trees have a further tackling another problem: that of large scale of non-food products like negative environmental influences of protection against climatic influences LOCATION intensive (mono-cropping) agriculture. (wind, snow, rain, sun), enhancing The periurban zone is a good place to biodiversity, C-fixation and erosion establish multipurpose plantations, since NEEDS OF CITIZENS control. the system delivers a wide variety of Trees, plantations and forests are mostly environmental-friendly products. established with the following Crops are in general less multipurpose Production processes and products are management objectives: amenity, than trees, but some species can also available and visible to the urban citizens. landscape, recreation, habitat for wildlife deliver different direct or indirect The most suitable location for and economic aspects (timber). products. Mixed grass/flower vegetations multipurpose plantations is the transition deliver not only fodder, but also a higher zone of the open landscape to the dense Trees can be arranged in mathematic biodiversity and a contribution to a nice forest area. But also in the periphery zone plantations or in natural patterns like looking landscape. of small forests they should fit very well. wilderness. Generally people like nature Perhaps the concept of “multipurpose but prefer a certain kind of nature: semi- Preferably trees and crop should influence plantations” should be tried out in open landscapes, easily to pass through, each other positively. For example the different landscape laboratories. with open sight lines and water are often shade of the trees should be used for the highly appreciated. A clear structure and a crop (shade asking plant species) or for the REFERENCES Berg van den, A.E. (2003). Personal Need for Structure great variation are attractive animals (cool cows produce more milk). and landscape preference. In: Hendrickx, W. Jager A. characteristics. Different population Or the crop has a positive effect on the and L. Steg (Eds). Human decision making and envi- groups have different ideas about nature. trees, for example by the weed control. ronmental perception: Understanding and assisting human decision making in real-life settings. Liber Differences in appreciation of different Amoricum for Charles Vlek. Groningen: types of nature are mostly based upon The concept is not entirely new. In The Rijksuniversiteit Groningen. differences in “roughness”. For instance, Netherlands a large area of fruit tree Gustavsson R. 2002. Afforestation in and near Urban ecology based management often leads to orchard with a grass layer functioned areas. In: Urban forests and trees. Proceedings No 1, rough nature, which is not appreciated by already in that way. But the multipurpose Edited by T. B. Randrup, C.C. Konijnendijk, T. everyone in the city. Higher educated plantation design bears some new Christophersen and K. Nilson. ISBN 92-894-1374-3, Luxembourg, p.286-314 people, members of nature protection characteristics, like an attractive organisations and young people prefer landscape, biodiversity, recreation rough nature. Older people, immigrants Project Winterswijk and farmers prefer more tidy natural According to calculations for a In the surroundings of a this city eight farmers elements walnut/recreation system in the eastern and estate owners established 10 ha of such multipurpose plantations. The trees (mainly part of The Netherlands, such a system walnut) were planted in pastures with spacing of can be profitable. A comparison of a 10 -20 meters. On two farms (already involved in agro tourism) fruit shrubs have been planted in ______multipurpose plantation existing of otherwise unprofitable corners (red currant, Anne Oosterbaan walnuts and grass (mowed or grazed) with black currant and white currant, blackberry, raspberry, gooseberry, hazelnut and quince) to ALTERRA Wageningen University and grass with subsidies for extensive enhance attractiveness to tourists. Also Research management showed very good mushroom cultivation (for example Shi-i-take) on logs has been tried. ✉ [email protected] perspectives for the first one.

December 2004 23 Designing Spaces to Work the Land and Build Communities

The experience described here is part of the inter-institutional and participatory research-action project called “Optimization of the use of vacant land for Urban Agriculture through participatory planning and management programs, to promote food security and participatory municipal governance”. This project has been carried out with the Regional Office for Latin America and the Caribbean of the Urban Management Program, supported by IPES and IDRC.

n this inter-institutional project, the the relationship between productive and landscape is interpreted as a sphere for recreational spaces, the excluded and I dynamic relationships, not only in marginal urban groups of society may be spatial or temporal terms, but also in included in the urban dynamic system. cultural and economic-productive terms. This allows the development of concrete URBAN AGRICULTURE AND URBAN

scenarios. PLANNING Municipality of Rosario The City Master Plan (of the Planning View how it is and how it can be at The notion of “place” is understood as Department) includes the Urban La Paloma “the relation between natural and created Agriculture Programme, since urban space over time” (Aguilo, 1999) and has agriculture can play an important role in improve the quality of life of poor been of great theoretical and practical urban transformation (by virtue of its families (which in Rosario represent half use. The participatory management of multi-functionality) if it is adequately of the population). This will further space thus becomes a variable which is incorporated in public policies and the strengthen the establishment of urban crucial in sustainability, and thus in political agenda (which needs a agriculture as a productive instrument for validating collectively agreed strategies. normative framework and guidelines). social inclusion of the poor in Rosario. And subsequently, adequate linking of multidisciplinary knowledge with The integration of urban agriculture into GARDEN PARKS traditional “folk” knowledge is basic in urban planning in the Municipality of One alternative for the use of vacant defining criteria for the design, Rosario was facilitated by the extreme urban land is the development of implementation and functioning of economic crisis that has afflicted “garden parks”. Also called “nature interventions. This approach will take Argentina since 2001. belts” they border roadways and into account local available resources, Being a diverse and collective production waterways, or they are located in the and respond better to the demands for practice, urban agriculture has been midst of other urban infrastructure appropriate spaces and equipment for (re)valued as an appropriate technology systems that offer empty spaces. This low-income social groups to develop by people with few resources. In addition alternative combines agriculture and further urban agriculture activities. to contributing to development as an public recreation. Furthermore, garden Furthermore, by paying close attention to agricultural activity, it can coexist with parks address two important issues for recreational activities or serve the municipality: the lack of parks and educational purposes, all the while plazas in the peripheral areas of the city ______preserving green spaces and providing and the limited municipal budget, which Antonio Lattuca, Raúl Terrile: Urban Agriculture ecological benefits. In this context the is insufficient to meet the growing Program, Social Promotion Department, Municipality challenge arises to create various demands for the maintenance of open of Rosario productive environments according to public spaces. ✉ [email protected] the typology of the spaces and the social Ricardo Kingsland, Pablo Abalos, Sabrina and functional demands of the The diagnostic study for the selection of Cáceres, Carina Tamagno: Technical team, Master population. land destined to become garden parks Plan, Department of Urban Planning, Municipality of was based on a typology of existing and Rosario The challenge in Rosario at the moment potential spaces. It looked at agro- ✉ [email protected] is on the one hand to produce sufficient ecological aspects, the zoning and the Elio Di Bernardo, Laura Bracalenti, Laura Lagorio: quantities (of organic products, aromatic ownership status of the land, as well as Technical Team of the Center for Human Environment and medicinal plants, and natural issues related to the location and the Studies. FAPyD University Nacional of Rosario cosmetics) for the five weekly farmers’ profile of actors involved. The five ✉ [email protected] markets and the collective agro- projected garden parks that will soon be Virginia Lamas: Consultant processing businesses, and on the other installed cover an area of 30 hectares, all ✉[email protected] hand to generate sufficient income to on public land.

24 UA-Magazine Streams and their basins have been present a challenge to the imagination The design of the garden park in Rosario incorporates the following adapted species (1): underestimated as significant natural and a space for synergy and participation. Tree species: Laurel (laurus nobilis), non-native aromatic elements of the urban landscape in cities evergreen species, Anacahuita (Blepharocalyx salicfolius), native aromatic evergreen; Ñangapiri o Pitanga (Eugenia of the Argentine flatlands. The role of SPECIES TO CONSIDER IN A uniflora), native aromatic evergreen; Sauco (Sambucus flood plains has primarily been to GARDEN PARK australis sp.), native aromatic evergreen; Aguaribay (Schinus molle-California Pepper tree), foreign aromatic evergreen; support urbanisation, which has been Since garden parks are artificial agro- Acacia blanca (Robinia seudoacacia- Yellow Locust), non- normally (though not always) informal. ecosystems, trees, bushes and aromatic, native leguminous deciduous, Espinillo (Acacia caven), native leguminous deciduous; Ybira pita (Peltophorium dubium), This practice of land occupation has medicinal and other plants can be native semi-evergreen leguminous, Chañar (Geoffrea meant that the hydrological system has included in their design to provide decorticans), native evergreen leguminous; Tilo (Tilia sp.), non-native aromatic deciduous; Cina-cina (Parkinsonia been seen as a risk to human settlements, multiple benefits: : ornamental, aculeata), native leguminous evergreen; Algarrobo Blanco and the natural course and flow of environmental, nutritional and medicinal (Prosopis alba), native leguminous evergreen; Alamo piramidal (Populus nigra cv. Italica-Black Poplar) non-native waterways have thus become problems in addition to protection from wind and deciduous; Lapacho (Tabebuia sp.), native leguminous to control and neutralise through public rain, nutrient recycling, a refuge for birds evergreen; Almez (Celtis australis), non-native deciduous; Casuarina (casuarina cunninghamiana-River She-oak), non- works. and insects, etc. native evergreen; Olive (Olea europea), non-native aromatic evergreen; pezuña de vaca (Bauhinia candicans-Brazilian Orchid) native leguminous evergreen; Roble (Quercus robur- It is important to put the use of this space Aromatic trees and bushes are English Oak), non-native deciduous; Alcanfor (Cinnamomun in a broader context, by appreciating not recommended because of their healthy glanduliferum-false Camphor), non-native aromatic evergreen; Sofora (Soplora sp.), non-native leguminous only the aesthetic and environmental and beneficial effects on the deciduous; Lemon (Citrus medica) and Orange (Citrus value of the resources to be protected, environment, and trees and bushes of the auriantium); non-native aromatic evergreens; Fresnos (Fraxinus americana-White Ash), non-native deciduous; Pine but also – given the continuing crisis in fabáceas or leguminous family are (Pinus sp.), Cedar (Cedrus sp.) and Cypress (Cupresus sp.) non- the country today – their socio-economic recommended due to their additional native aromatic evergreens.

(productive) value. In this context, and provision of nitrogen to the ecosystem. Bush species: Tomate árbol (Ciphomandra sp.), native with a broad and inclusive focus, Trees and bushes will be located around evergreen; Salvia morada (Lippia alba); Burrito (Aloysia polystachia); Poleo (Lippia turbinata); Cedrón (Aloysia triphila) environments need to be created that the perimeter of each garden park, and Palo amarillo (Aloysia gratisima) aromaticas, native respond to these needs. From the socio- forming a living fence and serving as a evergreens; Rosmery (Rosmarinus officinalis) non-native aromatic evergreen; Gandul (Cajanus cajana); Leucaena productive point of view, a high biological barrier for the protection and (Leucaena brichicefala); Crotolaria (Crotolaria ensiforme). percentage of the flood plains are not preservation of the entire agro- suitable for intensive agricultural ecosystem. The variety of species should NOTE 1) Spanish common names for species are provided. Where production or the installation of technical be high to allow for interspersing of applicable, English common names are also provided structures. These areas can, however, perennials with annual plants, native along with the scientific names. with little or no modification, sustain less species with exotic ones, and fast- intensive activities or become growing plants with slow-growing recreational areas with minimal plants.. The tallest species are planted framework of the “Optimization of investment and maintenance. Both uses closest to the exterior, starting with trees, Vacant Space for UA” has had a are of growing importance in followed further in by bushes, and in the conceptual impact on the existing model metropolitan areas of this country. interior the lowest bushes and the of the city. In fact, the strategic annuals. The specifics will depend on the incorporation of urban agriculture - Five garden-parks have been proposed: size of each garden park. activities and environments - in urban Costituyentes, on a piece of land located development has facilitated a over the Arroyo (Creek); Ludueña, in a regeneration of “nature” in the interior municipal land reserve area; Las Flores, FINAL COMMENTS and outskirts of the city, as well as on the land of a former settlement that The mere possibility of transforming solidarity, improved quality of life for its was relocated by the “Rosario Habitat” degraded spaces into environments that inhabitants and a positive image of the programme 8 years ago; Molino Blanco, can be put to productive use by poor city. to be installed on land that is not suited families looking for solutions to their for building and that was granted daily problems is already a strong because of the large environmental validation of the worthiness of the effort. impact of a neighbourhood upgrading In addition, the possibility for social programme of Rosario Habitat; and “La integration presented by the combination Tablada”, which is planned for the green of these collective activities, including belts along the extreme southern section public and recreational use of the spaces, of the Avenida de Circunvalación. represents a concrete and viable opportunity to promote values of Various factors were considered in solidarity and to recognise the diversity determining the design and operation of in terms of social status and life these productive parks, such as the opportunities that characterises a city like topography, electricity, water, pathways, Rosario. visual elements, etc. These low-cost typologies of public space contrast with The experience of different government, the traditional use of public space, which academic, intermediate and grassroots

requires significant investment, and they institutions working together in the Municipality of Rosario

December 2004 25 Urban Forestry Development in Beijing: A Historical Perspective

Urban forestry is often regarded as a key ecological asset of a city. Each year many efforts are put into urban afforestation in China to make its cities more attractive and liveable. In the case of Beijing, this is even more obvious, particularly since the city is aiming to host ‘green Olympics’ in 2008.

The authors would like to give special thanks to the Chinese Academy of Sciences for its research grant on periurban development in China (Grant No. KZCX2-SW-318-02) and the RUAF Programme for its activities in China. Cecil Konijnendijk The cultural values of urban and periurban forests should not be neglected: centre of Beijing, China.

ccording to the city’s urban plan, the sprawling concentrically. Given Beijing’s fourth type is the green space in second green belt will be built historically compact urban core, the residential areas. This latter type of A before the Olympics in 2008. The spatial development pattern is forestation has changed dramatically first green belt is diminishing due to continuous, rather than the leap-frog over time. In the past, the green space in rapid urban sprawl. In this paper, we development often seen in other large residential areas was usually dominated shall identify some threats to and urban centres in the developed countries. by large but few squares or parks, but opportunities for urban forestry Planning and policy efforts in Beijing seek nowadays more and more small gardens development in Beijing from a historical to control this type of expansion by are placed in each neighbourhood to perspective in an effort to throw some promoting an urban spatial structure of provide the elderly and children with light on its future development. “dispersed constellation” through green more opportunities to make use of green belt construction. space. TYPES OF URBAN FORESTRY Beijing Municipality is surrounded by There are four types of urban forestry in Central and municipal governments have mountains to the west, north and Beijing in terms of topography and so far played a leading role in Beijing’s northeast, and it has a typical continental function. The first type consists of forests urban forestry development due to the monsoon climate. Annual rainfall is in the outer suburban mountainous area unique political system and common about 370mm, most of which occurs in owned either by central or municipal property nature of urban forestry. Much the summer, and which is less than government. The function of these forests attention has been paid to urban forestry annual evaporation. Spring is very dry is partly ecological (conservation forestry and great efforts have been made ever and windy, and the season when Beijing for land erosion) and partly economic since the PRC was established in1949. is most likely to be hit by smothering dust (special fruit growing). The second type, During the process of urban forestation, storms from the northern desert plains of located in the inner suburban plain area, various factors, including the political Mongolia. consists of netted woods with the system, economic situation, market economic function of protecting local condition and especially the awareness of The Beijing urban area is rapidly farm fields as well as some orchards from the local authorities, influence political wind and sand storms. The third type of commitments and practice. The urban forestry is the green belts following analysis will focus on the ______established immediately adjacent to the vertical development track of urban Jianming CAI , Tingting HU, Liou XIE built-up areas for growth management forestry policy and practice in Beijing. IGSNRR, Chinese Academy of Sciences and environmental improvement. This is The discussion on the evolution of the ✉ [email protected] a transitional zone, and therefore this four types of urban forestry will highlight Yingli GUO type of forestry faces the biggest three phases, namely the pre-open period DFID China challenges related to planning, (1949-1978), post-open period (1978- ✉ [email protected] implementation and maintenance. The 2004) and the perspective period (2004-).

26 UA-Magazine BEFORE 1978 With an historically tightly compressed The government initiated several projects core, the urban area of Beijing kept aiming to ameliorate the desertification sprawling outward contiguously beyond and sand storms besetting northern the built-up areas. The location of the cities. The most famous among them was first green belt is between the third and the “Three-north” (Northeast China, fourth ring road, which by 1994 was North China and Northwest China) Fruit Production Output by Year in undergoing rapid transition as the protective forest system, which was the Beijing frontier of new development and largest ecological project in the world suffering from unstable management. and is sometimes aptly called the “Green new initiatives, and didn’t provide local This was also a time when the real estate Great Wall”. As a part of this project, people with economic or other benefits. market was hectic and chaotic. Beijing focused on forestation in its northern and western mountainous OPENING-UP PERIOD (1978-2004) However, the green belt policy effort areas. In addition, forest networks were The economic reform and the opening- proved to be not fully successful. The developed in the plains area. Cities such up policy of the late 1970s were area of the first green belt kept as Beijing and Shanghai are surrounded milestones in China’s development in decreasing and by 1999 had become as by farm fields, as part of a strategy of almost all fields, including urban forestry small as 241.37 km2. Urban land use urban food security. But, unlike other development in Beijing, which was occupied almost half of the total area. foreign metropolises, for example transformed from government-oriented Moscow, Paris and Berlin, where there to market-oriented. Peasants began to The reasons for green belt loss are are vast wild woods in the urban area, plant more economically beneficial fruit numerous. First of all, the Chinese cities are densely populated and trees, such as apple and chestnut, in the implementation procedure was structurally compact. The most effective mountainous or even plain areas. The problematic. The aim to rebuild villages and economical (with regards to land) market promoted the specialisation of on the remaining land within the planned way to protect the farms in periurban several high-quality fruit production green belt was actually unrealistic. As the and sub-urban areas from sand storms is bases; and the output of dry and fresh housing and other industrial construction to plant trees around plots. Generally, the fruit production in the city experienced a increased, the forest area thus inevitably network includes forests along main fast growth from 1988 (see figure 1) when decreased. The decision by the municipal rivers and roads, as well as around towns the market-oriented forestry government to transfer part of the land to and villages. development policy was well real estate developers and manufacturers As early as 1958, the government put implemented. The model proved to be made things even worse. forward the idea that Beijing should successful both in forestry construction adopt a “scattered” pattern. Ten small and in improvement of living conditions. Secondly, local officials tend to pursue satellite towns were planned at the fringe The state-owned forestry farms also short-term economic profit without of the mother town, the main body of developed forest parks or country parks, considering the long-run effect. In China, Beijing city. Between mother and satellite which are very popular for weekend officials are not elected locally, but are towns, green spaces were developed in recreation and the vacation tourism appointed by higher level government. So order to prevent the mother city from market in Beijing. in order to obtain promotions, local further growing and expanding. An officials need to show political accompanying but fairly valuable benefit The government continued to play a key performance and local economic growth was environmental improvement. The role in forestry and ecological during their term, which usually runs planning theory of the pre-open phase environment construction. In addition to four years, instead of seeking sustainable was very remarkable and innovative. continued forest network construction, development. Land transfer to However, despite the intentions projects with more explicit functions commercial housing offers a shortcut to expressed, there were no instructions or came to the fore, including the visible economic improvements. Thirdly, incentives for the implementation. The “Remediation Project of Five Blown Sand huge profits from development in this achievement was thus quite limited in Hazardous Regions”, “Soil and Water desirable area further stimulate the rent- reality. Conservation Forest” in mountainous seeking activities of both enterprises and areas and “Water Conservation Forest” governmental officials, resulting in Forests in Beijing’s mountainous areas upstream of reservoirs. problems of corruption and a drain of were managed in the form of state- state-owned assets. The result is thus that owned forest farms. For all costs, the What is remarkable here is that economic green land is converted for other – more project was fully dependent on central incentive was integrated with policy profitable - uses. fiscal support, and plant choices and implementation. In 1994 the government methods were also controlled by the decided to open the green belt to private ONGOING SITUATION (2004-) central government. The policy commercial development in response to Nevertheless, urban forestry instruments were nothing but political rapid agro-land draining. In 1958 when development in Beijing has achieved orders and documentation. Thus the first green belt was planned, the area remarkable progress after decades of forestation was often viewed as a political was 314 km2. But by 1983 it had effort. According to a recent survey task of local authorities and villagers. The decreased to 260 km2 and further to 244 organised by Beijing Forestry Bureau, the forestation project failed to stimulate km2 by 1993 (Yixing and Yanchun, 2000). total value of the forestry assets in Beijing

December 2004 27 is 231.3 billion RMB (28 billion US$), if Another critical difference between the certainly be continued and promoted. one takes into account the direct value implementation plans of the two green (wood), ecological value, water and soil belts is the maintenance of Economic development is clearly the conservation value, environmental value, administrative titles for involved towns main theme of urban forestry in Beijing etc.. By 2002, the overall urban forestry and villages. In the first green belt the and good management makes a coverage ratio was 45.5%, while in names of former villages were converted difference in providing successful and mountainous areas the corresponding directly to urban districts, whereas in the sustainable outcomes. A good balance figure was 62% and in plain areas 25%. second green belt administrative between ecological and commercial 39% of the urban area was covered by classifications will remain constant. As a benefits of wood resources management green space, or roughly 42 m2 per capita. result, farmers can choose for themselves will not only make a great contribution to The problem of sand and dust storms has whether to transfer their land to urban environmental protection and been noticeably ameliorated and more use and acquire the agreed upon improvement, but also the green GDP. and more green spaces are seen in compensation, or to manage new green various residential areas. industries individually or collectively. What lessons can be learned from the first green belt? The main reason for its More importantly, in 2004 the authorities Farmers are exposed to many more failure was its sole ecological function. put forward a detailed scheme for the opportunities for creating profitable Located in a transitional region, where second green belt. There are many businesses in the new economic land use is very competitive, the green similarities between the first and the situation, compared with when the first belt cannot be well managed and second green belts. They are analogous in green belt was established. On the one protected if it lacks visible economic form, function and background, and in hand, the successful experience of the benefits for the local people. They will morphological terms they are both ring mountainous areas can be cited. The land make every effort to develop the local belts with several wedges that limit use limitations established at that time economy even if it means damaging the can be viewed as a turning point in environment. The aforementioned promoting agricultural industrialisation Wenyu River villa community is an the green belt cannot be and urban agricultural development, e.g. example of one of the ways that residents well managed and economic forests, fruit trees and pay for their environmental benefits. protected if it lacks visible agricultural sightseeing. The latter is They are willing to pay a high price for economic benefits for the noticeable in the emergence of the their amenities and at same time they local people “experience economy” pertinent to mega- bring a good return to the local economy. cities and market economics. On the other hand, with the improvement of In conclusion, only by associating construction in forestry areas and thus citizen’s living standards and the development with sustainable aim to prevent the city from sprawling emergence of a new consumers’ market, economical or amenity benefits can we uncontrollably (see map). The new green it is wise to develop outdoor recreational effectively facilitate the implementation belt will be located between the fifth and and tourism facilities including sport of urban planning. The story of two green sixth ring roads, again the most dynamic parks, country parks and amusement belts in Beijing provides us with a good region of Beijing. While the first green parks for skiing, excursions, etc.. example of the importance of economic belt segregates constellations from the considerations in city planning and urban main mass, the second belt will attempt Real estate development remains a forestry development. The second green to restrain the expansion of satellite cities feasible option as previously stated. A belt in Beijing can have a promising and central towns in inner periurban case in point is Wenyu River, a low- future if the current policy is well areas. density villa community in Northeast implemented and the local economy is Beijing between the third and fifth ring developed through optimal utilisation of The differences between the two green roads. It resembles green belts in the forest. Otherwise, the same threats belts reflect the differences between the Australia, which formed spontaneously that gradually undermined the first green past and the future. Experiences and and consisted of well-planted, high- belt, i.e. real estate development and lessons can serve as excellent references income communities. The upper classes other land uses, will also threaten the in constructing the second green belt, pay for environmental amenities, viability of the second one. In fact, and as a result, many amendments in the resulting in a green belt that is built up successful development of the green belt implementation measures have been steadily without governmental funding. or forests depends on maintaining their made. The first amendment is that raising diversified functions funds for local revenue will not solely COMMENTS AND FUTURE depend on the transfer of land for PERSPECTIVE commercial housing development, since The upcoming 2008 Beijing Olympics this proved to be a dangerous approach. and lasting urban development and REFERENCES A new and more sustainable means has sprawl further amplify the significance of Zhao Zhijing 2003, Suggestions on the Green Belt thus been devised to ensure that the local urban forestry. The authorities boast that Construction, Beijing City Planning & Construction farmers can get real benefit from their the 2008 Beijing Olympics will be a Review, Supplement edition. Zhou Yixing & Meng Yanchun 2000, Study on protection of the green land through “green, humane and high-tech” event. As Suburbanization in Beijing, the Science Press. various job opportunities. a result, the green belt efforts will

28 UA-Magazine This article was earlier published in Land Development Today Building a Sustainable (http://www.landdevelopmenttoday.com/Arti cle102.htm) and several articles on or related to this subject have appeared in Arbor Age (http://www.championtreeproject.org/Arbor Urban Forest Age/Launch.htm) and the Florida Urban Forestry Council Quarterly (http://www.fufc.org/information.html)

In the United States it is estimated that 90 percent of the entire population now lives within the boundaries of what is commonly called the “urban forest” - a term used to describe the sum total of all vegetation growing in urban and community areas, including the city centre, city residential, suburbs and suburban fringe.

he total yearly economic value of urban area. Geographic information urban forest storm water services system technology can be used to map alone is more than $400 billion and analyse the workings of the urban

T Project International Champion® Tree (National Alliance for Community Trees). forest. It can be demonstrated that a 65 Many other valuable services furnished percent loss of canopy cover in Atlanta National Champion Green Buttonwood shades a by trees are now required due to various since 1972 has led to a 9 degree rise in home in a fast growing urban ecosystem government initiatives, to promote average urban temperature (Trees energy conservation and reduction of Atlanta). The city of Milwaukee, with atmospheric and water contaminants. In only a 16 percent canopy cover, can point some instances, the desire for improved to 22 percent reduction in storm water wildlife. For maximum protection against social and professional aesthetics is a flow and a saving in city taxes of $15.4 unusual weather or pests, the urban forest motivating factor as well. million by not having to build additional should contain (1) no more than 10 percent of storm water retention capacity. At the any species, (2) no more than 20 percent of To achieve sustainability of our rapidly household level, it is now possible to any genus, and (3) no more than 30 percent expanding urban ecosystems and deliver determine how much canopy cover is of any family. This way, species-specific tree the maximum level of benefits to the needed to cover a family’s oxygen need death will not cause devastation on the inhabitants, the urban forest must have and offset its carbon dioxide emissions. landscape because no more than 5 or 10 all of the following three components: 1) percent of the trees will likely be affected. a healthy tree resource, 2) comprehensive A mix of young and mature trees is

management, and 3) community-wide essential if canopy cover is to remain Opportunity lost? support. relatively constant over time. Some level The U.S. Department of Agriculture initiated a noble but ill-fated national project called the Urban Resources Partnership to of tree inventory is necessary to monitor provide a basis for recognising the value of the natural resources HEALTHY TREES this. There is tremendous genetic in urban areas and create local actions to care for them. The South Florida Community - Urban Resources Partnership was As the engine that drives the urban potential for developing superior formed to assist with the restoration of the entire south Florida forest, the healthy tree resource is the landscape trees. Unfortunately, few trees ecosystem. Before its demise, this four-county Urban Resources Partnership successfully crossed traditional political boundaries most important component in the currently grown and sold as clones in the and embraced the need for a sustainable urban forest to help the system. As designers or implementers of nursery trade have been purposely $8.7 billion Everglades Restoration project achieve regional sustainability. However, in spite of this isolated success, the the sustainable urban environment, land developed and thoroughly tested for national programme was terminated due to political bickering. development professionals should be resistance to environmental stress. And aware of the quality of trees that will be relatively few native trees have been placed into their plans. The remaining cloned for Urban trees planted in large open tree resource criteria necessary for urban landscape use. volumes of soil have growth and health forest sustainability are canopy cover, age dramatically superior to trees in distribution, species mix, and soil volume Experience with species-specific pests contained root zones. Insufficient rooting and composition. has shown the folly of depending too volume in urban situations often leads to heavily upon one species, no matter how unhealthy trees and/or property damage Though the ideal amount of canopy cover good the quality. For diversity, the best where roots outgrow the planting pit and will vary by climate and region, there is clones, cultivars should be used, and spread immediately below the pavement an optimal degree of cover for every seedlings of many species and genera surface, eventually destroying the should be distributed throughout the city pavement. Emerging technologies can be either as scattered strips, uniform blocks utilised to increase rooting volume under ______or mixtures of individual trees along pavement without damage, or to replace Terry Mock parkways and in parks. When selecting minerals and trace elements that have International Society of Arboriculture, tree species, it is important to emphasise been leached away in the past due to Champion Tree Project International native trees, which are well adapted to erosion, acid ✉ [email protected] the local climate and support native rain, and chemical agriculture.

December 2004 29 ISA The International Society of Arboriculture (ISA) information about is a worldwide professional organisation the costs and benefits dedicated to fostering a greater appreciation for trees and to promoting research, technology, and of their urban the professional practice of arboriculture. The ecosystem: “you can’t ISA has served the tree care industry for over seventy years as a scientific and educational manage what you organisation. ISA was founded in 1924 when a can’t see”. Geographic group of forty individuals, each engaged in a phase of tree work or research, were called information system together by the Connecticut Tree Protection (GIS) technology now Examining Board to discuss shade tree problems and their possible solutions. It was during this assists in mapping meeting that the group identified a need for and analysing the gathering tree care information and for providing a means for its dissemination. The National urban ecosystem and Shade Tree Conference (NSTC) was founded soon illustrating the thereafter. Due to its influence and membership spreading beyond the borders of the United benefits provided to States, the organisation changed its name to the the community. International Shade Tree Conference (ISTC) in 1968. Only a few years later, in 1976, in order to Sophisticated more accurately reflect its broadening scope, the A sustainable urban forest is cost/benefit analysis has been designed name was again changed, this time to the International Society of Arboriculture. ISA fundamentally dependent on the health to produce reliable data on a range of continues to be a dynamic medium through of the tree resource. The optimal practical, cost-effective measures with which arborists around the world share their experience and knowledge for the benefit of structure of urban forests, both above the potential to improve the environment society. ISA, aligned on many fronts with other and below ground, remains the subject of while generating non-monetary social green organisations, is working hard to foster a better understanding of trees and tree care ongoing research. benefits, to describe their effects and through research and the education of make maximum use of the best existing professionals as well as global efforts to inform tree care consumers COMPREHENSIVE MANAGEMENT information. (http://www.isa-arbor.com/home.asp). Comprehensive management of the urban forest requires a broad set of COMMUNITY-WIDE SUPPORT activities, including management of Trees are important in mitigating carbon then we have little likelihood of single trees as well as large stands, dioxide emissions, air pollution and convincing others. education of the community at large, and storm water runoff; reducing energy coordination between bureaucracies that costs, crime rates and medical bills; and As a critical element of sustainability, the are accustomed to acting independently. enhancing biodiversity by improving public must gain greater awareness and, Principles of ecosystem management liveable conditions for most life forms. It understanding of, and must be willing to argue for a natural scale based on is therefore no wonder that experts support urban forests and ecological boundaries such as entire promote healthy urban forests as a key comprehensive ecosystem management.. watersheds. However, political borders environmental component of regional, A proactive approach is necessary that do not respect biology. In the rush to national, and global sustainability. And employs full-time media and marketing make cities modern marvels, nature has yet, USDA Forest (http://www.greenmediaonline.com/aa/ been fine-tuned out of the design Service experts estimate that less than 10 2003/0302/0302tale.asp). Creative and process, ignoring the ecosystem cycles of percent of the U.S. population frequent messages and innovative energy, nutrients, air and water. To build understands or cares about natural educational methods are needed to reach a new awareness of urban communities resource management. the youth. Sustainable urban forestry as ecosystems, therefore, the natural and holds the key to saving our cities. man-made infrastructures that make up Recent advancements in tree care and our communities, the ways they interact, best resource management practices have New principles and practices have been and how the urban forest fits in need to clearly demonstrated that there is discovered to reinvent cities in the new be re-examined. sufficient knowledge and technology to century. By following these principles physically build and maintain sustainable and implementing urban-forest-based New policies need to be developed that urban forests. But how do we generate best management practices, cities can promote positive environmental actions. the collective will to do the job without become economically and Community leaders need better community-wide support? The simple environmentally sustainable as well as answer is that we don’t. People take aesthetically uplifting and enlivening for themselves seriously, but concern for all who dwell there. A project called Transagency Resources for Economic and oneself does not seem to expand Environmental Sustainability (T.R.E.E.S.), developed by TreePeople in Los Angeles, proves that there are enormous sufficiently to embrace concern for the economic, environmental and social benefits to be gained species — and definitely not for all REFERENCES through a cooperative approach to designing our urban National Alliance for Community Trees: ecosystems as functioning watersheds. Using a sophisticated species and ecosystems. This is why the http://www.treelink.org/woodnotes/vol5/no2/art GIS-based cost-benefit computer-modelling program, T.R.E.E.S. urban ecosystem holds the key to global icle1.html) successfully demonstrated that having public agencies, private landowners, the green industry and neighbourhood groups share sustainability. The urban ecosystem is Trees Atlanta: http://www.earthsharega.org/pr5.nsf/0/5D79230 the same vision of the urban forest is a crucial element of where the vast majority of people live. If sustainability. 995B140D285256B02005EB79A/$FILE/64+Trees. (http://www.treepeople.org/trees/cba.htm) we can’t sell the idea of sustainable urban pdf forests to the people who inhabit them,

30 UA-Magazine Economics and Public Value of Urban Forests

Scientific understanding of how urban trees, forests and green space benefit people has expanded substantially in recent years to include social, environmental and economic domains. Despite increasing scientific evidence, there is a lag in policy response in many municipalities.

ocal government policy, regulations and even L departmental activities regarding trees and green space

are often premised on urban Guy Kramer planning and design traditions Enjoying walking under the trees that regard urban nature as the “parsley around the pig.” There URBAN FOREST ECONOMICS experiencing similar benefits, are notable exceptions, but few Economic valuation translates both immediately and local governments have urban forest services and indefinitely. In addition, use or developed citywide, functions into terms that enhance experience of benefits by one or comprehensive frameworks for public value. The urban forest is multiple people doesn’t diminish planning and managing urban an urban resource system that the encounters of others, which is green to achieve specific purposes can be cultivated and stewarded considered a non-rival situation or functions. on all lands within a municipality, by economists (Daly and Farley including private and public 2004). Too often, parks, urban property, as well as in all agriculture gardens, forests and socioeconomic zones. While There are few private firms other city green are managed on a definitions vary, this paper willing to invest in public goods, site-by-site, haphazard basis. encompasses all trees and forests for the nonexclusive and nonrival Urban forests (and all urban in cities, from trees placed in conditions of the urban forest will Urban forests are natural capital) can be thought of street sidewalks to wooded rarely generate profits. green as green infrastructure. Research patches. Active management of Government agencies have infrastructure has demonstrated that forest the urban forest entails costs of traditionally invested in public benefits are optimised by planting, maintenance, materials resources that members of society citywide, long-term management and disposal. These investment intuitively accept as providing so that urban forests attain their costs are readily tallied and value, such as education or highest productivity. The term accounted for in budgets of emergency response systems. “public value” describes widely municipal agencies or user Sustained political support of held public perceptions regarding groups. such investments is more likely if the function and service economic benefits can be contributions of any public entity Returns on investment are less demonstrated. (Moore 1995). Perceived public easily calculated. Industrial Economists have developed value plays an important role in forests are managed for market theory and methods for assessing strategic public services goods. Dynamics of supply and public goods values. Many management. Urban forests (and demand establish prices and approaches were first developed agriculture) will be adequately revenues for resource products, to assess the economic value of planned and stewarded only if such as timber. In contrast many non-market wildland resources, urban citizens and elected “products” of urban forests are and are transferable to urban decision makers recognise and public goods. Multiple “owners” settings. Urban valuations often understand the full range of invest in a city’s natural capital, start with a small-scale scientific services that trees and green generating “products” in the form study. ______space provide. Expanded public of intangible functions and Kathleen L. Wolf value perceptions precede benefits for each resident, visitor Valuation studies have addressed University of Washington, commitments of adequate budget and user. The experience of these many facets of urban forest Seattle, USA and staff resources for urban benefits by any single person does benefits. Multiple models and ✉ [email protected] forest infrastructure. not exclude others from methods have been applied to

December 2004 31 conditions in North American while others may travel some historic and current levels of Economic valuation approaches: cities, and adaptation to other distance, and their spending on urban forest canopy cover have Economic valuation methods can regions is possible. Urban forest meals, fuel, accommodations and been calculated for thirty North be applied to a variety of situations, including planning for functions and benefits should be souvenirs can be pro-rated American cities (American urban green. Here are a few key enabled in all districts of depending on the amount of time Forests 2004). Based on concepts about valuation: • Use value – Goods that are metropolitan areas for they are dedicated to a park or forest visit modelling of air pollution and harvested from green space important to the full spectrum of as part of a total trip. stormwater mitigation and (such as food or fuel) may have market value, or substitute for socio-economic groups (Dwyer et energy impacts the annual values market goods. al. 1992). Hedonic or amenity pricing is the of urban forest services are • Environmental services – Natural areas and ecosystems measurement of a price estimated. For instance, the provide services to society (such ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT increment that correlates to a Urban Ecosystem Analysis of the as stormwater reduction or air pollution mitigation) and the SERVICES desirable condition or situation. Washington, D.C., metropolitan costs of creating such services Urban forests can be planned to Numerous studies (in North area concluded that tree cover using built systems are deferred. • Hedonic pricing – The value of directly affect the economic America) have concluded that a had reduced stormwater storage an amenity (such as the effect of development of a municipality or quality forest or green space has a costs by US$4.7 billion and a park on a home price) is determined as an increment of region. The most direct valuation positive economic ripple effect on generated annual air quality purchase price. is to estimate marketable goods, nearby properties (Crompton savings of $49.8 million. Micro- • Travel cost method – This method calculates the costs that or the value of purchase 2001). Appraised property values scale studies focus on street tree people are willing to add to a substitutes. For example, urban of homes that are adjacent to costs and benefits. Costs include trip to experience a desirable amenity or landscape. agroforestry practices can parks and open spaces are tree planting, irrigation, pruning • Contingent valuation – The produce human and animal foods typically about 8 to 20 percent and other maintenance. willingness-to-pay for an actual or hypothetical change in and medicinal materials, thus higher than those of comparable Calculated benefits include environment, lifestyle, or contributing to urban food properties elsewhere. These energy savings, reduced landscape condition is stated by consumers, often in surveys. security. Localised food values are capitalised by a atmospheric carbon dioxide, • Externalities estimation – This production reduces the costs of municipality when property taxes improved air quality, and reduced assesses the costs of a negative consequence of a landscape distribution systems needed if are assessed, or when taxes are stormwater runoff. This condition or change, such as the food is transported from rural paid on a property sale. One economic data is mathematically health costs associated with human inactivity in cities that areas. Useable non-timber forest study found that rental rates of combined to generate per tree net are not walkable. products include animal fodder, commercial office properties benefits figures. For instance, a building materials, fuels, and were about 7 percent higher on 2002 analysis for Seattle (U.S.A.) handicraft materials. Aging trees sites having a quality landscape, indicated that per tree average will be removed to prevent injury including trees. annual net benefits were $1 to $8 and property damage; urban for a small tree, $19 to $25 for a wood utilisation programmes Studies on how trees affect medium-sized tree, and $48 to provide materials to artists, shoppers’ behaviour in retail $53 for a large tree (CUFR 2002). furniture makers and business districts employ the homebuilders. Diverse forest contingent valuation method. Environmental benefits products can be inventoried Consumers claim they are willing modelling is often based on across a city, and use values then to pay about 9 to 12 percent more deferred costs; that is, if trees compiled, based on prevailing for products in downtown were not present, property market prices. Regions with a shopping areas with trees, versus owners or the government would tourism industry can use visitor in comparable districts without have to invest in additional surveys to tally expenses incurred trees. Customer service, merchant engineered infrastructure or by forest and green space users helpfulness, and product quality equipment to remedy using the travel cost method. Users are all judged to be better by environmental problems. For living nearby may spend little, shoppers in places with trees. instance, a tree canopy intercepts rainwater, thereby reducing the Property values of homes in or adjacent to parks are higher ENVIRONMENTAL SERVICES amount of water falling to the Ecological systems provide a ground and running off into myriad of services to human stormwater collection systems, societies. Ecological economists thus saving a city the have applied valuation models to construction costs of greater the environmental services that capacity pipes and storage are provided by the world’s facilities. forests, wetlands, oceans and other natural areas (Daily 1997). Valuation models incrementally Most of these calculations have include additional environmental addressed non-urban situations, functions. Dysfunctional urban but recent work is city based. natural systems impact the lives Using digital satellite imagery and of millions of people. Tree

Guy Kramer aerial photographs, the extent of planting and management can be

32 UA-Magazine used to stabilise soils, reduce human communities generates A citywide assessment of tree and A city would never build a road, water or electrical system piece by erosion, prevent floods, reduce numerous psychosocial benefits. forest occurrence is an essential piece, with no advanced planning or particulate air pollutants and Kuo and partners (2003) have activity. Even the most coordination. Green infrastructure is the idea that nature in cities should improve groundwater recharge – found that having trees within rudimentary inventory will be administered in an integrated all with economic consequences. high density neighbourhoods enable strategic improvements. way, just as grey infrastructure systems have been. lowers levels of fear, contributes Knowledge about forest resources Green infrastructure planning HUMAN SERVICES to less violent and aggressive and land use enables planning for includes: identification of elements and functions; needs and desired Human health can be assessed behaviour, encourages better multi-purpose use of urban lands services; adequate mapping and for economic value in two neighbour relationships and to multiply economic returns. For monitoring; cost/benefit assessment; and strategic planning of nature domains – physical and mental better coping skills. School instance, lands that are dedicated capital improvements, in phases if conditions. Urban people lead children with ADHD show fewer to other infrastructure purposes, necessary (more information at: more sedentary lives, which symptoms and girls show more such as power line corridors, can www.greeninfrastructure.net) increases the numbers of urban academic self-discipline if they be managed to grow products for dwellers who are overweight or have access to natural settings. nearby neighbourhoods, from obese. These conditions Hospital patients recover more fuel wood to food. In Japan urban contribute (over the life of the quickly and require fewer pain- green spaces are planned for both average person) to increases in killing medications when having recreational use and as staging chronic disease, such as diabetes, a view of nature. Office workers areas for disaster relief services, if and traumatic diseases, such as with a view of nature are more ever needed. cancer and heart disease. productive, report fewer National health organisations in illnesses, and have higher job In the best of situations urban the U.S. have conducted baseline satisfaction. These are important, forestry involves an ecosystem studies on personal activity but often unnoticed, effects for approach of urban tree levels, and how to motivate urban people who have views of management encompassing long- people to engage in basic trees and nature in the course of term planning, interdisciplinary physical activities, such as their normal, everyday activities professional coordination and walking and biking. Other and experiences. Although much local participation. Ultimately the research explores how enabling work remains to be done, in aim is to secure the health and forms of urban design (such as theory all of these scientific vitality of urban forest resources, street layout, the presence of findings could be translated to and, thereby the sustained sidewalks and the proximity of economic values. delivery of benefits for current parks) encourages and future generations of urban activity. GREEN INFRASTRUCTURE dwellers. STRATEGY The economic consequences of Elevating the status of trees and The economics of wild land REFERENCES routine, mild exercise are green space in municipal leaders’ renewable resources and American Forests. 2004. Urban Ecosystem Analysis. www.ameri- enormous, when aggregated agendas and budgets depends on ecological systems has received canforests.org/resources/rea/ across entire cities or nations making the case that nature’s much attention in recent years. U.S. Centers for Disease Control (CDC 2004). Again, deferred costs assets, if well managed, provide Valuation of the services of (CDC). 2004. Nutrition and Physical Activity. are possible, as medical expenses favourable economic returns for regional and even global www.cdc.gov/nccdphp/dnpa/sur- are lower for people who engage the entire community. This ecosystems has expanded social veill.htm in routine physical activities and outlook contrasts with the perceptions of nature and of how Center for Urban Forest Research (CUFR), USDA Forest Service. exercise. The youth are attitudes in many jurisdictions the production capacity of http://wcufre.ucdavis.edu/ particularly at risk in the U.S. that trees and green space are ecosystems far exceeds the Crompton, J. L. 2001. Parks and Estimates for obesity-associated discretionary spending items, and traditional market commodities Economic Development. Chicago, IL: American Planning Association. annual hospital costs for youths are of low priority when that may be associated with them. Daily, G. (ed.). 1997. Nature’s averaged about $35 million measured against other municipal Fewer comprehensive studies Services: Societal Dependence on between 1979 and 1981, and needs that are assumed to more have been done regarding the Natural Ecosystems. Washington D.C.: Island Press. nearly tripled to $127 million directly address human health, public goods of urban resource Daly, H. E. and J. Farley. 2004. during 1997-1999. Weight- safety and welfare. Repositioning systems. While theory and Ecological Economics: Principles related medical expense trends the political status of urban valuation approaches may be and Applications. Washington D.C.: Island Press. for adults are equally alarming. forests has to be followed by similar, city settings can be more U.S. Environmental Protection Inactive adults who increase their supportive actions and a complex landscapes, making it Agency (EPA). 2004. Heat Island participation in regular moderate consistent supply of resources for more difficult to isolate the Effect. www.epa.gov/heatisland/ Kuo, F. E. 2003. The role of arbori- physical activity may save about implementation. Optimisation of specific economic contributions culture in a healthy social ecology. $1,000 per year. benefits and values requires a of nature. Yet the effort continues, Journal of Arboriculture, 29,3, 148- comprehensive and systematic, or providing compelling reasons for 155. Moore, M. H. 1995. Creating Public Mental health is a second arena green infrastructure, approach to cities to justify continued and Value: Strategic Management in of health benefits with economic conserving, creating and consistent investment in urban Government. Cambridge, MA: consequences. The presence of stewarding urban forests. trees and green space. Harvard University Press. trees and “nearby nature” in

December 2004 33 The Policy, Legislative and Institutional Framework for Urban Forestry in Zimbabwe

The mismatch between the huge demand and consumption of forestry products in Zimbabwe’s urban areas, and the poor development of urban forestry as an important sector prompts one to take a look at the legislative, institutional and policy framework for urban forestry in the country.

he concept of urban forestry in Zimbabwe is applicable to pockets T of forested plots that remain in the urban areas, as well as to newly

established woodlots and vegetated parks M.D.P. for recreational and aesthetic purposes. Urban trees and forests provide many products Urban forestry also covers the planting and maintenance of ornamental trees, THE (NATIONAL) POLICY forestry areas and forestry issues in the shrubs and bushes along the main FRAMEWORK country. Its responsibilities include: streets, roads and avenues, by private The forests that the government is advice on all forestry matters and making residents to beautify their homes, and in concerned with and that are specifically recommendations to the Minister of undeveloped areas. mentioned in government’s policy are Environment and Tourism; control, not located in the urban areas of management and exploitation of state Urban trees and forests provide firewood Zimbabwe. About 54% of the land area of forests, forest nurseries and plantations; for energy, timber for use in construction, the country (21 million hectares) is under establishment, maintenance, fruits, medicines and other useful minor woodland and forest. None of these improvement and renewal of plantations forest products. Wood is still the main recognised forests are located in the and forest nurseries. Given these wide- source of cooking energy, because urban areas of the country as the draft ranging powers and adequate resources alternative sources, when available, are policy clearly shows. It therefore does not and capacity, the Forestry Commission in unaffordable to the majority of urban make any specific mention of urban Zimbabwe can play a pivotal role in residents. It is illegal to harvest and forests or the need to protect, create or ensuring the growth of urban forestry in market forestry products without a conserve them. The policy does, however, the country. permit, wherever they are found. Despite give general strategic directions on the the existence of such legislation there has management and conservation of forests THE LEGISLATIVE FRAMEWORK been serious loss of trees within the in the country. Some of these strategic National Laws major urban centers in Zimbabwe. The directions can be used from a policy The Forest Act: Chapter 19:05 is the loss of trees within urban areas has led to point of view to encourage the creation of principal Act dealing with forest issues in another problem, that of long distance urban forests in the country. Zimbabwe. It provides for the marketing of firewood. This has resulted establishment of a Commission for the in a number of rural lands surrounding These strategic directions include the administration, control and management the urban centres such as Harare, strengthening of the Forestry of state forests. It also provides for the Chitungwiza, Bulawayo and Gweru Commission’s capacity to provide advice setting aside of state forests, protection loosing trees for firewood. and support for implementing of private forests, trees and forest sustainable forest management produce, control of tree cutting for programmes. mining purposes, conservation of timber resources and the compulsory ______FORESTRY COMMISSION afforestation of private land. The Act Makanatsa Makonese and Shingirayi Mushamba The Forestry Commission, established in deals extensively with forestry issues in MDP Zimbabwe 1954, is the sole government institution the country generally without specifically ✉ [email protected] that is directly tasked with managing touching on the issue of urban forestry.

34 UA-Magazine There are general provisions in the Act from the environmental, social, economic planting of trees but also ensure that the that can, however, be used to address the and developmental perspectives and in trees are protected in order to sustain the issue of urban forestry. relation to global trends. The Act touches growth of urban forestry. Protection of private forests on forestry as an environmental issue, The Harare (Control of Vegetation and Section 37 of the Act states that “The particularly the control of invasive exotic Waste Material) ) By-laws Statutory owner of any private land who has placed species, which will be of relevance to the Instrument 704/1982 require the owner or intends to place such land or any establishment of plantations in or occupier of any private land to ensure portion of such land under a system of Zimbabwe, usually established using that the vegetation that occurs on their forest management approved by the exotic trees. The most popular exotic property, whether natural or introduced, Forestry Commission may make an species that are used in the establishment is kept in a neat, clean and tidy condition. application to the Minister for the of plantations in Zimbabwe include the By implication such owners and declaration that such land or a portion of Australian wattle, the pine as well as occupiers are by law allowed to plant and such land shall be protected under this eucalyptus trees. The three species have maintain trees and other plants provided Act”. Most of the titled land in the not been declared exotic species by the they keep them in a tidy condition. country is located in the urban, farming government although the wattle is and plantation areas with rural land considered as such by environmentalist City of Bulawayo By-laws regarded as state land. Only those who and conservationists. Section 10 of this city’s by-laws states hold title to their property can therefore that “No person shall cultivate any make use of these provisions to establish MUNICIPAL BY-LAWS municipal land or plant, sow, tend or private forests on their land. Urban Local authorities in Zimbabwe are reap any plant, shrub, bush, flower, dwellers can therefore also take allowed to make by-laws to govern issues vegetable, fruit or crop on any municipal advantage of this provision by making that occur within their areas of land without the prior written approval sure that they establish plantations on jurisdiction. There are by-laws that have of the Council” The by-laws clearly allow their land, which will then be protected been put in place by some urban local cultivation of municipal land provided by the law. A big incentive provided by authorities to deal with the issues of authority has been sought from the this provision is that the forest cannot be urban forestry, amongst other things. Council. The types of plants that can be accessed or destroyed by other persons Harare and Bulawayo are the two largest planted on this municipal land are not since it enjoys the protection of the law. cities in Zimbabwe. limited and therefore forestry can be The owner of the forest on the other accommodated in the context of these hand is not restricted in the way that he City of Harare By-laws provisions. The only hurdle is that there or she may use or exploit the forest and The Harare (Trees and Plants) By-laws are no regulations in this city that its produce (Section 42 (a)). Indigenous Statutory Instrument 141/1987 allow specifically provide for the planting and timber on private land is, however, private individuals to plant trees or any management of trees, which could be subject to Forestry Commission and other plants in public places as long as used confidently in promoting urban Ministerial regulation regarding its they have permission of the Director of forestry in the city. exploitation for sale or manufacturing Works in the Council. Section 4 (1) states purposes. that “No person shall without the CONCLUSION consent of the Director of Works plant Forests and forest produce and resources Compulsory afforestation of private land any tree or plant in or upon any public in Zimbabwe are respected and regarded In its preamble, the Act provides for the open space, public street, road, footpath as immensely beneficial to the country compulsory afforestation of private land. or sidewalk”. The reverse of this, and its people with respect to their This is usually done when the private however, is that with the authority of the cultural, economic, social and aesthetic land is degraded and run down and the Director of Works, a person can plant a values. In communal areas people owner has made no effort to rehabilitate tree or any other plant in the mentioned depend on the forests for fuel, food, the land leading to other environmental places in the City of Harare, thereby medicine, pasture for their livestock, problems like soil erosion and siltation of promoting urban forestry. The planting poles for building their homes and many public rivers, dams and other water of the trees or plants is to be supervised other things. In the urban areas on the sources. The Forestry Commission is then by the Director of Works, who is also other hand forests are a way of allowed to force the owner of the private supposed to determine whether any beautifying the landscape and can be a land to afforestate his/her land. As expense in relation to the planting of any source of income if managed on a indicated earlier, land in the urban areas tree or plant shall be borne by the person commercial scale. Either way they play is usually privately owned and when an applying to plant the tree or by the an important role, hence the need to owner of urban land is forced to Council. In terms of section 8 of the by- revisit the legislative, policy and afforestate the land, urban forestry will laws, it is an offence to willfully and institutional frameworks for urban be promoted in the process. without the prior written authority of the forestry in Zimbabwe. There is a need to Director of Works, destroy, damage or positively and specifically provide for The Environmental Management Act remove any tree, tree guard lawn or urban forestry so that forests are This is one of the newer pieces of flower bed from any place where it is established and nurtured in urban areas legislation in Zimbabwe that are planted. The by-laws do not only where they have been destroyed by regarded as progressive in that they look promote the growth of regulated urban development. at issues from different perspectives, i.e forestry in the city by allowing the

December 2004 35 Urban Greening and Health: merging the issues in Kenya

Urban trees protect reservoirs from erosion decreasing aesthetic look of industrial sites and siltation, stabilise hilly or sloping areas, and hazardous conditions at the minimise air pollution through carbon workplace. sequestration and improve health and safety conditions in urban environments . In APPROACHES addition, beautification of cities through tree Several approaches are being planting can stimulate investment, develop implemented, including tree planting business and increase opportunities for campaigns, training workshops, and the Dennis Osino sustainable industrial development. use of audio visual tools such as videos Tree planting exercise at All Pack and posters, all of which are targeted at Industries industrial sites in Nairobi city and in the ased on this premise a major actor small urban centre of Webuye in Western nursery development and silviculture in Kenyan civil society, i.e. the trade Kenya. In Nairobi, two industrial sites techniques are made available to workers B unions affiliated with forestry and have so far been “greened”. These sites via workshops and seminars organised by the building sectors in Kenya, together were chosen because they constitute a the IFBWW. In Webuye, Western Kenya, with a European partner (FNV–Bouw strong membership base for the the initiative has established a tree nursery Netherlands) and under the umbrella of participating unions. The “workplace with a variety of seedlings for urban the International Federation of Building forestry” project was launched in Athi agroforestry, including fruit trees and and Wood Workers (IFBWW), initiated River Mining Ltd., whose workers are ornamentals. These seedlings are used greening activities in industrial affiliated with KQMWU. Over 500 trees during tree planting campaigns on sites/workplaces as a campaign tool to were planted at this site to moderate important calendar days such as the advocate for improved health and safety temperatures, restore value to the mines World Environment Day, Workers conditions at the workplace. The three and enhance the aesthetic value of the site. Memorial Day and National Tree Planting unions, i.e. Kenya Union of Printing, Species selection for the quarry Days. The initiative currently involves Publishing, Paper Manufacturing and rehabilitation depended on such hilltop afforestation in collaboration with Allied Workers (KUPRIPUPA), Kenya characteristics as hardiness (i.e. resistance Webuye Municipality, the Forest Quarry and Mine Workers Union to harsh conditions), ability to fix nitrogen, Department and gateway communities in (KQMWU) and Kenya Building, and a spreading root system, among the area. To ensure that food security and Construction, Timber, Furniture and others. At the second site – All Pack living conditions are improved, the Allied Employees Union (KBCTF&AIEU), Industries Ltd. – 150 trees of various initiative involves communities in jointly run this forestry project as a species were also planted. Workers at this rehabilitating water springs and component of an occupational health and company are affiliated with KUPRIPUPA. protecting water catchment areas through safety and environment (OHSE) campaign Trees planted at the sites were selected agreed partnership arrangements. Posters to advocate for safe working conditions based on such features as evergreen emphasising the importance of tree (Opanga, 2003). leaves, deep rooting systems, spreading planting are frequently disseminated at crown for shade and a physically attractive workplaces to ensure that workers Among the challenges that the initiative morphology. continue to play a key role in the attempts to tackle are the decreasing development of their urban environment. health and safety conditions at the The tree species planted on the two sites workplace, which are caused by the lack of include: Azaderachta indica (neem), Schinus LESSONS LEARNED active joint Health and Safety Committees, molle (pepper tree), Grevillea robusta, The ongoing initiative is internalising the low income of urban workers (that is Prunus africana, Olea africana Bischovia lessons learned by participating in joint insufficient to meet basic living japonica, Araucaria angustifolia, Cassia fora organised by policy players, such as requirements), low participation of siamea, Callistemon citrinus, Casuarina District Environmental Management industrialists in the forestry and building equisetifolia and fruit trees such as Committees, and by promoting important sector in tree planting activities, lack of Mangifera indica (mango) and Persia calendar days such as National Tree wood resources for supplying industrial americana, among others. Planting Day and World Environment processes, and last but not least, the Day. Partnerships and alliance building This kind of industrial campaign attempts among trade unions, industrialists, to lure the management of such municipal or local councils, the forest ______companies to participate in urban forestry department and local communities have Dennis Osino, activities as a way of enhancing their enabled the initiative to attain success in Paul S. Opanga position in matters pertaining to areas such as resource mobilisation. National Museums of Kenya, Nairobi, Kenya Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). Through this joint approach, the ✉ [email protected] or [email protected] Training on basic tree management, tree programme has developed a participatory

36 UA-Magazine action plan with defined roles for local the health and safety of workers. These communities, trade unions, industrialists campaigns have created fora for discussing and government agencies. ways and means of tackling the AIDS/HIV pandemic at the workplace. The skills and tact of the trade union movement in organising campaigns can Future partners in urban forestry were also serve as a useful example for the lobbying identified, the like World Agroforestry and advocacy efforts of other actors in Center (ICRAF) and local authorities, e.g. civil society involved in environmental Kisumu Municipality, with other municipal issues, such as NGOs and CBOs. . The councils, the forest service, regional unions brought in key players, i.e. authorities, local communities, NGOs and workers, who are definitely affected by the other stakeholders as proposed in the new absence of pro-poor policies at national Forest Policy of Kenya. One such initiative Sammy Carsan level. in Kisumu is the Local Authority Service At the market of Kisumu: A woman sorts different The initiative has revealed that not much Delivery Action Plans (LASDAP). tree species and raw parts for sale as medicine in information currently exists on the Kibuye open air market, Kisumu. characteristics or features of tree types or RECOMMENDATIONS species that can support urban These activitier need be integrated in In addition, workers with landscaping and agroforestry. The species used for municipal policies. Urban planners should gardening skills need refresher courses on workplace forestry were chosen mostly for work closely with industrialists in this era aspects of urban forestry. their aesthetic value or ornamental of CSR to put in place an improved urban Relevant stakeholders including qualities, so there is a clear need to environment that can contribute to researchers, academic institutions and the introduce more multipurpose trees increased food. There is a need to municipality need to disseminate (MPTs) in urban agroforestry. This incorporate more specific tree information on best practices that relate to initiative further revealed that the concept management and multipurpose trees in urban forestry to other interested parties of urban forestry can be readily sold to urban forestry and special programmes such as workers and the community at industrialists based in urban areas because within Occupational Health, Safety and large. of their interest in CSR. Environment (OHSE) education. The proposed Kenya Forest Bill 2004, which REFERENCES The campaigns at industrial sites in urban stipulates that at least 5% of land under the Kuchelmeister, G. (1998), Urban Green for Local Needs – areas have given the unionists the control of municipal authorities be put improving quality of life through multipurpose urban forestry opportunity to educate workers on the under tree cover, is a step in the right in developing countries. Proceedings of the First International Conference on Quality of Life in Cities, 4 – 6 March 1998, preventable nature of workplace accidents direction that will increase opportunities Singapore, volume 1, pp 181 – 191. and ill health. Furthermore, the unions for urban tree planting. have recognised that tree planting Industries, schools, hospitals and other Opanga, P. S. (2003), Unions in Afforestation Solidarity in Kenya. Proceedings of XII World Forestry Congress, 21 – 29 campaigns at the workplace give them the institutions based in urban areas need to September 2003, Quebec, Canada. opportunity to highlight issues affecting be encouraged to establish tree nurseries.

Role of stakeholders

Actors RESPONSIBILITIES

Trade Unions • KQMWU - Educating, mobilising and creating awareness among workers and the community at large • KUPRIPUPA on the importance of a clean, green urban environment • KBCTF&AIEU - Sponsoring the above three local unions by financing their activities and in solidarity support • FNV Bouw – Netherlands

Local Communities - Provision of labour and seedlings for planting - Identification of livelihood support systems, e.g. water points Government Agencies • Municipal Authority - Provision of enabling environment and fora for all other stakeholders, e.g. by providing land • Forest Department and access for tree development, institutionalising celebrations such as National Tree Planting Day, World Environment Day, World Water Day and Workers Memorial Day Industrialists - Technical advice on required tree species • All Packs • Athi River Mining - Provision of opportunities for workers to participate in tree planting and to be trained by • Rai Ply unions on OHSE. • Pan Paper Ltd - Facilitating the creation of joint Health and Safety Committees at their workplaces

December 2004 37 Bringing Town and Country Closer Together: Community forests in North East England

The Community Forest programme in England, announced in 1988, started as an experimental initiative by the Countryside Agency and the Forestry Commission, with an ambitious vision for the creation of well-wooded landscapes in and around major urban areas to be used for work, wildlife, recreation and education.

ne of the largest physical regeneration programmes ever O launched in the UK, the initiative comprises 12 designated “Community Forests” that cover some 450,000 hectares, or nearly 2% of UK land area. The Community Forests programme has evolved and grown into an important exponent of landscape-scale change, and is helping to bring strategic environmental thinking to a wide range of environmental, social and economic agendas.

Implementation of community forestry requires public

involvement Jonathan Scurlock

Watergate Forest Park, Gateshead. A new community woodland on reclaimed colliery land in the Great North Forest, North East England. COMMUNITY FORESTRY IN ENGLAND local communities; respect for social, old, which used to cover extensive parts The term “community forestry” is applied economic and cultural relationships of northern Europe, they are not in a number of different contexts around between people and forests; and a continuous plantings of trees. Instead, the world, although its definition and decentralised and participatory approach these Community Forests comprise a rich characteristics remain quite similar. The to forest management” (1) mosaic of wooded landscapes and land International Institute for Sustainable uses including farmland, villages, leisure Development (Winnipeg, Canada) Developed, as well as developing, enterprises, nature areas and public open describes it as “including local people in countries can benefit from community spaces. They are intended to create areas planning and implementing forestry forestry, in urban and periurban areas as rich in wildlife, whilst making provisions activities”, whereas the South African well as rural regions. For example, the for access, leisure and education - government sees it as a way of presence of substantial amounts of providing attractive areas in which to “addressing the national problem of brown-field, underused and derelict land live, conduct business and enjoy leisure social deprivation, impoverishment, is one of the common features of all 12 time. deforestation and land degradation”. Community Forests in England. Working According to the UN Food and with land agents, landowners and landfill Woodlands provide a good environment Agriculture Organisation, community agencies, Community Forest partnership for recreation and can absorb relatively forestry entails the “control, management organisations are helping to regenerate large numbers of visitors without loss of and use of forest and tree resources by and restore undervalued areas into visual amenity or damage to habitats. wildlife-rich, multipurpose woodlands Promoting recreation in the Community and green spaces in a periurban setting. Forests includes maximising access to ______new and existing areas of woodland, Clive Davies and Jonathan Scurlock In England, the Community Forests cover creating new and interesting routes for North East Community Forests, Tyne & Wear, UK large areas around the edges of towns walking, cycling and riding, and ✉ [email protected] and cities - but unlike the great forests of providing opportunities for leisure

38 UA-Magazine activities ranging from small picnic areas The North East has two designated THE POLICY DIMENSION to woodland parks. Further Community Forests – The Tees Forest (set Community Forests have already opportunities for developing amenity in the valley of the River Tees) and the contributed to the evolution of forestry exist through the creation and Great North Forest (covering the lower policy in England, from its traditional maintenance of small woodlands in more Tyne and Wear river valleys and north focus on timber and rural employment to densely populated urban areas. County Durham). Established in 1991 a multifunctional agenda based on the Greenways (car-free roadways, often and 1990, respectively, they are highly contribution of woodlands to economic tree-lined) may be established to link regarded as successful partnership regeneration, rural development, points of interest, by connecting them to organisations, involving a total of 11 out recreation and access, environment and existing networks of cycle paths and of the region’s 25 local government conservation. The Community Forests footpaths. authorities, as well as the national also offer proven and effective Countryside Agency and Forestry partnership mechanisms through which NORTH EAST COMMUNITY Commission. The Great North Forest to integrate urban and rural policy and FORESTS (http://www.greatnorthforest.co.uk/) deliver sustainable development. The UK Extending roughly 80 km to the north, covers an area of 249 square kilometres, government’s Urban White Paper and south and west of the city of Newcastle, while The Tees Forest Sustainable Communities Plan set out an the North East of England is the smallest (http://www.teesforest.org.uk/) ambitious agenda for delivering an urban English region, with about 4% of the UK’s encompasses some 350 square renaissance, as well as addressing the population, land area and economic kilometres. These recognised “brand” problems of neighbourhood decline and output. Formerly dominated by energy names have now been brought together the need for new housing in different production, heavy industry and under one heading as North East parts of England. Demonstrating and manufacturing, the region has seen Community Forests. strengthening the relationship between enormous change over the past 30 years, town and country, through mechanisms and is still dealing with the economic, ACHIEVEMENTS such as community forestry, can enable social and structural consequences of its Over the last 13 years, the two this rural and urban renewal. past - including a legacy of derelict and Community Forest organisations in unused urban and periurban land. North East England have undertaken a In England a process of devolution and Average incomes are lower than in most wide range of activities in urban and decentralisation of decision making to of the rest of the UK, and some of the periurban areas, helping to create a more the regions is underway. Already a most socially deprived living conditions attractive and well-wooded environment significant amount of planning and are found in the North East - although with accessible and sustainable managed decision making is taking place within there are wide variations in standards of landscapes that enhance the health, well the North East region, and the North living across the region. The extensive being and quality of life of the local East Community Forests are contributing rural areas of the region were people. High-quality, well-wooded to this process of governance through traditionally dependent on farming, functional environments have been action, research and participation in the forestry and mineral extraction, but created in the rural-urban fringe, development of new regional strategies tourism has grown in importance, delivering a better quality of life for the such as the 2004 North East Regional building on the region’s strong cultural people of the region. The environmental Forest Strategy. The emphasis on identity and outstanding natural projects translate regional and national decentralised government planning, in landscapes. policy strategies into practical action. the form of Regional Spatial Strategies as well as Local Development Frameworks and Community Strategies, in Community forests in the periurban landscape: view from Falkland Ridge, conjunction with the long-term near New Marske in the Tees Forest, North East England.” Community Forest plans, will help to unlock the potential of those periurban areas termed the rural-urban fringe.

COMMUNITY ENGAGEMENT AND LEARNING Implementation of community forestry requires public involvement. North East Community Forests are increasing the involvement and inclusion of communities and individuals, and empowering communities to become strong advocates for community forestry and local environmental action. The long-term objective is to create a substantial caucus of support within the community, which will in turn influence

Jonathan Scurlock politicians and decision makers to take

December 2004 39 positive steps that aid Community Forest Renewables and Recyclables implementation. A key new area is the ‘Renewables and Recyclables’ project. This project By promoting and delivering is facilitating the development of wood and other biomass fuels as a programmes that foster local source of renewable energy, helping to meet regional targets for environmental action, the Community sustainable energy as well as waste management, recycling and forestry Forests partnership is seeking to create policy, and the greening of derelict land. Increasing the use of biomass “‘community forests for all”. This has the energy within the region, by sustainable utilisation of the woodland added benefit of raising awareness of our resource and other wood or biomass-derived feedstock, is consistent with activities in areas of society that are not the broader aims of the Community Forests. It is only by demonstrating normally affected by the issue of the economic value of forests and woodlands, together with the ‘forestry’ , such as planning policy, health environmental benefits of biomass fuels (such as offsetting carbon services, regeneration, transportation emissions), that the wider value of periurban forestry can be and economic development. Tools to appreciated. involve the community include theatre productions, festivals and events, public transport initiatives, labour market training schemes and conservation volunteering and training. East Community Forests programme in national contexts, including both the past year have shown high value- developed and developing countries, to The periurban environment provides added outcomes. help bring rural and urban areas closer opportunities for hands-on learning in a together wherever community forestry is variety of outdoor settings. The A NEW PHASE OF SUPPORT AND practised. educational sector of the programme ACTIVITY supports all parts of the UK national The timeframe 2004 – 2009 will be a CONCLUDING REMARKS school curriculum, with an emphasis on period of new challenges as the Community Forests in our country and environmental education and rural Community Forest organisations our region are contributing to the mainstream their work into new regional broader modern aims of “liveability” and The environmental projects structures. The context for this process is “sustainable communities”. These are translate regional and national nevertheless encouraging, including terms which attempt to describe the policy into practical action. increasing regionalisation, a growing improved quality of life sought by the culture of partnerships, and recognition citizens of many countries that are of the role forests, woods and trees play caught up in a process of rapid social and studies. Further learning opportunities in sustaining the quality of life in the demographic change, with the ebb and include vocational training for older region. flow of migration from rural to urban students as well as “lifelong learning” for areas and back again. The success of adults, especially in the practical skills The Community Forest organisations in urban and periurban “liveability” policies needed to maintain the environmental North East England have now will be measured by whether they help to and recreational fabric of these periurban established themselves as “North East produce not only nicer neighbourhoods, areas. A key dimension in the approach is Community Forests Limited”. This a new but happier inhabitants as well. therefore to employ community not-for-profit company, owned and

engagement and education specialists operated by public sector partners, with a NOTE within the Community Forest teams. tightly defined role as: a strategic partner 1) References are taken from the following sites (Web for the region’s existing Community pages accessed August 2004:): http://www.dwaf.gov.za/Forestry/default.asp FINANCING AND VALUE ADDED Forests and their local authority partners; Department of Water Affairs and Forestry, Pretoria, Financial support for the Community a new delivery partner for the Forestry South Forests in England comes from a range of Commission and Regional Forest http://www.iisd.org/didigest/mar99/mar99.6.htm http://www.iisd.org/didigest/glossary.htm: sources. The Department for Strategy; and an innovative project International Institute for Sustainable Development, Environment, Food and Rural Affairs, the partner for the regional development Winnipeg, Canada Forestry Commission and the agency ONE NorthEast, the Countryside www.fao.org/forestry/site/14111/en : UN Food and Agriculture Organisation, Rome, Italy 2003 Countryside Agency fund forest planting, Agency, its successors, and other regional http://www.countryside.gov.uk/Publications/ management, restoration of derelict land agencies. articles/index.asp: and provision of leisure facilities. Evaluation of the Community Forest Programme, Countryside Agency, Cheltenham, UK Additional support comes from North East Community Forests Limited partnerships with local governments and (NECF) aims to achieve its wider goals by industry, as well as the voluntary sector. accessing investment funds, piloting new A major reason why Community Forest initiatives and facilitating land ownership partnerships were established was to for projects that deliver wide-ranging “add value” to the individual work of local environmental, social and economic stakeholders including local government benefits. Some of these new products and authorities. Evaluations of the North services may also be applicable in other

40 UA-Magazine Books

CONTINUOUS PRODUCTIVE URBAN WORLD URBANIZATION PROSPECTS, THE 2003 REVISION: LANDSCAPES: DESIGNING URBAN DATA TABLES AND HIGHLIGHTS. AGRICULTURE FOR SUSTAINABLE CITIES United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs’ Population Andre Viljoen , Deputy Director, Low Energy Division. March 2004. Available online as PDF file [195p.] at: Architecture Research Unit, University of North London, http://www.un.org/esa/population/publications/wup2003/ U.K. ISBN 0750655437 Paperback 240 Pages. 2003WUPHighlights.pdf Forthcoming Title (Early 2004). Price: £ 29.99 This revision presents estimates and projections of the total urban and This book provides a design proposal for a new kind of rural populations of the world, its 21 regions and five major areas for the sustainable urban landscape: Urban Agriculture. By 228 countries or areas of the world. It also provides estimates and growing food within an urban, rather than an exclusively projections of the population of urban agglomerations with 750,000 rural environment, urban agriculture would reduce the inhabitants or more in 2000. It shows that almost all population growth need for industrialised production, packaging and expected for the world in the next thirty years will be concentrated in the transportation of foodstuffs to the city-dwelling urban areas. The smaller urban settlements (with fewer than 500,000 consumers. The impact that this would have on the residents) of the less-developed regions will be absorbing most of this future shape of cities could be immense. Urban design is growth. shown in practice through international case studies and the arguments presented are supported by quantified ESTIMATING THE PUBLIC’S VALUE FOR URBAN FOREST IN THE economic, environmental and social justifications. SEOUL METROPOLITAN AREA OF KOREA: A CONTINGENT VALUATION STUDY. THE OVERSTORY BOOK, CULTIVATING Seung-Jun Kwak, Seung-Hoon Yoo and Sang-Yong Han. In: Urban CONNECTIONS WITH TREES. Studies, Vol. 40, No. 11, 2207–2221, October 2003: C.R Elevitch and K.M. Wilkinson (eds). 2001. Permanent http://gses.snu.ac.kr/upload_files/cyber/plan/env/board/Kwak%20et% Agriculture Resources, Holualoa, Hawaii, USA. 20al(2003).pdf (http://www.agroforestry.net) Urban forests have various environmental benefits that contribute to the This book contains the first 75 editions of The Overstory, quality of urban life. These values, however, have been underestimated the international electronic journal. It distils essential or have never been reflected in urban development planning in Korea. As information about working with trees into 72 short, a result, a number of forests in urban areas were either partly or wholly easy-to-read chapters on a variety of subjects including destroyed without their public value being assessed explicitly. This paper traditional knowledge, environmental protection and estimates the value attached by the public to Kwanggyo Mountain in the other functions of trees, tree seedling selection and Seoul metropolitan area of Korea using a contingent valuation survey, urban design. Each chapter shares key concepts and aimed at providing policy makers with useful information to make gives useful information. informed decisions in urban development planning.

RUNNING PURE, THE IMPORTANCE OF FORESTY Municipal Forest Management in Latin America PROTECTED AREAS FOR DRINKING WATER. CIFOR and IDRC. Ferroukhi, L. Editor. Bogor, Indonesia: CIFOR, IDRC, Nigel Dudley and Sue Stolton (eds). August 2003. ISBN 2003. 236 p. 2-88085-262-5; A research report for the World Bank / This book presents the first serious attempt to analyze recent experiences WWF Alliance for Forest Conservation and Sustainable of municipal participation in forest management in Latin America. It is Use. the product of a series of investigations in Bolivia, Brazil, Costa Rica, Protecting forest areas can provide a cost-effective Guatemala, Honduras and Nicaragua in which more than 30 national means of supplying many of the world’s biggest cities and international researchers participate. It will be required reading for with high-quality drinking water, providing significant anyone concerned with municipal administration and natural resource health and economic benefits to urban populations. management. Running Pure - shows that more than a third of the world’s 105 biggest cities - including New York, Jakarta, Trees outside forests – “Towards better awareness” Tokyo, Mumbai, Rio de Janeiro, Los Angeles, Barcelona, CIRAD and FAO. FAO Conservation Guide # 35. FAO, Rome, 2002. 218 p. Nairobi, and Melbourne - rely on fully or partly Trees outside forest, together with forests and other woodlands, play an protected forests in catchment areas for much of their essential role in solving important problems of rural and urban drinking water. Well-managed natural forests populations. They contribute to the structure of the landscape, generate substantially improve water purity by filtering numerous environmental and social services, and yield important food pollutants, such as pesticides, and in some cases capture products for the people and for meeting other domestic needs. People, and store water. According to the report, adopting a however, are not fully benefiting from these important roles, because forest protection strategy can result in massive savings. trees outside forests are neither well perceived nor well documented, and To view the full report of 114 pages visit: receive little attention in the formulation of national forestry policy and http://lnweb18.worldbank.org/ESSD/envext.nsf/80ByD planning. This document is a product of important synthesis work and ocName/RunningPureTheimportanceofforestprotecteda collaboration, and an attempt to fill in the gaps. It presents the concept reastodrinkingwater/$FILE/RunningPure2003+.pdf and role of trees outside forests, analyses the problems and challenges, and outlines the path of thinking and action towards a better and more complete consideration of the resources and their integration in territorial management policies.

August 2003 41 www.urbanicity.org/ information service on sustainable agriculture. It provides Urbanicity is a partnership initiative with the UN Habitat Best information and technical assistance to farmers, ranchers, Practices and Local Leadership Programme, which works in co- extension agents, educators, and others involved in sustainable operation with Development Gateway, a World Bank initiative. agriculture in the United States. This Web site provides city officials with a platform to explore aspects of urban management. It targets city managers, local www.isa-arbor.com/home.asp level policy makers, urban planners and directors of urban The International Society of Arboriculture is a worldwide services and infrastructure provision. professional organisation dedicated to fostering a greater appreciation for trees and to promoting research, technology, www.sl.kvl.dk/euforic and the professional practice of arboriculture (see also on page EUFORIC, the European Urban Forestry Research and 30). Under www.isa-arbor.com/publications, one can also find Information centre, has moved its Web site. Under information about one of the major international periodicals www.sl.kvl.dk/euforic/links.htm, you can find some of the key within urban forestry, the Journal of Arboriculture. Internet addresses related to urban forestry. www.urbanage.org/magazine.php www.cifor.cgiar.org/acm/ The Urban Age Newsletter has been re-launched and is now also This programme, entitled “Local People, Devolution and available electronically. Nine articles appear as a special Adaptive Collaborative Management”, run by the Centre for “CityPlanet” theme issue on this Web site as part of the latest International Forestry Research, applies adaptive management issue of the magazine. The Spanish language version of “Urban to the forests of Indonesia, the Philippines, Nepal, Cameroon, Age Magazine” is available at: www.pgualc.org/ Ghana, Malawi, Zimbabwe, Bolivia and Brazil. There are many excellent resources available on the site, including reports, www.agroforestry.net/overstory/index.html journal articles, books and CD-ROMs. These include the The Overstory is a free e-mail agroforestry journal for collaborative software packages Co-learn and Co-view, which practitioners, researchers, professionals, and enthusiasts. One are designed to help stakeholder visioning issue is sent every two weeks focusing on a concept related to designing, developing, and learning more about trees and www.fao.org/forestry/index.jsp agroforestry systems. Each edition includes project development Here you can find the urban forestry pages of FAO. The FAO strategies, brief book recommendations, species highlights, publications mentioned can be accessed electronically. An internet links to helpful information for agroforesters, etc. annotated bibliography was collected from the FAO Forestry Department, the TREE Data Base of CABI and AGRIS. Upon www.trees.org.za publication in 1995 it contained 557 references, but the Web Food & Trees for Africa (FTFA) is South Africa’s national version is currently being updated: greening organisation that develops, manages and promotes http://www.fao.org/documents/show_cdr.asp?url_file=/DOC greening and permaculture for sustainable natural resource REP/005/V5480E/V5480E00.HTM management, food security, poverty alleviation, improved environments and skills development. It is the first (and still More databases under: only) national non-government, non-profit, greening www.msue.msu.edu/msue/imp/modb1/masterb1.html organisation in South Africa. and http://forestry.lib.umn.edu/bib/urban.phtml www.worldbank.org/wbi/urban/cityroundthree.htm Provide bibliographic references to literature on urban forestry. The World Bank Institute is bringing mayors and city managers The first of from key Chinese cities together in Beijing. They will be debating the Michigan State University and the second is maintained by the value of best practices in urban development, as they’ve the University of Minnesota. evolved inside the West’s global cities. Urban Age has helped to shape the programme and will be the only magazine to publish www.elsevier.de/ufug the conference’s presentations and conclusions. This site provides access to an important electronic periodical on urban forestry: the Journal on Urban Forestry & Urban www.rlc.fao.org/prior/segalim/aup Greening. This page of the Web site of the Regional Office of FAO for Latin America provides information on the Programme on Urban www.nufu.org.uk Agriculture. All information on the CD-ROM on Urban Some of the national sites are worthwhile visiting. The UK Agriculture (in Spanish) is also available here.

sites National Urban Forestry Unit Web site, for example, serves as an information broker within national urban forestry. Some of http://joa.isa-arbor.com the most state-of-the-art research in the world is done by the This is the journal of the International Society of Arboriculture. various research stations of the USDA Forest Service: In six issues per year it publishes peer-reviewed papers on http://www.fs.fed.us/ arboriculture and urban forestry. The full text of papers, starting with the 2002 issues, will be available online in html or PDF www.attra.ncat.org format. The contents and abstracts of all issues since 1996 are ATTRA, the National Sustainable Agriculture Information also available.

Web Service funded by the US Department of Agriculture, is an

42 Events Nature at your service, 2005 National Conference On Urban Ecosystems Second International Workshop on Education (Charlotte, North Carolina, USA) on Food Security (Havana, Cuba) 17-18 November 2005 6-9 April 2005 The urban forest is an untapped resource—one that can help cities meet The National Botanical Garden of the University of regulatory requirements for clean air and water, revitalise neighbourhoods, Havana is organising this workshop to discuss and reduce the costs of building and maintaining infrastructure. The 2005 themes such as the ecological kitchen, biodiversity National Conference on Urban Ecosystems, Nature at Your Service, will show and sustainable technologies. For more how to reconnect people to their city’s natural resources. Contact: information contact Madelaine Vázquez Gálvez [email protected], more info at: www.americanforests.org/conference/ and Lidia Villalonga Machado: [email protected]; [email protected] IUFRO World Congress (Brisbane, Australia) 8-13 August, 2005 Cabernet 2005 - The International Conference The 22nd International Union of Forest Research Organizations (IUFRO) on Managing Urban Land (Belfast, Northern World Congress will be held 8-13 August 2005 at the Brisbane Convention & Ireland, UK) Exhibition Centre. The theme for the 2005 Congress is Forests in the Balance: 13-15 April 2005 Linking Tradition and Technology. Contact: [email protected] . The International Conference on Managing Urban More info: www.iufro2005.com Land will be presented by CABERNET (Concerted Action on Brownfield and Economic Regeneration Agricultural and Horticultural Aspects of Ecological Sanitation - Post- Network) (www.cabernet.org.uk) and Laganside Conference Seminar (Durban, South Africa) Corporation (www.laganside.com), in association 27 May 2005 with University of Nottingham, UK, and The seminar is organised by Sida through EcoSanRes (www.ecosanres.org) in Umweltbundesamt (Federal Environment cooperation CSIR (www.csir.co.za). The purpose of the seminar is to gather Agency), Germany. The aim of the conference is to persons with experience and/or interest in the reuse of urine and faeces for share good practice experience, problem-solving crop production. The focus is to network and exchange experiences on knowledge, and the application of new techniques demonstration activities promoting reuse. Posters as well as papers are and tools. The outcomes of the conference will encouraged, within the routine of the Third Ecological Sanitation Conference. formally feed into a number of European research For more information on the conference, please visit and policy initiatives. www.buildnet.co.za/ecosan For more information contact Dr. Kate Millar: [email protected] or 8th EUFORIC/IUFRO European Forum on Urban Forestry: “Urban visit:http://www.cabernet.org.uk/conference2005 Forests: A different trademark for cities and forestry” (Celje, Slovenia) 9-13 May 2005 Planning for the Food System (San Francisco, This is one of the premier conferences for those who are interested in both California, USA) the practice and the science of urban forests, their values and management. 19-23 March 2005 The meeting will bring together urban forest experts from around Europe The American Planning Association is organising under the flag of EUFORIC (European Urban Forest Research and its 2005 conference. Over the past decades, the Information Centre). The European Forum on Urban Forestry (EFUF) is an food system has been virtually a stranger to the initiative of the International Union of Forest Research Organizations planning field. For the first time in the history of (IUFRO) and the European Urban Forestry Research & Information Centre APA’s national conferences, a special track of (EUFORIC). It is a unique venue where urban forestry professionals meet sessions will be devoted entirely to topics scientists and policy makers within the field. The forum meets yearly and each pertaining to how planning connects to and can meeting is hosted by one of the members. contribute to improving the food system. More information at: http://www.efuf.org or Please visit: www.celje.si/efuf2005/strani/stran%201.html www.planning.org/2005conference/index.htm Or contact: Deanna Glosser EFARD 2005, European Forum on Agricultural Research for [email protected] or Jerry Kaufman Development (Zurich, Switzerland) [email protected]. 27-29 April 2005 The tri-annual meeting of the EFARD will be organised by the Swiss Forum Emerging Issues Along Urban/Rural Interfaces: for International Agricultural Research (SFIAR). The Mission of EFARD is to Linking Science and Society (Atlanta, Georgia, strengthen the contribution of European Agricultural Research for USA) Development to poverty alleviation, food security and sustainable 13-16 March 2005 development in developing countries. EFARD conferences provide a platform The overarching theme of the conference is linking for information exchange and development of joint activities for interested human dimension aspects of urban/rural stakeholders in ARD, such as researchers, policy makers, NGOs, farmer interfaces with ecological aspects. Such linkages organisations and others. offer the promise of new, powerful insights for For more information on the conference, registration and submission of understanding the forces that shape, and are contributions, please see the conference website: shaped by, urbanisation and offer more http://www.efard2005.org/ compelling understanding of the causes and consequences of urbanisation-related policies. The

43 Events conference is hosted by Auburn University and organised a.o. by course themselves nor sufficient donors willing to fund USDA Forest Service and IUFRO. For more information contact: participants to the Netherlands. We do consider some follow up Dr. David Laband at [email protected] or visit: to this interest in training on urban agriculture and definitely will www.sfws.auburn.edu/urbanruralinterfaces/ keep you briefed. More information: [email protected]

Course on Natural Preservation of Foods and Aromatic Water, Sanitation and Hygiene for all - Building Coalitions Plants (Havana, Cuba) for the Millennium Development Goals (Dakar, Senegal) 7-11 March 2005 22-26 November 2004 This workshop will discuss basic techniques for the conservation This “Global WASH Forum 2004” of Water Supply and Sanitation of food and aromatic plants for small and medium producers. For Collaborative Council (WSSCC) is held at time of printing Visit the more information visit: web address for more info: http://www.wsscc.org/dakar www.medioambiente.cu/cursosytalleres/ Asian-European (ASEM) workshop on Urban Forestry 3rd EURAGRI Citizens Conference (Brussels, Belgium) (Suzhou/Beijing, China) 3-4 February 2005 29 November – 3 December 2004 This conference is entitled Science for Society - Science with ASEM Symposium on Urban Forestry has been organised as an Society, and will look at how to adapt and use the knowledge important activity of ASEM forest scientific and technological base for an optimal functioning of the “Land-Food-Health cooperation. It is of significant importance for promoting further system” in the European Union. The rationale and the cooperation and exchange among ASEM members in the rapid preliminary programme of the conference can be found at the urbanisation process and for advancing urban ecologicalisation EURAGRI Web site www.euragri.org. and sustainable development. As the conference is co-organised by EURAGRI, the European More information: www.lknet.ac.cn/asemforestry.htm Commission and the European Economic and Social Committee, participation is free of charge, but participants will be International Workshop “Urban Agriculture, Agro-Tourism responsible for their own travel and accommodation costs. and City Region Development” (Beijing, China) 8-12 October 2004 International Seminar “Water for Food and Ecosystems” The conference presented and discussed the Chinese experiences (The Hague, the Netherlands) with urban agriculture and tourism to assist local governments in 31 January-5 February 2005 making development policy and promoting creative research in The prime objective of the conference is to help governments urban agriculture. Contact Information: Dr. Cai Jianming, E-mail: identify management practices, practical lessons learned and the [email protected] necessary enabling environments that lead to sustainable water use at the river-basin level and the harmonisation of food World Urban Forum 2004, (Barcelona, Spain) production and ecosystem management, with a view to 13-17 September 2004, implementing existing international commitments on An international panel on credit and investment for urban sustainable water use in relation to food and ecosystems. agriculture was held on September 16th of this year. Experts in Between November 21 and December 16, a virtual debate will urban and financial issues, researchers and decision makers take place over the major case studies. The conference will cover shared information and experiences about innovative forms of three major themes. Fostering Implementation: Know-how for UA financing. The views of international agencies and local actors Action; A “New Economy” for Water for Food and Ecosystem; about public financing of urban agriculture, micro-credit systems, and the Enabling Environment. and farmers’ cooperatives were presented. The presentations More information: www.fao.org/ag/wfe2005/index_en.htm were divided into three parts: part 1 Innovative local approaches for financing urban agriculture; part 2 From local practice to an 3rd scientific meeting of the Benelux Society for urban development strategy; part 3 The way forward. The panel Horticultural Science (Wageningen, the Netherlands) was organised by IDRC, CIGU and IPES. It was supported by the 10 December 2004 RUAF. More information can be found at The theme of the meeting, which will take place at the www.unhabitat.org/wuf/2004/default.asp Wageningen International Conference Centre (WICC), is Chains in Horticulture –Theory and Practice. The programme and more World Congress on Agroforestry (Orlando, USA) information can be found on the symposium Web site: 27 June – 2 July 2004 www.dpw.wageningen-ur.nl/hpc/bshs2004 Visit the congress web site for further details: http://conference.ifas.ufl.edu/wca International Course, “Design, Analysis and Management of Urban Agriculture for Resilient Communities” (Wageningen, The Netherlands) 6-17 December 2004 CANCELLED This two week international course which RUAF-ETC was organizing together with the International Agricultural Centre, unfortunately had to be cancelled due to a lack of paying participants. We had a large number of interested persons from all over the world, but just not enough who were able to fund the

44 News en Partners AGROPOLIS AWARDS PROGRAMME WORKSHOP ON GENDER AND URBAN AGRICULTURE AGROPOLIS is an awards programme that supports In September 2004 this workshop entitled “Women Feeding Cities” was innovative masters, doctoral, and post-doctoral organised in Accra, Ghana, in cooperation with CGIAR-Urban Harvest and research. It aims to add to the body of knowledge of IWMI and with the financial support of CTA. During this workshop, participants urban and periurban agriculture, and thereby to critically reviewed the 15 cases submitted, establishing key issues and making support interventions that address critical areas in the recommendations to overcome obstacles, optimise existing opportunities and “industry”. The programme supports graduate-level create new ones. Discussing the outcomes of the case studies on UA that applied field research that is designed and implemented in a gender differentiated framework led to the identification of improvements collaboration with non-academic partners, which needed in that framework and related tools for application in the urban setting could include, for example, community-based as well as the identification of critical issues regarding gender in UA. In addition, organisations, NGOs, city councils and departments, a priority agenda was developed for gender in UA research, capacity national governments, bilateral and multilateral development, policy development and action planning. Participants discussed development agencies, and so on. THEMES FOR 2005 the concept of mainstreaming gender and identified effective strategies for for Masters, Ph.D., and Post-doctoral research mainstreaming gender in our their own projects. The proceedings will be proposals: * Youth and UA, * Training Methods and published on the RUAF Web site, along with the papers (www.ruaf.org). Materials for Capacity-Building in UA, * The Role of Organisations of the Urban Poor in UA, * Ecological URBAN AGRICULTURE ON THE DEVELOPMENT GATEWAY Production Systems for UA, * Green Urbanisation The site www.developmentgateway.org is run by the not-for-profit (sustainable, ecological, and equitable urbanisation in Development Gateway Foundation in collaboration with a variety of the public, private, and community sectors), * The cooperating organisations. Since December 2003, this includes RUAF. ETC Contribution of UA to Post-Conflict/Post-Crisis agreed with the Development Gateway to add short thematic information and Reconstruction. For more information on the links to events, Web sites and books to the thematic sections of Urban AGROPOLIS awards programme and/or to obtain an Development and Food Security. This submission of information is coordinated application form, please consult our website at: three times a year by the UA Magazine Editor. Upon entering the development http://web.idrc.ca/en/ev-4714-201-1- gateway you enter “urban” in the search engine on this site to view a wide range DO_TOPIC.html of materials, amongst others on urban agriculture. You can also sign up for The application deadline is JANUARY 31, 2005. updates on new content, access a database containing many projects and practitioners on urban development and food security, and post resources of BEST PRACTICE AWARD your own. The experience with urban agriculture in the city of Rosario (reported on elsewhere in this issue) received ROLE OF URBAN FORESTRY AND AGRICULTURE IN SUSTAINABLE the Dubai International Award for Best Practices to DEVELOPMENT OF CITIES, INTERNATIONAL WORKSHOP IN LATIN Improve the Living Environment (DIABP). The aim of AMERICA. this award is to recognise and enhance awareness of The Technology and Development Association (TECNIDES), together with the outstanding and sustainable achievements in Postgraduate School of the Federico Villarreal National University, organized improving the living environment as per the criteria this first international workshop in light of the social changes occurring in the established by the Second United Nations Conference urban sector. In total 98 national and international experts of both public and on Human Settlements (Habitat II) and the Dubai private sector participated, including the INIFAT of Cuba, EUFORIC of the Declaration (see http://dubai- European Union, Urban Harvest-CGIAR, through the International Potato award.dm.gov.ae/awards2.html). Congratulations! Center (CIP), UNDP and universities like the University of Guelph, Canada, the Universities of Bari and Florence, Italy, the Universidad Nacional Mayor de San GERMAN AWARDS Marcos, and the Universidad Nacional Federico Villarreal. The event took place The Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and from 21 to 23 January, 2004 in in In the Municipality of Chaclacayo – Lima. Development (BMZ)has designated two urban agriculture projects y as the winners of the nationwide The objectives were competition designed for communities, educational Exchange, analyze and discuss strategies around the role of urban forestry and institutions and NGOs who are particularly successful agriculture in maintaining a sustainable balance between the development of a in implementing the goals of the Agenda 21 on the city and its environmental conditions. local level. In total 171 projects applied for the award. Identify the expected demand for green areas and agriculture in urban One of the wining projects is the EU-funded Asia Urbs development, based on experiences in other countries and the reality of the city Project in the Philippines: the “GIS-based Urban of Lima. Propose joint actions to incorporate urban forestry and agriculture in Environmental Resources Management and Food the sustainable development models of the major cities of Peru. Security Project”. Together with the cities of The 98 attendees agreed to hold annual meetings, under the direction of the Schelklingen in Germany, Dinant in Belgium and Commission, presided over by Barbara Leon H. It was agreed to publicize the Cagayan de Oro, in the Philippines, three Universities - results of the workshop in the press and promote workshops in the various Xavier Agricultural College in the Philippines, entities linked with social and environmental programs. The establishment of a University of Freiburg in Germany , and Univeristy of royalty for the use of municipal green areas by telecommunications, energy, Namur in Belgium - worked on this awarded project. water and sewer companies will be pursued. Participants agreed to promote the (See also the UA Magazine no. 10.) More information creation of a national agency to supervise the appropriate use of green areas and contact addresses can be found on the project which have been established through municipal ordinances but which to date homepage: http://www.puvep.com/asiaurbs.htm have often been used for other ends.

45 News en Partners LAUNCHING A POLICY INITIATIVE IN notable urban economic sector. The activity is a largely BOTSWANA unintended outgrowth of a national political economic Alice J. Hovorka, Department of Geography, University of Guelph, agenda, aimed in part at local economic development and Canada, ✉[email protected] agricultural diversification, which has taken on an urban Daphne Keboneilwe, Ministry of Agriculture, Botswana, ✉ expression. Government measures to address economic and [email protected] food insecurity have merged with urbanisation trends related to demography, socio-cultural identity and land-use planning, The government of Botswana recently took a significant step and Greater Gaborone has become a pivotal site of agricultural towards the promotion of agricultural production in urban areas. activity for urban entrepreneurs. Although these contributions On June 23rd, 2004, the Honourable Minister of Agriculture, may seem relatively modest, commercial urban agriculture is Johnnie Swartz, officially launched the Urban and Peri-Urban enhancing food security, land use, and employment Agriculture (UPA) Policy Initiative at the Gaborone International generation in Botswana. Conference Centre. A first National Workshop on Urban and Peri-Urban The ceremony aimed at raising public awareness on the potential Agriculture held in May 28-29, 2001 generated discussion and benefits of the activity, including enhanced food security, nutrition, debate on farming in and around cities. It also sparked and poverty alleviation. If promoted, supported, and properly momentum for future policy formulation and implementation. institutionalised, urban agriculture can assist also with income Specifically, the Task Force on Urban and Peri-Urban generation and employment creation, as well as conservation and Agriculture was established in 2001. It includes management of natural resources. It may ultimately revitalise an representatives from the Ministry of Agriculture (coordinator), agricultural sector that has seen a steady decrease in productivity non-governmental organisations, Department of Lands, given unfavourable climatic conditions, poor farming practices and Department of Town and Regional Planning, Water Affairs marketing channels, rural-urban migration, and most recently the Department, and Gaborone and Francistown City Councils, in HIV/AIDS pandemic, which is taking a toll on labour reserves. order to provide further impetus and mobilisation of UPA Minister Swartz emphasised the importance of developing activities in Botswana. The main objective of the Task Force agricultural policies that can respond to shifts in population and has been to facilitate the development and inclusion of UPA in socio-economic trends. The launch featured practitioners and the mainstream national development plans for the realisation representatives of NGOs as guest speakers. Amongst representatives of accelerated diversification of the economy and the creation from the government, non-governmental, private, and academic of a secure and healthy society as envisioned in Botswana’s sectors, the Minister officially stated that the government of Vision 2016. The process culminated in a second National Botswana recognises urban and periurban agriculture as an Workshop on Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture, hosted by important constituency of the agricultural sector and is committed to the Ministry of Agriculture on July 2-3, 2003, where again key policy development and support of this activity. stakeholders were consulted and provided insights on relevant issues. Pilot projects were also proposed to begin in these two Mr. Masoko, an urban backyard gardener, disclosed to the cities and later be extended to cover other urban areas of participants that his family is dependent on this practice for both Botswana. The Task Force has also formed partnerships with food and income. A periurban poultry farmer, Mrs. Motshwane, also regional and international bodies, specifically the Municipal noted the vital role that her project has played in employment Development Partnership for Eastern and Southern Africa and creation and income generation. She participates in contract farming the Food and Agricultural Organization of the United Nations. and has over time been able to increase the number of people A major component of Botswana’s initiative is the Glen Valley employed in her project. Another speaker, Mr. Gareth Paul of Dream Horticultural Site in the capital, Gaborone. The government, for Africa, a faith-based humanitarian movement, indicated to the through the Ministry of Agriculture, has already included gathering that his organisation intends to work together with the policy statements on development of urban and periurban people of Botswana to plant 10,000 “never ending gardens“ in and agriculture in its current National Development Plan 9 and is around the city of Gaborone in order to address HIV/AIDS and determined to see this process through to fruition. UPA is seen poverty alleviation. as one of the means through which the government can achieve its objectives of pursuing food security, as well as the The official launch of the Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture Policy Vision 2016 tenet of building a productive, innovative and Initiative reflects the growing interest, enthusiasm, and momentum prosperous nation. around urban and periurban agriculture issues in Botswana, which INFORMATION have been triggered by a series of events organised by the Ministry of Hovorka, Alice J. 2004. Commercial urban agriculture in Greater Gaborone: Agriculture and supported by FAO and MDP. The culmination of form & function, challenges & prospects. Pula: Botswana Journal of African Studies 18(3). academic research has also facilitated discussion. Urban agriculture Hovorka, Alice J. 2004. Entrepreneurial opportunities in Botswana: (re)shap- in Botswana is not as plentiful or as visible as in other Southern ing urban agriculture discourse. Journal of Contemporary African Studies 22(3). Keboneilwe, D. and A.J. Hovorka, eds. 2001. Proceedings of the National African countries. Past studies have revealed that a relatively small Workshop on (Peri-)Urban Agriculture. Held on May 28-29, 2001 at the National amount of “backyard” or subsistence-oriented agriculture takes place Veterinary Laboratory, Sebele. Botswana: Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Botswana. in and around Francistown, Gaborone, Jwaneng and Lobatse. A Keboneilwe, D., M. Madisa, M. Athlopeng, and A.J. Hovorka, eds. 2004. recent study by Hovorka on commercial agriculture in and around Proceedings of the Second National Workshop on (Peri-)Urban Agriculture. Held on June 2-3, 2003 at the National Veterinary Laboratory, Sebele. Botswana: Gaborone in 2000/01 revealed that, amidst rural to urban Ministry of Agriculture, Government of Botswana. transformation in Botswana, commercial agriculture has emerged in Mosha, A.C. 1999. The Practice of Urban Agriculture in Gaborone. Gaborone: and around the capital city of Gaborone and is increasing steadily as a Department of Environmental Science, University of Botswana.

46 News en Partners RUAF ENTERS ITS SECOND PHASE

We are pleased to announce that the Netherlands Ministry PILOT AND DISSEMINATION CITIES of Development Cooperation approved our application for The RUAF partners have selected in each region 3-4 pilot support for a second phase of the RUAF programme. This cities, 20 in total, that have shown willingness to integrate means that for the coming four years the work of the RUAF urban agriculture into their local policies and planning. It is in partners in their respective regions can be continued and these pilot cities that RUAF-CFF will concentrate its main further strengthened. activities in the coming four years, including capacity development of local stakeholders, provision of support for The new phase of the programme has been given the title: local diagnosis and participatory action planning, and Cities Farming for the Future monitoring of changes in policies and actions of local stakeholders, focusing particularly on impacts these have on The main aim of the RUAF-CFF programme is to contribute to the livelihoods of the poor. urban poverty reduction, urban food security, improved urban In addition, 6-10 dissemination cities have been selected in environmental management, empowerment of urban farmers each region, 46 in total, that will participate in certain capacity and participatory city governance. RUAF hopes to achieve this development activities and in the exchange of the results with by means of the following strategies: the pilot cities. Aside from technical and training support each pilot city will receive some matching funds for one or more KNOWLEDGE MANAGEMENT AND NETWORKING small pilot projects. The dissemination cities may also apply ❖ Facilitation of local data gathering and analysis on urban for co-funding of pilot projects: each year a maximum of five agriculture pilot projects in dissemination cities will be co-funded. ❖ Maintenance of databases (in English, French, Spanish, Chinese; accessible on Internet and on CD-rom) ORGANISATION OF THE RUAF PROGRAMME ❖ Promotion of networking, cooperation and exchange of The RUAF partners have jointly established the RUAF research and project results between researchers, policy Foundation, which is the recipient and administrator of the makers, urban farmers and other stakeholders donor contributions received. The RUAF programme is ❖ Publication of UA Magazine (English, Spanish, French, coordinated at global level by ETC Foundation and at regional Portuguese and Chinese) level by IPES for Latin America and the Caribbean, MDP for ❖ Production and translation of books, policy guidelines, fact Southern and East Africa, IAGU for francophone Africa, sheets, manuals and other materials of relevance to various IWMI-Ghana for Anglophone Africa, IWMI-India for South types of local stakeholders in urban agriculture and East Asia and IGSNRR for China. Overall strategic decisions are prepared by the RUAF Programme Committee LOCAL CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT consisting of the regional and international RUAF ❖ Consolidation of the six regional resource centres coordinators. The local partners in the RUAF pilot and ❖ Creation of regional training capacity on urban agriculture dissemination cities jointly form a Regional Advisory Board. (development of training materials and training of trainers in cooperation with local universities) ❖ Regional and local training courses on urban agriculture and More details on the Cities Farming for the Future Programme will multi-stakeholder planning for senior staff of municipalities, be published soon on the RUAF website www.ruaf.org governmental organisations, universities and non- governmental organisations Ir. Henk de Zeeuw Coordinator RUAF (International Network of Resource Centres on Urban Agriculture and Food Security) FACILITATION OF MULTI-STAKEHOLDER POLICY DEVELOPMENT AND ACTION PLANNING ❖ Organisation of policy awareness seminars on urban agriculture ❖ Assistance in the establishment of local multi-stakeholder platforms on urban agriculture and provision of process support for the diagnosis of the local situation regarding urban agriculture and food security and the participatory formulation of local policies and action plans ❖ Establishment of monitoring systems and provision of feedback to policymakers and urban planners on the social, economic and ecological impacts of their urban agriculture policies and projects

47 Forthcoming Issues

THE UA MAGAZINE IN 2005 The second phase of the RUAF programme has been approved, which will start in January 2005 under the title: Cities Farming for the Future (see on page 47 for more information). This means that the work of the RUAF partners in their respective regions will be continued and further strengthened, and that we will continue to publish the UA Magazine. Contrary to previous years, only two issues of UA Magazine were published in 2004 (in addition to the CD-rom with information on urban agriculture, which came Urban to you with the last issue). The RUAF partners decided to use this last year of the first phase to look back Agriculture and document in book form the state-of-the–art in urban agriculture, as well as the achievements and Magazine challenges ahead. You will soon hear more about this project. For the coming year we are planning to publish three issues again, for which we welcome your opinion and ideas (see ). TREES AND CITIES GROWING TOGETHER ISSN 1571-6244 As you know, production UA Magazine is financed by the RUAF Programme, which is bound by a limited No. 13, December 2004 project duration and budget. Therefore we are continuously looking for additional support and funding to seek continuation of the magazine. One source is the subscription fee that we are asking of UA Magazine is published three times a year by the Resource Centre for Urban Agriculture subscribers from the northern countries. Another is the co-production of special issues. This issue has (RUAF), a programme co-ordinated by ETC Foundation and financed by DGIS, the been produced with the kind support of the Forestry Department of FAO and Euforie. The next issue of Netherlands, and IDRC, Canada. It is also UA Magazine (no. 14) will focus on urban aquaculture, and will be a collaborative effort with the Papussa available on www.ruaf.org.

Network (see call for contributions). UA Magazine is translated into French, Spanish, Chinese and Arabic, and distributed in separate editions through regional No.14 Urban and Periurban Aquatic production networks. February 2005 Editorial Board Deadline for submissions is 1 January 2005. * Mr. Gunther Merzthal, Urban Management Programme-Latin America and the Caribbean (UMP-LAC), Quito, Ecuador; Urban aquatic production captures a broad array of activities, varying from catching fish by using nets in email: [email protected]; Magazine in the Kolkata wastewater fed wetlands and lagoons to high tech Tilapia culture or large scale cultivation of Spanish: www: http://www.ipes.org/aguila/ * Ms. Ndeye Fatou D. Gueye, Institut Africain edible aquatic plants in Ha Noi and Phnom Penh. There are various environmental and social benefits, de Gestion Urbaine (IAGU), Dakar, Senegal; like additional food provision and income to urban livelihoods, low-cost wastewater treatment, the email: [email protected]; Magazine in French * Mr. Shingirayi Mushamba, Municipal creation of social sustainability, the development of tourism and recreation; reducing food miles - Development Programme (MDP) - East and transportation costs; and relieving the pressures on depleted ocean fisheries. Urban planners and policy Southern Africa, Harare, Zimbabwe; email: [email protected] makers need adequate information on these issues and on how stakeholders value aquaculture in the * Mr. Jianming Cai, Institute of Geographical Sciences and Natural Resource Research city. (IGSNRR) of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China; email: [email protected]; Magazine in Contributions from different parts of the world are invited that discuss: benefits: actors and their role; Chinese management systems; wastewater control; (health) risks; access to and the control over resources; urban * Ms. Stephanie Buechler, IWMI-India, Hyderabad, India; email: Planning producers; marketing; environmental and leisure aspects; and policy, legal and partnership [email protected]; arrangements. * Mr. Jac Smit, TUAN, Washington, email: [email protected] * Ms. Dagmar Kunze, FAO Regional Office for PAPUSSA is a collaborative research project of European and Asian partners and is funded by the Africa (RAF), Ghana * Mr. Luc Mougeot, IDRC, Canada European Union. The PAPUSSA partners are seeking to better understand the importance and nature of * Mr. Gordon Prain, CIP- Urban Harvest, Peru the aquatic food production that occurs in and around some of the major cities of Southeast Asia. The * Mr. Henk de Zeeuw, ETC Foundation- Urban Agriculture, the Netherlands; project, which started in January 2003, is working with partners in Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam, Phnom Penh in Cambodia and Bangkok in Thailand. (see www.ruaf.org/papussa/index.html) Editors, No. 13 This issue has been compiled by René van But of course we welcome contributions from Veenhuizen (Responsible Editor), together with Cecil Konijnendijk of woodSCAPE Consult and Michelle Gauthier of the Forestry Department, FAO. Future issues of UA Magazine Planning for the first issue in 2005 is thus well underway, and new ideas have already been suggested Web Editing and Books Dorine Rüter and René van Veenhuizen for subsequent issues (urban design; multistakeholder processes; urban food systems; legislation; the Millennium Development Goals; urban farmer groups and organisations; production chains; etc.). But Administration Nathalie Rietman at the start of this new phase, we would first like to know what our readers think about the UA magazine and the direction it should take. So before planning the topics for 2005 and 2006 we would Language Edito Catharina de Kat-Reynen like to ask you the following question. Design, Layout and Printing Koninklijke BDU What are the major topics or questions that you would like to see discussed in UA magazine in Subscriptions the coming years? The editor Please indicate why you would like to have these topics discussed. Perhaps you could do this by sending [email protected]

us a few lines describing your involvement in urban agriculture, your role or job, and whether you are Address involved in a project or development activity in your city, policy making, etc. Urban Agriculture Magazine P.O. Box 64 The responses we received will be compiled in an article in the next issue of UA Magazine. 3830 AB Leusden Of course other suggestions and comments on UA Magazine are also welcome. The Netherlands Visitors’ address: Kastanjelaan 5, Leusden. Please take a moment to send an e-mail to the editor at [email protected], or write a letter to the editor. Tel: +31.33.4326000 Fax: +31.33.4940791 e-mail: [email protected] website: www.ruaf.org