Global Environment Facility
GEF MSP Sub-Saharan Africa Project (GF/6010-0016):
“Development and Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa”
MOZAMBIQUE NATIONAL REPORT PHASE 1: INTEGRATED PROBLEM ANALYSIS
António Mubango Hoguane (National Coordinator), Helana Motta, Simeão Lopes and Zélia Menete
March 2002 Disclaimer:
The content of this document represents the position of the authors and does not necessarily reflect the views or official policies of the Government of Mozambique, ACOPS, IOC/UNESCO or UNEP.
The components of the GEF MSP Sub-Saharan Africa Project (GF/6010-0016) "Development and Protection of the Coastal and Marine Environment in Sub-Saharan Africa" have been supported, in cash and kind, by GEF, UNEP, IOC-UNESCO, the GPA Coordination Office and ACOPS. Support has also been received from the Governments of Canada, The Netherlands, Norway, United Kingdom and the USA, as well as the Governments of Côte d'Ivoire, the Gambia, Ghana, Kenya, Mauritius, Mozambique, Nigeria, Senegal, Seychelles, South Africa and Tanzania.
Table of Contents Page
Eexecutive Summary...... i
Mozambique Country Profile...... vii
Chapter 1 1. Background...... 1 1.1 The National Report...... 1 1.2 A Brief Overview of the Environmental and Socio-Economic Situation in Mozambique....1 1.2.1 Demography...... 2 1.2.2 Economy ...... 2 1.2.3 Coastal Physical Features and Environment...... 2 1.2.4 Marine Ecosystems...... 4 1.2.5 Coastal Mineral Resources ...... 5 1.2.6 Fisheries and Aquaculture ...... 6 1.2.7 Agriculture...... 8 1.2.8 Manufacturing Industries...... 8 1.2.9 Ports and Harbours...... 8 1.2.10 Recreational Parks and Tourism ...... 8
Chapter 2 2. Identification of Hot Spots, of Sensitive Areas, and of Overriding Issues ...... 10 2.1 Scaling: Prioritisation of Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas...... 11 2.2 Scoping: Prioritisation of Issues ...... 11 2.3 Hot Spots ...... 11 2.4 Sensitive Areas ...... 13
Chapter 3 3. Assessment of Impacts...... 15 3.1 Shortage of Freshwater and Floods...... 15 3.1.1 Introduction...... 15 3.1.2 Environmental Impacts ...... 16 3.1.3 Socio-Economic Impacts ...... 20 3.1.4 Transboundary Impacts...... 21 3.1.5 Indicators ...... 21 3.2 Loss and Modification of Habitats...... 24 3.2.1 Introduction...... 24 3.2.2 Mangroves ...... 25 3.2.3 Coral Reefs ...... 26 3.2.4 Seagrass Beds ...... 30 3.2.5 Endangered Species ...... 30 3.2.6 Transboundary Impacts...... 31 3.3 Over-Exploitation of Fishery Resources...... 36 3.3.1 Introduction...... 36 3.3.2 Environmental Impacts of Over-Exploitation of Fish Resources ...... 39 3.3.3 Socio-Economic Impact of Over-Exploitation of Fish Resources...... 39 3.3.4 Transboundary Impacts...... 39 3.3.5 Indicators ...... 39 3.3.6 Future Trends...... 40 3.4 Destructive Fishing Methods...... 43 3.4.1 Introduction...... 43 3.4.2 The Main Destructive Fishing Practised in Mozambique...... 43 3.4.3 Environmental Impacts ...... 43
3.4.4 Socio-Economy Impacts ...... 44 3.4.5 Transboundary Impacts...... 44 3.4.6 Indicators ...... 44
Chapter 4 4. Causal Chain Analysis...... 46 4.1 Modification of Streamflow...... 46 4.1.1 Introduction...... 46 4.1.2 Identification and Quantification of Immediate or Technical Causes ...... 46 4.1.3 Identification of Linkages With Direct Resource use or Sector Pressure...... 51 4.1.4 Increased Water Demand in the Country and Associated Land Use Changes ...... 52 4.1.5 Changes in Rainfall Patterns...... 54 4.1.6 Responses Favouring or Mitigating Resource Use...... 58 4.1.7 Factors Beyond the Country Boundary...... 60 4.1.8 Actions Recommended ...... 60 4.1.9 Constraints to Action ...... 62 4.2 Loss and Modification of Habitats...... 62 4.2.1 Mangroves ...... 62 4.2.2 Coral Reefs ...... 64 4.2.3 Commonality, Overlaps, Gaps...... 68 4.2.4 Recommendations...... 68 4.3 Unsustainable Exploitation of Fisheries and Other Living Resources...... 69 4.3.1 Introduction...... 69 4.3.2 Immediate or Technical Causes...... 70 4.3.3 Factors Beyond the Country Boundary-International Market ...... 74 4.3.4 Response Favouring/Mitigating Resources Use ...... 74 4.3.5 Recommendations...... 77 4.4 Destructive Fishing Practices...... 77 4.4.1 Immediate Technical Causes ...... 77 4.4.2 Response Favouring/Mitigation of Resource Uses...... 79 4.4.3 Recommendations...... 82
Chapter 5 5. Commonalties, Overlapping, Gaps and Weaknesses...... 83 5.1 Identification and Selection of Hot Spot, Sensitive Areas and Overriding Issues...... 83 5.2 Scoring/Prioritisation...... 83 5.3 Impact Assessment ...... 83 5.4 Casual Chain Analysis...... 83
References ...... 84
Annex I Identification Sheet: Hot Spot, Sensitive Areas and/or Overriding issue ...... 93 Annex II Summary Table of Prioritised Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas ...... 103 Annex III Table 1c. Reporting and Calculation Tables for Scoping Exercises for Overriding Issues: Consequences of Environmental Problems upon the Environmental Context and the Socio-Economic Activities of the Country or National Ecosystem as a Whole...... 107 Annex IV Summary Table for the Scoping Exercises...... 109 Annex V Hot Spots - Working Table...... 111 Annex VI Sensitive Areas - Working Table...... 113
List of Figures, Tables and Diagrams
Figure 2.1 Coastal Environments (dashed line Represents the 200 m depth) ...... 14 Figure 3.1 Incomati River Basin Showing the Dams ...... 16 Figure 3.2 Annual Maximum Runoff of Zambezi River Observed at Tete Hydrological Station ...... 17
Figure 3.3 Evolution of the Catch Rates of the Shrimp in Sofala Bank...... 37 Figure 4.1 Internationally Shared Rivers by Mozambique ...... 48 Figure 4.2 Main River Basins...... 49 Figure 4.3 Decrease in Annual Inflow (Thin Line) and Outflow (Thick Line) of Cahora Bassa Catchment from 1975 to 1997 ...... 50 Figure 4.4 Mean Monthly Average of Inflow (Thin Line) and Outflow (Thick Line) from Cahora Bassa Reservoir for the Period 1976 to 1997...... 55 Figure 4.5 Times Series Plot of the Zambezi River Runoff (•) and Prawn Catch Rates (o) in Sofala Bank...... 55
Table 1 Hot Spots, Sensitive Areas and Issues of Major Concern in Mozambique ...... i Table 2 Summary of the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues and their Impacts...... iii Table 3 Summary of the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues, their Causes and Recommended Actions ...... iv Table 1.1 Macro Economic Indicators ...... 3 Table 1.2 Number of People Involved in the Fishery Sector...... 6 Table 1.3 Fish Catches (Tons) by Type of Fisheries and Industry ...... 7 Table 3.1 Major Concern Issues Related to Fresh Water Shortage/Excess, their Environmental and Human Impacts, and Potential Transboundary Implications...... 18 Table 3.2 Rates of Coastline Changes at the Mouth of Chinde Inlet (positive values indicate coastline retreat (erosion) and negative values indicate coastline advance (accretion) ...... 20 Table 3.3 Number of Cases of Waterborne Diseases Reported in Coastal Provinces (Anon, 1998)...20 Table 3.4 Mangrove Area and Changes Occurred Between 1972 and 1990 ...... 26 Table 3.5 Summary of Status and Condition of Each Reef Surveyed Based on Benthic Cover and Fish Trophic Groups ...... 32 Table 3.6 Summary of Impacts and its Indictors Related to the Identified Issues...... 33 Table 3.7 Fish Catches (Tons) by Type of Fisheries and Industry ...... 38 Table 3.8 Major Issues Related to Over-Exploitation of Fishery Resources, their Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts and the Possible Indicators...... 41 Table 3.9 Summary of Impacts and its Indictors Related to the Destructive Fishing Practices ...... 45 Table 4.1 Causal Chain Analysis of the Major Concerned Issues Related to Fresh Water Shortage ...... 47 Table 4.2 Availability of Surface Water Per Capita ...... 50 Table 4.3 Existing Main Power Plants in Mozambique...... 53 Table 4.4 Summary of the Actions Recommended Addressing the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues...... 61 Table 4.5 Proposal for Marine Protected Areas with Emphasis on Coral Reefs and Mangroves in Mozambique ...... 69 Table 4.6 Summary Table for Immediate Causes of Destructive Fishing Practices...... 82
Diagram 4.1 Casual Chain Analysis of Modification of Stream Flow...... 56 Diagram 4.2 Analysis of the Immediate Causes and Sector Use Direct Pressures...... 57 Diagram 4.3 Graphic Representation of Causal Chain Analysis for the Loss/Degradation of Mangroves ...... 66 Diagram 4.4 Graphic Representation of Causal Chain Analysis for the Loss/Degradation of Coral Reefs...... 67 Diagram 4.5 Causal Chain Analysis of Over-Exploitation of Fisheries Resources in Mozambique ...... 78 Diagram 4.6 Casual Chain Analysis of Destructive Fishing Practices...... 80 Diagram 4.7 OECD Pressure - State - Response Model Related to Destructive Fishing Practices...... 81
Acronyms
CZM : Coastal Zone Management DAP : Department for Fisheries Administration DINAGECA : Directorate for Geographic and Cadastral DNA : National Directorate for Water DNFFB : National Directorate for Forestry and Wildlife FAO : Food and Agriculture Organisation ICZM : Integrated Coastal Zone Management IDPPE : Institute for Development of Small Scale Fisheries IIP : Institute for Fisheries Research INPF : National Institute for Physical Planning MAE : Ministry for State Administration MAP : Ministry for Agriculture and Fisheries MICOA : Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs NEMP : National Programme for Environment Management NGO : Non Governmental Organisation NORAD : Norwegian Agency for Development Cooperation PNGA : National Programme for Environment Management SAFMAR : Maritime Authority UEM : Eduardo Mondlane University UNEP : United Nations Environment Program
Executive Summary
Selection of Hot Spots and of Sensitive Areas
The ecosystems in Mozambique are relatively well preserved compared to other countries in the region, probably due to the fact that the country is less developed. On the other hand the potential for degradation of those sites is higher and would increase in the future in the view of the current development. There was not a clear-cut separation between Hot spot and sensitive areas. The following sites were classified as Hot spots for they presented a higher degree of degradation in relation to others within the country: Maputo Bay, Sofala Bank and Nacala Bay and Mozambique Island. The following four sites were classified as sensitive areas: Bazaruto Archipelago, Quirimbas Archipelago, Inhaca and Matutuine Area and Marromeu and Zambezi Delta. The four sites were selected for the scooping exercise, considering their ecological significance.
Issues
A total of 10 issues related to these sites and to the overall country was identified. The issues 12 and 13 “Loss of ecosystems or ecotones” and “Modification of ecosystems and ecotones”, respectively, were combined into one issue “Loss and modification of ecosystems and ecotones”. The issues number 1 “Reduction in stream flow” was changed to “Modification of stream flow”, to reflect both the draught and flood situations. The prioritisation exercise resulted in selection of four main issues as follows: (i) Modification of stream flow (abnormal river runoff, foods, draughts), (ii) Loss and modification of ecosystems and ecotones (erosion, depletion of mangroves, destruction of corals and sea grass beds), (iii) Over-exploitation of fisheries resources (shrimp resources, demersal fisheries), and (iv) Destructive fishing practices (use of mosquito nets, dynamites, fish poisoning). The four issues were considered in the assessment of impacts. Table 1 presents the hot spots, sensitive areas and the issues of major concern in Mozambique.
Table 1. Hot Spots, Sensitive Areas and Issues of Major Concern in Mozambique
Hot Spots Sensitive Areas Issues of Major Concern Bazaruto Archipelago Modification of stream flow Maputo Bay
Loss and modification of ecosystems Quirimbas Archipelago Sofala Bank and ecotones
Nacala and Mozambique Inhaca and Matutuine Area Overexploitation of natural resources Island (fisheries)
Marromeu and Zambezi Delta Use of destructive fishing practices
Environmental Impacts
Environmental consequences brought by these issues are diverse (Table 2), and often have feed back implications. Freshwater shortage contribute for rapid deterioration of water quality, as in such a case there is high risk for recycling water, and further, the flushing time of the water is longer. This in turn could worsen the effect of pollution. The reduction in the water volume and the drop in the water quality have further implication in the downstream ecology. It may cause chronic erosion/deposition along the coast and salt intrusion in the estuaries, and it may affects severely the living resources (both fauna and flora). On the other hand, floods cause severe damages to the habitats. Excessive runoff during the dry season could interact negatively with the life cycle of some species. The destruction of the coastal ecosystems affects primarily the productivity and the biodiversity, and then, causes the reduction in the resources availability. In particular, the depletion of the vegetation cover over the coastal sand dunes stimulates coastal erosion, which in turn contribute to the death of corals and sea
i grass by siltation. Overexploitation of the fishery resources and the use of destructive fishing practices result in reduction of the fish stocks and loss of biodiversity.
Socio-Economic Impacts
Socio-economic consequences related to marine and coastal issues are immense considering that a significant percentage of the population, about 40%, live in the coastal zone and their living depends on the resources available in these regions, and further, the economy of the country depends largely in the marine and coastal resources. Water shortage is associated to the deterioration of the water quality and pollution. These have further implications in the human health. Most of the causes of death in Mozambique are infectious and parasitic diseases, all associated with hygiene and water sanitation. These diseases severely dehabilitate the people and hence impact the economy. The frequency of the floods provides the ideal conditions for continuous infection. The economic implications include the costs of treatment of epidemics like cholera and the cost of water treatment. Modification and loss of coastal ecosystems may result in reduction in fish availability, decline in property value, agricultural potential and loss of aesthetic value. These in turn result in reduction in income from fisheries, agriculture and tourism. Reduction in fish resources has implication in the economy, employment facilities and reduces capacity for the local community to meet basic needs (subsistence). Resettlement, migration of people and conflicts in resource use are some of the major social impacts associated to overexploitation of natural resources and the use of inadequate harvesting techniques. Table 2 presents the issues, the environmental and socio-economic implications.
Transboundary Implications
Major Transboundary consequences of the identified issues are based in the fact that most of the resources in question are shared with neighbouring countries, and hence, for their sustainable exploitation require a transborder integrated management approach. Freshwater shortage or abnormal river runoff is associated in part to the restriction of water for different use in the hinterland countries. Considerable pollution affecting the Mozambican waters is due to intensive agriculture activity in South Africa (Limpopo, Incomati), Swaziland (sugar cane, Umbeluzi) and Zimbabwe (Save, Zambezi). Most of the fleets fishing shallow water shrimp in Sofala Bank are owned by foreigners or are joint venture with nationals. Most of the fish products are for exportation (mainly to European market). In addition, demersal fisheries caught in game fishing are sheared with South Africa, and most of the game fishermen are from that country. Hence, reduction in availability of these resources is of considerable Transboundary nature. Further, some species affected are endangered and so, internationally protected.
ii Table 2. Summary of the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues and their Impacts
Environmental Socio-Economic Issue Transboundary Nature Impacts Impacts Shortage of drinking Water quality affected. Transboundary conflicts Modification of water, hygiene and Ecological damage: in the use and stream flow health problems. erosion, salt intrusion. management of shared Reduction in flow Hydroelectric power Downstream and water. Reduction in fish Floods production affected. coastal marine stocks. Foreign fishing Industry affected. High resources diminished. companies affected. cost for treating water. International market of Migration and shrimp affected. resettlement of
communities. Loss and Low fishery production. modification of Coastal ecosystem Reduced capacity to Damage to endangered ecosystems and affected. Low meet basic needs for species. Damage to ecotones productivity. Loss of local communities. Transboundary Depletion of biodiversity. Damage to coastal ecosystems. Loss of mangroves Destruction of coastal infrastructures. Loss of biodiversity. Destruction of corals protection. aesthetic values. Loss of and sea grass income from tourism. Erosion Reduced income from fisheries. Migration and Unsustainable Reduction in fish Reduction in fish stocks. resettlement of exploitation of stocks. Loss of Foreign fishing fishermen communities. natural resources biodiversity. companies affected. Conflicts in resources Overexploitation of International market of use. Loss of capacity for fish resources shrimp affected the local community to meet basic needs Use of destructive Destruction of fishing practices habitats. Reduction in Endangered species Mosquito nets recruitment potentials. Same as above such as Dugongs and Dynamites Reduction in fish marine turtles. Trawling over sea stocks. bed
Causal Chain of the Issues
Table 3 summarises the casual chain of the major issues related to marine and coastal environment. The causes may be grouped into two categories: (i) environmental and (ii) anthropogenic. Fresh water shortage and/or abnormal floods are associated to both climatological factors (drought/floods) and human activity (effect of the dams, deviation of water for irrigation). Loss and modification of coastal ecosystems are due to both environmental and human activity. Storms cause the destruction of the coastal protection (erosion) and of the corals and sea grass beds. Global warming brought by the global climate change causes massive coral bleaching. Destructive human activity in the coastal zone includes over-exploitation, misuse of the resources (vegetation, corals and sea grasses), including over-grazing and unsustainable tourism practices. Over-exploitation of the resources are primarily driven by food needs and high income demand. Lack of adequate post fishing facilities (freezers, roads and easy transportation to the markets) leads to devaluation of the fish products, inducing to ever more pressure in the resources. Mozambique is one of the poorest countries in the world. It has a higher population density in the coast, and most of the people live in absolute poverty. Attempts to lift the country out of the critical economic situation often it impels (unwillingly) to more pressure into the resources. Use of destructive fishing practices is primarily driven by the lack of means to acquire adequate fishing gears. Poor development of other sectors such as
iii industry, agriculture, tourism leave fisheries as the preferable option for subsistence of local community, thus posing even more pressure in the fisheries resources.
Constraints to Action
Major constraint to action is related in one side to the lack of our understanding of the ecosystem structure and functioning, and to institutional and legal framework shortage, on the other side. Lack of qualified personnel is the key factor behind our limited knowledge. Very often we do not know how most of the ecosystems function, how each intervening factor contribute to the system, and how the different factors inter-related one to another. Institutional capacity goes from the lack of infrastructures for research and monitoring to the lack of coordination among different institutions dealing with marine issues. Lack of coordination often leads to duplication of actions with unnecessary waste of resources. Sustainable exploitation of resources requires a thoroughly research and permanent monitoring, which is too expensive for a developing country. In addition to these limitation, in some cases the legislation may not easy sustainable development, particularly where there is a free access to the resources, or absence of regulation in the extent to which and/or sustainable ways of resource exploitation are imposed.
Recommended Actions
The actions recommended (Table 3) aim at: (i) improvement of our understanding of the ecosystems structure and function for better management, (ii) improvement of the fishing techniques and post fishing facilities (including roads and markets), (iii) strengthening the capacity and interrelation of the institutions involved in marine research, resource management, teaching and training, and (iv) development of adequate legislation to the level of the exploitation of the resources and to the socio- economic reality of the country.
Table 3. Summary of the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues, their Causes and Recommended Actions
Immediate Issue Root Causes Sectoral Pressure Recommended Action Causes Increased Understanding the river diversion. runoff requirement of the Higher population Abnormal rainfall Inadequate mining ecosystems. Promotion of pressure and Modification of inputs (draughts practices. integrated river basin higher water stream flow and floods). Urbanisation. management. Promotion demand for urban, Reduction in flow Change in land Industrial of the concept of agriculture, Floods use practices development. Poor transborder management industry and (agriculture in enforcement of the of shared rivers. energy riverbeds), law. Improve the capacity for production. deforestation. flood and drought predictions. Industry, building. Mangrove used as Loss and Human firewood and in Improve understanding modification of Inadequate settlements construction. Urban of the ecosystem ecosystems and harvesting growth, increase development. structure and ecotones practices. Erosion. number of people Conversion into functioning. Develop and Depletion of Conversion. living in cities, aquaculture ponds. declare new protected mangroves, Modification of claim of Corals harvested for sites. Improve legislation Destruction of stream flow. mangrove area for used in building and and law enforcement. corals & sea Global warming. urban sold to tourists. Poor Promote environmental grasses, development. legislation and education and awareness. Erosion enforcement of the law.
iv Immediate Issue Root Causes Sectoral Pressure Recommended Action Causes Fisheries, Inadequate policy. Free access to Reducing pressure on the Increased fishing the resources. Lack of traditional fisheries. effort. Decreased capacity for Promote offshore Unsustainable recruitment. developing and Higher population fisheries. Improve exploitation of Decreased nursery enforcing legislation. pressure. Higher fishing facilities and natural and/or habitat Lack of capacity for income and infrastructures. Improve resources ground. surveillance the cost. market demands. fishing management Overexploitation Destructive Poor fish processing strategies. Understanding of fish resources fishing practices. infrastructures. Poor the ecosystem based Modification of development of management of the stream flow. agriculture, tourism, resources. industry poses pressure in fisheries. Reducing pressure over the nursery and breeding Destructive Use of inadequate Poor road and fish grounds. Provision of fishing practices fishing gears. conservation adequate fishing gears. Higher pressure. Mosquito nets Lack of means for facilities. Free access Improvement of fish Higher income Dynamites acquiring to resources. processing facilities and and market Trawling over sea adequate fishing Lack of capacity for road network. Promotion demands. bed gears. Over surveillance the cost of co-management of the fishing. fisheries resources, involving the communities.
v
MOZAMBIQUE COUNTRY PROFILE
vii
Geography and Environment Surface area: total: total: 801,590 sq km Coastline: 2,770 km Maritime claims: exclusive economic zone (distance from shore): 200 NM territorial sea: 12 NM EEZ: 493,700 km2 Natural resources: coal, titanium, natural gas, hydropower, tantalum, graphite Land use: arable land: 4% permanent crops: 0% permanent pastures: 56% forests and woodland: 18% other: 22% (1993 est.) Irrigated land: 1,200 sq km (2000 est.) Environment - international agreements: Biodiversity, Climate Change, Desertification, party to: Endangered Species, Hazardous Wastes, Law of the Sea, Ozone Layer Protection signed, but not ratified: none of the selected agreements Population Population: 19,371,057 (Julay 2001 est) 16.1 million (1994) Population growth rate: 1.3% (2001 est.) Population density: 20 inhabitants/km2 Life expectancy : total population: 36.45 years Urban population (% of total 1995): 33.8% Urban population annual growth rate: 4.68% Population living within 100 km from the coast: 59.0% Population living in coastal districts1 40% Literacy: total population: 42.3% (definition: age 15 and over can read male: 58.4% and write) female: 27% (1998 est.) Economy GDP: purchasing power parity $19.1 billion (2000 est.) GDP - real growth rate: 3.8% (2000 est.) GDP per capita: purchasing power parity $1,000 (2000 est.) GDP composition by sector: agriculture, forestry and fisheries: 44% industry: 19% services: 37% (1999 est.) Population below poverty line: 70% (2000 est.) Labour force: 7.4 million (1997 est.) Labour force - by occupation: agriculture 81%, industry 6%, services 13% (1997 est.) Unemployment rate: 21% (1997 est.) Industries: food, beverages, chemicals (fertilizer, soap, paints), petroleum products, textiles, cement, glass, asbestos, tobacco Industrial production growth rate: 7.2% (1999) Electricity - production: 2.3 billion kWh (1999) Electricity - production by source: fossil fuel: 13.04% hydro: 86.96% Electricity - consumption: 307 million kWh (1999)
1 Which accounts for around 19% of total land area.
viii Electricity - exports: 1.9 billion kWh (1999) Electricity - imports: 68 million kWh (1999) Agriculture - products: cotton, cashew nuts, sugarcane, tea, cassava (tapioca), corn, rice, coconuts, sisal, tropical fruits; beef, poultry Exports: $390 million (f.o.b., 2000 est.) Exports - commodities: prawns 40%, cashews, cotton, sugar, citrus, timber; bulk electricity (2000) Imports: $1.4 billion (c.i.f., 2000 est.) Imports - commodities: machinery and equipment, mineral products, chemicals, metals, foodstuffs, textiles (2000) Currency code: MZM Exchange rates: meticais per US dollar - 22,885.0 (January 2002), 17,331.0 (2001), 5,199.8 (2000), 12,775.1 (1999), 11,874.6 (1998), 11.543.6 (1997), 11,293.8 (1996) Water Resources and Uses Internal flows 100 billion cu. m. 1999 Flows from other countries 116.0 billion cu. m. 1999 Total resources per capita cu. m3: 12,486 Annual freshwater withdrawals: 0.6 billion cu. m. % of total renewable resources: 0.3 % for agriculture: 89 % for industry: 2 % for domestic: 9
ix Mozambique National report 040302
CHAPTER 1
1. Background
1.1 The National Report
The present document was prepared by a team of four Mozambican experts under the guidance of two consultants, namely Ms Sylvie Goyet (ACOPS), and Dr Isabelle Niang Diop (IOC-UNESCO). The assignment is a part of the GEF MSP and aimed at conducting environmental problem analysis to identify, characterise, and prioritise causes of environmental degradation, as well as hot spots and sensitive areas in Sub-Saharan Africa. The overall goal of the exercise was to provide scientific/technical basis for the development of a programme of intervention to addressing the major environmental problems in Sub-Saharan Africa. Seven countries initially, and then extended to 11 countries participated in the project. The project started in December 2000. It was conducted in three main phases:
(i) scaling and scoping, where the critical sites and issues were identified and prioritised; (ii) impact assessment, where the main environmental and socio-economic impacts were identified and assessed their severity; and (iii) causal chain analysis, where the main causes of the issues were identified and actions for addressing them were proposed.
Several meetings of the national team were held, from which two were extended to large participation of other experts and stakeholders. In addition, three regional meetings of the team coordinators were held, from which two were extended to two experts per country.
Three partial reports with the results from scoping and scaling, impact assessment and casual chain analysis, respectively, were produced. Then, a first consolidated draft report was produced in September 2001.
1.2 A Brief Overview of the Environmental and Socio-Economic Situation in Mozambique
Mozambique is situated in the eastern coast of Southern Africa, between Latitudes10° 27' S and 26° 52' S and Longitudes 30° 12' E and 40° 51' E. Mozambique possesses rich land, marine and mineral resources. Savannah and secondary forests cover almost 70% of the country. Approximately 45% of the territory have potential for agriculture. The Mozambican marine coastline, about 2,770 km long, is the third longest in Africa and is characterised by a wide diversity of habitats including sandy beaches, sand dunes, coral reefs, estuarine systems, bays, mangroves and sea grass beds. Nine major rivers systems cross the country. These important marine ecosystems support important fishery resources, endangered and protected species such as dugongs and marine turtles.
The coast of Mozambique is one of its main assets. The fishing industry plays an important role in the country’s economy. Tourism, on the other side, has emerged as one of the fastest-recovering sectors, with most of the tourists coming from South Africa. The coastal ecosystems have a considerable socio-economic and ecological value. Mangroves are responsible for the production of at least 250,000 tons of fish per year, at a rate of 0.5 ton of fish per hectare of mangroves. Corals are estimated to contribute for the production of 25-30 tons of fish per km2, thus, considering about 1,290 km2 of the area of corals in the Mozambique coast (Rodrigues and Motta, in press) corals are responsible for the production of about 38,700 tons of fish a year. The dependency of local communities on these natural resources is also very high. About 75,000 artisanal fishermen and mussels collectors, together with their families, depend at greater extent from the fisheries resources (MICOA, 1998).
Page 1 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
1.2.1 Demography
The population of Mozambique was, in 1994, estimated to be about 16.1 millions. The average growth rate is 2.3%, so the population was expected to be about 20 millions in the year 2000. The working or active population (between age 15 and 65) constitute only about 50% of the total population thus, about a half of the population is dependent. Urban population is large and shows a considerable increase trend with years. For instance, in 1950 urban population represented only 5.4% of the total population, and in 1995 it increased to about 33%.
A significant percentage of the Mozambican population, about 40%, lives in the coastal Districts, which make 19% of the Mozambique territory. The average population density is 20 inhabitants/km2. Most of the infrastructures such as large cities, tourism, industry, commerce, harbours essential for subsistence of the population are located in the coastal zone.
1.2.2 Economy
Mozambique is among the 8 poorest countries in the world. The country debt was around 1 billion of US$ in the beginning of 1990’s, in 1996 was about 5 billion of US$. Some of the major causes of the current critical economic situation in Mozambique are as follows: (i) the country had inherited destroyed infrastructures from Portuguese, at independence in 1975; (ii) the freedom war in Zimbabwe had severely affected the Mozambican economy; (iii) the 16 years of civil war; (iv) the over centralised planning and management of the economy adopted in the first decade of independence and (v) the long term drought which affect the Southern Africa in 80's.
In order to reverse the negative economic development the Mozambican Government initiated in 1987 a Structural Adjustment Program (UNCED, 1992) aimed at reducing state control over the economy, promoting the family sector in agriculture and improving the marketing of agriculture products, adjusting the internal and external imbalances, improving resource distribution, expanding the responsibility of the private sector in the economy activities. These economic reforms has rendered positive results, GDP has grew from about 6 % per annum in 1995/1996 to about 12% in 1997/1998, while inflation fell from about 50% to 4% in the same period. Consumption per capita gradually increased from 0.8% to 1% in 1988 and remained stable at about 2% in 1989 and 1990. Forest and wood land increased by 7.7 % between 1986 and 1989; in the same period the production of cereals increased by 5%, the livestock, pig production observed increased of about 27%, marine catch increased by 28%, the export increased by 16%. The debt relief exceeded 100 millions of US$ for the first time in 1995. It is expected that it may exceed 300 millions of US$, which means 15% of the GDP, by the year 1999.
In spite of these economic achievements the foreign debt is still high compared with the Gross Domestic Product and its foreign earning. For instance, the balance of payment in 1995 and 1996 was -256.1x106 and -90.2x106 US$, respectively (Table 1.1). Mozambique ‘s economy and social status remains fragile. The first national assessment of poverty in Mozambique, carried out in December 1998, showed that 70% of Mozambicans are poor. The average Mozambican lives on only USD 220 per annum (World Bank, 1999).
1.2.3 Coastal Physical Features and Environment
The coastal zone from Ponta do Ouro in the south to latitude 16° S immediately north of Angoche is composed by unconsolidated Quaternary to Recent sediments, mostly sand dunes and sandy plains, but interspersed with heavier textured soils (alluviums) at the lager river mouths. At latitude 16° S and at Macambo, Nacala and Memba bay areas, Tertiary basalt occurs. From Angoche northwards heavily faulted Cretaceous to Tertiary sediments line the coast.
Page 2 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 1.1. Macro Economic Indicators
Description 1995 1996 Balance of payments (106 US$) -256.1 -90.2
% of GDP Growth rate 45.6 41.6 Agriculture 22.8 Industry 8.8 Services 52.2 Export of goods & services 27.7 27.9 Import of goods & services 65.0 56.7 Investment 62.2 58.4 Current income 18.3 18.0 Public receipts 16.7 16.5 Public expenditure 38.3 35.0 Budget balance (exc. grant) -20.8 -17.0 Budget balance (inc. grant) -4.9 -5.2
Source: Mozambique in figures (National statistics, 1997).
The sedimentary deposits occupy two distinct basins separated by the large area of crystalline rocks of Mozambique Belt (Precambrian). The southern basin corresponding largely to the present wide Mozambique plain, from Maputo river as far as north of the Zambezi river and the Rovuma Basin now occupying a narrow coastal belt of Nampula Province and successively becoming larger towards the north from Lurio river to Rovuma, in the Cabo Delgado Province. The North-Mozambique basin constitutes a mesa-Cenozoic sedimentary succession with an age ranging between Lower Cretaceous and Mio-Pliocene.
The morphology of the coastal area is characterised into low lands, rising inland to the altitude of 200 m above the sea level or more. The coastline is characterised by a strip of beaches, recent dunes and inland lagoons in the south; by mangroves, swampy depressions and series of low beach ridges in the centre and mangroves, small dunes alternating with cliffs in the north (Figure 3.1).
The alluvial valleys have fertile clay soils and steppe-like vegetation. The predominant extensive plains and inland dunes have poor sandy soils and savannah vegetation. Three hydrogeological provinces can be identified as:
i) a series of dune belt developed along the whole coast southern of Save river on which the porous eolian sands form a regional phreatic aquifer with fresh groundwater. The permeability decreases from the coast towards the inland, as a consequence of an increase in clay content; ii) the alluvial valleys developed along the main rivers may contain productive stratified good quality aquifer; and iii) In the volcanic terrain, primary and secondary fractures are the most important water-bearing features in the rocks.
The climate in the region north of the Zambezi River is under the influence of the equatorial low pressure zone with a NE monsoon in the warm season. The climate south of Zambezi River is influenced by subtropical anti-cyclonic zone. North Sofala along the Zambezi River lay a transitional zone with high rainfall figures.
Page 3 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The rainfall is mainly restricted to the warm season November to April. According to the classification of Köppen, the northern (Cabo Delgado, Niassa, Nampula and Zambezi) and coastal region have a tropical rain savannah climate (BWw) whereas the upland areas of the interior have a humid temperature climate (CW).
In the lowlands, temperature increases northward and inland. The average annual temperatures are 23° C along the southern coast and 26° C along the northern coast.
Coastal erosion processes have occurred since the formation of the Indian Ocean. Coastline changes may also result from local human action, which tends to interfere with natural sedimentation processes or other processes, which occur at the interface between the ocean and land. Examples of such activities include removal of coastal natural vegetation such as mangroves, dune vegetation, and destruction of offshore barriers, e.g., coral reefs, using the coast for fishing or for developing tourism or for extracting economic minerals from dark sands.
1.2.4 Marine Ecosystems
The warm east currents meander through in Indian Ocean off the coast of Mozambique. The surface temperature of the sea varies between 25°-29° C and its fauna is typical of that of warm water. Coral reefs extend along the Mozambique coast especially in Bazaruto, Nacala and Pemba, the Mozambique Island and Nacala and others are located further south. Mozambique protects some coral reefs, especially in Bazaruto Archipelago and Inhaca Island; however in the north, where the majority occurs, they are inadequately protected.
Various species of turtles breed along the coast and on islands along the Mozambique Channel.
Marine waters extending for about 100,000 km2, the potential for the commercial fisheries is estimated at about 391,000 tons, being the most important resource:
• crustaceans (shallow and deep water shrimp, lobster and crabs) accounting for about 41,000 tons; • demersal and pelagic fishes accounting for about 325,00 tons; and • molluscs and seaweeds, accounting for about 5,500 tons.
Some of the resources in this ecological zone are exploited at its maximum capacity, as is the case of shallow water shrimp.
In Mozambique, the total mangrove coverage has been estimated at 500.000 ha, as a result of the many rivers that drain into the coast. The most recent study to determine the rate of deforestation of the mangrove vegetation in Mozambique was done by the National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, in 1994. That study showed that average rate of mangrove depletion in last 18 years is about 4%. However, it reached levels o up to 15.2% in Maputo Province and 4.9% in Sofala Province, while in Gaza and Cabo Delgado Provinces is nil.
The spill of more than 16,000 tonne of heavy fuel-oil from the Katina P tanker in 1992 off the Mozambique coast put in a serious danger many marine ecosystems and mangrove forests.
There are no systematic studies about the actual sources, kind and levels of pollutants in marine waters. What is known is that the main sources are land-based, especially from coastal cities, agriculture, mining and port activities. What is really important here is that most of the Cities in Mozambique are coastal cities and they do not have any kind of sewage and effluent treatment before discharge into the sea.
Page 4 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The estuaries of Mozambique are threatened by excessive silt from inland soil erosion. In addition, sewage and industrial-waste dumping have played a big role in degrading the Maputo estuary. Mozambique protects some estuaries including 15,000 ha of Zambezi River, 20,000 ha in the Pomene reserve and 70,000 ha of the Maputo estuary and many others are under consideration.
Commercial, artisanal and subsistence fishing benefit from estuaries due to this proximity to the land and accessibility. Improper land husbandry and subsequent soil erosion are degrading some estuaries by causing excessive deposition of silt which smother plants and reduces their accessibility to fish and other marine animals. On the other hand there is little exploitation of meso-pelagic resources in Mozambique, because of lack of proper fishing equipment and capital as well as the low fish population.
In an unprecedented event, in February 2000 disaster stroke the centre and south coast of Mozambique. Cyclones and heavy rains in Mozambique neighbouring countries filled reservoirs and river basins that drained their water into the rivers in Mozambique and triggering extensive flooding. It is predicted that these events will have a high effect on Mozambique’s economy in the short and long term. The flooding devastated about 12% of the cultivated land in five Provinces and caused considerable loss of life and property. Coastal cities such as Maputo and Xai-Xai, as well as many coastal Districts were the most affected areas. Preliminary estimates of the damage suggested that losses reached USD 273 million in direct costs and USD 450 million in optimal-standard reconstruction costs (World Bank, 2000).
Poor land-use practices, including deforestation of the coast as well as the hinterland areas, are the main contributors to sedimentation of the coastal and marine environments in Mozambique. This implies more frequent dredging of the Maputo and Beira harbours. Recent surveys showed that between 1,200,000 m3 a 2,500,000 m3 of sediments need to be dredged annually from the Maputo and Beira Ports respectively (FAO, 1999). No city in Mozambique has a functional system for sewage treatment. The major coastal cities discharge directly into the ocean. Around 76% of the industry in Mozambique is concentrated in the metropolitan area of Maputo and Matola Cities (FAO, 1999). Few industries treat their effluents, which are discharged directly into canals, rivers and coastal waters. According to studies by the Ministry of Health, heavy metals and others toxic chemicals, organic matters, faecal organisms are present in the river effluent discharges of Cities such as Maputo, Beira and Nacala. On the other side, the main cities of Maputo and Beira are located in important estuaries, where several rivers drain waters from hinterland agricultural areas of Mozambique and its neighbouring countries (South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe).
The problems on the coastal area in Mozambique can be summarised as follows:
1. conflicting utilisation of natural resources (tourism, local communities, protected areas, industry, agriculture, sewage disposal, etc.); 2. high population density leading to the over-utilisation of some coastal resources (over fishing in estuaries and beach rocks, etc); and 3. depredation of some fragile and important ecosystems which support essential cycles of life (mangroves, coral reefs and sea grass beds).
1.2.5 Coastal Mineral Resources
The predominant minerals in Mozambique may be grouped in three categories as follows: (i) energetic (coal, natural gas and petroleum), (ii) metallic minerals (gold, iron, copper and (iii) non-metallic minerals (marble and precious stones).
The delta of the Zambezi River accumulates large amounts of heavy-minerals deposits such as ilmentite, rutile and zircon; similar situation exists around the estuaries and deltas of other major Mozambican rivers, such as Limpopo, Save, Ligonha, Lurio and Rovuma. Accumulations of heavy-mineral can also be
Page 5 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 found either on beaches or in sand dunes. The most promising deposits are those located between Quelimane and Quinga that are being currently exploited.
Descriptions of sediments and sedimentary basin evolution are scarce. No detailed work in sedimentary geology and shoreline changes has been carried out during the history of Mozambican geological research. It is important that base line information over the whole sedimentary basins and coastal zones be established.
In spite of the recognition of the potential of the mineral resources in Mozambique, the mineral industry still does not play a major role in the country’s economy. Its contribution is only 2% of the GDP.
1.2.6 Fisheries and Aquaculture
The fisheries resources are mostly located in two major shelves: the Sofala Bank in the centre and Delagoa Bight in the south, and in the bays. The major resources include: Shallow water shrimp, in Sofala Bank, deep water crustacean on the slope, scads and mackerel in Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight, the demersal fish in the southern and northern regions. In the coastal region there are large artisanal fisheries, which includes the molluscs and form basis of subsistence of several local population.
The fisheries sector employs currently over 70,000 people, and it is expected to grow in the future (Table 1.2). Its contribution to the economy represents about 40% of the total export earning. Recorded amount of marine fish at the landings in 1996 was about 35000 tons in 1980, about 80000 tons in 1980, and about 120000 tons in 1992. The artisanal and semi-industrial contribute with more than 50% of the total fish production. The most valuable fishery resource is the shallow water shrimp and its by catch, deep water shrimp and scads and mackerel (Table 1.3).
Table 1.2. Number of People Involved in Fishery Sector
Number Employed Source of employment 1993 2000 2005
Industrial and Semi-industrial Sector 6714 10551 12497 Man 5025 6363 6980 Women 1689 4188 5517
Artisanal sector 66744 76755 92321 Man 52124 59942 72028 Women 14620 16813 20292
Total 73458 87306 104818
The current production of shallow water shrimp is about 7000 tons per year. Unfortunately, in spite of the restriction in the fishing effort, this resource shows signs of overexploitation in Sofala Bank, where most of this resource is located. The catch yield are decreasing. Environmental factors such as the artificial Zambezi flow regime brought by the Cahora Bassa dam activity may contribute for the reduction in the availability of the shrimp in Sofala Bank (Hoguane, 1997).
Other resources that are overexploited are those located in the Bays of Maputo and Inhambane. The government policy is to encourage fishing of other resources apart from traditional fishing area. The scads and mackerel production stopped in 1990 due to the fall of the major fishing company owned jointly by Mozambique and former Soviet Union governments. This means that the resource is under- exploited and so, available for new fishing licensing.
Page 6 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The central Mozambique offers excellent conditions for prawn culture. Maputo is another area where is possible to develop the shrimp culture. The activity is being promoted for the investment.
Table 1.3. Fish Catches (Tons) by Type of Fisheries and Industry
Type of Fish 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 Industrial Fisheries
Total 24951 25284 26735 21585 23912 19050 22701 12522 17690 177217 16281 Shallow w. 7575 7513 7328 5724 5957 7050 6338 6698 6321 7344 7043 shrimp 2412 2285 3726 3154 2841 2350 1652 1833 2250 1770 1771 Deep water 12524 13416 13701 10361 8276 7757 5391 1756 3341 2604 2503 shrimp 255 136 170 163 237 203 247 292 294 208 7 Demersal fish 1689 1258 930 753 780 720 369 741 603 623 1150 Deep water 21 26 148 30 - 168 332 260 262 266 202 lobster 381 336 259 135 190 257 156 309 328 311 190 by-catch (S. 46 224 231 167 207 341 186 443 261 179 132 shrimp) 49 89 91 64 57 8 6 7338 140 36 60 35 by-catch (D. 152 1033 5367 119 19 3914 3347 2461 shrimp) 51 30 29 36 crabs 312 358 prawn 165 21 squids 194 octopus 178 tuna marlins sharks rock lobsters other crustaceans Semi-Industrial Fisheries
Total 381 385 342 164 239 941 1271 2834 2405 4184 7123 Shallow w. 48 58 94 44 74 179 184 275 222 157 396 223 223 155 105 111 448 516 1053 892 561 - shrimp 110 104 93 16 55 313 65 809 361 293 584 Demersal fish - 3 3 1 0 - By-catch (S. 1 3 5 4 0 1 shrimp) 689 925 3137 5574 Crabs 568 Squids Fresh water fish Other fish Artisanal
Total 13338 10653 5108 5811 8767 5544 3835 3839 3362 3512 11511 Shallow w. 143 96 14 135 832 469 237 375 102 199 567 shrimp 13195 10557 5093 5676 7436 4900 3447 3300 3205 3044 9987 231 5 30 20 13 40 130 Demersal fish 198 133 84 95 15 103 374 Lobsters 2 20 29 42 16 82 329 Crabs - 5 0 - 6 54 Squids 68 12 9 5 11 38 57 Holothuria 2 13 Shell fish octopus
Source: Department for Fisheries Administration (DAP).
Page 7 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
1.2.7 Agriculture
Agriculture is most important sector in Mozambique and is mostly carried out by peasants. The commercial (mechanised) farming occupies only 250000 ha, which represents only about 8% of the total crop land. More than 80% of the country’s population gains its livelihood from the agricultural sector. It contribute by about 40% of the country’s export value. The mechanised agriculture is still very localised and possessed by few farmers.
The main agriculture products are: rice, maize, peanuts, beans, cotton, cashew, copra, sisal, sunflower, sorghum.
1.2.8 Manufacturing Industries
The Mozambique industry is not developed and is mainly devoted to food processing, petroleum refinery and other goods for export. Most of these industries, about 80%, are located in the two major cities Maputo/Matola and Beira, the capital and the second large city, respectively. The most important industries include: MOZAL aluminium smelter, cement manufacture, oil refining, dairy plant, glass manufacture, textiles, pulp and paper products, wood processing, beer and soft drinks manufacture, tyre production, sugar and salt production, food processing, including cashew nut processing. Most of these industry plants are old, and uses obsolete technology.
The Mozambique industry suffered the effect of the civil war. There was a steep decline in production at the independence then a slow recovery to 1981 after which there was a collapse to about 40% of its capacity in 1985. Production rose again in subsequent years: 2.8% in 1986, 21.5% in 1987, 10.8% in 1989, 5.9% in 1989. Currently the industrial sector is working at about 35% of its capacity.
The Government is making effort in other to develop the industry to its full operational capacity, at the same time encourages foreign investments in new and diverse industry. Profound reforms related to privatisation, as mentioned above, are taking place. These will accelerate the growth of the industry.
1.2.9 Ports and Harbours
There are three large ports in Mozambique: Maputo, Beira and Nacala, and several small ports: Inhambane, Quelimane, Pebane, Angoche , Pemba. Mozambique harbours provide services not only for national customers but also, and mostly, for the neighbouring countries. Perhaps most of the foreign services provided by Mozambique is through its harbours.
Mozambique harbours handle annually several tons of cargo to and from: Swaziland, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi and Congo. The total cargo handled in 1995 and 1996 was about 7.5x106 ton and 8.4x106 ton, respectively.
Both the road and railways networks are built to facilitate regional trade rather than the national economic integration of the country. The transport sector used to be an important foreign exchange earner from the transit facilities offered to the neighbouring countries. The total goods transported through the Mozambican railways were 3.1x106 ton and 4.1x106 ton, respectively.
1.2.10 Recreational Parks and Tourism
Historically, Mozambique had a thriving tourism industry, mainly in the centre and south of the country, with Rhodesia and South Africa providing the potential markets. Now the opportunity exists to tap both these historical markets and the tourism markets of the north. Soon after the war stopped development plans were put forward. Mozambique has excellent potentials for both the coastal and wildlife based tourism.
Page 8 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Coastal tourism is well developed in the southern part of the country, south of Save River. This region is characterised by beautiful sandy beaches and extensive corals. This type of tourism expanded rapidly after the end of the civil war in 1992. Many areas in the southern Mozambique are now experiencing tourist pressure due, in part, to uncontrolled tourism development. Some of the tourism activities include beach sailing, and game fishing. Several game fishing competitions take place a year in Bazaruto, Inhambane, Maputo and Ponta do Ouro.
Wildlife based tourism offers good prospects for economy. There are two major forms of land based tourism: (i) Photo-safaris and (ii) hunting safaris. Photo-safaris were very little significant in the past two decade. Safari companies were unable to attract this kind of clients, due to civil war that affected the country. Hunting safaris contributed considerably for the country’s economy. Between 1965 and 1970 about 1310 tourists hunted in Mozambique. The resulting revenue was about US$87000 per year for the government (licenses and administrative fees) and US$642000 per year for the safari companies.
Page 9 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
CHAPTER 2
2. Identification of Hot Spots, of Sensitive Areas, and of Overriding Issues
Identification and prioritisation of the hot spots, of sensitive areas, and of overriding issues were carried out in a national workshop held in Maputo in 27 of January 2001. The participants to the workshop were about 20 and came from different institutions of government and NGO’s, and represented different field of expertise both from natural and social sciences. Apart from these, the workshop was attended by Mr. Emídio Sebastião, representing the Ministry of Coordination of Environmental Affairs of Mozambique, and by Mrs. Sylvie Goyet, ACOPS-GEF MSP consultant. The workshop was guided by the national team of experts.
The participants were divided into three groups: one to look into Hot spots, one to look into sensitive areas and the other to look into overriding issues. The finding of each group was discussed and enriched in a plenary session.
The national team of experts had prepared a list of Hot spots, Sensitive Areas and of Overriding issues, as a proposal to be discussed by the groups. The proposal had four Hot spots (Maputo Bay, Beira Bay, Nacala Bay and Mozambique Island), five Sensitive Areas (Inhaca and Matutuine Area, Bazaruto Archipelago, Marromeu and Zambezi Delta, Ilhas Primeiras e Segundas, Quirimbas Archipelago) and seven Overriding Issues (freshwater shortage, over fishing, destructive fishing practices, modification of ecosystems and ecotones, loss of ecosystems and ecotones, erosion, pollution).
During the discussions it was felt that in most of the cases it was difficult to judge whether the site was a Hot spot or a Sensitive Area. There was a general feeling among the participants that the ecosystems in Mozambique were relatively well preserved compared to other countries in the region, probably due to the fact that the country is less developed. And so, it would make sense to consider Sensitive Areas, in view of the recent trends in development, rather than Hot spots. The participants opted to consider Hot spots sites those presenting a higher degree of degradation in relation to other sites within the country.
All the four Hot spots proposed by the team of experts. Nacala Bay site and the Mozambique Island were joined together because they are neighbouring sites. Further, the Beira Bay was included in a much larger hot spot covering the whole Sofala Bank. So, the four sites initially proposed were gathered in three sites and so, considered for scoping exercise (Figure 2.1).
The list of Sensitive Areas presented by the team of experts was also considered. There were five sites with score of seventy percents and above. The top three sites had scores 81%, 80% and 73%. A fourth site, the Zambezi Delta and Marromeu, with score 72% was added for the scooping exercise because it is a wetland with a significant ecological importance, it is further a site of particular interest for WWF and IUCN. Thus the, sites selected for further analysis were four as follows(Figure 2.1): Inhaca and Matutuine Area, Bazaruto Archipelago, Marromeu and Zambezi Delta and Quirimbas Archipelago.
A total of 10 issues related to these sites and to the overall country were identified. During the discussions the participants felt that the GIWA issues 12 and 13 “Loss of ecosystems or ecotones” and “Modification of ecosystems and ecotones”, respectively, were much close to each other in our context, that they could be combined into one issue “Loss and modification of ecosystems and ecotones”. Similarly, in relation to Reduction in stream flow, issue number 1, it was felt that it is not only the reduction in stream flow but also the floods, which is excess of fresh water, were of concern. Floods is of particular concern for Mozambique because it is a low riparian and low laying country, so, highly vulnerable to floods. In the beginning of 1999 the country experienced the heaviest flood ever observed in almost a century.
Page 10 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The group added another issues to the GIWA list and that was the degradation of infrastructures. This is related to the degradation of the historical value buildings at Mozambique Island, an old city considered as UNESCO World Heritage Site. The participants were aware that this has not to do with degradation of the natural habitat but considered important because it is related to a degradation of a site that has a cultural and an historical world-wide value.
2.1 Scaling: Prioritisation of Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas
The prioritisation of Hot spots was easy because from the four Hot spots, two were joined together and so we had the three required. There were 7 issues associated to the Hot spots, since some were common to the sites.
The prioritisation of sensitive areas was relatively difficult because there were five sites with mild differences in scores. The participants had to use their knowledge of the sites and select the sites to be considered for further exercises. As mentioned above four sites instead of three were considered. A total of five GIWA issues were associated to these sites, since once again, most of them applied for more than one site.
The three overriding issues were associated to fisheries and to loss and modification of the ecosystems. Of major concern is over fishing, destructive fishing practices, related to fisheries, and depletion of mangroves and erosion, related to loss and modification of the ecosystems and ecotones.
At the end of the prioritisation of Hot spot and sensitive areas there were 10 key issues related to these sites and including the overriding issues. The participants decided to consider the 10 key issues for the scoping exercise.
2.2 Scoping: Prioritisation of Issues
The participants were divided into two groups: one to assess the socio-economic impact of the issues and the other to assess the environmental impact of the issues.
The method for assessing the environmental impacts of the issue was relatively accessible to every one and relatively easy to apply.
The method for assessing the socio-economic impacts was difficult and often required a lot of information that was not available. The participants simplified the methods and scored the issues according to their experience and knowledge of the sites. The sites were scored considering the relative importance of each in relation to the others.
The three issues with high score in the summary table of the scoping exercise are related to fishery and habitat and community modification. This fits with the expected result, considering that the country is less developed, the economy is mainly driven by exploitation of natural resources and so, the pollution is not yet a major concern.
The team of national experts considered adding another issue related to the fresh water shortage to the causal chain analysis. So, for the following exercise there will be four, instead of three, issues. The four issues are: (i) Modification of the ecosystems that will include the loss of ecosystems as explained above; (ii) Over-exploitation of fisheries resources; (iii) destructive fishing practices and (iv) reduction and excessive stream flow.
Hot Spots
Maputo Bay The Maputo Bay, located in the southern part of Mozambique, at the Latitude 32º 40′S and Longitude 32º 55′E, is bout 40 km long and 30 km wide, covering an area of about 1200 km2, opened to the sea
Page 11 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 in the north. The local population, including of the nearest city - Matola city, is estimated to be over 1,4 millions. The main activity associated to this site is fishing, tourism, industry, and harbour operation.
The bay can be considered as a large reservoir that receives salt water through the northern boundary and fresh water through the western boundary. It may be divided into two main ecosystems: The estuarine ecosystems in the western side of the bay and the marine (open sea) ecosystems in the eastern side of the bay. It has both mangroves and corals, thus it has a high biodiversity index.
Further, the bay has considerable economy and historical values; it is where the Maputo City, the capital and the largest city of Mozambique is located and where the Matola City, the major industrial zone of Mozambique is located. Further, it hosts important fisheries and tourism industries. There are two main international rivers heavily used in mechanised agriculture draining into the bay. Thus, the bay is highly vulnerable to pollution from the city and its industry as well as from the agricultural runoff.
Sofala Bank Sofala Bank is located in the central Mozambique , between 17o S to about 21o S. It is wider in the southern part (about 100 nm about 200 km) and narrow in the northern part (20 nm or 40 km). It is the largest shelf in the Eastern African Coast, with an average area of about 4,638 km2. There are three Provinces sharing the Sofala Bank, namely: Sofala, Zambezi and Nampula. The coastal population over 1.3 millions. The main activity associated to this sites are fishing and harbour operation. Beira has an international harbour that provides services to the hinterland countries such as Zimbabwe, Zambia, Malawi.
The shelf is highly productive and hosts an important shrimp fishery. The productivity of Sofala Bank is mainly due to the terrigenous input of nutrients from Zambezi, one of the largest rivers in Africa, and due to extensive mangroves that provides shelter (nursery ground) for important fisheries and crustacean.
The morphology of the coastal zone in Sofala Bank is characterised by flat land with an almost continuous fringe of mangrove swamps. The bottom in the central and northern Sofala Bank is flat and mostly muddy. It is where most of the industrial fleet operates. The southern Sofala Bank is characterised by sand waves thought to be due to strong tidal currents, hence, inappropriate for bottom trawl, save near the shore where semi-industrial fleet and artisanal fisherman operate mainly bottom trawls and beach seines, respectively, and fishing mostly shrimp.
Nacala Bay and Mozambique Island Nacala is located in the northern coast of Mozambique between Latitudes 14o 19’S and 14o 36’S. It has an area of about 573 km2. The estimated population is over 160 000. There is a large bay - the Nacala Bay, with an international harbour. The Nacala bay is the deepest bay in Mozambique.
The Mozambique Island is located almost off Nacala, at Latitude 15o 07’S and Longitude 40o 48’E. It has an area of about 109km2. The population is over 40,000.
The marine ecosystems of these areas consists of corals and the Nacala Bay, has some mangroves as well. The Nacala site is a nesting area for some species of dolphins and endangered birds. These areas are strongly affected by human activities. The mangroves are being converted into salt pans and the corals in the Mozambique Island are being mined for building.
The main activities associated to these areas fishing, mining and harbour operation. The Mozambique Island is an old/historical city that is now a World Heritage site.
Page 12 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
2.3 Sensitive Areas
Inhaca and Matutuine The Inhaca Island is located in Maputo Bay, off Maputo, at latitude 26oS. The eastern side of the Island is bordered by the Indian Ocean and the western side by the Maputo bay. The total area of the island is about 40km2, with an estimated population of about 6,000. The main activity is fishing and tourism.
The Island has a diversity of environment and habitats: the western side is subject to the effect of storms, waves and strong winds, whereas the western side is relatively protected. There are health corals and mangroves that support several commercial fisheries. The island is a nursery ground for birds and turtles and a breading ground for Dugongs (endangered species).
Matutuine is located south of Inhaca island, between Latitudes 26o 05’S and 26o 51’S, with an estimated area of about 2,550 km2. The Inhaca Island and Matutuine all form part of the Maputaland centre of Endemism, that extends from Limpopo river mouth (northern boundary) to St. Lucia (in South Africa, southern boundary). Both the Inhaca Island and Matutuine are reserves.
The main activities associated to Matutuine are: Fishing, tourism, hunting, agriculture, forestry. There are plans for developing a large tourism industry that could threat the maintenance of the endemism. In addition to that, there are plans for building an harbour at Ponta Dobela that could also threat the conservation of the site.
Bazaruto Archipelago Bazaruto Archipelago is located between Latitudes 21o 30’S and 22o 10’S. It covers an area of about 1.5-2 km2 and a population of about 2697. The main activity is tourism and fishing.
The Archipelago comprises corals and sea grass beds surrounding the islands, and mangroves in mainland coastal area. The area serves as a breading ground of Dugongs, and some dolphins are resident in the vicinity.
Part of the Bazaruto Archipelago is a National Park, and managed by the Department of Wild Life with the support of some NGO’s. The threat to this site is associated to the development of tourism that if not controlled may surpass the carrying capacity.
Marromeu and Zambezi Delta Is a wetland located in the margin of the Zambezi river, near the Zambezi delta. It has an area of about 10,000 km2. The ecosystems are those of a wetland. It is a breading site for international birds. It supports a variety of (terrestrial) wildlife. It is, further, related to an international river, the Zambezi river, one of the largest in Africa.
The area suffers the effect of water shortage, when the river water is restricted upstream by dams, and suffers the effect of flood, when the dams abruptly release the river water, during heavy rain periods.
The main activities related to these sites are: fishing, tourism, and hunting.
Quirimbas Archipelago Quirimba Archipelago is located in the northern Mozambique, between Latitudes 10o 43’S and 12o 40’S. The total area is about 9770 km2, however, for this exercise only part of the are of about 500 km2 will be considered as sensitive area. The main activity associated to the site is fishing.
This area is regionally unique in the eastern Africa mainly due to the existence of large chain of Islands. It is a long chain of coralline islands (about 27 islands). The ecosystems comprise mangroves
Page 13 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 along the mainland coastal area, corals and sea grass beds. The area is a nesting area for birds, dugongs and turtles.
The Archipelago suffers from regular storms caused by tropical cyclones.
Figure 2.1. Coastal Environments (dashed line represents the 200 m depth)
Page 14 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
CHAPTER 3
3. Assessment of Impacts
3.1 Shortage of Freshwater and Floods
3.1.1 Introduction
This issue covers both the water shortage and the floods, as explained above.
Mozambique is a country that shares all its main rivers with other countries and is the lowest riparian. The main rivers are, as from North to South, Rovuma, Zambezi, Pungoé, Buzi, Save, Limpopo, Incomati, Umbeluzi and Maputo. They are all international and flow in a NW-SE direction, draining the water into the Indian Ocean. From all of those, The Zambezi, the Limpopo and the Incomati are the one suffering from high fluctuation of the water volume resulting in severe droughts and floods.
The regime of these rivers are characterised as torrential with high flows during the wet season, from November to March and relatively low flows in the dry season, from April to October. In average 60% to 80% of the mean annual flow occur in few months of the year. It is estimated that the flow from the upper riparian represent about 1.5 times that observed in Mozambique.
Fresh water plays an important role in the country's socio-economic development. Water is used mainly for irrigation of crops, energy production, domestic and public supply, fish production and tourism. Agriculture is the major water user: In 1992 the amount of water used in agriculture was about 540 Mm3, while for urban and rural use were 25 Mm3 and 28 Mm3, respectively. The industry and public services expended about 10 Mm3 in 1992.
The water demand varied with the time and according to the state of the development of the water use infrastructures. The water demand before the war used to be greater than that of the period immediately after war. This because most of the industrial infrastructures were destroyed and agricultural activity were paralysed during the war. Under the current peaceful environment, however, most of the infrastructures are being rehabilitated and new development programs are being initiated in various sectors of the economy and so, water demand is expected to be even greater that that of the period before the ware, in near future. For instance and according to the National Water Policy, in 1992 only 33% of the urban population had access to clean water, the goal is to increase this coverage to 50%-80%. For rural population only 30% had access to clean water in 1993 and the objective is to increase to 40 % in the year 2000. According to the National Irrigation Development Master Plan of the National Directorate for Water, the potential irrigation land is estimated to be about 3.3 million hectare, only about 98,000 hectares are included in the development programme, and from these only about 45 300 hectares are being utilised. The demand of water per hectare varies from 11,500 to 12 000 m3. The estimated total water demand for the development area is about 1,180 Mm3. It is foreseen that this value would double, with the expansion of the agricultural activity, by the year 2002.
Mozambique, because is the lowest riparian, is vulnerable to the negative effects of the activities that take place in the upper riparian, characterised mainly by the reduction in river flow, inflow of pollutant and artificial river runoff due to the dams. This situation is particularly critical if considering that surface water is the main source of water in Mozambique, and that 60% of the surface water available in the territory is from the international river basins.
The shortage of fresh water is mostly due to the reduction of flow by intensive use in the neighbouring countries. The central and southern part of the country is where the reduction in flow from hinterland is more critical. It is estimated that South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe now abstract about 40% to 60% of the border flow. The extent of the obstruction of water by neighbouring countries is illustrated by the distribution of dams in the Limpopo river basin and in the Incomati, Umbeluzi and Maputo river basins (Figure 3.1). Zambezi river is used in the production of electricity both in Mozambique
Page 15 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 and Zimbabwe, and is used in intensive agriculture in many countries including Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Figure 3.2 shows the time series of the annual maximum runoffs. It can be seen from the graphs that there is a considerable drop in the runoff after 1975, following the regulation by Cahora Bassa dam (Hoguane, 2000a). Pungoé river is used for irrigation in the tobacco plantation in Zimbabwe and to supply water in the cities of Mutare, in Zimbabwe and of Beira, in Mozambique. The Elephants river (a tributary of Limpopo), is heavily used in South Africa, for cooling at the thermal power stations that serve Gauteng province. This sub-catchment covers most of the coal deposits that supply the thermal stations in South Africa. Apart from the dams constructed to supply the mining industry, power generation and agriculture, this river also serves as the main supplier of water to Gaborone, the capital city of Botswana. Incomati and Umbeluzi rivers are extensively used for irrigation in South Africa and in Swaziland, respectively.
Figure 3.1. Incomati River Basin Showing the Dams
The floods may seem to be due to natural factors such as heavy rain that could be associated with El- ñino or global warming. However, some studies had gave evidences that dams, if not adequately managed could worsen the effects of floods. Often, the dam accumulate water and then release large volumes of water in a sudden, causing strong currents, floods and erosion along the river valley.
3.1.2 Environmental Impacts
Environmental consequences brought by the issue of freshwater shortage and floods are diverse (Table 3.1), and often have feed back implications. Freshwater shortage contribute for rapid deterioration of water quality, as in such a case there is high probability recycling the water, and further, the flushing
Page 16 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 time of the water is longer or lower. The reduction in the water volume and the drop in the water quality have further implication in the downstream ecology.
30000
s 25000 3 / ^ 20000
m 15000 f 10000
unof 5000
R 0
39 44 49 54 59 64 69 74 79 84 89 94 99 Years
Figure 3.2. Annual Maximum Runoff of Zambezi River Observed at Tete Hydrological Station (Hoguane, 2000a)
Mozambique as a downstream and low-lying country for the second (Zambezi) and third (Limpopo) largest African river basin has been suffering severely the effects of cyclic drought and floods. Unlike in South Africa, in Mozambique there are very few dams to attenuate the flood peak. Floods transport large amount of water, sediments and pollutants that may cause deterioration of water quality, which in turn, may result in impact downstream living resources such as fish and fisheries resources.
The reduction/increase in flow may cause the deterioration of the water quality down stream, and may allow for upstream salt intrusion, with consequences in the agriculture (Zambezi, Limpopo, Incomati rivers). The reduction in flow is often associated with the reduction in sediment inflow rate, this may trigger erosion process in the river mouth and affect the estuarine and coastal ecosystems (Zambezi). The dams, because they change the natural regimen of the river, introduce chronic stresses in the marine living organisms. The shrimp stock in Sofala Bank is decreasing and such reduction is a reflection of the reduction in the recruitment population due to incompatible Zambezi runoff. High runoff during the dry season prevent the migration of larvae and juveniles of prawns to the mangrove, their nursery areas, on the other hand low runoff during the wet season result in low recruitment (Hoguane, 1997). Intensive agriculture or mining activity, because is associated with intensive use of chemicals, have further implication in water quality. Return flow from irrigation plantations and/or from mining activity is often polluted. Further, the reduction in water flow in upstream countries increases the potential for regional conflicts. This is the case with Zimbabwe (Zambezi, Pungoé, Buzi rivers), with South Africa (Limpopo, Incomati rivers) and with Swaziland (Umbeluzi river).
Salt Intrusion
Salt intrusion is more critical in the Incomati River, one of the major rivers draining into Maputo Bay. Its average discharge is about 200-400 m3 s-1, corresponding to about 700-1000 Mm3 per year. The river is shared with Mozambique, Swaziland and South Africa and it is heavily dammed and the river water intensively used in irrigation in South Africa. Hence, salt is intruding threateningly into the estuary.
Water is continuously being restricted upstream, regardless the severe implications that the reduction in river flow causes in the downstream ecology. The reductions in flow of Incomati river had caused deterioration of the water quality down stream, and allowed for upstream salt intrusion up to 80 km from the river mouth, with consequences in the agriculture (Gonzalez e Serraventosa, 1999, Hoguane, 2000b).
Page 17 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Further, management of river water has been so far, aimed at ensuring the satisfaction of the industries and the highly developed agriculture in the upstream country, and guarantee the minimum requirement of the water for domestic use in the lower riparian country. Thoughtfully, the agriculture development in Mozambique is far below to compare with that of South Africa. The issue of ecological river flow had been seldom brought on the table of negotiations. Partially, because ecological values are often difficult to convert into cash value.
Table 3.1. Major Concern Issues Related to Freshwater Shortage/Excess, their Environmental and Human Impacts, and Potential Transboundary Implications
Environmental Potential Transboundary Issues Human Impacts Impacts Consequences Reduction/ 1. Water quality change 1. Low/loss agricultural 1. Potential for conflict over Increase in 2. Saltwater intrusion production shared water flow 3. Down stream erosion 2. Shortage of drinking 2. Agreements on the use of 4. Coastal ecology water - human health water with neighbouring damage threatened countries not easy to 5. Biodiversity reduced 3. Reduction in hydro- achieve 6. Fish resources electric power 3. Shift in reduced production freshwater/saltwater front 7. Decreased wetland 4. Reduction in industrial areas production 8. Reduced/ increased 5. Increased cost of capacity to transport alternative water sediments supplies 9. Modification of 6. Compromise of future riparian habitats use options 7. Loss of shelter and infrastructure Pollution of 1. Downstream 1. Human health affected 1. Reduction in water use water due to ecological damage 2. Agriculture production options intensive use 2. Modification of affected 2. Upstream/downstream of agro- riparian habitat 3. Increase water intake conflicts chemicals 3. Depletion of fish treatment costs 3. Inflow of contaminant stocks and species 4. Increased damage to from neighbouring diversity water-related countries through equipment international rivers 5. Increased potential for 4. Outflow of contaminants conflicts to South Africa through 6. Compromise of future transboundary currents use options (Ocean current) 5. Some diseases are highly contagious
Erosion
Zambezi Runoff and Sediment Transport
Zambezi River is the largest in East and Southern Africa. The average annual discharge is about 140 km3, representing about 67% of the total discharge of all the rivers of Mozambique (Sætre and Jorge da Silva, 1982). Under natural conditions the Zambezi River, like the rest of the rivers of Mozambique, is torrential with high flows during the wet season, from November to March and relatively low flows in the dry season, from April to October. Zambezi was regulated in 1974 for production of electricity power. Since then the flows have shown little seasonal variation, with detrimental consequences in coastal productivity (Hoguane, 1997).
Page 18 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Figure 3.2 shows time series of the annual maximum flows of Zambezi as observed at the hydrological station over the Dona Ana Bridge in Tete, from 1940 up to 1999. Before the regulation (i.e. before 1974), the maximum flows were mostly over 10,000 m3 s-1. After the regulation, the maximum flows were mostly below 5,000 m3 s-1, apart from the high observed in 1978, thought to be due to an unexpected release from Kariba Dam, known as “Kariba flood emergency” (Hoguane, 1997). The low flows observed after the regulation could be attributed to the regulation as well as to the drought that affected the whole Southern Africa in 1980´s.
In general the Zambezi riverbed is made up of fine sand and mud, moving downstream and forming unstable banks and islands. Sediment movement is higher during rainy season (October-April). It is expected, therefore, that during heavy floods the riverbanks, including the inner inlet of the delta, would be eroded. Large amount of sediments would be brought by the river to the sea site adjacent to the entrance and eventually be deposited there. Conversely, during low river flows erosion of the riverbanks, and hence suspended load, will be minimum. Sandbanks at the entrance of the inlets of the delta would be destroyed by the action of the waves and of the tidal currents. Similar situation would occur under the regulation, considering the fact that dams reduces the maximum flows, during the rainy season and increases the minimum flow, during the dry season.
Erosion/Deposition Rates
Rates of erosion/deposition at the entrance were estimated from the hydrographic data collected at the mouth of the Chinde inlet. A section across the mouth of the inlet connecting the southern margin (Chinde village) and the northern margin was selected to monitor the coastline changes. An area of about 0.1 km2 and limited by the following coordinates (18º 34’ 38’’S, 36º 27’ 03.5’’E), (18º 31’ 00’’S, 36º 30’ 33’’E), (18º 36’ 21.5’’S, 36º 28’ 53’’E), and (18º 32’ 25’’S, 36º 32’ 42’’E) was chosen to monitor the rates of erosion/deposition at the entrance of the inlet.
Estimates of the coastline changes indicated a retreat (erosion) in the Chinde village side (southern margin of the Chinde inlet) in most of the years. During the period 1951-1962, however, there was a coastline accretion of about 150 m, indicating an occurrence of deposition. In overall the southern margin of the Chinde inlet eroded about 1300 m during a period of 56 years (from 1927 to 1983), giving any average retreat of the coastline of 22 m y-1 (Table 3.2).
With respect to the northern margin the coastline showed a net accretion of about 2020 km during 35 years period, from 1927 to 1962. There was no data for the northern margin during the period 1962- 1983. Major coastline advancement was about 2520 m, observed during the period 1927 to 1941, no significant changes occurred during the period 1941-1962 During the period 1951-1962 the coastline in the northern margin retreated about 500 m.
The coastline advance in the southern margin coincided with the coastline retreat in the northern margin of the inlet. Likewise, when the southern coastline retreats, the northern margin coastline advances.
Analysis of the depth profiles within the selected area, at the entrance, showed areas dominated by erosion, new channels opening or deepening, and others dominated by sedimentation, formation of sandbanks or shallowing of the existing ones. However, the overall sediment budget gave the average erosion of about 1,330,018 m3 yr-1 for the period 1951 to 1962 and of about 599,833 m3 yr-1 for the period 1962 to 1983. Considering the total area, of the selected area, which is about 0.1 km2, the erosion rate was estimated to be about 0.8 m yr-1 (Hoguane, 2000a).
Page 19 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.2. Rates of Coastline Changes at the Mouth of Chinde Inlet (positive values indicate coastline retreat (erosion) and negative values indicate coastline advance (accretion) - (Hoguane, 2000a)
Southern margin (Chinde) Northern Margin (Ponta Liberal) Period Advance/retreat Average Advance/retreat Average (m) (m yr-1) (m) (m yr-1) 1927 -1941 1000 71 -2520 -180 1941 - 1951 200 20 -50 -5 1951 - 1962 -150 -14 500 45 1962 -1983 250 12 - - Total/average 1300 22 -2020 -58
3.1.3 Socio-Economic Impacts
Socio-economic consequences related to freshwater shortage and to floods are immense but difficult to assess. For instance, the shortage of fresh water, because it causes deterioration of the water quality, has severe implications in the human health. Indeed, most of the causes of death in Mozambique are infectious and parasitic diseases, all associated with hygiene and water quality. Table 3.3 presents the number of the cases of waterborne diseases recorded in Mozambique. Further, the deterioration of the water quality (including salt intrusion) affects the availability of natural resources (fish, fauna and flora) has implication in the economy, employment facilities and reduces capacity for the local community to meet basic needs (subsistence). It should be pointed out that shrimp fishery is one of the major source of income for the country. The associated destruction of the coastal environment (e.g. erosion) reduces income from the fisheries and tourism.
There is no figure on the economic impact of water shortage. However, it can be assumed as significant if considering the agricultural development, tourism and other industries depend largely in water availability. The shortage of water in densely inhabited centres may affect the health of the population with severe implications in the socio-economic situation. Further, most of the valuable coastal ecosystems hold a considerable renewable resources which forms basis of subsistence of a considerable portion of the population and contribution to the country’s economy. Large investment in activities that depend largely in the availability of water are being made, as for example are the recovery of some agro-factories and the development of the Maputo Corridor, the project of the aluminium and steel plant in Maputo and Beira, respectively.
Table 3.3. Number of Cases of Waterborne Diseases Reported in Coastal Provinces (Anon, 1998)
Province 1994 1995 1996 Diarrhoea Cholera Dysentery Diarrhoea Dysentery Diarrhoea Dysentery Maputo 61750 36 19424 50258 9264 50572 7971 Gaza 16909 8854 14463 2661 16966 2188 Inhambane 8509 2118 8904 1496 13966 1802 Sofala 27405 440 3816 38368 5158 35883 6508 Zambézia 46759 1 10287 36319 4982 46197 7874 Nampula 40249 12 6311 29851 4940 20523 3475 C. Delgado 17884 212 9311 10901 3239 17479 4298
Page 20 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
In addition to the reduction of river flow the efficiency of the production and use of water is low. The irrigation efficiency is only 50%. A lot of water is lost in the distribution network of the urban areas, due to inadequate and inefficient distribution scheme. Some of the pipes and tanks for keeping water are rotten and leaking. The price of water in Mozambique has remained unchanged for years, which with the inflection this has caused serious problems to the water supply companies. In addition about 60% of the water is not billed. This problem applies also to agriculture, as the tariffs established for raw water were insignificant. New tariffs are being prepared to allow for the recovery of operational and maintenance costs to start, and later to contribute to investment. The charge of bulk water is to cover the river basin management costs. This adjustment of tariffs will definitely contribute for the improvement of the efficiency, reducing significantly the wastage and consequently making available water for other purposes.
3.1.4 Transboundary Impacts
The major Transboundary consequences of the freshwater shortage and floods are based in the fact that most of the rivers of Mozambique are shared with neighbouring countries, and hence, for sustainable exploitation of these rivers requires an integrated management approach. Freshwater shortage is associated in part to the restriction for use in the highland countries. Thus, shared rivers may be focus of transboundary conflicts if the issues of concern for each and every country involved are not adequately addressed. This is of particular concern for Mozambique, where there is a lack of expertise and material resource, which results on a lack of scientific basis and evidences to allow fruitful discussions that could lead to a mutual benefit during negotiations of the use of shared rivers.
3.1.5 Indicators
Consistent and systematic data to allow a detailed analysis of the environmental and socio-economic impacts of floods and reduction of stream flow in Mozambique do not exist. What follows, is what could be extracted from some reports, which in most cases covers a short period of time and/or a restricted geographical area. Further, in some cases and because the issues are linked, it is difficult to decide whether the given impact/indicator is strictly associated to the issues.
Indicator: Drop in Water Quality
Description: One of the major impacts of the water shortage is related to the drop in the water quality, which in turn has implication in the human health, and in the socio-economic sectors. The medical treatments of the water born diseases are estimated in USD15.00, for dysentery, USD10 for Cholera and USD5.00 for diarrhoea, per person. On average the annual health cost for dysentery, cholera and diarrhoea exceed over USD 250,000.00, USD 2,480.00 and USD 350,000.00, respectively. The Cholera epidemic that affected the country this year has cost over USD 100,000.00 in health treatment, over 200 deaths, caused a deficit of about USD 30,000.00 to USD 60,000.00 in fish product export
Source: MICOA, 1998. Water-Related Environmental Issues and Problems of Mozambique and Their Potential Regional and Transboundary Importance. National Report. Maputo.
Indicator: Floods of 1978 in the Lower Zambezi River
Location: Zambezi basin in Mozambique Year: 1978 Displaced people (number): 219,000 Destroyed cropland (ha): 59,400 Destroyed homes (number): 72,000 Destroyed school buildings (number): 155 Destroyed shops (number): 8 Others destroyed infrastructures: roads, railways Total cost, floods damage and relief works: 101 Million USD
Page 21 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Source: UTIP, 1999. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora-Bassa North Project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. Maputo.
Indicator: Coastal Erosion
Coastline changes may also result form local human action that tends to interfere with natural sedimentation processes or other processes that occur at the interface between the ocean and land. Examples of such activities include artificial river flow regime, removal of coastal natural vegetation such as mangroves, dune vegetation, destruction of offshore barriers, e.g. coral reefs, using the coast for fishing or for developing tourism or for extracting economic minerals from dark sands.
Source: MICOA, 1998. Water-Related Environmental Issues and Problems of Mozambique and Their Potential Regional and Transboundary Importance. National Report. Maputo.
Indicator: Pollution
Microbiological - Sewage and Domestic Solid Wastes
Faecal coliform content in the water within the channel adjacent to the Infulene River in Maputo, is higher (4.6x105 bacteria counts/100 ml). In the river mouth exceeds 2400 bacteria counts/100 ml). Faecal coliform, faecal streptococci and E. coli were also detected in both marine waters and shellfish tissues in other places within the Maputo Bay. The concentrations found in the shellfish were extremely higher.
Bacteria Vibrio parahaemolyticus and Vibrio mimicus were found in clams in the Incomati River mouth, in the bay adjacent to Polana and near Matola in the Maputo Estuary. Vibrio sp. are the main cause of severe gastro-intestinal illnesses (Fernandes, 1996). The water in some places in Maputo Bay, particularly where the discharge of sewage take place, such as Miramar at the entrance of the Maputo Estuary, is not safe for swimming High values of biological pollution have also been recorded at the Beira Bay and Nacala Bay, although in lower concentrations compared with the observed in Maputo Bay (Fernandes, 1995)
There is only one sewage water treatment plant in the country, located in Maputo City, in the Infulene river mouth. This plant treats only about 50% of the Maputo’s sewage. The treatment plant is consist of a series of anaerobic and facultative tanks, which are designed to treat organic matter (Buuren and Heide, 1995)
Indicator: Decrease in Shrimp Catches (tons/year)
Description: Flow reduction following Cahora-Bassa dam construction in 1974 influences shrimp catch in the Sofala Bank.
Year 1974 – 1976: 10,000 - 12,000 Year 1983: 8,000 Year 1998: 7,900
Source: UTIP, 1999. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora-Bassa North Project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. Maputo.
Indicator: Decrease in Crop Production
Description: Seasonal variation of inundation in floodplains stimulates biological production. Communities living nearby have developed adaptive strategies to access these resources. One of these strategies is a flood recession crop production. In case of droughts, especially that induced by dam construction, there is a loss of such possibility of crop production.
Source: UTIP, 1999. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora-Bassa North Project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. Maputo.
Page 22 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Indicators: Degradation of the Coastal Ecosystems
Description: Degradation of the coastal ecosystems may have implication in the development of tourism. After the civil war and in the presence of the peace environment that followed, there are increasing investments in tourism. The flux of tourism increased from 136 thousands in 1994 to about 550 thousands in 1996, representing over USD50 million per year.
Source: MICOA, 1998. Water-Related Environmental Issues and Problems of Mozambique and Their Potential Regional and Transboundary Importance. National Report. Maputo.
Indicator: Reduction in Mangrove Forests
Description: Hypersalinity in creeks heads, due to reduced runoff, is a possible cause of die-back of mangrove. During the drought periods the sea water penetrates as far as 80 km into the Limpopo River. Mangrove have a social value, is used by local communities for fire wood, for building and sustain an important artisanal fishery which serves as basis of subsistence of most of the coastal population. In general mangrove yield in Mozambique is about 0.5 tons ha-1 of fish and about 40 kg ha-1 per year, which in terms of monetary value is about USD300 ha-1 per year.
Source: UTIP, 1999. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora-Bassa North Project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. Maputo.
- UNEP, 1998. Lower Limpopo River basin Assessment. DRAFT. Maputo.
Indicators: Destruction of Coral Reefs
Description: Coral reefs, similarly with mangrove, hold important fisheries. The productivity of corals is estimated to be about 10 to 32 tons per square kilometre. Considering that the total area of coral reefs in Mozambique, about 750 km2, their total contribution in the fish production is about USD15 million to USD48 million per year.
Source: MICOA, 1998. Water-Related Environmental Issues and Problems of Mozambique and Their Potential Regional and Transboundary Importance. National Report. Maputo.
Indicator: Increased Poverty
Description: Valuation of the importance of the ecosystems is relatively difficult because often they are not easily converted into money value or into economy valued products. The destruction of the coastal environment reduces income from the fisheries and tourism. Reduction in fish resources has implication in the economy, employment facilities and reduces capacity for the local community to meet basic needs (subsistence).
Source: MICOA, 1998. Water-Related Environmental Issues and Problems of Mozambique and Their Potential Regional and Transboundary Importance. National Report. Maputo.
Indicator: Eutrophication
High levels of BOD and COD, and low content of dissolved oxygen have been detected in the Infulene River, downstream of the factories. The presence of water hyacinth and Pistia is a clear evidence of nutritious water (Lambrechts, 1997). The main reason for higher nutrient content in this region is probably due to the fact that the Infulene river receives industrial wastes from different industries (see bellow). There is no data available for other cities, however we believe that the situation in the city of Beira would be next to that of Maputo.
Page 23 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Indicator: Agricultural Run-Off
Agricultural activities within the coastal region and in the hinterland areas contribute to the pollution of coastal, marine and associated freshwater environment, through sediments and use of pesticides and fertilisers.
Since most of the agriculture activity takes place along or close to the main river basins, the rivers are the main pathways through which agrochemical enter the coastal and marine environments.
As mentioned before, the major rivers with intensive agricultural activity are: The Monapo (in Nampula Province), the Zambezi, with agricultural activity of Zimbabwe and Zambia, among others, the Pungoé, with tobacco plantations in Zimbabwe, the Limpopo and the Incomati, used in intensive farming in South Africa and the Umbeluzi, used for sugar cane plantation in Swaziland (Massinga and Hatton, 1997). The contribution of Mozambican farming to the pollution of water is negligible if considering that the mechanised farming in the country occupies only 8% of the total crop land (§39). However, one should take caution of the increasing agriculture activity as a consequence of the increasing foreign investment and following the peace environment in the country.
The common pesticide residues identified are: 2,4,5 TCB, pp DDD, pp DDT, pp DDE, Lindano and HCB. DDT is officially banned in Mozambique, however it is still used in Mozambique and in the neighbouring countries (Massinga and Hatton, 1997). The average concentration of copper and chromium in the Elephant river, an effluent of the Limpopo river, measured at Mamba and Baule, both in South Africa is 0.004 mg l-1 and 0.003 mg l-1, respectively for both in the water and in the sediments.
Socio-Economic Indicators
Despite the lack of socio-economic data due to the long civil war and huge gap form the census data from 1980 to 1997, some of the indicators of questionable quality could be compiled from previous studies.
Water Shortage
One of the major impacts of the water shortage is related to the drop in the water quality, which in turn has implication in the human health, and in the socio-economic sectors. The medical treatment of the water born diseases is estimated in USD15.00, for dysentery, USD10 for Cholera and USD5.00 for Diarrhoea, per person. On average the annual health cost for dysentery, cholera and diarrhoea exceed over USD 250,000.00, USD 2,480.00 and USD 350,000.00, respectively. The Cholera epidemic that affected the country this year has cost over USD 100,000.00 in health treatment, over 200 deaths, caused a deficit of about USD 30,000.00 to USD 60,000.00 in fish product export. The European Union had temporarily banned Mozambican fish products, those processed inland with fear of contamination by cholera.
3.2 Loss and Modification of Habitats
3.2.1 Introduction
Loss and modification of the ecosystems comprises two GIWA issues: Loss of ecosystems (Issue 12) and modification of the ecosystems (Issue 13). We opted in joining the two issues because they are strictly related and often is difficult to differentiate them.
In the case of Mozambique, we may consider that the ecosystems are well preserved if compared with other countries in the region, however, there is a great potential for them to be degraded given the fast growing of the sectors of economy, namely, agriculture, industry, fisheries and tourism.
Page 24 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Most of the damages to the ecosystems are caused or related to the use of inadequate practices of harvesting the natural resources and to the destruction of habitats due to expansion of urban centres and villages. Some of the impacts of the damages of the ecosystems are reduction in the availability of the natural resources and the reduction in the biodiversity.
Two main ecosystems: mangroves and corals were considered as the most threatened in Mozambique. Hence, they are further analysed bellow. Apart from these ecosystems, the coastal dunes are the third threatened ecosystems, but not treated in this analysis.
3.2.2 Mangroves
The total area of mangrove coverage in Mozambique is estimated at about 400,000 ha. The lower coverage relative to West Africa is attributed to the comparative absence of large river systems running into the coast supplying the sediment and carves the coastal indentation needed for mangrove establishment. These conditions are best meet in Mozambique where many river systems drain into the coast. Mangrove forests are biologically rich ecosystems with extensive root system stabilising sediments, providing shelter for birds, crabs, molluscs, fish and shrimp. The main species found in the Mozambique are Rhizophora mucronnata, Ceriops tagal, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Other species include Avicennia marina, Avicennia officionalis, Heritiera littoraris, Lumnitzera racemosa and others.
In Mozambique, the rate of mangrove loss over 18 years (between 1972 and 1990) was 4% of the total area of mangrove in 1972. The annual rate of deforestation is equal to 0.2%. Maputo Province shows the highest rate of deforestation with 15.2% of the Mangrove area of 1972 or 0.84% per year. Sofala exhibits the second highest percentage of mangrove destruction with 4.9% over 18 years, followed by Nampula (3.6%) and Zambezia. Other Provinces showed losses of 1.2% (Inhambane) and nil for Gaza and Cabo Delgado (Saket and Matusse, 1994). Table 3.4 shows the rate of deforestation over 18 years.
Besides their importance in providing poles and timber for buildings boats, firewood and charcoal and a variety of other products, which include resin, dyes etc, occupied by the mangroves provide nourishment and protection for the immature stages of many species of fish, crustacean and molluscs.
Furthermore, the role of the mangroves in catching and stabilising silt, as well as in protecting the coast from erosion, makes it obvious where they have been damaged or have disappeared completely with the resultant soil erosion (evidence of this has appeared at Inhaca and Beira).
An attempt was made in Indonesia to relate the commercial shrimp catch to the total area of mangroves. A linear relationship was found to exist, where prawn production increased with the size of the area of mangrove. The implication is that any reduction in the area of the mangrove will cause a drop in shrimp production. If the mangroves are intensely affected by development, there is a large probability that the commercial shrimp catch would fall drastically.
Quirimbas Archipelago
Extensive areas of mangrove forest occur along the coast of mainland and at Ibo and Quirimba Islands, within the Archipelago (Telford et al. 1999). Other three islands of the Archipelago have small mangrove forests (Telford et al. 1999). Seven species of mangrove trees occur in the area: Rhizophora mucronata, Sonneratia alba, Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, Xilocarpus granatum, Ceriops tagal, Lumnizera racemosa and Aviccenia marina (Wittington et al., 2000). Mangroves suffer from deforestation, mostly large trees.
Page 25 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.4. Mangrove Area and Changes Occurred Between 1972 and 1990
Area of Mangrove Area Depleted New Area of Deforestation Provinces (ha) Mangroves (ha) Rate over 18 1972 (ha) 1994 (ha) years (%) Maputo 14,605 12,599 2,217 211 15.2 Gaza 387 387 0 0 0 Inhambane 20,094 19,848 246 0 1.2 Sofala 129,997 125,317 6,334 1,654 4.9 Zambezia 159,417 155,757 3,766 106 2.4 Nampula 55,849 54,336 2,006 493 3.6 C. Delgado 27,730 27,836 0 106 0 Total 408,079 396,080 14,569 2,570 3.6
Source: Saket and Matusse, 1994.
Bazaruto Archipelago
Mangroves are not extensive, occupying small areas. They are five mangroves trees species at Bazaruto Archipelago: Avicennia marina, Rhizophora mucronata, Ceriops tagal, Bruguiera gymnorhiza and Sonneratia alba. The largest mangrove occurs in Bazaruto Island at Zenguelemo, along the west coast. In some places of the archipelago mangroves are associated to salt marshes and 3 herbs species are found: Salicornia sp., Sarcocornia sp. and Sesuvium sp.. This association is observed at three islands: Bazaruto, Benguérua and Santa Carolina.
Inhaca Island
Two large mangrove forests are found on Inhaca. One occurs near the airport and the other fringes at Saco da Inhaca. A third smaller mangrove area can be found at Ponta Raza. The shores are mostly sandy and muddy along the mangrove areas. Five mangrove trees species and three associated trees were recorded at Inhaca Island. Mangrove covers 7% of total land area of Inhaca. Over fifty animal species inhabit mangrove swamps. Most of them are crustaceans, snails or fishes (Kalk, 1995).
3.2.3 Coral Reefs
The increase in the population at the coast in recent years has brought considerably greater pressure on the corals. The traditional strategy for conservation has been cast aside. The result is that large areas of coral along the cost have been seriously harmed. This process will continue until a new way of protecting and managing the coral reefs is found. The coral reefs serve as a natural barrier against the action of the waves and thus protect the coast, protecting it from erosion and other damaging effects of the sea. The biodiversity study from Kenya emphasises the importance of the coral reefs and argues that this is an international problem. The reef fringing Cabo Delgado province seems to merit particular attention, although it is suggested that the decline of this reef is due to natural causes (Motta, 1999).
However, one of the main reasons for the degradation of the coral reefs is silting as a result of human activity on land. This includes inadequate agricultural and forestry practices, exploitation of the mangroves, removal of sand close to the coast, etc. The construction of commercial or recreational infrastructures on/or close to the coral reefs has an immediate physical impact.
Page 26 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Distribution of Coral Reefs in Mozambique
The coast of Mozambique is a compound shoreline produced by a succession of emergence and submergence (Tinley, 1971) and in relation to the distribution of coral reefs can be divided into three regions: northern coast, central coast and southern coast.
The Northern Coast
The northernmost section of the coast extends for 770 km from the Rovuma River (10°20’S) in the north to Pebane in the south (17°20’S). It is essentially a coral coast and is characterised by numerous small islands that form the Primeiras and Segundas and the Quirimbas archipelagos. An almost continuous fringing reef exists along the eastern shorelines of the islands and the more exposed sections of the mainland coast.
The Central Coast
The central section of the coast between Pebane (17°20'S) and Bazaruto Island (21°10'S), a distance of about 950 km, is classified as a swamp coast. Twenty-four rivers discharge into the Indian Ocean along this section, each with an estuary supporting well-established mangrove stands. The coastal waters are shallow and combine with the sediment loading from the rivers to cause typically high turbidity levels. Consequently, coral reef formation in this area is severely limited.
The South Coast
This section stretches for 850 km from Bazaruto Island southwards to Ponta do Ouro (26°50’S). The coastline is characterised by high parabolic dunes, north-trending capes and barrier lakes. These dune systems attaining heights of 120 m are considered to be the tallest vegetated dunes in the world (Tinley, 1971). The distribution of reefs along the coast and near-coast islands is patchy and typically rocky reefs with scattered corals (Rodrigues and Motta, in press).
So far, 55 genera of hard coral have been found in Mozambique, with an estimated number of species around 160. Associated coral fauna indicates the existence of 7 soft coral genera and more than 290 species of reef fishes. An indicative study using Geographic Information System (GIS) showed a preliminary estimation of 1,290 Km2. However, this estimate should be confirmed with field surveys.
The extensive coral reefs along the Mozambican coastline provide a vital habitat for many commercially important, as well as, endangered species. Coral reefs also provide a great opportunity for tourism development. However, only two coastal areas are currently under protected management, which includes coral reefs in their areas: Bazaruto National Park and the Inhaca and Portuguese Islands Reserve. Bazaruto National Park is the only marine park in the country. Legislation concerning methods of fishing, protection and trade on corals are still lacking.
A survey of coral bleaching was undertaken in March and April, 1999 at the end of summer. Evidence of bleaching was sought for the present and past year in six localities and dives were executed on a total of 17 reefs. A visual assessment was made of reef type, fauna cover and the extent of reef damage attributable to bleaching and crown-of-thorns starfish (COTS). The study showed that effects of El Ñino bleaching in Mozambique were most extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to 99%) and this diminished further south except at Inhaca Island where serious recent bleaching (90%) was encountered. Extensive COTS damage was also found at Bazaruto (80%) and Inhambane (95-98%). The COTS outbreaks commenced in 1995-1996 and, as sufficient time has elapsed for reef erosion and collapse to occur, the damage on these reefs was more pronounced.
In the second half of 1999, a monitoring programme started in Mozambique. The fieldwork was carried out between August and September during 22 days. For the first year of monitoring, 9 “core” reefs were selected for the annual survey. These reefs were widely distributed throughout the coast and
Page 27 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 represent different reef types. The depths surveyed differed from site to site. The exact location of each site was recorded for future reference. Before line intercept transect or video transect was done, an observer would conduct a general survey and start a species list. This list was helpful on data analysis of video-transects. The sites selected are definitely representative of different reef environments: some are protected, some are over-utilised, some lie in embayments and others are exposed to oceanic conditions (Schleyer et al., 1999).
Preliminary results show that reefs in protected areas are in much better condition. Few are protected considering the length of Mozambique coastline. Protected areas comprise important sources of invertebrates and fish larvae for adjacent harvested areas. The fact that nearly no turtles and hardly any large fish were seen on the surveyed reefs provides an important sign of the need for management measures. The growth of tourism and diving in this country must also be taken into consideration. There is thus, an urgent need for the establishment of more protected areas and sanctuaries as shelters of biodiversity and breeding reservoirs. (Schleyer et al., 1999, Rodrigues et al., 1999; Motta, 1999).
The fieldwork was carried out between August and September during 22 days. For the first year of monitoring, 9 “core” reefs were selected for the annual survey. These reefs were widely distributed throughout the coast and represent different reef types. The depths surveyed differed from site to site. The sites selected are definitely representative of different reef environments: some are protected, some are over-utilised, some lie in embayments and others are exposed to oceanic conditions. The condition of reefs surveyed varied between healthy to heavily impacted by natural and anthropogenic factors. Many reefs are degraded from bleaching and the ravages of crown-of-thorns starfish. Coral cover was highest on the reefs of northern Mozambique and in marine protected areas. High cover of rock and algal surfaces reflects mortality that was reported at these sites in earlier surveys (Schleyer et al., 1999). There is evidence of recovery on some reefs on which soft corals are the primary colonisers. Fish populations in the north and in protected areas were dominated by carnivores, following a similar pattern to that of coral cover. High fishing pressure on the other reefs was shown by the small size classes of fish and the dominance of herbivores, which are least preferred by fishermen (Schleyer et al., 1999, Rodrigues et al., 1999; Motta, 1999).
Table 3.5 shows the results of the first year of monitoring.
Bazaruto Archipelago
The archipelago comprises five islands (Bangué, Magaruque, Benguérua, Bazaruto and Santa Carolina) and occupies an area of about 600 km2. It is located in Inhambane province, between districts of Vilanculos and Inhassoro. The islands are located between 21°30’; 22°10’S and 35° 22’; 35°30’E.
The eastern and south-eastern offshore coral communities of Bazaruto can be classified as patch reefs on a submerged mid-Holocene coastline (Schleyer et al., 1999). The back-reef sand-flat environment is characterised by large Porites domes up to 2 m in diameter. Smaller domes of Porites and extensive thickets of large stag horn coral (Acropora spp.) dominate the back-reef coral fauna together with smaller colonies of Pocillopora, Montipora and Pavona. Coral cover in this area is significant, up to 90%. The reef-flat environment is intertidal which results in a sparse coral fauna. Less abundant coral growth is evident on the fore-reef as this is subjected to storm and turbulent conditions. Acropora, Turbinaria and Pocillopora are the conspicuous genera here. True coral reef growth is restricted to depths of 3 m on the fore-reef; below this depth, scattered coral colonies occur. The depth constraint on reef growth is generally related to a reduction in light penetration and sedimentation. In the reef- front environment sandstone, outcrops occur down to a depth of about 10 m. The fringing coral communities on the north-eastern shores of Bazaruto include the Lighthouse’s Coral Gardens area.
There are sparse colonies of the ahermatypic corals Dendrophyllia and Tubastrea, to a depth of 12 m on the sheltered western shore of Bazaruto. Soft corals are found on several reefs of the Bazaruto Archipelago. A total of 27 species of Alcyonacea were identified (Schleyer et al., 1999). These species
Page 28 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 are distributed among seven genera of the families Tubiporidae, Alcyoniidae and Xeniidae. The Alcyoniidae are the most common and are represented by 24 (89%) of the species; two (7%) belong to the Xeniidae, while the monogeneric family Tubiporidae is represented by the single species, Tubipora musica. Lobophytum, Sarcophyton, Sinularia and Cladiella assemblages are dominant in areas of the reefs inhabited by soft corals. However, such areas are limited and hard corals cover the greater part of the habitable portions of the reefs (Rodrigues and Motta, in press.)
Quirimba Archipelago
The coral reefs of Quirimba Archipelago have diverse shapes, and are classified as exposed fringing outer reef, vertical walls, coral gardens and bommie fields (Wittington et al., 2000). Fifty-five genera were recorded in Southern Quirimba, shallow water reef that represents a high diversity (Wittington et al., 2000). The reef are in good conservation status and are associated to many reef invertebrates species, of which the most interesting were the sea whips, Leptogorgonia spp, giant clams Tridacna sp. the coral eating crown of thorn starfish Acanthaster planci and the sea fans Gorgonia spp (Wittington et al., 2000).
In northern Quirimbas, 20 coral genera (15 of hard corals and 5 of soft corals) belonging to 11 families were identified in the shallow waters during a rapid survey (Telford et al. 1999). The main genera were Acropora sp., and Porites sp., but other common species were Favites sp. Platygyra sp., Lobophyton sp. Sinularia sp. and Sarcophyton sp (Telford et al 1999).
These reefs support immense biodiversity of both commercial and conservation significance. In general there is limited variation in the degree of disturbance ranging from pristine condition to low impact and only small areas are heavily damaged by natural and human induced factors (Wittington et al., 2000).
Inhaca Island
Is the southernmost island of the country that lie some 35 km due east of Maputo, the capital of Mozambique. Inhaca is an island by virtue of a strait, less than a kilometre wide, which separates it from the north-pointing Machangulo Peninsula, which partly encloses the shallow Bay of Maputo. Three shores of Inhaca Island are thus sheltered by the Bay and the east shore alone is exposed to the winds and waves of the Indian Ocean. North-west of Inhaca Island, 2 km from the fishing village across the sand flats, lies Portuguese Island which is about 2,5 km2 in area and uninhabited today.
The coral reefs at Inhaca Island are not the most southerly on the east coast of southern Africa, but they are the most accessible from the shore. Three small fringing reefs occur along the coasts of Inhaca Island in shallow water, their total length being about 3-4 km. Patch reefs are also reported to occur offshore, in depths up to 15 m along the island’s east coast (Kalk, 1995).
One reef is within direct access by foot from the Marine Biological Station on the west coast opposite Barreira Vermelha (Red Cliff). In the southern bay, the very sheltered Ponta Torres reef that is only 50 m from high tide mark, extends at intervals along the east bank of the channel from Ponta Torres Strait into the bay. A small new reef is being formed in a lagoon on the northern side of Portuguese Island and at present the coral heads appear to be a few years old, dispersed 50 cm to 1 m apart (Rodrigues and Motta, in press).
The reefs are the ecosystems best studied in Mozambique with records since 1935, primarily as a result of the location of a Marine Biological Station on Inhaca Island since 1951. The corals at Inhaca Island have been classified as belonging to 45 genera in families of which most are hermatypic and few are ahermatypic (Salm, 1996; Rodrigues et al., 1999; Motta, 1999). At least 160 species of reef- building corals have been described and these amounts to approximately one third of the total number of species known in the Indo-Pacific Region An updated list of species is being completed (Rodrigues and Motta, in press).
Page 29 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Patches of colour of soft corals (Octocorallina) and ahermatypic coral polyps occur among the hard corals. The octocorals fauna was studied by Tixier-Durivalt (1960) and constitutes the only study made on this taxonomy. Twenty-one species were recorded belonging to different order and families.
At Inhaca Island, the reefs are under perpetual state of rejuvenation as a result of the short intervals between cyclones. In the Maputo Bay, the cyclones cause high levels of disturbance of the sand substratum. This produces a high turbidity and sedimentation which limits coral growth to a depth of 10 m and causes physical damage to the reefs (Kalk, 1995).
3.2.4 Sea Grass Beds
In Mozambique the distribution and green turtles is closely associated with that of sea grass beds. Sea grass beds are under threat from intensive use of bottom traps and beach seines, and from fishing with explosives (Gove, 1995).
They are found in all countries of East Africa, and the most extensive beds are around Bazaruto archipelago in Mozambique. They occur mostly in inter-tidal mud, sand flatland, sandy areas around the bases of shallow fringing and patch reefs. World-wide there are 58 species of sea grass beds of which 12 are found in the Western Indian Ocean; they include, Enhalus acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophilia ovalis, halophilia stipulacea, Zostera capensis, Cemodosea rotundata, Cemodocea serrulata, and others.
Sea grasses occur as dense turfs in shallow and calm waters. They act as an accretion mechanism for suspended sediments and help reduce particulate pollution. They provide shelter, food and nursery areas for some of the important and valuable species of fish (Siganitis, Lethrinids, Lutjanids, Scarids) shellfish, digong (Dugong dugong) and the green turtle (Chelonia medas) (Gove, 1995).
Quirimba Archipelago
Sea grass meadows occupy extensive areas off the west coast of the islands. Ten species of sea grasses, belonging to 7 genera, were recorded (Wittington et al., 2000). Of these, two species Thalassondendrom ciliatum and Enhalus acoroides dominate the sub-tidal areas (Wittington et al., 2000). The less common species is the Syringodium isoetifolium (Wittington et al., 2000).
Bazaruto Archipelago
Sea grass beds are extensive and located in sub-tidal area and part of the intertidal zones. There are 5 species described and occurs at the west coast of the island. The main sea grass species found are Thalassodendrum ciliatus, Thalassia herprichii, and Zostera capensis associated with Halodule and Cymodocea. Small sea grass communities are found at open shore associated coral reef.
3.2.5 Endangered Species
Although being protected under Mozambique law, turtles are under great threat. Nests are chased for the eggs and adults are caught in several fishing gears. They are also killed in several hundreds as by- catch in trawling activities.
Another endangered species is the dugong. Dugongs are normally found in shallow, sheltered waters close to the coastline in bays and lagoons. There is only one species of dugong Dugong dugong with the largest population in Mozambique (Maputo bay, Inhambane bay and Bazaruto Archipelago). The last survey showed a population of around 70 individuals in Bazaruto Archipelago (Correia, pers.comm.)
In addition to the turtles and dugong, the marine and coastal environment of Mozambique sustain a great diversity of marine life; flora and fauna of commercial and biodiversity importance. For
Page 30 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 instance: marine invertebrate species such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms; marine animals such as dolphins and whales; some of the island, islets and rocks are breeding grounds for seabirds.
Particular mention must be made about Holothuria scabra (sea cucumbers) which are widely exploited along the Mozambique coast where suitable habitat occurs. Ten species of holothuria are found in the shallow waters of Inhaca island, of which one is Holothur3ia scraba, exploited commercially. The distribution follows that of sea grass beds. Harvesting around Inhaca was banned in 1990 following depletion resumed in 1993 based on the assumption that the stock had recovered. By 1995 it was reported that at least 32 tons were harvested in 8 months in 1994, over-exploiting the stock. Dried holothuria is highly valued in the Far East fetching prices up to US$ 50 per kg, while the prices obtained by the local fishermen were earning only about US$ 25 per month explaining the pressure for over-exploitation. The processing of holothurians involves boiling in large tanks before sun drying, requiring 23 kg of firewood for each kilogram of dried holothurian. Based on this ratio, some 726 tons of firewood were used in the processing of the harvest of 1993 (UNEP, 1998).
Five species of marine turtles have been recorded in Mozambique, being the most common the hawksbill turtle and the green turtle. The most common breeding sites are in northern Mozambique.
The only specie of Dugong found in Mozambique is believed to be part of the last viable community in the whole eastern Africa.
3.2.6 Transboundary Impacts
The main transboundary consequences associated with the destruction of the mangrove and coral ecosystems lies in the fact that these ecosystem sustain marine living species, some with considerable biological/ecological value and other s with social/economy value.
Depletion of mangrove, for instance, causes the reduction in coastal productivity. Reduction in fish and crustacean stocks observed in Sofala Bank (Skagen et al., 1997) and in Maputo Bay may be partially attributed to the reduction in the mangrove forest. Migration pattern of the species that habit temporary the mangrove swamps (e.g. prawns of Penaid species) is likely to be affected by the reduction in the mangrove area and along with other species that are related to this ecosystem.
Hence, reduction in mangroves is likely to change the species composition and result in decrease of the biodiversity. Biodiversity is of transboundary concern. Further, most of the fishing companies of prawns are international or owned by joint-venture with foreign fishing enterprises. The fishing products are sold at international markets such as European Union and Japan. Therefore, changes in availability of these resources could affect the international trade relationships.
The coral reefs sustain species that have long range migratory patters. For example, in the southern Mozambique corals are associated with demersal fish resources whose distribution extends down to South Africa. These resources are owned by the two countries. Thus, damaged to corals in Mozambique may affect the availability of these resources in South Africa as well.
Further, there are some endangered (world protected) species such as turtles and dugongs and others with biological importance, related to coral ecosystems. Damage to corals may affect international treats and reduction in biodiversity.
Corals are associated to algae that fix carbon and release oxygen. In so doing, they contribute to the carbon dioxide sink. Destruction of corals could reduce the potential for carbon sink in the Earth that could result in the intensification of the green house effect. This in turn could worsen the global warming.
Page 31 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.5. Summary of Status and Condition of Each Reef Surveyed Based on Benthic Cover and Fish Trophic Groups
Locality Reef Benthic Cover (%) Fish (%) Status and Condition Quirimbas Hard coral 27.1 Herbivores 48 The reef was severely affected by the 1997-1998 bleaching event. The poor status Archipelago Dead coral and algae 25.0 Carnivores 37 of the reef is revealed by the high percentage of dead coral and algae as well as the Sencar channel Rock and algae 10.8 Omnivores 8.3 relative abundance of herbivore fishes. Most of the fish are small indicating high fishing pressure. Pemba Hard coral 69.7 Carnivores 72 Reef with a good cover of hard coral recovering from bleaching. However a Ponta Maunhane Dead coral 16.9 Herbivores 13 significant amount of dead coral remains. Good fish community represented by all Rock and algae 2.9 corallivores 8 size classes of fish. Mozambique Hard coral 37.2 Herbivores 78 Presence of considerable amount of dead coral probably due to the effects of Island Dead coral and algae 24.8 Corallivores 11 bleaching and storm damage. Also, a poor fish community characterises this reef, Sete Paus Island Rock and algae 11.9 with one family of herbivores making up most of the population. Small sized fish indicative of a high fishing pressure. Hard coral 27.7; Rock 23.0 Herbivores 39 A reef with serious damage resulting from a previous cyclone and bleaching. The Goa Island Dead coral and coral. Carnivores 17 presence of coralline algae covers most recently killed coral. Signs of fishing Algae 22.3 Corallivores 14 pressure are revealed by the dominance of herbivore fishes, mostly of small sizes. Bazaruto Hard coral 69.5 Carnivores 44 A reef in good condition. However, substantial amounts of dead coral colonised by Archipelago Dead coral and coral. Herbivores 38 coralline algae are indicative of damage from sedimentation and tidal stress. Lighthouse reef Algae 21.4 Corallivores 7 Carnivorous fishes are dominant and all class sizes were well-represented, fish Soft coral 1.7 larger than 20 cm being common. The reef is a protected area. Inhambane Rock 38.2 Herbivores 42 A typically rocky reef in south Mozambique, with a fairly low cover of hard coral. Anchor's Bay Rock and algae 18.5 Planktivores 23 Fishes were mainly herbivorous and present in small and medium size classes, Hard coral 15.7 Omnivores 21 indicating high fishing pressure. Rock and algae 47.7 Herbivores 35 This rocky reef shows a richer community of soft coral similar to Anchor Bay. Mike's Soft coral 25.5 Carnivores 26 Small and medium sized fishes are indicative of some fishing pressure. Cupboard Hard coral 11.9 Omnivores 23 Inhaca Hard coral 60.5 Carnivores 67 A reef in relatively good condition, with some physical damage shown by the Barreira Dead coral 13.3 Omnivores 16 amount of dead coral, probably caused by bad fishing practices despite being in a Vermelha Sand 9.0 Herbivores 11 protected area in which fishing is banned. All fish size classes were represented and fish over 30 cm were common. Inhaca Hard coral 39.5 Carnivores 86 Ponta Torres reef is subjected to tidal stress. Hence, the dead coral and algae on the Ponta Torres Dead coral and algae 22.5 Herbivores 9 top of the bommies. All families of fish were well represented, carnivores of large Rock and algae 9.0 Omnivores 4 size being dominant. This reef is also in a protected area.
Page 32 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.6. Summary of Impacts and its Indictors Related to the Identified Issues
Major Issues Impact Indicator Description Concern III. Habitat Modification of Loss of Mangrove Area In Mozambique, the rate of mangrove loss The total area of mangrove coverage in and Ecosystems over 18 years (between 1972 and 1990) was Mozambique is estimated at about 400,000 ha. Community including Loss of Environment Impact: Loss and modification of 3.6% of the total area of mangrove in 1972. Mangrove forests are biologically rich Modification Ecosystems a fragile and important coastal Ecosystem The annual rate of deforestation is equal to ecosystems with extensive root system 0.2%. Maputo Province shows the highest rate stabilising sediments, providing shelter for birds, Socio-Economic Impact: Coastal population is of deforestation with 15.2% of the Mangrove crabs, molluscs, fish and shrimp. The main very dependent on services provided by area of 1972 or 0.84% per year. Sofala species found in the Mozambique are mangroves. exhibits the second highest percentage of Rhizophora mucronnata, Ceriops tagal, and mangroves destruction with 4.9% over 18 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Other species include years (Saket and Matusse, 1994). Avicennia marina, Avicennia officionalis, Heritiera littoraris, Lumnitzera racemosa and others. Degradation and Loss of Coral Reef Area The Effects of El Ñino (1997-1998). A So far, 55 genera of hard coral have been found Environment Impact: Loss and modification of survey of coral bleaching was undertaken in in Mozambique, with an estimated number of a fragile and important coastal Ecosystem 1999 at the end of summer. Evidence of species around 160. Associated coral fauna bleaching was sought for the present and past indicates the existence of 7 soft coral genera and Socio-Economic Impact: Coastal population is year in six localities. The effects of El Ñino more than 290 species of reef fishes. An very dependent on services provided by coral bleaching in Mozambique were most indicative study using Geographic Information reefs, namely on Fisheries; coral reefs provide extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to System (GIS) showed a preliminary estimation coastal protection. Coral reefs serve diverse 99%) and this diminished further south except of 1,290 Km2. However, this estimate should be ecological (non-use) purposes as habitats for at Inhaca Island where serious recent confirmed with field surveys Rodrigues and marine life. Market values capture only part of bleaching (90%) was encountered. Extensive Motta, in prep.). the productivity of coral reefs that enter into COTS damage was also found at Bazaruto fisheries market transactions. When exploited (80%) and Inhambane (95-98%) (Schleyer et directly, according to regional information, coral al., 1999). Preliminary results of the routine coral reef reefs are estimated to generate fisheries revenues monitoring started in 1999, show that reefs in of about US$ 10,000 per m2/year if managed for In the second half of 1999, a monitoring protected areas are in much better condition. fishing, compared to US$ 25,000 per m2/year if programme started in Mozambique. The Few are protected considering the length of managed as a park, implying an intrinsic sites selected are definitely representative of Mozambique coastline. Protected areas comprise ecological value of US$ 15,000 per m2/year different reef environments: some are important sources of invertebrates and fish which may be reduced or lost if over-exploited. protected, some are over-utilised, some lie in larvae for adjacent harvested areas. The fact that embayments and others are exposed to nearly no turtles and hardly any large fish were The sector of tourism may also suffer a negative oceanic conditions. The condition of reefs seen on the surveyed reefs provides an important effect from habitat degradation. Tourism surveyed varied between healthy to heavily sign of the need for management measures. The accounts, on average, for about 15% of the GDP impacted by natural and anthropogenic growth of tourism and diving in this country
Page 33 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Major Issues Impact Indicator Description Concern in the countries of the region. Continuation of factors. Many reefs are degraded from must also be taken into consideration. There is coastal and marine environmental resource bleaching and the ravages of crown-of-thorns thus, an urgent need for the establishment of problems into the future will put at risk an starfish. Coral cover was highest on the reefs more protected areas and sanctuaries as shelters industry generating approximately US$ 2.7 of northern Mozambique and in marine of biodiversity and breeding reservoirs (Schleyer billion a year (UNEP, 1998). protected areas. Fish populations in the north et al., 1999; Rodrigues et al., 1999; Motta, and in protected areas were dominated by 1999). carnivores, following a similar pattern to that of coral cover. High fishing pressure on the other reefs was shown by the small size classes of fish and the dominance of herbivores, which are least preferred by fishermen (Schleyer et al., 1999; Rodrigues et al., 1999; Motta, 1999). Degradation and Loss of Sea grass Beds Area In Mozambique the distribution and green The most extensive beds are around Bazaruto turtles is closely associated with that of sea archipelago in Mozambique. They occur mostly Environment Impact: Loss and modification of grass beds. Sea grass beds are under threat in inter-tidal mud, sand flatland, sandy areas a fragile and important coastal Ecosystem. from intensive use of bottom traps and beach around the bases of shallow fringing and patch seines, and from fishing with explosives reefs. Species in Mozambique include, Enhalus Socio-Economic Impact: Coastal population is (Gove, 1995). acoroides, Thalassia hemprichii, Halophilia very dependent on services provided by sea ovalis, halophilia stipulacea, Zostera capensis, grass beds, namely the fisheries they sustain. Cemodosea rotundata, Cemodocea serrulata, and others.
Sea grasses occur as dense turfs in shallow and calm waters. They act as an accretion mechanism for suspended sediments and help reduce particulate pollution. They provide shelter, food and nursery areas for some of the important and valuable species of fish (Siganitis, Lethrinids, Lutjanids, Scarids) shellfish, digong (Dugong dugong) and the green turtle (Chelonia medas) (Gove, 1995). Loss of Species and Community Structure Although being protected under Mozambique Five species of marine turtles have been Species like dugong, turtle, marine mammals, law, turtles are under great threat. Nests are recorded in Mozambique, being the most elasmobranchs, corals, shells and other chased for the eggs and adults are caught in common the hawksbill turtle and the green invertebrates are under treat due to poaching, several fishing gears. They are also killed in turtle. The most common breeding sites are in illegal fishing and lack of enforcement. several hundreds as by-catch in trawling northern Mozambique. activities. Page 34 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Major Issues Impact Indicator Description Concern Environment Impact: Loss of species that play The only specie of Dugong found in important role on food chains; loss of Another endangered species is the dugong. Mozambique is believed to be part of the last biodiversity. Dugong is normally found in shallow, viable community in the whole eastern Africa. sheltered waters close to the coastline in bays Socio-Economic Impact: Coastal population is and lagoons. There is only one species of very dependent on such species for their food; dugong Dugong dugong with the largest loss of those species may have an effect on population in Mozambique (Maputo bay, tourism. Sea cucumbers are important in Inhambane bay and Bazaruto Archipelago). maintaining biodiversity. They also have a The last survey showed a population of significant market use value when harvested. around 70 individuals in Bazaruto Estimates referring to Mozambique show that in Archipelago (Correia, pers.comm.). the Far East they fetch up to US$ 50 per kg. but over-harvesting, as was the case in 1994, the In addition to the turtles and dugong, the stock was nearly depleted (UNEP, 1998). marine and coastal environment of Mozambique sustain a great diversity of marine life; flora and fauna of commercial and biodiversity importance. For instance: marine invertebrate species such as molluscs, crustaceans and echinoderms. Marine animals such as dolphins and whales. Some of the Island, islets and rocks are breeding grounds for seabirds.
Page 35 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
3.3 Over-Exploitation of Fishery Resources
3.3.1 Introduction
In Mozambique, there are three main types of fisheries: industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal. The three sectors altogether are estimated to be landing about 90,000 tons/year from an estimated maximum sustainable yield (MSY) of about 300,000 tons/year. (Silva et al., 1995; Palha de Sousa et al., 1995). The industrial and semi-industrial fleets currently generate 40% of foreign currency income of Mozambique. On the other hand, the artisanal fishery is responsible for about 70% of the total catch, which represents an average productivity per unit area of 4.6 tonnes/km2 for the fishery grounds up to 5 km offshore.
The fisheries sector is characterised by its economic diversity: The industrial fleet is comprised of 107 vessels (1998 exc. tuna vessels) and is dominated by State venture companies. Production from the sub-sector is almost entirely for the export market, major products including shallow and deep water shrimp, lobster and some tuna almost all of that are deep frozen on board. The industrial fleets are principally based in the central and northern ports of Beira and Quelimane.
The semi-industrial fishery is comprised of 87 vessels (1998), less by 20m in length, whose ownership has more national participation. Vessels in the semi-industrial fishery are mostly ice carriers, making short trips fishing for shrimp and higher value demersal fish, and not venturing far from shore based support (especially ice supply) – as such, their operation is concentrated around the major ports of Beira and Maputo. Shrimp is landed and processed ashore (frozen) whilst demersal fish from the fishery is usually sold fresh on ice, with little or no further shore based processing or added value. Target markets include niche national markets and regional export markets mainly South Africa.
The artisanal fishery is widespread along the length of the coastline, often operating from open beaches and informal landing stations. Production from the artisanal sub-sector is estimated at 80,000 tons per year, with a value of over USD 50 million, almost all of which is destined for national markets.
Results from last census on artisanal fisheries from all 7 coastal provinces (IDPPE - Cabo Delgado, 1995; Nampula, 1994; Zambézia, 1992; Sofala, 1990; Inhambane, 1991; Gaza, 1994 and Maputo, 1995), estimated that 55,120 fishermen operate in these coastal waters. From this figure, 36,336 fishermen operate with artisanal boats and 18,784 are shore based. In addition, other 22,723 collect gastropods. Artisanal fisheries are confined to the near coastal zone and, in keeping with locally available resources, use a great diversity of fishing gear including beach seines, gillnets, hand lines, traps and spears.
The sub-sectors of the fishery are conspicuous in their lack of interaction, this is due to a combination of factors including differing interests in the resources, geographically limited fields of operation and issues of class, amongst others. Both the fishery and secondary trading and processing activities are dominated by males, females bearing the main responsibility for agricultural production. There are some signs that women may become more involved in trading and processing activities.
The fisheries resources are mostly located in two major shelves: the Sofala Bank in the centre and Delagoa Bight in the south, and in the bays. The major resources include: Shallow water shrimp, in Sofala Bank, deep water crustacean in the slope, scads and mackerel in Sofala Bank and Delagoa Bight, the demersal fish in the southern and northern regions. In the coastal region there are large artisanal fisheries which includes the molluscs and form basis of subsistence of several local population.
Although, there is an indication that some fish resources might be abundant, there are factors that limit the real availability, some of which are as follows:
Page 36 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
i) exploitation of some fisheries are not economically viable, being far from market or more demanding in terms of fishing gears and technology (e.g. scads and mackerel); ii) limited access to boats and fishing gears (particularly in the artisanal sector); iii) fisheries of high commercial value (e.g. shrimp fisheries) or located near the main city centres or villages (e.g. Maputo Bay), are overexploited, and this trend will increase in the future; and iv) destructive fishing practices are widespread almost along the whole coast.
Overexploitation of fishery resources of high commercial value or high social impact occurs almost in all the fisheries grounds all over the country. In fact, the issue of overexploitation of fish resources came out in the Hot spots, Sensitive Areas and was identified as one of the Overriding Issue during the scoring/scoping and prioritisation exercises.
The most affected fish resource is the shallow water shrimp. Its total annual production in Sofala Bank dropped from about 10,000 tons in late 70’s to about 6,000 tons in late 80’s and recovered to about 9,000 tons in 2000. On the other hand, the fishing effort increased from 10,000 fishing hours in late 70’s to about 20,000 in the late 90’s (Table 3.7). Therefore, the observed increase in the annual catches does not mean an increase in the stock of shrimp. In fact the stock of this precious resource is decreasing. This is confirmed by the decrease in the availability, expressed in catch per unit effort (c.p.u.e), Figure 3.3.
100
90
80
70
60
-1 50
kg hr 40
30
20
10
0
Figure 3.3. Evolution of the Catch Rates of the Shrimp in Sofala Bank (Hoguane, 2000c)
Page 37 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.7. Fish Catches (Tons) by Type of Fisheries and Industry
Fishing Effort (Standardised Catch Rates Year Total Catches (Ton) Fishing Hours) (kg hr-1) 1977 9500 102151 93 1978 9600 111628 86 1979 8778 137156 64 1980 8007 138052 59 1981 9377 146516 64 1982 7908 155059 51 1983 8101 207718 39 1984 8205 195357 42 1985 8128 172976 47 1986 7720 175455 44 1987 7206 175000 41 1988 7290 169535 43 1989 5807 165914 35 1990 5668 195448 29 1991 7050 225600 32 1992 6338 196478 31 1993 6698 207638 31 1994 6321 176988 28 1995 7344 212976 29 1996 7043 190161 27 1997 8239 247170 30 1998 7172 179300 25 1999 8393 218218 26 2000 9335
Source: Department for Fisheries Administration (DAP).
Environmental consequences brought by this issue are diverse. Basically, the overexploitation of the fishery resources results in reduction of the fish stocks and loss of biodiversity.
Socio-economic consequences related to the overexploitation of the fish resources are immense considering the fact that significant percentage of the population, about 40%, live in the coastal zone and their living depends on the resources available in these regions, and further, the economy of the country depends largely in the marine and coastal resources. In general terms, reduction in fish resources has a significant implication in the economy, causes reduction in the employment facilities and reduces capacity for the local community to meet basic needs (subsistence). And as emphasised above, the shrimp fishery is one of the major sources of income for the country.
Page 38 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
3.3.2 Environmental Impacts of Over-Exploitation of Fish Resources
The development of fisheries in the country has been accompanied by an accelerated degradation of the environment. If this situation is not controlled it may result in a complete destruction of the marine ecosystems. Table 3.8 highlights some of the major issues associated with the overexploitation of fish resources and their environmental and socio-economic impacts. One of the major environmental consequences of the overexploitation of the fish resources is the reduction in fish stocks and in biodiversity.
Reduction in fish stocks is evident in all the fisheries. However, changes in biodiversity are not well studied. The few information known so far is related to shallow water shrimp species in Sofala Bank. Silva (1989) indicated that up to late 70´s Pneus indicus were the predominant specie over Metapenaeus monoceros, and since late 80´s Metapenaeus monoceros became more important. For example, in 1989 the specie composition was 48% and 42% of the total shrimp biomass for P. indicus and M. monoceros, respectively.
3.3.3 Socio-Economic Impact of Over-Exploitation of Fish Resources
The fisheries sector employs currently over 70,000 people, from whom about 22% are women, and it is expected to grow in the future (Table 1.2). Its contribution to the economy represents about 40% of the total export earning (DAP).
Shrimp, the major fishery in Mozambique, is one of the worlds most valuable fishery resources. Its high price in the international market has lead to a rapid development of the shrimp fishing industry, with a consequent increase in the fishing effort beyond the levels of sustainability. The resulting reduction in availability of shrimp lead to a low income, which often does not compensate the large investments paid. The regulatory measures applied to date have not yet succeeded in preventing this situation.
The reduction in fish stocks has detrimental socio-economic consequences. As mentioned above, the Mozambique economy depend at large extent in the exploitation of natural resources, from which fisheries are one of the major resources. Reduction in fish stocks would result in the reduction in the foreign income and would worsen the poverty situation of the country. The number of people employed in fisheries sector would decrease, resulting in an increase in the unemployment. The social value of the fisheries, particularly with respect to the artisanal fisheries, is considerably large. Reduction in fish stokes could cause migration and displacement of the communities.
3.3.4 Transboundary Impacts
The main transboundary impacts are associated with the fact that most of the fishery resources are shared with neighbouring countries, thus, any overexploitation in one of the countries could affect the fisheries and economy of the others. Further, and as mentioned above, most of the fishing companies of prawns are international or owned by joint-venture with foreign fishing enterprises. The fishing products are sold at international markets such as European Union and Japan. Therefore, changes in availability of these resources could affect the international trade relationships. In addition, decline in the fishing resources could result in the increase in the employment that may in turn, may worsen the labour migration to the neighbouring countries.
3.3.5 Indicators
Most of the issues that characterise the status of the fish stock and their impacts are not well known, and those that are known are not easily quantifiable. In Table 3.8 it is presented some of the indicators identified and whose data might be available.
Page 39 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Catch statistics as well as information on fisheries investment and trade are collected by the National Directorate of Fisheries. The Institute for Fisheries Research provides information on fish stocks and fish biology. For some resources, data is available since 1977.
3.3.6 Future Trends
The future trends of the impacts would depend largely in whether the stocks would continue to decrease or not. There are measures being taken to prevent further decrease in the fish stocks, but at the same time there are factors that would contribute to the reduction in fish stocks.
Factors that would tend to reduce the stocks are mostly those related to the environmental changes such as storms, reduction in freshwater availability that in turn reduces the availability of nutrients and hence of productivity. The major socio-economic factor that could contribute to the reduction of fish stocks is related to the increase in fishing effort as an attempt to alleviate poverty and increase income.
The factors that could contribute to the increase in fish stocks are mostly of the socio-economic nature, basically the reduction in fishing effort. The government policy is to encourage fishing of other resources, currently under-exploited, apart from traditional fishing area. In addition, there has been observed, in the recent years, an increase in the investment in other sectors such as aluminium, energy and tourism industries, that might result in the reduction in fishing effort.
The sustainability of the major fishery resources is under the responsibility of the National Directorate for Fisheries. Management measures applied up to date are restricted to shrimp fishery in general. More specific measures are those applied to industrial and semi-industrial shallow water shrimp fishery regulated by licensing and quota system, effort restriction and closed season. However, the closed season is only extensible to the Sofala Bank and Maputo Bay where shrimp fishery is developed. In Maputo Bay, closed season is also enforced to artisanal fishery. The main fisheries management measures adopted so far are as follows:
Shallow water shrimp fisheries: Closed season: Two month (January and February) every year Mesh size: gradual alteration from 37 mm in 1987 to 55 mm in 1995. Total Allowable Catch (TAC): determined on a yearly basis. Sustainable fishing effort: 180-185 000 standardised fishing hours Sustainable Harvesting level: 8000 tones/year Actual fishing effort: 270 000 standardised hours
Deep water shrimp fishery: Mesh size: gradual alteration from 37 mm in 1987 to 55 mm in 1995. Total Allowable Catch (TAC): 3500 tones/year - never attained during last three years. Sustainable Harvesting level: 3500 tones/year
Deep water lobster fishery: Total Allowable Catch (TAC): 500 tones/year - never attained during last three years. Sustainable Harvesting level: 500 tones/year
It is rather difficult to judge at this stage whether the combined initiatives and the current trend in the investment policy would result in the reduction in fishing effort and hence, in the effective increase in the fish stocks. What we can say at this stage is that the development of other sectors of the economy such as agriculture, tourism, transports and communication, international services and aluminium industries would increase in the future, as a result of the political stability that prevails in the country.
Page 40 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 3.8. Major Issues Related to Over-Exploitation of Fishery Resources, their Environmental and Socio-Economic Impacts and the Possible Indicators
Env. Issue Environmental. Impact Socio-Economic. Impact Indicators Socio-Econ. Shallow water shrimp fishery Harvesting of juvenile shrimps and larvae in nursery areas. 1. Changes in food web 1. Reduced income; 2. Changes in community structure; 2. Loss of employment 1. Catches; 1. Micro-economic 3. Increased vulnerability of commercially opportunities; indicators; important species; 3. Reduced availability; 2. Catch rates; and 4. Long term changes in genetic composition 4. Conflict between user groups; 2. Number of people of population; and 3. Fish species composition. employed in fisheries sector; and Same as 1 and 2. 5. Stock reduction; 3. Number of fish fishing Over exploitation of shrimp fishery. vessels. Same as 1. Excessive shrimp by catch. 6. Depletion of one or more key species; Same as above.
Same as 1 and 5. Over-exploitation of straddling stocks Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. in southern Mozambique.
Exploitation of migratory stocks Same as 5. Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. (tuna fisheries inside EEZ). 7. Loss of top predators; 8. Increased availability of prey species; and 9. Increased secondary predators. Same as 1 and 2 above.
Uncontrolled game fishing activity. same as 5, 7, 8 and 9. Stock reduction.
Same as 1 and 2 above. 5. Lost of recreational opportunities.
Page 41 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Env. Issue Environmental. Impact Socio-Economic. Impact Indicators Socio-Econ. Excessive exploitation of small pelagic Same as 1, 4 and 7. Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. Same as above. Same as above. stocks in the Sofala Bank.
Excessive exploitation of demersal Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. stocks of Sofala Bank. Same as 1, 4 and 7.
Over-exploitation of sea cucumbers. Same as 1, 2 and 4 above.
Excessive exploitation of clams and Same as 1 and 4. Same as 1 and 2 above. oysters.
Excessive exploitation of deep water Same as 1 and 4. Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. spiny lobster.
Excessive exploitation of Kapenta Same as 1 and 4. Same as 1, 2 and 4 above. fishery.
Same as 1, 2 and 4.
Page 42 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
3.4 Destructive Fishing Methods
3.4.1 Introduction
Destructive fishing methods like trawling over the seabed, corals and over sea grasses; beach seining using tractors and small mesh nets (mosquito nets); fish poisoning with the use of pesticides or poisonous plants and the use of dynamite are reported to occur in some places along the coast. These practices are becoming increasingly a major concern considering that it affects also protected species such as turtles and dugongs. They seem to be encouraged, among others, by the luck of enforcement of the law, lack of adequate fishing gears, reduction of fish availability, and demand for high revenue. Most of these damaging fishing methods are practised by artisanal fishermen or in the are of artisanal fisheries.
3.4.2 The Main Destructive Fishing Practised in Mozambique
A summary regarding the destructive fishing methods practices is presented in Table 3.9 below. The main destructive fishing practices in Mozambique are: the use of mosquito net, poisoning, dynamiting and spear fishing.
Mosquito net trawling fishing practice consists of two people, mostly women, pulling a mosquito net the size of a blanket, usually nearby shores and mangrove areas. The catch obtained through this fishing method consists of tiny fish, including juveniles shrimp and fish. Larvae and eggs may also be collected through this destructive way.
Use of poison consists of using pesticides and or poisonous plants or herbs. These are diluted in water, and the solution is spread in location prone to high concentration of fish, such as in coral reefs and in rocks. The poisons would kill the all the living organism affected, regardless their species and size, and may contaminate the others for long time. The commonly used pesticides in this kind of fishing are those utilised in the cotton culture, and commonly used poisonous plant is the plant Mundulea sericia (family Caesalpinaceae), found in Inhambane are and in the northern part of the country. This plant contains rotenone that makes the fish to asphyxiate and die. The corals and other invertebrates in the surrounding would also die.
Dynamiting consists of placing explosives in water, preferably in the places with high fish density such as in corals and in rocks. The explosion kills the fish regardless its size or species, and also destroys the habitat that sustains the resources.
Spear fishing kills all the fish regardless the size and in doing so, it disturbs the food web and it could causes the collapse of the ecosystem.
3.4.3 Environmental Impacts
The most significant environmental impacts of using the destructive fishing methods are associated to the non-selective nature of the gears and to the destructive effects to the habitats. The mosquito nets catches even the fish eggs and larvae, accelerating the reduction in fish stocks. Because this fishing practice is not selective it could result in the reduction of biodiversity. In the use of poisoning, if contamination takes places in the species at low trophic level, the contaminant may be carried through the food web and to species at long distances away from the place of initial contamination. Dynamiting of fish, apart from killing indiscriminately the fish, it destroys the habitats that sustains the ecosystems and hence, of the resources, reducing the fish stocks and biodiversity. It contributes further to the loss of aesthetic value and recreation of the sites. The poisoning and dynamiting, in particular, could kill or destroy the habitats sustaining the endangered species such as turtles and dugongs, contributing further to the loss of biodiversity.
Page 43 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
3.4.4 Socio-Economy Impacts
The main socio-economy impacts are associated to the reduction in fish stocks and to the contamination of fish due to the practice of these inadequate fishing practices. It is estimated that about 80,000 fishermen and their families are directly or indirectly affected by the use of destructive fishing methods. In addition to these fish processors, traders, boat builders, and other economically active groups within coastal communities may be affected.
Over two thirds of the population of Mozambique live within 150km of the coast. Thus, in addition to the significant contribution to exports, the fisheries sector is an important source of both protein and employment. Total marine fishery production is estimated at between 100,000 to 120,000 tons per year and consumption is estimated at 7.5 kg per capita. Total production from marine fisheries in the region reached 211,000 tons in 1990, increased by 72% since 1980 with an estimated value of US$ 670 million. More recent figures for 1995 give an estimated amount of 201,000 tons.
Thus, a reduction in the fish availability would reduce income from fisheries and hence, reduce capacity of the local community to meet basic human needs. This could, further, cause changes in employment opportunities for local populations. The destruction of corals may mean a loss of cultural heritage, which in turn may cause a loss in income and foreign exchange from tourism.
Although there is no record of human intoxication due to consumption of poisonous fish, if the issue of destructive fishing practices is not seriously addressed, there is a great potential for cases of diseases such as diarrhoea and cancer.
In overall, the use of destructive fishing methods has impact on the livelihoods in coastal fishing communities – the overall development objective of the artisanal fisheries sub-sector. Actually this is effecting the fishing communities objectives, like improvement of the market access, increase of producer price and more secure market. This is also jeopardising the governmental objective, which is focussed upon poverty reduction, economic growth and sustainable development.
3.4.5 Transboundary Impacts
As mentioned above, the main transboundary impacts are associated with the fact that most of the fishery resources are shared with neighbouring countries, thus, any overexploitation in one of the countries could affect the fisheries and economy of the others. Further, and as mentioned above, most of the fishing companies of prawns are international or owned by joint-venture with foreign fishing enterprises. The fishing products are sold at international markets such as European Union and Japan. Therefore, changes in availability of these resources could affect the international trade relationships. In addition, decline in the fishing resources could result in the increase in the employment that may in turn, may worsen the labour migration to the neighbouring countries. Further, the destruction of sea grass beds and of corals may result in the declining of dioxide carbon sink potentials, with consequences in global warming.
3.4.6 Indicators
The main indicators related to the use of the destructive fishing practices are:
• fish stock sizes - the fish size is greatly dependent in the survival of the fish eggs, fish larvae and juveniles. When there is an over fishing at the low stage of the life cycle of some living resource, this could get into extinction fast. Mosquito nets, poisoning and dynamiting contribute most to the reduction of fish stocks; • catch rates - are to reduce as the fish stocks reduces. The use of non-selective fishing practices as mentioned above contribute most to the reduction of fish stock and hence, of catch rates;
Page 44 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
• catch yields - is expected to reduce whenever there is a over fishing of fish eggs, fish larvae and juveniles, for the catch would be composed mainly by small and low valued fish; and • biodiversity index - would decrease with the use of non-selective fishing practices as they capture even the endangered species.
Table 3.9. Summary of Impacts and its Indictors Related to the Destructive Fishing Practices
Issues Environment Impact Socio-Economic Impact Indicator Use of reduction in fish stocks; reduction fish yield; catch rates; mosquito nets. loss of biodiversity; - reduction of fish - catch yield; - threat to endangered income; - fish stocks; species; and - reduction of the - income of the - loss of aesthetic value of capacity for the local local population; the sites. community to meet and basic human needs; - biodiversity index. - changes in employment and living habits; - migration of communities; and - loss of aesthetic and Spear fishing. - same as above. recreational value of the - same as above. sites.
Use of - same as above. - same as above. - same as above. Dynamite. - same as above. - same as above and Use of Poison. - same as above. the number of - same as above and diseases caused by cases of diseases such poisoning. as diarrhoeas and cancer.
Page 45 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
CHAPTER FOUR
4. Causal Chain Analysis
4.1 Modification of Stream Flow
4.1.1 Introduction
Being freshwater a vital resource for development, the cumulative demand for this resource has frequently resulted in excessive impoundment of rivers and over-abstraction. As a result, drastic reduction in river basin flows and limited water resources, associated degradation of river and coastal ecosystems, the over-extraction from groundwater sources leading to contamination of aquifers, are all serious problems. Reduced water resources sets a limit to the country’s development potential. Reduction of stream flow is not however the only problem related to surface water in Mozambique. Being a downstream country, cyclic floods do affect people, livestock, farms and infrastructure. Diagrams 4.1 and 4.2, summarise the causal chain for the changes of stream flow in Mozambique. The Table 4.1 below summarises the major causes of concern for issues related to freshwater shortage.
4.1.2 Identification and Quantification of Immediate or Technical Causes
The reasons for the modification of stream flow are serious and diverse. Amongst the most important, few were identified as:
• increased diversion in upstream countries; • increased demand in country and associated land use changes; and • changes in rainfall pattern.
Being Mozambique a country still emerging from the civil war and from emergency situations such as droughts and floods, data is still very difficult to get specially that related to present and future demand of water. Thus, data supporting this casual chain analysis exercise is based on the best available estimates from different sources.
Increased Diversion in Upstream Countries
A large proportion of Mozambique’s territory - more than 50% - is occupied by international river basins, including Maputo, Umbeluzi, Incomati, Limpopo, Save, Buzi, Pungué, Zambezi and Rovuma rivers (Figures 4.1 and 4.2).
Because its downstream situation, Mozambique is vulnerable to the negative effects of activities taking place in the upper riparian, including reduction in river flow and discharge of pollutant. The situation is particularly critical if considering that surface water is the main source of water in Mozambique, and that 60% of the surface water available in the territory is from the international river basins (MICOA, 1998).
Shortage of fresh water is mostly due to the reduction in river flow by intensive use in neighbouring countries. Mozambique’s central and southern parts is where the reduction in flow from hinterland is more critical. It is estimated that South Africa, Swaziland and Zimbabwe now abstract around 40% to 60% of the border flow. The extent of the obstruction of water by neighbouring countries is illustrated by the distribution of dams in Limpopo, Incomati, Umbeluzi and Maputo river basins. Zambezi river is used for the production of hydroelectricity power both in Mozambique and Zimbabwe, and is used in intensive agriculture in many countries including Zambia, Zimbabwe and Mozambique. Water from Pungoé river is used in tobacco plantations in Zimbabwe and to supply water to cities such as Mutare, in Zimbabwe and Beira, in Mozambique.
Page 46 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Surface water is Mozambique’s most important source of water. The mean annual runoff is estimated at 216,000 million cubic meters, per year, of which only 100,000 Mm3 (or 46%) originates from rainfall in Mozambique. This is probably the reason why the runoff has been falling with the increased use of water by upstream countries. As a result, the availability per capita of surface water is currently about 5,556 cubic meters/inhabitant/year. This figure accounts only for runoff generated in the country. If flows from riparian countries are included, the figure rises to 12,000 cubic meters/inhabitant/year. The rate is expected to decline steadily down to 3,227 and 6,970 cubic meters/inhabitant/year by the year 20171, due to population growth and reduction in flows from countries upstream (see Table 4.2).
Table 4.1. Causal Chain Analysis of the Major Concerned Issues Related to Freshwater Shortage
Casual Chain Issues Immediate Secondary Tertiary Institutional Reduction in 1. Increase in Increase in demand 1. Excessive use of 1. Lack of a legal and flow of abstractions mainly by agro-chemicals. institutional framework mainly the and damming agriculture, 2. Excessive irrigation, for the management of Zambezi, in upstream industry and no consideration of the shared river basins. Pungoé, Save, countries due mining, domestic downstream needs. 2. Lack of qualified and Buzi and to: power and municipal and 3. Irrigation of low field staff at relevant Limpopo production; nature conservation institutions. River Basins. irrigation; uses. value crops. 3. Lack of financial and industrial use; 4. High water losses in and mining and dams and canals. human resources. domestic 4. Lack of research in supply. 1. Low irrigation efficiencies. integrated shared river management. 2. Low water prices. Increase in demand 5. Deficient management 3. Low crop yields. of irrigation schemes. mainly by expansion of 4. Lack of farmers. 6. Lack of a bilateral 2. Increase in agricultural lands, experience in agreement or water use in the rehabilitation of irrigated farming. implementation of country for irrigation schemes, 1. ENSO effects. shared water irrigated opening of new legislation. agriculture, industries and 2. Seasonal variation. industrial and 7. Lack of standards and domestic and 3. Climate changes. guidelines for water domestic municipal uses. purposes. quality control in the region.
1. Frequent and 8. Deficiency flow extreme monitoring and long droughts and term observational floods. network. 3. Changes in 2. Reduction in 9. Weak institutional incoming flows river flow. cooperation and due to changes information sharing. in rainfall 10. Weak scientific patterns. capacity at research institutions and weak coordination with DNA and ARAs.
1 If we consider no decline in flow from upstream countries and a population growth rate of 2.3 % (Instituto de Agua e Direccao Nacional de Água, 1999, INE, 2000).
Page 47 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Figure 4.1. Internationally Shared Rivers by Mozambique (source: IA and DNA, 1999)
Page 48 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Figure 4.2. Main River Basins (source: IA and DNA, 1999)
Page 49 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 4.2. Availability of Surface Water Per Capita
Mean Annual Per Capita Water Region/Country Population(millions) Runoff (km3) (m3/inhab/year) Africa 590 4 200 7 119 South America 260 10 400 40 000 Australia 20 2 000 100 000 World 5 300 38 900 7 340 Mozambique 18 100a (216)b 5 556a (12000)b (Source: IA & DNA, 1999).
a) considering only the runoff generated in country; and b) Including the flows from neighbouring countries.
Mozambique has a per capita availability of water below the African average. However, this situation is worsened by the geographical and seasonal distribution of water in the country, which results in cycles of droughts and floods in parts of the country. The geographical distribution of annual runoff shows that the south and the centre of the country are more dependent on water from upstream countries. Only 3.8 %, 18.4 % and 18.0 % of the runoff is generated in the country for the south, centre and the Zambezi regions, respectively showing that the south it is extremely dependent on “imported” flows and, therefore, is were efforts to mitigate the problem should be concentrated.
While giving attention to the most critical area, the south, it is also important to explore more efficient the potential area in terms of water resources. Indeed, the Zambezi river represents almost 50 % of the surface water resources and about 75 % of the flow from countries located upstream (IA, DNA, 1999), and it is the most important in terms of not only to supply water for public use, irrigation, industry and mining but also for hydropower production.
The impact of the abstraction in riparian countries in Zambezi river is the lowering of annual inflow and outflow of Cahora Bassa catchment, from 1975 to 1997. This can be seen in Figure 4.3, below:
Figure 4.3: Decrease in Annual Inflow (Thin Line) and Outflow (Thick Line) of Cahora Bassa Catchment from 1975 to 1997 (source: UTIP, 1999)
Page 50 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Another example of the decrease in flow in the Incomati river, was reported by Matola (1999). He referred to the minimum flow at the border as being reduced in 75 % over a period of 16 years. According to same source, the minimum flow at the border decreased from 8 m/s in 1975 to around 2 m3/s in 1991.
4.1.3 Identification of Linkages with Direct Resource Use or Sector Pressure
Diagram 4.2 demonstrates that agriculture is the most important contributor to reduction of freshwater, both in upstream countries and in the country. The analysis that follows, therefore, will focus in this sector, particularly in Maputo Bay as a “hot spot” and Zambezi river basin as a “sensitive area”.
Water Demand for Agriculture - in Southern Mozambique
Irrigation is of particular concern when considering food and water demanding to sustain the fast growing population. Therefore, irrigation plays an important role in the increase of agricultural productivity without increasing land under production. As an example, South Africa irrigates only 1% of land to produce 30% of total value of agriculture production but using 51% of the total available water.
According to Crenje and Johnson (1996), out of the total amount of water available in South Africa in 1990, the following was the estimated use by different sectors:
• 51 % was used in irrigation; • 15.5 % for nature conservation; • 12 % for domestic and municipal needs; • 7.6 % was used by industry; • 7.5 % by forestry; • 2.7 % for mining activities; • 2.3 % for hydropower generation; and • 1.5 % for water stock.
As it can been seen from the above figures, agriculture is the most pressing sector on water resources. In the search for mitigation and mitigation measures, it is worth to note that 40 to 60 % of water drawn from rivers and dams is lost before being used for irrigation, mainly through seepage and evaporation. This not only a waste of valuable and scarce resources, but also causes serious environmental problems such as soil salinity and water logging. Therefore, measures to reduce these losses and improve efficient use would contribute to an increase in crop production with the same amount of water available.
In the Zambezi Delta - Zambezi River Basin
The Zambezi river basin is shared by eight countries namely Angola (11% of share of the total river basin), Botswana (6%), Malawi (8%), Mozambique (11%), Namibia (2%), Tanzania (2%), Zambia (41%) and Zimbabwe (19%). Water consuming sectors in these countries are broadly divided into urban and rural domestic supply, industrial use, agriculture and fisheries, hydropower generation, navigation, wildlife, recreation and tourism. Irrigation alone consumes about 1,500 Mm3 of water annually, which is more than 50 % of the water available in the basin (Chenje, 2000).
Although hydroelectric power production is a non-consumptive use, it causes high evaporation losses trough reservoirs. It is estimated that the current total evaporation loss is approximately 14.3 m3/year, of which 95% is from Cahora Bassa and Lake Kariba altogether (Chenje, 2000). The amount of water utilised by the manufacturing industry is hard to quantify due to lack of statistics in some of the countries.
Page 51 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
4.1.4 Increased Water Demand in the Country and Associated Land Use Changes
Quantification and Identification of Linkages with Resource Use Activities
According to the National Water Policy, by 1992 only 33% of the urban population had access to clean water being the goal to increase this coverage up to 50%-80%. As for the rural population, only 30% had access to clean water in 1993, being the goal to increase this figure to 40 % by 2000. In addition, according to the National Irrigation Development Master Plan of the National Directorate for Water Affairs, water demand for irrigation will double by year 2002 due to the expansion of the agriculture activity.
The potential for irrigated land is estimated to be about 3.3 million hectares, while only about 98,000 hectares are included in the development program, and from these, only about 45,300 hectares are currently utilised. The demand for water varies from 11,500 to 12,000 m3 per hectare. The estimated total water demand for the development area is about 1,180 Mm3 (MICOA, 1998).
Water Demand for Agriculture
Despite the vast potential of arable lands, referred as 36.1 million hectares, the maximum area that have ever been cultivated in the country is around 20-30 %, including plantations. During the 80’s this area was further reduced. The result was a decline in agriculture production, attributed to institutional and development policies, the civil war, and to the predominant semi-arid climate of Mozambique.
The Government adopted recently a 5 year National Agricultural Investment Program (PROAGRI) that will result in the expansion of cultivated area, both irrigated (mainly through rehabilitation of existing schemes) and rain fed.
Expansion of agricultural land and shifting cultivation practices may contribute to deforestation. Apart from this, indiscriminate cuts for wood fuel and building material as well as uncontrolled forest fires contribute to the loss of vegetation cover. Saket (1994) estimated a rate of 4.27 % over a period between 1972-1990, which means an annual average rate of 0.23 %. Particularly along river basins, deforestation can be a serious problem due to its effects on erosion and siltation of river channels, lakes and dams. However, reliable data on the impact of this problem to the reduction of the stream flow were not found or might be scattered.
Water needs are not only restricted to land. The environment also uses and needs water. Fresh water is necessary in marine deltas and estuaries to maintain the richness of the forest, mangroves and other inter-tidal wetlands. At present, these requirements, both in terms of quality and quantity, are not know. So, quantification of environmental water needs, including studies on wetlands systems due to their capacity to retain water for ecosystem maintenance and agriculture during dry season, needs further attention in the calculation of the total country’s present and future water demand.
Urban and Rural Water Demand
Currently the total consumption of water in the 23 main cities is estimated at 50 Mm3/year, including non-domestic consumption. However, according to Consultec (1998), urban and rural water consumption in 1997 was estimated to be 83 and 24 Mm3/year, respectively. Most of water systems are operating below their capacity, suffering from lack of maintenance and spare parts, inadequate water treatment, high water losses (40 %) and financial constrains caused by low water tariffs. Based on the same study, it is estimated that the urban water consumption (in 23 cities) value will reach the 97 Mm3 in 2002 and 298 Mm3 in 2017. This will add more pressure on the already limited water resources in the coastal zone.
Page 52 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Water Demand for Industry
The industrial park has undergone significant degradation due to economic problems since the 70’s that were aggravated in the 80’s by the civil war. Therefore, water demand by this sector is expected to be low although no information on actual water consumption is available. However, consumption rate is expected to increase in short term due to the recent establishment of incentives to the installation of new industries such as the aluminium smelter (MOZAL), the Maputo iron and steel project, among others.
Water Demand for Power Production
The potential for hydropower generation in Mozambique is estimated to be 13,000 MW and there are approximately 65,000 GWh of energy that can be economically produced. Of this total capacity, 70% is concentrated in the Zambezi river, which represents 10,000 MW of power potential). Cahora Bassa produces 2,075 MW of energy but in Phase II of its development, is expected to increase this figure to 3,275 MW. The dam require an average water discharge of about 2,100 m3/s. Table 4.3 summarises the mean flows, heads and rated outputs of the main power plants. In spite of the possibility to reuse the water, requirements for water demand for power production should be considered.
Table 4.3. Existing Main Power Plants in Mozambique
Turbine Rated Output Power Station Flow discharge Location (MW) Head (m) (m3 s-1) Cahora Bassa 2 075 120 2 000 Zambezi river (Phase I) Chicamba Real 34 50 60 Buzi river Mavuzi 48 160 23 Buzi river Corumana 16.6 36 25 Incomati river
Source: IA & DNA, 1999.
There are other locations identified for the production of hydroelectric power but large dams are required.
Population Growth
According to the last census in Mozambique (INE, 2000), population is growing 2.3 % a year, which is considered very high. Population growth has added a new dimension to the demand of water. To meet the food needs of an increasing population, forest or grazing land is brought under cultivation, resulting in intensification of irrigated agriculture and use of agro-chemical. The clearing of vegetation and use of chemicals may modify rainfall and decrease water quality, increase erosion and lowers water table.
Population growth in coastal areas also place heavy demands on marine resources such as fish, mangroves and shrimps leading to the depletion of some species and damage to sensitive ecosystems such as wetlands. Around 42% of the population in Mozambique live in coastal districts.
Apart from keeping pace with food demands of a fast growing population, the country also faces the challenge of providing sufficient, adequate and safe water for domestic use.
Page 53 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The increase in population will encourage economic growth. To sustain this growth there will be an increasing need for hydroelectric power and row materials projects to feed industries which may bring more environmental impacts through reducing water available for agriculture and pollution of water resources.
4.1.5 Changes in Rainfall Patterns
According to Köppen classification, four types of climate can be distinguished in the region, namely:
• humid moderate, in the upland areas (Gurue, Manica, Angonia and Lichinga); • rainy tropical, in most of the north of the country and coastal area; • dry savannah, in most area south of save river; and • dry desert, most of inland areas of Gaza province.
As a result there is a great variation in rainfall between the north and south of the country, and between the coastal belt and inland areas. Along the coast rainfall varies from 800 to 1,000 mm, with values higher than 1,200 mm between Beira and Quelimane. In the north and the centre of the country, the mean annual rainfall reaches 1,000 to 2,000 mm, while the south and Tete show values less than 400 to 700 mm.
Droughts and floods high-risk areas combine characteristics of vulnerability in terms of climate, natural resources and socio-economic development. It is therefore essential that long-term preventive investment is done in these regions for improved weather forecasting and early warning systems, particularly within regional water administrations (ARAs) as well as to improve communications and awareness can be done to minimise impacts on the environment and socio-economic and reduce vulnerability
Changes in Inputs and Seasonal Variability
Rainy season in the region lasts for a relatively short period (three months) and contributes to about 60 to 80 % of the annual runoff under natural conditions. Peak flows in Zambezi and other rivers were usually recorded in February-March. The minimum flow causing flooding in the Zambezi Delta appears to have been about 5,000 m3/s. Values of 13,000 or more caused widespread damage in 1926,1939, 1940, 1952, 1958, 1978 and 2001. Again, under normal circumstances, flows decreased slowly after the peak to a minimum of 200 to 800 m3/s in October-November.
River damming is used to harvest water for dry seasons, provide a steady water supply of water for hydroelectric power production and attenuate floods. Consequently, there is a reduction of the variation of monthly flow between wet and dry season flows. In the Zambezi river, two thirds of the inflow is regulated by the dams at Kariba and Kafue (UTIP, 1999). As result, the monthly outflows from the Cabora Bassa catchment are lower than the monthly inflows (Figure 4.4).
This may have impacted in Sofala Bank, the bight off the Zambezi Delta, reducing the catches from 10,000–12,000 tons in the years 1974-76 to 8,000 tons in 1983 and 7,900 tons in 1998. It is also believed that river flow regulation by Cahora Bassa also have had an impact in shrimp quality, as since fewer large and more small shrimps have been caught (Figure 4.5). (Jorge da Silva, 1986; Grammelsrød, 1992 cited by UTIP, 1999). This has an impact on the country’s economy as shrimp production contributed about US$ 55.4 million to the GNP in 1996 (MICOA, 1998).
Change in inputs are also a result of changes of the climatic conditions such as cyclones, and tropical depressions from the Indian Ocean, cold fronts from the south and ENSO effect. The El Ñino Southern oscillation phenomenon has persisted and these events may become more prevalent, not only in the country but also in Southern Africa as whole.
Page 54 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
As a consequence of this phenomenon, Mozambique has been suffering more severe and frequent droughts and floods. With exception of Rovuma, major floods and droughts have been recorded in all international rivers shared by Mozambique. After independence, floods were experienced in the years 1976, 1977, 1978, 1981, 1984, 1985, 1996, 1997, 1999, 2000, 2001 (Vaz, 2000) and droughts in 1980, 1981, 1982, 1983, 1987, 1991, 1992 and 1994 (Maule, 1999).
These calls for integrated Climate-Human-Ecosystem research, improved weather forecasting and early warning systems to minimise impacts on the environment and socio-economic activities.
Figure 4.4. Mean Monthly Average of Inflow (Thin Line) and Outflow (Thick Line) from Cahora Bassa Reservoir for the Period 1976 to 1997 (source: UTIP, 1999)
Figure 4.5. Times Series Plot of the Zambezi River Runoff (•) and Prawn Catch Rates (o) in Sofala Bank (source: UTIP, 1999)
Page 55 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Analysis of Causes of Environmental Damage or Threat
Environmental Impacts Socio-economic impacts Deterioration of water quality, salt intrusion, Regional conflicts, outbreaks of water born diseases, reduction in hydro-power production, decrease agriculture, erosion/ sedimentation, degradation of estuarine and coastal ecosystem, chronic stress in the marine industrial and fish production, increase costs with living organisms, decrease shrimp production, fish alternative water supplies, compromise future use options, and fisheries stocks, wetland damage deaths, infrastructure damage
Modification of Stream Flow
Immediate Causes
Changes in inputs due to changes in rainfall Increase water use in upstream countries Changes in land use in Mozambique
Responses favoring or mitigating resource use Direct Resource Use Sectoral Cause Increase water demand for: domestic use, agricultural activities, Ag riculture, Urbanization, Industry, industry and tourism, etc; adjustment of water tariffs, increase in Ener gy production and Domestic use private water management in cities, shared river agreements with neighboring countries, poor water management, deficient quantity
and quality flow monitoring, awareness, education and training, early warning capacity, use of wetlands for crop production, use of drought tolerant crops, water harvesting, minimum tillage, diverse crop environments, legislation, etc
Root causes: domestic and institutional pressure Erratic and inadequate rainfall coupled with high evapotranspiration rates, increase in population, intensive wat er use, excessive use agro-chemical, mining and industrial wastewater discharges in riparian countries, low water use efficiencies in agriculture and urban supply, cyclones, ENSO (El Nino-Southern Oscillation), global climate changes, and other unfavorable climatic conditions, weak institutional and legal framework, Lack of scientific knowledge, etc
Diagram 4.1. Casual Chain Analysis of Modification of Stream Flow
Page 56 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Energy4 % & water stock No Lack of Deficient consideration farmer’s management downstream experience of schemes needs
Industr y 10 % & mining Low Irrigation low value crops irrigation efficiencies
Nature 15 % Subsidized conservation High water water prices 3 % losses Industry
Low crop 12 % yields Domestic & Agriculture 17 %
municipal (irrigation, Urbanization Natural forestry) 80 % Agriculture 59 % 100 %
Modification in inputs: changed rainfall-runoff Changes in Land use: rel ationships and decreases Increase diversion: for Deforestation, changes in groundwater inflow irrigation, industry, power agricultural practice, production and domestic artificial river banking use in upstream countries
10 % 60 % 30 %
Modification of Stream Flow
Diagram 4.2. Analysis of the Immediate Causes and Sector Use Direct Pressures
Page 57 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
4.1.6 Responses Favouring or Mitigating Resource Use
Government Responses
Water Use
The water sector in Mozambique is undergoing major changes towards less centralised water management, more involvement of private sector and more acceptance economic value of water. These changes were formally established in the 1991 in the Water Law that incorporated the basic principles and policies of water management. According to it, the main responsible bodies in water management are the Ministry of public Works and Housing (MOPH) and the National Directorate of Water (DNA).
The Law mandates an inter-ministerial committee, the national Council of Water, to take responsibility for water issues. The work of the committee is coordinated by National Directorate of Water (DNA) and has representatives of Ministry of Agriculture and Rural development, Cooperation and Foreign Affairs, Industry and Commerce, Tourism, Mineral resources and Energy, Health, State administration, Environmental Affairs and Planning and Finance.
Water management is of the responsibility of five regional water authorities (ARAs). Up to now only the regional water authorities of the south (ARA-Sul) were established. A regional water authority is to be created for the Zambezi river basin linked to the SADC Zambezi River Basin Commission. ARAs will be responsible for approving hydraulic projects which fall under their jurisdiction, adjusting water fees in urban areas and will be involved in the join operation of dams and the issue of flood warnings.
In 1995, the Government adopted a National Water Policy. The Policy defines the strategy to be followed by the sector, including the main political points defined by the Water Law and specific strategies and targets for water supply to urban, peri-urban and rural areas and for the integrated management of water resources.
Apart from the ARAs, other institutions at a regional level are the Provincial Directorates of Public Works and Housing, which include hydrometric monitoring stations where ARAs are not yet functional, and the Zambezi Planning Office (GPZ), established in 1997. GPZ is a regional body intended to promote and coordinate the socio-economic development of the Zambezi River Valley.
Locally, 33 Municipal Councils were created in 1998 throughout the country. These will play a much stronger role in all questions concerning urban and peri-urban water supply and sanitation. In addition, water companies are responsible for water supply in the main cities. Privatisation of management of these companies in 5 major cities is currently in its implementing phase.
Land Law
The Land Law (No. 19 of 1997) establishes the conditions under which the rights to the use of land are constituted, exercised, changed, transmitted and extinguished. All land is State property and cannot be sold or alienated. Land use rights can be acquired through occupation following customary norms and practices, provided that these do not contradict constitutional provisions, or through authorisation of a request. Under these provisions, communities2 may have access to land and have to be consulted prior to an authorisation of a land request.
2 Community is defined as a group of families and individuals living in a shared territorial area, at a ward level or below, with the aim of safeguarding common interests through protection of residential, agricultural, forestry, cultural, grazing, water resources or expansion areas
Page 58 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Although negotiation of land tenure rights is the sole prerogatives of the State, testimony and proof of land use through occupation for more than 10 years, or according to customary norms, is generally recognised by law. Moreover, the Law establishes the principle of compensation for losses incurred.
Current practice relating land use rights issues indicates that in the event of land due to implementation of a project of “public interest”, the affected population is represented by the Government in the negotiations on mitigation options and compensatory measures. The Land Law further provides the legal basis for demarcating areas for protection and conservation (Article 5) and the creation of totally and partially protected zones (Article 6). Specifically, the later include land area within 100 m of a source of water and within 250 m of a dam or reservoir.
The Land and Water Law, by defending water and land resources as state property may discourage major investment on land in terms of infrastructure and conservation measures to reduce degradation or promote efficient use of water resources. In addition, as Land Law defends customary rights it may have an effect in slowing down private investment mainly in the agricultural sector.
Major Project Decision-Making
One important tool used in Mozambique to access the possible environmental damage of an activity subject to bring significant changes to the current status of environment is the Environmental Impact Assessment.
Environmental Assessment Procedures in Mozambique
Decree No. 76 of 1998 establishes the Regulation of the Environmental Impact Assessment Process.
The Decree, inter alia, requires the Ministry for Environmental for Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA) to:
• approve the specific terms of reference that will guide the environmental impact assessment; • convene public meeting to consult interested and affected stakeholders of a proposed project; • review the environmental impact assessment report, within 60 days, in coordination with interested public entities, civil society and community affected; and • issue an environmental license for approved projects or provide a statement of rejection.
The Decree requires from the proponent to:
• submit terms of reference for the EIA to MICOA; • submit the EIA report, mitigation and environmental management plan; and • comply with the MICOA guidelines on public consultation.
The Decree does not specify the time allowed for MICOA to approve the TOR for EIA, nor who bears the cost of public consultation process but the practice the developer take that responsibility and approval take some time.
Obligations to International Conventions and Agreements
Mozambique has signed and ratified a number of international conventions or agreements concerning water resources. In this context, the country signed the SADC Protocol on Shared Watercourse Systems. The protocol attempts to fix general principles, norms for solving dispute, rules for the establishment of management institutions and their functions by which SADC member states should be guided. Despite this positive progress, the Protocol suffers from many conceptual and technical
Page 59 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 defects and therefore many SADC members, including Mozambique, have proposed amendments and have delayed ratifying it.
Mozambique took active part in drawing up the United Nations Convention on Non-Navigational uses in Shared Watercourse Systems. This was approved in 1997 and should now be ratified. Eventually this will be the basic legal norm to guide future water-sharing agreements between SADC and Non- SADC countries.
Community Responses
Farmer’s Strategy to Cope with Modification of Stream Flow
Traditional farmers hold more than one plot for agriculture: a smaller one at riverbed or margin and larger one(s) some 3-10 km away in dry land areas. Plots at the river are used to grow annual and perennial crops and are irrigated. As result yields are higher than in the dry land areas when there is no flood. In this way, the farmer is likely to loose the irrigated plot in the event of a flood or the dry land crop in the event of drought.
To ensure constant supply of food and minimise risk, farmers tend to develop highly complex farming systems with wide range of crops, crop mixtures and sequencing. Farmers are more concerned with food self-sufficiency than with maximising yields (NRI, 1996).
4.1.7 Factors Beyond the Country Boundary
The major transboundary consequences of the identified issues are based in the assumption that most of the water is shared by neighbouring countries, making their sustainable exploitation requiring an integrated management approach. Freshwater shortage and pollution is mainly caused by over-abstraction and intensive water use in upstream countries. Considerable impacts affecting the Mozambican waters is due to intensive agriculture activity in South Africa (affecting rivers such as Limpopo and Incomati), Swaziland (sugar cane plantation near Umbeluzi river) and Zimbabwe (rivers Save and Zambezi).
Most of the shrimp trawling fleet in Sofala Bank, which may be affected by problems upstream, is owned by joint venture between nationals and foreign companies. On the other hand, most of the shrimp is to be exported, mainly to European market. In addition, demersal fisheries are shared with South Africa, from where most of game fisherman came from. Therefore, mitigation measures directed to protect availability and quality of freshwater resources are transboundary in their nature. Those measures seek not only the involvement of SADC structures of water and environmental management but also calls for strong cooperation amongst national institutions.
4.1.8 Actions Recommended
The actions recommended are summarised in Table 4.4, and they aimed at: (i) a better understanding of the ecosystems structure and functioning; (ii) strengthening capacity and cooperation of institutions involved in marine research, resources management, teaching and training; and (iii) harmonisation of legislation related to resources exploitation and to the socio-economic aspects.
Government could support initiatives that could have an important impact on stream flow in Mozambique. These initiatives could alleviate the negative impacts of the Modification of Stream Flow. Some of these initiatives are as follows: Exploring the potential of the Zambezi river and its delta, researching for management of shared rivers, flood and drought zoning and management, Increasing water use efficiency.
Page 60 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 4.4. Summary of the Actions Recommended Addressing the Major Water-Related Environmental Issues
Issue Recommended Actions Responsible Agency Priority Fresh water shortage • establish and strengthen Regional Water ♦ High Reduction in flow regional water management Authorities units, by river basin; • ARA-SUL; • integrated Transboundary ARA - Zambeze; river basin authority (SADC); • ARA- Centre; • shared river research projects ♦ High Pollution for long term water • SADC; and Water pollution monitoring and search for solutions; • DNA, Universities, • improve cooperation and research institutes ♦ High information sharing among (INAM, INIA, etc), riparian states and within ARAs relevant national institutions; • assessment of the extent of water pollution and its impact; • propose techniques for water treatment; • assessment of the extent of ♦ High the problem; • improve early warning systems; • improve hydrometric and climatic observation network; • increase in country water storage capacity; • increase efficiency of water use; • studies on impacts of the modification of water on ecosystem structure and function; • assessment of environmental and socio-economic impacts; and • development of regulation for sustainable use of waters.
Exploring the Potential of the Zambezi River and its Delta
Given its importance, Zambezi river should be given top priority in terms of establishment and strengthening river authority, capacity building, promotion of the Zambezi river basin potential, study alternative ways to increase benefits of Mozambique on hydropower production and reduce downstream environmental impacts. The Government has already identified this area as a priority for investment, and through the Zambezi River Cabinet (GPZ) has prepared a development plan and a set of incentives to attract development to the area.
Page 61 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Research for the Management of Shared Rivers
Given the problems generated by its geographical position, Mozambique should discuss with neighbouring countries the operating rules of their large dams in shared basins. In this regard, Mozambique would guaranty minimum ecological flows, incorporate requirement of flood and drought attenuation, as well as to monitor the quantity and quality of water flows. To pursue this end, there is a need to strengthen its research and human capacity for integrated river management as well as its climate and hydrometric observational network especially in the southern part of the country.
The cooperation the country needs should also include the collaboration among universities and research institutes on formulation and implementation of shared river long-term research projects, free exchange and sharing of meteorological, hydrometric and reservoir data among all relevant institutions and the establishment of a rapid and efficient communication system in country and with neighbouring countries.
Flood and Drought Zoning and Management
Flood and drought zoning is a fundamental step to cope with huge variation of stream flow. This exercise would identify flood and drought prone areas. This could help physical planning authorities, developers and communities to take appropriate decisions were to construct infrastructure or establish their activities with lower risk as to minimise damage. Legislation should then be formulated pertaining to licensing any activity in risk areas.
Increase water use efficiency Efforts should be directed to the increment of the actual efficiency of irrigation systems, reduce evaporation losses and adopt more appropriate irrigation techniques – for example, using sprinklers and pipes instead of gravity-fed systems and channels. These strategies could be complemented by the use of drought resistant and short growing cycle crops to reduce risk of crop failure and increase production in rain fed areas.
4.1.9 Constraints to Action
The major constraint to action is related to the lack of understanding of ecosystem structure and function, and to institutional and legal framework weaknesses. Lack of qualified personnel is a key factor behind limited knowledge. On the other side, institutional capacity includes not only lack of infrastructures for long –term research and monitoring, but also the weak coordination between institutions dealing with marine and freshwater resources issues. Weak coordination often leads to duplication of actions or isolated/single discipline approach projects with limited impact causing unnecessary expenditure of the already scarce human and financial resources. In addition to this, sustainable exploitation of resources does require thoroughly research and long term monitoring, too expensive for a country like Mozambique. Therefore, regional and international cooperation is essential. In other cases, existing legislation may not favour sustainable development, particularly, where there is free access to resources and absence/lack of enforcement of regulation of resource use.
4.2 Loss and Modification of Habitats
4.2.1 Mangroves
Introduction
The total area of mangrove coverage in Mozambique is estimated at about 400,000 ha. The main species found in Mozambique are Rhizophora mucronnata, Ceriops tagal, and Bruguiera gymnorrhiza. Other species include Avicennia marina, Avicennia officionalis, Heritiera littoraris, Lumnitzera racemosa and others.
Page 62 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Extensive areas of mangrove forest occur along the coast of mainland and at Quirimbas Archipelago, along Nacala and Mozambique Island, Sofala Province coast (Telford et al. 1999), and Inhaca Island. In Bazaruto Archipelago, mangroves are not extensive, occupying small areas. (Wittington et al. 1998, Kalk, 1995).
Mangroves are “reserves” in Mozambique as no commercial extraction activity in mangroves is allowed. However, this ecosystem is generally considered as being in danger in Mozambique. The main threats include over-extraction in some areas and pollution. The rate of mangrove loss over 18 years (between 1972 and 1990) was 3.6% of the total area of mangrove in 1972, which may not be considered very high. This period coincides with the period of occurrence of civil unrest in the country, making people migrating to the main cities and villages. The rate of mangrove degradation was higher around cities.
Immediate or Technical Causes
The most important immediate cause for the loss of mangrove area coverage is the unsustainable harvesting of mangrove trees, particularly around the main cities (Diagrams 4.3 and 4.4). The harvested wood is mainly used for firewood and production of charcoal. Firewood is the main source of energy in Mozambique, being used in 90% of the total energy sources. This is due mainly to the fact that electricity is not available is most of the country and, when available, is very expensive. Electricity supply is guaranteed in most of the larger urban areas in Mozambique, where it is supplied trough the hydroelectric production. In other instances, such as in smaller villages, electricity is produced by diesel generators, which make it even more expensive. As a result, fuel-wood is always the cheapest and readily available source of energy, both for cooking and heating. The bottom line of the problem is poverty.
The second most important cause is the clearing of mangrove for the construction of salt pans, the construction of roads, urban development and other minor developments. According to the last census, the growth rate of urban population is 2.7 % (INE, 2000), which is larger than the rural growth rate (2.3%). While more land for housing is needed, industries will always develop close to the main urban centres. This is particularly important for salt and shrimp production: the most important spots for salt production are near the cities of Maputo, Beira and Nacala, where the main harbours are also located. Shrimp aquaculture, on the other hand, is still an industry in development in Mozambique, with small initiatives still around Quelimane and Beira cities. The tanks are not at a very large scale but the constructions so far have been in mangrove areas in close to infrastructure of conservation and transport. Quelimane and Beira cities are places where the larger forests of mangroves are located too.
Institutional and Legal Constraints
Mangrove wood is low valued for building and other purposes. Although some of its species are considered for licensing for commercial exploitation, the pressure from the commercial sector was never very high. However, subsistence exploitation is allowed, as for fuel-wood, boat construction, among others. The pressure from local people mounted very high during the years of civil war and particularly around urban areas.
The capacity for enforcement and control is also very low. No enforcement exists that is specific to mangrove areas. Mangroves fall under the authority of Department of Forestry and Wildlife, which is charge of other duties such as licences for logging and hunting. Thus, although no licences for logging in mangroves are being issued, there are no assurances that commercial exploitation does not take place.
Factors Beyond the Country Boundary
Poverty is an issue that have a severe influence in mangrove exploitation. In general, Mozambique’s economy has been undergoing a steady growth in the last few years, with GDP growing from about
Page 63 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
6% per annum in 1995/1996 to about 12% in 1997/1998, while inflation felt from about 50% to 4%. The main catalysts for these gains were peace and political stability, good agricultural production during a period of good weather, and an impressive structural reform. Even so, Mozambique ‘s economy and social status remains fragile. The first national assessment of poverty in Mozambique, done in December 1998, showed that 70% of Mozambicans are poor. The average Mozambican lives on only USD 220 per annum (World Bank, 1999).
Response Favouring/Mitigating Resources Use
It is possible that with the end of civil unrest in 1992 in the country and the move, which followed, of people from some areas, the pressure put to mangroves diminished. However, it is difficult to quantify how much of this has had a positive impact on mangroves.
The fact that no commercial logging licences are issued on mangrove areas also mitigates any impact on mangrove use.
4.2.2 Coral Reefs
Introduction
The northernmost section of the coast of Mozambique, which extends for 770 km from the Rovuma River in the north to Pebane in the south is essentially a coral coast and is characterised by numerous small islands. An almost continuous fringing reef exists along the eastern shorelines of the islands and the more exposed sections of the mainland coast. In this area the most pristine coral reef system can be found along the Quirimbas islands, Mozambique Island and Primeiras and Segundas Archipelago.
Corals represent a very important asset for the country economy, particularly at a small scale. Local communities have an important dependency on corals – for fishing, lime production, curio and construction – and tourism will growth around the most important coral spots in the country, as diving is becoming a popular activity. However, corals have been destroyed at a very high rate, particularly in the last decade.
Immediate or Technical Causes
Corals are threatened by damaging fishing practices, pollution, tourism, siltation and extraction (diagrams 2.1 and 2.2). However, one of the main reasons for the degradation of the coral reefs is natural. A survey on coral bleaching showed that effects of El Ñino in Mozambique was most extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to 99%) and this diminished further south except at Inhaca Island where serious recent bleaching (90%) was encountered.
Other causes of reef degradation include silting as a result of human activity on land. This includes incorrect agricultural and forestry practices, exploitation of the mangroves, removal of earth close to the coast, etc. The construction of commercial or recreational infrastructures on or close to the coral reefs has an immediate physical impact.
Institutional and Legal Constraints
In Mozambique, the coral trade has long had destructive effects on the coral reefs. Most of the private companies involved in this business were operating in the northern part of the country. The quantities were considerable and the preferred coral genera included the Acropora, Pocillopora, Seriatopora, Lobophyllia and Tubipora. Corals were exported to several countries including Portugal, Italy, Spain, United States of America and Germany (Rodrigues & Motta, in prep.).
The prices of corals in the international market depend on species: one piece of Acropora spp., 10x6 cm in cross section, 6 cm in height and weighing 200-300 g, can be priced at USD 8.0 to 11.5 (Free-
Page 64 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 on-board price); one piece of Pocillopora spp. at USD 11.5, one of Fungia spp. at USD 2.50 and one piece of Lobophillya spp., USD 3.50. Considering an average value of USD 5.0 per piece of coral at point of export, and the official data on quantities being exported, one can estimate that Mozambique exported around USD 5 million worth in coral between 1994 and 1997 altogether. It is difficult, at this stage, to calculate how much Mozambique as a country benefited from it. What is certain is that the collector gets less than 1.5 %, i.e., USD 75,000 was the benefit for the fishermen during the same period. On the other side, information from the Ministry in charge of regulating the export market in Mozambique (the Ministry of Industry and Commerce), shows that Mozambique gets less than 20% of the prices in the international market.
It should be mentioned that the above estimation is calculated from official data, i.e., the quantity of pieces, weight and species which are declared in the CITES permits. It is important to bear in mind that no official is able to identify coral species and none of them confirm number of pieces or weight. On the other hand, the authors had access to copies of CITES permits where shells are mentioned with scientific names of corals. There is no estimation of what should have been exported illegally from Mozambique during the same period.
As for bad fishing practices, no regulation exists on coral fisheries. The use of poison or other damaging fishing gear for coral reefs is not mentioned in any piece of legislation. Moreover, the kind of poison being used that affect corals includes traditional use of plant poison and insecticides used in cotton farms. Control effectiveness is very low in these cases.
Factors Beyond the Country Boundary
The Effects of El Ñino (1997-1998) A survey of coral bleaching was undertaken in 1999 at the end of summer. The effects of El Ñino bleaching in Mozambique were most extensive on exposed reefs in the north (up to 99%) and this diminished further south except at Inhaca Island where serious recent bleaching (90%) was encountered. Extensive COTS damage was also found at Bazaruto (80%) and Inhambane (95-98%). The COTS outbreaks commenced in 1995-1996 and, as sufficient time has elapsed for reef erosion and collapse to occur, the damage on these reefs was more pronounced (Schleyer et al., 1999).
In the second half of 1999, a monitoring programme started in Mozambique. Coral cover was highest on the reefs of northern Mozambique and in marine protected areas. High cover of rock and algal surfaces reflects mortality that was reported at these sites in earlier surveys (Schleyer et al., 1999). There is evidence of recovery on some reefs on which soft corals are the primary colonisers. Fish populations in protected areas were dominated by carnivores, following a similar pattern to that of coral cover. High fishing pressure on the other reefs was shown by the small size classes of fish and the dominance of herbivores, which are least preferred by fishermen (Schleyer et al., 1999, Rodrigues et al., 2000, Motta, 2000).
As already mentioned, destruction of corals in Mozambique was driven by the export market. This market is located in Europe and the United States. Corals are used for curio, aquarium and research. If this market keeps offering the attractive prices, especially for the middleman, it is most likely that the market will keep pressure on this resource.
Page 65 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Human settlements Increase Most of energy is Construction of Extraction of growth, increase agriculture in provided by salt pans or more water for number of people urban areas, firewood; shrimp ponds is agriculture, living in cities, surroundings of one reason for specially from need of mangrove urban areas are the depletion of riparian systems
area for urban the most depleted extensive feeding development mangrove areas mangrove areas
Urbanization Agriculture Industry Energy Urbanization Agriculture
5 Natural 10 60
10 90 70 10 10 10 20 10 70
Loss as a result of unsustainable Loss due to reduced Loss as a result of Loss to land coastal erosion harvesting practices freshwater supply due use conversion to dams
20% 50% 15% 15%
100%
Loss and Degradation of Mangroves
Diagram 4.3. Graphic Representation of Causal Chain Analysis for the Loss/Degradation of Mangroves
Page 66 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Concentration Production of Food chain is Great losses of people in lime; affected by Use of Excess scuba from coral reef ornamental removal of poisoning; diving in bleaching area increase and curio carnivorous use of gill some corals; during ENSO demand for production; species, allowing n ets; walking key fish event 1997- coral aquarium growth coraline on top of species move 98 corals away products fisheries species to prevail
Fisheries Leisure Urbanization Industry Fisheries Natural
100% 10% 20%
100% 70% 20% 80% 100%
Losses due to Loss as a result Loss as a result Loss as a result Loss as a result bad harvesting of tourism of mining of harvesting of Natural practices activities activities keystone species Disasters
15% 5% 10% 30% 40%
100%
Loss and degradation of Coral Reefs
Diagram 4.4. Graphic Representation of Causal Chain Analysis for the Loss/Degradation of Coral Reefs
Page 67 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Response Favouring/Mitigating Resources Use
Until very recently, licenses were granted to different private companies but no effective control was undertaken. In February 1999, the Government imposed a complete ban on export of coral and coral fishes until February, 2001. The lifting of this ban is conditioned to new scientific studies. Although no more new licenses are being issued since 1999, there is certainly still some illegal activity of collecting, processing and exporting corals.
4.2.3 Commonality, Overlaps, Gaps
One of the most important concerns as far as mangroves and coral reefs are concerned are the institutional capacity to control, survey, monitor and study. On the other hand, lack of appropriate measures for protection poses a problem for enforcement. In both cases, gaps in legislation and lack of capacity for enforcement are major concerns.
The major driven force, however, for the overuse of bad use practices in both cases will be poverty and market. The access of resources and the need to get cheap sources of energy and food, or cash, will keep on driven local people to look for sources of income in mangroves and corals.
4.2.4 Recommendations
A representative Network of Protected Areas
There is an urgent need to define develop and declare new protected sites in areas that are still pristine and encompass the best biodiversity concentration in its. Even for those areas that were severely hit by bleaching, the need for protection lies in the capacity for recovery.
No protected areas were created since independence of Mozambique, in 1975. The knowledge and understanding of coastal dynamics and ecosystems functionality have changed since then. It is clear both for scientists and politicians that the coastal and marine environment is an asset too valuable to be neglected. Communities make their living from mangroves, coral reefs, sea grass beds and surrounding areas. Tourism, on the other hand, is a growing industry in many parts and is also threatening some of the most pristine areas in Mozambique. Protective measures are required urgently, and protected areas, even those leading to controlled multi-use, should be established.
Considering the previous proposals from various authors, the environmental developments and knowledge so far, the idea of establishing new protected areas should be revisited. Table 4.5 (from Rodrigues & Motta, in prep) summarises the proposals for new protected areas that are worthy to consider now and discuss the character of the protection.
Although a great deal of knowledge has been gathered, there is a need for further studies to determine the feasibility of these proposals. In terms of biodiversity, food security and tourism development, Mozambique can not afford the destruction of its most valuable and beautiful assets.
Monitoring Programmes
Monitoring Programmes both for mangroves and coral reefs, as well as for species that rely mostly on these ecosystems/habitats/resources – such as coral fishes, turtles, dugongs, sea grass beds – should be supported and implemented.
Monitoring programmes show the trends of degradation or recovery along several years, thus giving tools for decisions at research and political level.
Monitoring programmes also demonstrates the differences between protected/managed areas and non- protected/managed areas.
Page 68 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 4.5. Proposal for Marine Protected Areas with Emphasis on Coral Reefs and Mangroves in Mozambique
Name of Area Principal Interests
Ponta do Ouro to Cabo de Santa Maria Coral reefs, seagrass beds, dunes, marine turtles, dolphins and whales
Bazaruto Island Extension to BNP, seagrass beds, coral reefs, dunes, dugongs, whales and marine turtles
Nacala-Mossuril Islands, seagrass beds, coral reefs, turtle nesting, nesting seabirds
Primeiras e Segundas Islands Coral reefs and cays, seagrass beds, dune forest, mangroves on the mainland, dugongs and nesting turtles
Quirimbas Archipelago Coral reefs, seagrass beds, turtles
(Source: Rodrigues and Motta, in prep.)
Monitoring Programmes
Monitoring Programmes both for mangroves and coral reefs, as well as for species that rely mostly on these ecosystems/habitats/resources - such as coral fishes, turtles, dugongs, sea grass beds - should be supported and implemented.
Monitoring programmes show the trends of degradation or recovery along several years, thus giving tools for decisions at research and political level.
Monitoring programmes also demonstrates the differences between protected/managed areas and non- protected/managed areas.
Research
Coral reefs and mangroves are the least studied habitats/ecosystems in Mozambique. Efforts should be concentrated on collecting baseline information as well as establishing data banks.
Community Education
Most of coastal communities rely heavily on corals, mangroves and associated habitats and species. Educational campaigns towards a better and sustainable use of these resources.
4.3 Unsustainable Exploitation of Fisheries and Other Living Resources
4.3.1 Introduction
The marine resources of major concern are the fisheries, due to their socio-economy importance. Fishery sector plays an important role in the economy of the country. The most important fisheries are the crustaceans (Shrimps and lobsters), demersal and pelagic fishes, both small (scads and mackerel) and large (tuna) pelagic. The recreational fishing activity is becoming important. The industrial and
Page 69 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 semi-industrial marine fisheries are mainly targeting shrimps. The artisanal fishery is the major supply of fish for local market. While, the semi-industrial product is mainly devoted for exportation.
Overexploitation of fish resources has considerable environmental and socio-economic impacts. The environmental impacts are associated mostly with the destruction of the environment, harvesting of juveniles and of preferable species. All these have implication in the biological diversity of the sites concerned. The socio-economy impacts are mostly associated with the reduction in the income from the fisheries, reduction in employment and reduction in the substance capacity of the local community.
There are many factors that contribute direct or indirectly to the overexploitation of the fish resources. These factors can be clustered in four categories: (i) direct or technical causes, (ii) sectoral pressures and (iii) root causes. In addition to the factors that contributes to overexploitation of the fisheries resources there are factors that tend to alleviate the pressure over the fish stocks that need to be considered in the causal chain analysis.
4.3.2 Immediate or Technical Causes
The major immediate/technical causes of over exploitation of fisheries resources are increased effort and decreased level of recruitment, contributing to the issues by 40% and 50%, respectively. The decrease in habitat or nursery grounds and shift in population distribution contribute by about 5% each.
Increased Effort
Several studies on the state of the fisheries resources in Mozambique were conducted. These studies indicated a major increase in the fishing effort and at the same time a significant reduction in the fishing yield. The shrimp fisheries, the most economic valued fishery is the one that suffered most. For instance, in Sofala Bank and prior to 1980, the shrimp fishing effort was low (approximately 100,000 hours) compared to the observed in the recent years. Despite this low effort, catch rates were higher, over 90 kg per hour of trawling. In the mid 1980’s effort level of 180,000 hours and the catch rates were about 40-45 kg per trawling hour. This corresponded to an increase in fishing effort of about 80% and decrease in the fishing yield of about 45-50% (Palha de Sousa, Skagen & Pacule, 1997). From 1989 to-date the fishing effort increased further by about 90% and catch rates decreased by about 20% Palha de Souza, 2001).
Improved fishing capacity – better technology In addition to the increase in the fishing hours, the fishing vessels were also improved. There are the categories of shrimp fisheries: artisanal, semi-industrial and industrial. Until mid 1996, almost all the semi-industrial vessels working in Sofala Bank were stern trawlers, less than 20 meters long, without freezing capacity and preserving the catches with ice. Their autonomy was less than five days (Palha de Sousa and Paula e Silva, ms.)
After June 1996, new semi-industrial vessels entered into the fishery with different characteristics. These new vessels were mainly double outrigger trawlers, pulling two or four nets simultaneously, equipped with cold storage and quick freezers, and having an autonomy to stay at sea of more than twelve days, if supplied (on fuel, water and food) by a mother vessel. These vessels trawl along the Sofala Bank and land their catches either directly or through the mother vessel (Palha de Sousa and Paula e Silva, ms.)
These vessels, thought semi-industrial, only differ from industrial vessels in terms of the overall length which is 19.5 meter and on the autonomy which can be 15 to 20 days. Thus, the new “semi-industrial” trawlers can be considered as small industrial vessels.
Page 70 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Decreased Level of Recruitment
This is, perhaps, the most contributor to the overexploitation of fisheries resources. The major causes of reduction in the level of recruitment may be associated with the destruction of the habitat/nursery grounds, the harvesting of the spawning or juveniles, and environmental factors.
Decreased Habitat/Nursery Ground
This is mainly concerned with the loss and modification of habitats that holds the ecosystems that sustain the fisheries resources, treated in the Chapter II, above. These is further linked to Issues 12 and 13, dealing with . Some of the key factors associated with the decrease of habitat and nursery grounds are as follows:
(i) depletion of mangroves - Mangroves are depleted mostly in the vicinity of the big cities dues to urban development, building tourism resorts, conversion into salt ponds, development of shrimp farms. Mangrove poles are further used for building houses, artisanal boats and as firewood and charcoal. Apart from the man action, mangroves are further destroyed by the reduction in river runoff that causes excessive salinity in the mangrove swamps, by the storms that cause siltation of the mangrove creeks ventilating the swamps; (ii) destruction of corals - Corals are mostly depleted by overexploitation for trade and for use in building houses. Some of the corals are destroyed by use of inadequate fishing gears such as trawls, dynamites and by inexperienced divers. Corals are further destroyed by the storms, siltation due to erosion of deforested dunes, and by the anomalous warm water that causes coral bleaching; (iii) destruction of sea grass beds - sea grass beds are mostly destroyed by siltation due to erosion of the deforested dunes and by trawls; and (iv) excessive reduction/increase (unnatural) of the river runoff - modifies the water quality in the estuaries and in the mangrove swamps, resulting in modification of the habitats. This may have implications in the fisheries, considering the fact that estuaries and mangrove swamps are nursery ground for most of the coastal fisheries and are breading grounds to others.
The reduction in habitat/nursery grounds is related to natural processes: storms and global warming. The major sectors linked to the decreased habitat/nursery grounds are those that whose activities contribute to the cause. Some of them are as follows:
(i) fisheries - when using inadequate fishing gears which destroys the habitat; and (ii) energy and agriculture associated with the reduction or abnormal increase in river runoff, when river runoff is managed to meet the energy production (hydropower) and irrigation of the crops.
These are, further, linked to the issue (16) - destructive fishing practice and to issue (1)- modification of the stream flow, all of which are dealt with in depth in appropriate sections in this report.
Environmental Control
Most of the fisheries are, during their earlier stage of life, very much dependent on environmental conditions, for they are not yet capable of swimming against the current and have not yet built capacity to sustain environmental stresses. This is the main reason why some experts argue that environmental factors controls most the abundance of fisheries comparing, even, with the fishing effort.
In general the life cycle of many marine continental shelf resources begins in the open sea where eggs are laid and hatched. Larvae drift with the currents to estuary and mangrove areas where juveniles grow until are recruited back to the open sea or fishing ground. The success of juveniles in the nursery
Page 71 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 areas depends on the environmental conditions (temperature, salinity, currents, etc.) and on the availability of nutrients for their growth. Estuarine environmental condition for marine resources is strongly dependent on, and governed by river water inflow. On the other hand anadromous species spend their first life stage in fresh water and the adult stage in the sea.
The major estuaries supporting industrial fisheries are found in the Sofala Bank under the influence of Zambezi river and in the Maputo Bay. The influence of the Zambezi river in the recruitment of shrimp was studied, and found a positive relationship between river discharge and catch rate of shrimp (Gammelsrød, 1992, Hoguane, 1996).
The river is being regulated through tow major hydroelectric dams: Kariba dam in Zimbabwe and Cahora Bassa dam in Mozambique. The regulation of this river produces an artificial river flow that is abnormally higher during the dry season and low during the rainy season. This is in conflict with the normal life cycle of the shrimp.
Recent studies in the role of Zambezi in the shrimp abundance have indicated that the Zambezi runoff contributed by about 20% of the total variability of the catch rates in the Sofala bank. The Zambezi river can be managed as to increase the catch rates of shrimp, that may lead to an increase in the income, due to export of shrimp, of the order of 10 millions American dollars per year.
Associated GIWA Issues
The influence of freshwater from the rivers in the recruitment links to the issues 1 – Modification of stream flow. As mentioned above and in the Modification of stream flow, the artificial river runoff conflicts with the normal life cycle of most of the coastal fisheries, with particular incidence to shrimp fisheries.
The fishing of larvae and juveniles is linked to issue 16 - destructive fishing practices. The artisanal fishermen often justify the use of mosquito net and other destructive fishing gears by the lack of the appropriate gears of lack of the means to acquire them.
Shift in Population Density
About 40% the Mozambican population lives in the coastal zone, for the security reasons. During the civil war coastal zones were relatively safer (UNCED, 1992). Other reasons, which attract people to the coastal zone, are related to the easy access to food, employment facilities. Most of the infrastructures such as large cities, tourism, industry, commerce, harbours are located in the coastal zone. The average population density in the coastal area is about 40 people per km2, against overall population density of 20 people per km2.
Link to Sectors
The sector that contributes directly to the increased in the fishing effort is the fisheries. Other sectors may contribute indirectly to the pressure into the fisheries, often, through their inefficiency or failure.
The fishery sector is the one most contributing to the increase of fishing effort. Development of the fisheries sector before independence was almost entirely concentrated on the shrimp fishery. The development of the industry of fish for local market started after independence. The shrimp fishery is important in Mozambique, from an economic point of view, especially in terms of foreign currency earnings.
Krantz et al. (1986) point out that until the late 1950s, under the colonial authorities, fisheries activities were not promoted; for example trawling was banned in Mozambique waters in order to favour the trade of frozen and canned fish from Angola, Portugal and later from South Africa.
Page 72 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The fact that considerable potential for shrimp and fish existed within the country, raised local resistance against the prohibition of trawling. The first trawling licences were issued in 1965, and since then the fishery had expand significantly (Krantz et al., 1986). In 1978, was constituted the first joint venture fishing company.
The option for establishing joint ventures were in recognition of the fact that Mozambicans would secure information on the potential for shrimp, on one hand and the given weak technical capacity of the Mozambicans to owner fishing vessels and gears, on the other hand. Further, the Mozambicans would invest the revenue from fishing in the country whereas the foreigners would withdraw the money out of the country.
Other sector such as Agriculture, Industry, Energy may contribute into the increase of fishing effort indirectly, due to their inefficiency or less development.
Because of the civil war it was not possible to practice the agriculture because the interior was more affected by the war. In the contrast the seaside was relatively safe and hence, high concentration of population in coastal zone and dependence in the marine and coastal resources. On the other hand, investment in the agriculture is relatively higher, often requires a good irrigation scheme, and the revenue low compared with the fishing activity. This contributed further to the increase in the fishing effort.
The absence of industry leaves fewer alternatives for subsistence. The few industries that existed were destroyed during the civil war, and during the war less was done in the industry.
The poor road network and the poor freezing capacity lead to the difficulty in trading the fish products and poor conservation of fish products. Fish from remote fishing centres is often dried or rot. These cause the devaluation of the fish products. In order to keep or improve the standard of living the fisherman are induced to fish more and more for less and less fish product value.
Link to Sectors - the Use of Destructive Fishing Practices
The sector that most contribute to the decrease in the recruitment is the fishery, through fishing with inadequate fishing gear, or fishing in the spawning or breading areas and zones.
The fishing gears used by artisanal fishermen are rudimentary and less selective (mesh size is gradually reducing to compensate the productivity fall) and they catch less diversified species. Inshore fishing using beach seines and other traditional methods have kept artisanal communities at subsistence level. Beach seining is strongly associated with catching low value fish and with undesirable catches of fishes such as juveniles’ breeders, which is detrimental to the future fish production and the environment. This fact is inducing the fishermen to reduce the mesh of their nets with all the risks associated to future availability/composition of the resource and to environmental conservation.
The use of mosquito net at the centre (or cod end) is illegal, although being used widely. The situation became worse in the last year when in some areas mosquito nets are used almost in all fishing activities, from small pelagic, demersal and shrimp fisheries.
The regulation on the closed season does not include the artisanal fisherman, except in the Maputo bay. Thus, the artisanal fishermen operate throughout the whole year with open access to the fishing areas and fisheries resources. In some occasions they fish in the spawning or breading areas and season.
Conflicts between Semi-Industrial and Artisanal Fishermen
There are conflicts within small-scale fisheries, between this and offshore industrial shrimp fisheries, and between shrimp and fish fisheries. In Maputo bay the artisanal fisherman and semi-industrial fleet
Page 73 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 dispute territorial rights, here their target fisheries shares the habitat. In Sofala Bank, the industrial and semi-industrial fleet often operate within 5 nm from the coast, damaging the coastal/beach habitats, causing massive fish death by the propellers of their fishing vessels and forcing artisanal fishermen into restricted shallow and nursery areas and so, harvesting juveniles.
Conflicts between industrial, semi-industrial and artisanal fisheries may partly reflect weakness of the previews fishing law. It had no clear method for delimiting fishing area for each type of fleet. On the other hand, there are constrains in enforcing the law due to week institutional, financial and human resources capacity in the fisheries sector. It is difficult under the current capability to control the 2700 km of coastline.
Another conflict between Industrial, semi-industrial and Artisanal fisheries is concerned with fishing licence system. The licences for industrial and semi-industrial fisheries are issued by the National Directorate for Fisheries (DNP) whereas the licence for artisanal fisheries is issued by the Maritime Administration, although catch statistics of all type of fleets are controlled by DNP.
The artisanal fishermen and fishing community should be informed about the actual fishing law and regulation as they are the main key players in the sustainable development of the fish resources.
4.3.3 Factors beyond the Country Boundary - International Market
Shrimp, the major fishery in Mozambique, is one of the world’s most valuable fishery resources. Its high price in the international market has lead to a rapid development of the shrimp fishing industry, with a consequent increase in the fishing effort, beyond the levels of sustainability. The resulting reduction in availability of shrimp lead to a low income, which often does not compensate the large investments made. The regulatory measures applied to date have not yet succeeded in preventing this situation.
4.3.4 Response Favouring/Mitigating Resources Use
The Institute for Fisheries research had carried out the estimates of the potential of the Sofala Bank shrimp resource, which subsequently evolved into stock assessments and, at the beginning of the 90´s, into studies of bioeconomic nature aiming at determining the conditions for maximisation of the fishery output. The studies resulted in proposing different management measures, namely:
(i) the fixing of a TAC (total allowable catch); (ii) the assignment of fishing quotas; (iii) the alteration of the mesh size from 37 mm to 45 mm after 1989, changed in 1994 from 45 to 60 mm, and to 55 mm in the following year; (iv) the setting of closed season periods of 60 days 1990 and increased to 90 days in 1999. At the present, this closed season includes covers from mid December to mid March (Palha de Sousa et al, 1995; Silva et al, 1995;.Palha de Sousa et al, ms); and (v) the containing of the development of the fishing effort.
These measures were applied in a discretionary manner between the industrial and semi-industrial fleets: the closed season and the standard measures of the netting were applied to the two types of fleet, while the fixing of fishing quotas was applied only to the industrial fleet.
In the context of economic and political situation in the country, which is characterised by growing privatisation of the economy, scarcity of capital, a high rate of unemployment, difficulties in food supply and the deterioration of infrastructures, the creation of a sector development framework was considered essential. The Master Plan for the fisheries sector outlining fisheries policies, strategies and programmes up to year 2005 was adopted by the Government of Mozambique in 1995. An Action Plan was completed in January 1996.
Page 74 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
The three principle objectives are defined as:
(a) Improvement of the domestic supply of fish, in order to make up for a part of the country’s food deficit, to be achieved through:
• increasing the quantities of fish landed; and • reducing post harvest losses.
(b) Increase the net foreign exchange earnings of the sector, to be achieved through:
• increasing the catches destined for export; • increasing the value added to the fish products for export through onshore processing; and • maximising the viability of stock exploitation of the chief export product the shrimp- by transforming the fleet structure.
(c) Raise the standard of living of the fishing communities, by:
• increasing the levels of employment in fishing and associated activities; and • increasing the income of the artisanal fishermen.
The strategies adopted should result in:
- increased social and economic benefits from the utilisation of fishery resources; - involvement of local communities in stock management; - financial autonomy for the public sector administration of fisheries through the retention of licence revenues and other charges; and - an increase in the volume of high quality catch processed onshore.
The Master Plan specifies the role of the different stakeholders, public and private sector, as follows:
- the government is responsible for ensuring that the fishing activities do not threaten the long term sustainability of the natural resources and that the benefits reaped from these activities for the fishing communities and for the country, as a whole, are maximised; and - the private sector, within the fisheries sector, will be the principal contributor towards the improvement of the national economy. It is explicitly emphasised that: as from 1996, revenue from the sale of fishing licences and collection of fees for services rendered by public bodies in the sector should cover the global recurrent expenses of the fisheries public administration bodies.
The semi-industrial fishery was given clear priority in the Master Plan, as part of the increased national participation of the shallow water shrimp fishery and as a concerted attempt to gain value added in Mozambique. Strategies included the establishment of fishing harbours and associated infrastructure at selected locations, priority in the allocation of fishing quotas, the definition of measures to stimulate private investment and improved access to financial services through banks and a limited credit of line. In principle, the expansion of the semi-industrial fishery was to have been accompanied by a corresponding reduction in the industrial fishery.
In the artisanal fishery, the strategy was directed at the reduction of post-harvest losses through improvements in traditional methods of handling and processing, and the promotion of the use of ice and cold storage for fresh market products. In selected areas catch volumes should be increased by the use of vessels and gears adapted to local resources, increased boat building capacity, and the stimulation of investment in productive assets.
Page 75 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
It was assumed that management systems should be developed, in collaboration with the artisanal fishing communities, as a solution to local over fishing problems and in order to safeguard sustainability. It was anticipated that, in the medium term, artisanal production would generally continue to be based on technologies currently used by artisanal fishermen.
In addition, in 1999, the Government published a revised strategy for the shallow water shrimp fishery, following approval by parliament. This resolution reiterated the (as yet unachieved) objectives of the Master Plan, but also more clearly defined the strategic objectives for the artisanal fishery in shrimp fishery, including:
• development of fisheries extension activities, in partnership with entities promoting shrimp marketing projects; • reduction of post-capture losses, through the promotion of investment in marketing and in conservation and processing; • promotion of traditional methods of conservation and processing; • promotion of the collection of by-catch from the industrial and semi-industrial fleet by artisanal fishermen; • introduction of fishing zones reserved exclusively for artisanal fisheries; and • establishment of a normative framework for resource management committees and promotion of community management practices, principally in areas where there are already indications of excessive resource exploitation.
In the Shrimp Strategy resource co-management was given a much stronger position than had been previously stated in the Master Plan, being included in the stipulated roles of both the State of the private sector.
Five years after the adoption of the Master Plan the objectives on which it was based are still valid and have been reconfirmed by the Government of Mozambique. For instance, the Presidential Decree by which the new Ministry of Fishery was established in the beginning of 2000 (Decree 06/2000) expresses the objectives of the Ministry in its Article 2. It is said that the Ministry should continue the work to:
• secure a responsible harvest production, to protect and conserve the fish resources, among other set up a dynamic co-management; • secure production and conservation of the marine resources and a sustainable exploitation of the fish resources; • promote and develop the quality of fishing activities and connected operations; • promote and develop fish production within the Mozambican water judiciary, both directed towards domestic consumption and export; and • promote increased competence in the sector as to improve the standard of living in fishing communities.
It can however be questioned whether the implementation strategy is still the most appropriate way to fulfil the objectives given the developments and experiences over the last five years, particularly in shrimp fisheries.
The intention with the Master Plan was to reduce the effort through reducing the industrial shrimp trawler fleet and support the development of a semi-industrial ice-trawler fleet and upgrading onshore processing plants (quality improvement), in particular in Sofala Province. It was assumed that the ice- trawlers should land both shrimps and by-catches for further processing onshore. The focus priority given to develop the ice-trawler concept was seen as a mean to ensure a "Mozambicanization" of the
Page 76 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302 shallow water shrimp fishery both in terms of employment and ownership in the fleet and in the processing industry.
However, the strategy of the ice-trawler concept was undermined, because the distinction between semi-industrial and industrial trawlers was based on a length criterion without considering the type and amount of onboard equipment (e.g. freezers).
Further, the development of industry, tourism and agriculture, as a result of political stability, may in the near future contribute to the reduction of the pressure in the fisheries.
4.3.5 Recommendations
The main actions recommended to be undertaken as to address the issues of over fishing are: (i) reduction in fishing effort, (ii) promote offshore fishing, (iii) surveys to determine other fisheries and to determine the factors that governs the resource distribution and availability, (iv) improve legislation and enforcement of the law.
At the present the resources highly exploited are those in the bays and in the shelf. The resources in the deep sea such as scads and mackerel, and large pelagic are not exploited at all. One of the reasons why these resources are not exploited lies in the fact that they require large vessels and hence, large capitals. On the other hand the shrimp fishery is highly exploited because of its high commercial value and less investment. The government policy should encourage the exploitation of the offshore fisheries that are currently under-exploited.
There is a need to improve our understanding of the ecosystem structure and functioning. The management measures should encompass the ecosystems that support the resources. There are evidences that environmental factors could influence most the availability of the resources since they determine the survival of the larvae and juveniles. Further, there is an urgent need to survey for new fisheries.
4.4 Destructive Fishing Practices
4.4.1 Immediate Technical Causes
Destructive fishing practices is mainly the use of inadequate fishing gears and practices. It would contribute with about 90% to the issue. The most damaging fishing gears and practices used in Mozambique are as follows:
- Use of mosquito nets in the code end of the trawling nets - Trawling in the corals and sea grass beds - And use of poisoning and dynamite fishing
Use of Mosquito Net
Mosquito nets are widely used by artisanal fisherman in beach seines, traps and hand trawling in the estuaries, mangrove swamps and in the coastal waters, throughout the whole coast. These areas are often spawning or/and nursery grounds.
The consequences of using these nets in the fish resources are obviously enormous, considering that these nets catch also fish larvae and eggs. There is not research done so far to assess the impact of these nets in the stocks, but it is believed to be considerably higher.
Page 77 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
- Depletion of mangroves for Issues beyond energy production -Storms the country’s (decreased recruit.) -Global warming boundary - Absence of - Free access - Higher freezing capacity to resources - Fishing in Poor commercial in fishing centers breading/spa development of value in (increased effort) River runoff 1.1.1.1 Issue 1 wning area these sectors international - River runoff restriction for 20% Modification of - Use of less lead to higher market restriction in agriculture stream flow selective press ure into -World trade hydropower station (decreased fishing gears fishe ries dynamics (decreased recruit.) recruit.) Issue 16 Destructive fishing 15%
1.1.1.2 Issue 1 –
International 1.1.1.6 F Agriculture 1.1.1.8 I Transport Energy Natural 1.1.1.4 Issue 16 – Destructive Market drive
5% 40% 5% 15% 15% 15% 1.1.1.10 Issues 12 &13 – Depletion of 20% corals 10% 40% 11111& mangroves
Decreased recruitment Decreased 1.1.1.13 Shift in Increased Fishing h populatio effort a n High population density 5% 40% 50% 5%
Over-fishing
Diagram 4.5. Causal Chain Analysis of Over-Exploitation of Fisheries Resources in Mozambique
Page 78 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Link to Sectors
Given the fact that the main technical or immediate cause is the use of the inadequate fishing gears, the Fishery sector is the main responsible for the perpetuation of the issue and it could play a major role to preventing or mitigating the effects. Other sectors contribute indirectly due to their inefficiency.
The Fishery sector has difficulties in distributing the adequate fishing gears to the fisherman throughout the coast, which is, in part, associated with the poor road and transport network. Further, the proper fishing gears are relatively expensive. In turn, the mosquito nets are available and at affordable prices.
Lack of legislation (and/or enforcement) prohibiting the use of mosquito nets and free access to the resources worsen the issue. It is difficult to surveillance the entire coast with limited means.
The poor agriculture and industrial development coupled with free access to the fisheries, leaves fishery as the only mean of subsistence for most of the coastal community. During the last years the involvement of women in fishing activities along the coast has increased, not only because of the seasonality of agriculture, but mainly because of its low productivity. The soils along the coast have low fertility.
Associated GIWA Issues
Over fishing, issue 14, seems to contribute to the use of destructive fishing practice in the following way: As the fish stock size decrease the fish become more scarce, and in the effort to obtain more catch, fisherman are induced to use more and more less selective fishing gears.
Trawling in Corals and in Sea Grass Beds
Trawling seems to be a fishing activity that, apparently, yields more catch than other fishing practices and thus, the most preferable within the fisherman.
Indeed most of the fishing in Mozambique, in particularly the semi-industrial and industrial fisheries, operates bottom trawling. The problem rises when trawling is made in inappropriate area such as in the sea grass beds and in coral reefs that are often nursery and spawning grounds, because it result in the destruction of the habitats that supports the ecosystem and hence, the fish resources.
Semi-industrial and industrial fishing vessels have been reported to intrude in the shallow waters, with main focus in the mouth of the rivers and mangrove creeks, apparently after the juveniles in the process of being recruited to the fishery ground.
Link to Sectors
The Fishery sector is responsible for establishing and enforcing legislation prohibiting the trawling in coral reefs and in sea grass beds.
Associated GIWA Issues
The over fishing, issue 14, induces to the trawling in the spawning areas. As the fish stock size decrease the fish become more scarce, the fisherman tend to fish in the spawning and nursery areas were the fish density is relatively higher.
4.4.2 Response Favouring/Mitigation of Resource Uses
With regard to the fishing with mosquito net, the government is rehabilitating the roads and other infrastructure destroyed during the civil war. It is hopped that in the future the fisherman would have
Page 79 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
easy access to the fishing gears and other supporting infrastructures, whereas on the other hand he could trade easily his products to the desired market. This would enable not only the reduction of the use of destructive fishing practice, but it would also contribute to the increase in the value of the fish products, as it would be sold fresh.
Another measure the government is taking is to strengthen the institutional capacity to surveillance and enforce the Law.
Research proposals on the impact of the use of mosquito nets and other destructive fishing practices are being discussed both at the Fisheries Research Institute and at the Eduardo Mondalne University. The implementations of these research projects are pending on the availability of funds.
With regard to trawling in coral reefs and in sea grass beds, the Government is establishing a system of monitoring the fishing vessels operation via satellite. The system is based in the installation of sensors in the licensed fishing vessels. These sensors provide data on the location and operation of the vessels to the ground controlling station via satellite.
This system would reduce the cases of fishing operations in the prohibited areas by the licensed fishing vessel, but cases of pirate fishing vessels would remain unsolved, since these would not have the sensors.
- Free access to resources Over fishing causes reduction in fish stocks and Poor - Lack of capacity for development of developing and enforcing in attempt to increase the catch fisherman use less these sectors legislation lead to higher - Lack of capacity for selective fishing gears and
pressure into surveillance the cost trawls in the spawning and fishe ries in the nursery grounds
Issue 14 Fisheries Overfishing Industry Transport Agriculture 45% 50% 45% 5% 5% 5% 50% 25% 50%
Trawling in seagrass Mosquito nets Dynamites and and in corals poisoning
30% 60% 5% Others Use of inadequate fishing gears 10% 90%
Destructive fishing practices
Page 80 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Diagram 4.6. Casual Chain Analysis of Destructive Fishing Practices
Socio-economic Impacts Environment Impacts Non sustainable fishing practices, short-term gain verses Damage to seabed, coral reef etc. long term losses. Decline in catch rates resulting in food Overfishing. shortages and migration of fishermen to other areas, away from home/family, and thoughtfully more productive. Capture of juveniles/larvae reducing levels Relocation of fishing centres. Potential for fishing gear of recruitment, hence, reducing sustainability of fisheries. and socio/economic conflicts.
Destructive Fishing Practices
Immediate and technical Causes Use of mosquito nets and trawling in the seagrass beds and in corals reefs, where often are spawning and nursery areas. Use of poisoning and dynamites to catch fish.
Direct Resource Use Sectoral Reponses Favouring/Mitigating Resource Use Causes Government/policy: Industrial fishing to operate Fisheries: Industrial beyond 3 miles off shore. Improve legislation and Semi-Industrial Law enforcement capacity. Reduced tax on Artisanal adequate fishing gears (in alternative to mosquito nets). Raise awareness and education on bad effects of destructive fishing practices. Encourage fishing further away from beaches. Promote alternatives and diversified means of subsistence (agriculture, aquaculture, small industry). Market: Supply of suitable fishing gears at affordable prices. High commercial value of big fish. Improving fish processing and conservation
Root Causes Domestic Pressures Government reliance on revenue generated from industrial fishing licences. Lack of law enforcement power, ineffective legal system. Dependence of local communities on fish as primary source of protein and need of small scale fishers to fish daily due to insufficient means of fish conservation. Lack of alternatives for animal protein production within small scale farming. Lack of employment alternatives within industry sector. Prevalence of fishing with beach seines, since it is relatively safe fishing practice (low physical risk), owners have status (each net provides employment for many. Short supply and high cost of appropriate gears.
Causal Chain Analysis
Diagram 4.7. OECD Pressure - State - Response Model Related to Destructive Fishing Practices
Page 81 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 4.6. Summary Table for Immediate Causes of Destructive Fishing Practices
Further Issue Immediate Cause Indicator Link to sectors in % Characteristics Trawling in sea Number of cases of Damage to small scale Fisheries (45%). grass beds and in industrial/semi- gears. corals (60%). industrial activity close Destruction of corals. Destructive to beach. Destruction of seabed. fishing Reduction of practices. recruitment levels. Use of mosquito Reduction of catch Capture of Larvae. Fisheries (60%). nets in beach seines rates. Reduction of Agriculture (30%). (30%). Number of mosquito recruitment levels. Industry (10%). nets used in fishing. Poisoning and Increase in sport Leisure (100%). dynamiting (5%). fishing Damage to coral. Fisheries (40%). Industry (30%). Agriculture (30%).
4.4.3 Recommendations
The main actions to addressing the issue of use of distracting practices lies in: (i) assuring the supply of adequate fishing gears to the artisanal fisherman, (ii) diversify the activities of subsistence in coast, (iii) improve the supporting infrastructures such as freezers, road network, (iv) assuring appropriate legislation for protection of the spawning and breading areas, (v) improve capacity for enforcing the law and (vi) improve our understanding of the factors that determine the distribution and availability of the resources.
Most of the artisanal fishermen that use destructive fishing gears the claim not having means or access to the appropriate gears. In the areas where there are gears available in the market, these are expensive to the local fishermen. In other areas the gears are just not available. At the same time, the supporting infrastructures for fish conservation, transportation till the market should be improve. This would reduce the loss of the quality of the fish products, which in turn, induces to over fishing.
The promotion of co-management of the resources with the fully involvement may prove to be efficient in addressing the issue. This would ensure the ownership of the resources by the community and thus, raise their responsibility in the management. Further, community education on the environmental impacts of the use of destructive fishing practices and the need for sustainable use of the resources could be conducted in conjunction with the promotion of co-management.
Our understanding of the resources, the ecosystems that supports them and their variability is still very limited. It is urgent that research be conducted in order to determine the state of the stocks, define the spawning and breading grounds and determine the main acting factors that determine the distribution and availability of the resources. This knowledge could then, help in the adoption of the sustainable management of the resources.
Page 82 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
CHAPTER 5
5. Commonalties, Overlapping, Gaps and Weaknesses
5.1 Identification and Selection of Hot Spot, Sensitive Areas and Overriding Issues
In general the ecosystems in Mozambique are relatively well preserved compared to other countries in the region, probably due to the fact that the country is less developed. The boundaries between Hot spot and sensitive areas are not a clear cut. Because of this, in most of the cases it was difficult to judge whether the site was a Hot spot or a Sensitive Area. The experts considered Sensitive Areas, in view of the recent trends in development, rather than Hot spots. The Hot spots sites identified consisted in those presenting a relatively higher degree of degradation in relation to other sites within the country.
Some of the issues were found inadequate as they were defined in the methodology. For these new definitions was proposed as to adjust to the reality of Mozambique. For instance:
• issue 1 - Water shortage - It was considered that in Mozambican context is not only the water shortage but also the floods (apparent excess of water) that is of concern. And, thus the issue was formulated as “modification of stream flow” with an attempt to capture the unnatural river flow brought primarily by the inadequate management of the dams; and
• issues 12 and 13 - “Loss of ecosystems and ecotones” and “Modification of ecosystems and ecotones”- respectively, were joined together to “Loss and Modification of ecosystems and ecotones”, because it was felt that modification is often associated with the loss of some part of the ecosystems and vice-versa, and so, it was not easy to distinguish among them.
5.2 Scoring/Prioritisation
The prioritisation of Hot spot and Sensitive Areas was relatively difficult because the scoring criteria could easily lead to different results depending on the evaluator’s expertise, ways of understanding and view. Some of the sites had minor differences in scores. Thus, the participants had to use their knowledge of the sites for selecting the sites to be considered for further exercises.
5.3 Impact Assessment
The major limitation here was the lack of adequate information, in time, space and quality to enable wise assessment of the impacts. The few information obtained were related to limited sites (e.g. near the large urban centres, important fishing centres) and addressing limited issues (e.g. freshwater for irrigation and urban supply). Most of the data available are disperse in different institutions, and often with gaps in time series.
The socio-economic impacts were the most difficult to assess, because most of the indicators were not easily quantifiable, let alone monitored. The experts used their judgement to assess qualitatively the impacts.
5.4 Casual Chain Analysis
The issues are linked to each other and hence, most of the causes are common to the issues. Often there were situations that some issues were causes of other issues. Further, as we go higher up in the casual chain, the differences between the issues are small. For instance, the root causes seamed to be similar to all the issues.
Page 83 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
References
Almada, E. and A. Brito. Ground fish survey in the waters off Mozambique during 1997. Preliminary report. Icelandic International Development Agency (ICEIDA). Reykjavik. Iceland. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira. Maputo. Mozambique, 1997. 17 pp. + Appendix.
Almeida, J.T. and E. Santos. Avaliação Económica das medidas de gestão da pescaria de camarão do Banco de Sofala. Revista de Investigação Pesqueira, Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira. 20 (1), 1995, 53-77 pp.
Almeida, J.T. and E. Santos. Economic evaluation of development alternatives for the shrimp fishing fleet on the Sofala Bank. National Directorate of Fisheries and DANIDA. Maputo, Mozambique, 1997.
Anon. Water-related environmental issues and problems of Mozambique and their potential regional and transboundary importance. National report on transboundary diagnostic analysis and strategic action programme for the marine and coastal environment of the western Indian Ocean. Maputo, Mozambique, 1998.
Anon. Surveys of the fish resources of Mozambique, Preliminary cruise report no. I, 21 April - 14 May 1990. Cruise reports Dr Fridtjof Nansen. IIP. Maputo. IMR Bergen, 1990a, 14 pp. + Annexes.
Anon. Surveys of the fish resources of Mozambique. Preliminary cruise report No. II. 9 August - 1 September 1990. Cruise reports Dr Fridtjof Nansen. IIP Maputo. IMR Bergen, 1990b. 12 pp. + Annexes.
Anon. Survey for deep water shrimp resources in Mozambique, Preliminary report, cruise no. III, 6 November - 15 December 1990. Cruise reports Dr Fridtjof Nansen. IIP. Maputo. IMR Bergen, 1990c. 37 pp. + Annexes.
Anon. Pesca artesanal, modelo dectoral e análise do potencial de expansão da produção. Grupo de trabalho. 23.05.94. Plano Director das Pescas em Moçambique. Maputo, 1994.
Assembleia da República. “Law no. 3/90 (Fisheries Law)”. Boletim da República. 39 (1). Imprensa Nacional de Moçambique, 1990.
Assembleia da República. ‘Decree no. 37/90 (Fisheries Regulation)’ Boletim da República, 52 (1). Imprensa Nacional de Moçambique, 1990.
Baloi, A.P. and N. Premegi. Towards sustainable development, the artisanal fisheries of Nampula Province Angoche and Moma districts. Annual report 1997. In: Seminário sobre sistemas de amostragem para a pesca de pequena escala. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira. Maputo, 3-4 Dezembro 1998, 45 pp.
Bandeira, S.O. Marine botanical communities in Southern Mozambique: Sea grass and seaweed diversity and conservation. Journal of the human environment, AMBIO, Vol. 24, 1995, pp. 506-509.
Brinca, L., Mascarenhas, V., Palha de Sousa, B., Palha de Sousa, L., Sousa, M.I., Sætre, R. and I. Timochin. A survey on the fish resources at Sofala Bank - Mozambique. May - June 1983. Revista de investigação pesqueira. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira. Maputo and Institute of Marine Research. Bergen, 1984.
Brinca, L., Budmitchenko A.V., Silva, J. and C. Silva. Shallow-water shrimp and bycatch. Oceanography. Report on a survey with the R/V “Ernst Haeckel” in July - August 1980. Revista de investigação pesqueira. 6. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira. Maputo, 1983.
Page 84 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Brochmann, G. and A. Ofstad. Norwegian Assistance to Mozambique in a Context of Crisis. Mozambique Country Study and Norwegian Aid Review. Main Study. Chr Michelsen Institute. Derap. Bergen. Norway, 1990.
Buuren, J.C.L. van and J. van Heide. Abatement of the water pollution in the infulene basin. Final report of the infulene water quality management project 1991-1994. Universidade Eduardo Mondlane and Delft University of Technology Report No. 63, 1995.
Carmo Vaz, A. Recursos hídricos de Moçambique: potencial, problemas e políticas. Associação moçambicana para a ciência e tecnologia, 1997.
Carrara, G. Frame survey of artisanal fisheries of Sofala Province (Mozambique). Working paper 57/90. RAF/87/008, 1990.
Chamberlain, R., Stride, R. and S. Lopes. Study on commercial aspects of the artisanal fishery in the Sofala Bank area. Maputo, 2000.
Chenje, M. and P. Johnson (eds.). Water in Southern Africa, SADC/IUCN/SARDC, Maseru/Harare, 1996.
Chenje, M., (ed.). State of the environment Zambezi Basin. SADC/IUCN/ZRA/SARDC. Maseru. Lusaka. Harare, 2000.
Consultec. Country Situation Report - Water resources (Final Draft), Volume 1, 2 and 3. Direccao Nacional de Aguas. Maputo. Mozambique, 1998.
CNA. Compilação da legislação ambiental principal em vigor em Moçambique (compilation of main environmental legislation in Mozambique), 1993, 323 pp.
DNA. Cheais do ano hidrológico 1999/2000. Seminário Técnico. Maputo, 30-31 Maio, 2000.
De Vletter, F. Recommendations for a financial service strategy for the Bank of Sofala artisanal fisheries development project, 2000.
DNE. Anuário estatístico 1998. Direcção Nacional de Estatísticas. República de Moçambique. Maputo, 1995.
DNP. Estatísticas de pesca, 1996. Direcção Nacional de Pescas, Ministério de Agricultura e Pescas. Maputo, Moçambique, 1997.
FAO. Land-based sources and activities affecting the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environment in Comores, Kenya, Mozambique, Seychelles and United Republic of Tanzania. EAF/5. Ed. D. Waruinge and D. Ouya. Nairobi. Kenya, 1999, 42 pp.
FAO. Mozambique coastal and marine biodiversity management project (CMBMP). Draft concept paper. August 1998. FAO Investment Centre. Rome, 1998a.
FAO. Mozambique coastal and marine biodiversity management project, Aide Memoire, 2-13 November. 1998. FAO Investment Centre. Rome, 1998b.
FAO/UNEP. Strategic action plan for land-based sources and activities affecting the marine, coastal and associated freshwater environment in the Eastern African Region. EAF/5. Ed. D. Waruinge and D. Ouya. Nairobi. Kenya, 1999, 63 pp.
Page 85 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Fernandes, A. Poluição: Factos e figuras. Proceedings from the Workshop on the Role of Research in Coastal Zone Management, Maputo, 24-25 de Abril,1996. Departamento de Ciências Biologicas, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, 1996.
Fernandes, A. Pollution in Maputo Bay: contamination levels from 1968 to 1996. Revista Médica de Moçambique (6), No. 3-4, 27-31 pp. Instituto Nacional de Saúde, 1995.
Ferr, B.P.A. and Bouman. Explanatory notes to the hydrogeological map of Mozambique Scale 1:1,000,000. D.N.A., 1987.
Fischer, W. Guia de campo das espécies comerciais marinhas e de aguas salobras de Moçambique. FAO. Rome, 1990.
Gomes, F. and S. Famba. Water resources for crop production - Mozambique country report. Paper present on the Workshop on integrated analysis and management of renewable natural resources in Mozambique. Faculty of Agronomy and Forestry Engineering. June. Maputo, 1999.
Gammelsrød, T. Variation in shrimp abundance on the Sofala bank, Mozambique, and its relation to the Zambezi river runoff. Estuarine and coastal shelf science 35, 1992, pp. 91-103.
Gammelsrød, T. Variation in shrimp abundance on the Sofala Bank, Mozambique, and its relation to the Zambezi river runoff. Estuarine and coastal shelf science 35, 1992, pp. 91-103.
Gammelsrød, T. and A.M. Hoguane. Influência de alguns factores ambientais na abundância do camarão no Banco de Sofala. Revista de investigação pesqueira, Nº20, Vol 2, in press. Maputo, Mozambique, 1995.
Gonzalez, R. e V. Serraventosa. Moçambique e o protocolo dos rios partilhados da SADC - Constatações, questões e recomendações. DNA, comunicação interna, Maputo, 1999.
Gove, D. The coastal zone of Mozambique. In: proceedings of the workshop and policy conference on integrated coastal zone management in Eastern Africa including the island states. Ed. O.Linden. Report from the Swedish Agency for Research Cooperation with Developing Countries. Marine Science Program, 1995, pp. 251-273.
GTA. Mozambique, the present environmental situation. Maputo, 1990, 146 pp
Gundry, J., Drennan, M. and P. Bejark. Salinity control in relation to pre-abscission propagule development in avicennia marina (Forsk) Verh. Eloctronic Microscopy Society of South Africa - proceedings, 11, 1981, pp. 155-156.
Hatton, J.C. Natural resource use, land tenure and conflicts in coastal Mozambique. Proceedings from the Workshop on the Role of Research in Coastal Zone Management, Maputo, 24-25 April, 1996. Departamento de Ciências Biologicas, Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, 1996.
Hatton, J.C. and A.L. Couto. The effect of coastline changes on mangrove community structure, Portuguese Island, Mozambique. In: the ecology of mangrove and related ecosystems. Kluwer Academic Publisher. Hydrobiology, 147, 1992, pp. 49-57.
Hermele, K. ‘Mozambique Cross-Roads: Economics and Politics in a Era of Structural Adjustment’. Mozambique Country Study and Norwegian Aid Review Special Study. Chr Michelsen Institute. Derap. Bergen. Norway, 1990.
Hernroth, L. and D.Z. Gove. Inhaca Island, Mozambique: A reborn base for biological research. Journal of the human environment, AMBIO, Vol. 24, No.7, 1995, pp. 513-514.
Page 86 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Hoguane, A.M. Shrimp abundance and river runoff in Sofala Bank - the role of Zambezi. Presented at the workshop on sustainable development of the Cahora Bassa dam and the valley of Zambeze, .
Hoguane, A.M. Momorphological changes of the Zambezi Delta due to upstream regulation of the river. A report produced under IUCN support. Maputo, Mozambique, 2000a.
Hoguane, A.M. Salt intrusion in Incomati river. Proceedings of the II-national conference on integrated coastal zone management. In press, 2000b.
Hoguane, A.M. The role of Zambezi runoff in the shrimp abundance in Sofala Bank. A report on the influence of freshwater from Zambezi river on the shrimp distribution and availability in Sofala Bank, a regional NETCAB and capacity building programme of IUCN, 2000c.
IA and DNA. Water Resources of Mozambique, Synopsis 1999. Instituto da Agua e Direccao Nacional de Aguas. Edition supported by the Cooperation Portugal-Mozambique, 1999.
IDPPE, 2001. Projecto da pesca artesanal no banco de sofala: relatório de análise e planificação. Maputo. 2001.
IDPPE. Ideias para um projecto de desenvolvimento da pesca artesanal em Moçambique no âmbito do financiamento do FIDA. Maputo, 2000.
IDPPE. Macro-diagnostic reports for Nampula, Zambezia and Sofala. Maputo, 2000.
IDPPE. Towards sustainable developments: the artisanal fisheries of the southern part of Nampula province. Maputo, 1999(a).
IDPPE Relatórios de actividades dos extensionistas. Maputo, 1999(b).
IDPPE Pesca Artesanal em Moçambique: breve informe sobre a evolução, situação actual e perspectivas. Maputo, 1998.
IDPPE. Census. Maputo, 1990, 1092, 1993, 1994 and 1995(a).
IDPPE. O subsector da pesca artesanal: caracterização, constragimentos, estratégias e desafios. Maput, 1995(b)o.
IDPPE. Recenceamento da pesca artesanal na Provincia de Nampula, Mocambique. Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Pesca de Pequena Escala. Maputo, 1994b.
IDPPE. Recenceamento da pesca artesanal na Provincia da Zambézia, Mocambique. Instituto de Desenvolvimento da Pesca de Pequena Escala. Maputo, 1993.
IFAD. Mozambique Artisanal Fisheries Project, Inception Paper - IFAD 2000. Maputo. Mozambique, 2000.
INE. Booklet. Maputo. Mozambique, 1997, 58 pp.
INE. Conjuntura Económica. No. 3. Maio. Maputo. Mozambique, 1999, 14 pp.
ISRI. Environmental sustainability of shared river systems. Half-yearly report of the Incomati Shared River Initiative. January-June 2000.
Page 87 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
IUCN. Avaliação preliminar dos recursos florestais, faunísticos e pesqueiros no delta do Zambeze. Direcção Nacional de Florestas e Fauna Bravia, Ministério da Agricultura e Pescas. Abril 1998. Maputo. Moçambique, 1998.
John, D.M. and G.W. Lawson. A review of mangrove and coastal ecosystems in West Africa and their possible relationships. Estuarine, coastal and shelf sciences, 31, 1990, pp. 505-518.
Jorge da Silva, A. River runoff and shrimp abundance in a tropical coastal ecosystem - the example of Sofala Bank (Central Mozambique). In NATO ASI Series Vol 67 (Skreslet, S., ed.). Springer-Verlag, Berlin, Heidelberg, 1986, pp. 329-344.
Kalk, M. Coral Reefs. In: Kalk, M. (editor). A natural history of Inhaca Island, Moçambique. Third Edition, 211-246 pp. Johannesburg, Witwatersrand University Press, 1995a.
Krantz, L., Sorensen, N. K., Olesen, J. and J. Kotalova. The fisheries in Mozambique: A sector study. Documentation and Information Department. Fisheries Research Institute. Maputo, 1989.
Kyle, S.. Economic reform and armed conflict in Mozambique. World Development, 6 (19),1991, pp. 637–649.
Lambrechts, N. Risk evaluation of the Infulene Valley and monitoring of the Infulene River wWater. Hogeschool’s- Hertogenbosh. The Neetherlands, 1997.
MAF. Política pesqueira e estratégias de implementação, 1995, 23 pp.
Massinga, A. and J. Hatton. Status of the Coastal Zone of Mozambique. In: Integrated coastal zone management in Mozambique. Ed. by C.G.Lundin & O. Lindén. Proceedings of the Workshop. Inhaca Island and Maputo. May, 1996, 148 pp,.
Maule, L. Assessment of risks of natural disasaters in Mozambique: review of the existing literature on frenquency and impact of such disasters (final report). Medicins Sans Frontieres - Consolidated information System, 1999.
MICOA. Water-related environmental issues and problems of Mozambique and their potential regional and transboundary importance. National Report for UNEP, 1998.
MICOA. National coral reef management programme (NCRMP): Mozambique. SIDA/Sarec support. Maputo, 1997, 10 pp.
MICOA. Terms of references for the costal zone management centre in Xai-Xai in Southern Africa (draft), 1995a.
MICOA. Programa nacional de gestão ambiental, 1995b, 80 pp.
MICOA. NEMP/Programme Support Document, 1995c, 50 pp.
MICOA/IUCN. Macrodiagnóstico da zona costeira de Moçambique (Macro-diagnosis of the coastal zone in Mozambique). 1. Documento Principal (Main Document). IUCN/NORAD. July. Maputo, 1998, 109 pp.
MICOA/UEM. A status quo assessment of the coastal zone, Mozambique. Phase I: Ponta do Ouro-Xai- Xai edt. John Hatton, Maputo, 1995, 60 pp.
Motta, H. Implementation of global programme of action for the protection of the marine environment from land-based activities: the national experience in Mozambique. In Coastal Zone 99. Abstracts of
Page 88 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Presentations. Edit. Urban Harbours Institute. University of Massachusetts. Boston, 1999, pp. 295- 298.
Mougenot, D. et al. La margem continental au nord du Mozambique: resultants preliminaire de ld campagne md 40/Macemo. Bull. Soc. Geol. France 3, 1987, pp. 419-422.
NORAD. A review of the fisheries sector of Mozambique. Draft Summary Report. December, 2000.
NRI. Zambézia Province, Mozambique renewable natural resources profile. Chatham, UK: Natural Resources Institute, 1996.
Palha de Sousa, L., C. Silva and E. Dionísio. Estado Actual da Pescaria de Camarão no Banco de Sofala. In seminário sobre os recursos pesqueiros de Moçambique. Rev.Inv.Pesq.(20) Vol 1, 1995, pp. 27-39.
Rodrigues, M.J., Motta, H., Pereira, M., Gonçalves, M., Carvalho, M. and M. Schleyer. Reef monitoring in Mozambique. I: The Monitoring Programme and 1999 Report. MICOA/IIP. December. Maputo, 1999, 86 pp.
Rodrigues, M.J. and H. Motta. Present state of knowledge on the coral reefs of Mozambique (in prep.), 1999.
Rodrigues, M.J., Motta, H., Pereira, M., Gonçalves, M., Carvalho, M. and M. Schleyer. Reef monitoring in Mozambique. I: The Monitoring Programme and 1999 Report. MICOA/IIP. December. Maputo, 1999. 86 pp.
SADC. State of the environment in Southern Africa. SARDC/IUCN/SADC, Edts. Munyradzi Chenje and Phyllis Johnson, Johanesburg, South Africa, 1994 , 332 pp.
Saket, M. and R. Matusse. Study for the determination of the rate of deforestation of the mangrove vegetation in Mozambique. FAO/Pnud. Ministry of Agriculture. Forest Department. Maputo. May, 1994, 9 pp.
Salm, R.V. The dynamics and management of Ponta Torres coral reef, Inaca Island - Mozambique. Meres. Inst. Cient. Mocamb. 12 Serie A, 1996, pp. 25-40.
Salman, G. and I. Abdula. Development of the Mozambique and Rovuma Sedimentary basin offshore Mozambique. Sedimentary geology, 1995, 96 pp.
Sætre, R. and A. Jorge da Silva. Water masses and circulation of the Mozambique Channel. Revista de investigação Pesqueira No. 2, 1982.
Sayao, O. Integrated coastal zone management plan for Xai-Xai, Mozambique, Draft Report of the First Mission And Sectorial Report, Acqua Engineering Inc, 1995.
Schleyer, M., Obura, D., Motta, H. and M-J. Rodrigues. A preliminary assessment of coral bleaching in Mozambique. In Coral Reef Degradation in the Indian Ocean: status reports and project presentations 1999. Edit. O. Lindén and N. Sporrong. CORDIO, 1999, pp. 37-42.
SEACAM. Guidelines for the environmental assessment of coastal tourism. Secretariat for Eastern African Coastal Area Management (SEACAM), Maputo - Mozambique, 1999.
SEP. Plano director das pescas. 3rd edition. Maputo, 1994.
SEP. Sector report for the formulation of the master plan. The Secretariat of State of Fisheries. Republic of Mozambique. Maputo, 1994a.
Page 89 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
SEP. Master plan - identification of projects. The Secretariat of State of Fisheries. Republic of Mozambique. Maputo, 1994b.
Silva, C. História da pescaria de camarão de águas pouco profundas e condições ambientais. Revista de investigação pesqueira, Nº 18, 47-60. Maputo, Mozambique, 1989.
Silva, C., Palha de Sousa, L. and E.L. Cadima. Análise dos Efeitos da Introdução de Medidas de Gestão na Pescaria de Camarão do Banco de Sofala. In Seminário sobre os recursos pesqueiros de Moçambique. Rev.Inv.Pesq.(20) Vol.1, 1995, pp. 41-52.
Skagen, D.W., Palha de Sousa, L. and H. Pacule. The industrial shallow water fishery at sofala Bank 1996-97. Instituto de Investigação Pesqueira, Maputo. Internal report, 1997.
Telford, S.M.C., Magane, S., Munisse, P., Guissamulo, A., Bento, C., Rodrigues, M.J. and C. Cuambe. Coastal and marine biodiversity management project: preliminary biodiversity survey of the project areas. Technical annexes, 1999, 89 pp.
The present condition of the water sector in Mozambique-challenges and prospects, November 1995. Elaborated by the national water directorate.
The national water policy, approved in 1995, resolution of the Council of Ministers 7/95, 3 August.
The water law, law no. 16/91.
UEM/ISRI. Bibliografia relevante sobre legislacao de agua na Africa Austral. Volume 1 e 2. Universidade Eduardo Mondlane, Incomati Shared River Initiative. Maputo, Maio 2000.
UNEP. Water related environmental issues and problems of Mozambique and their potential regional and transboundary importance. UNEP (TDA/SAP-WIO). Maputo, 1998, pp. vi+64.
UNEP. Lower Limpopo River basin assessment. DRAFT. Maputo, 1998.
UNEP. Water related environmental issues and problems of Mozambique and their potential regional and transboundary importance. UNEP (TDA/SAP-WIO). Maputo, 1998, pp. vi+64.
UNEP/WMO. United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. Booklet, Switzerland, 1995, 29 pp.
UNEP/MICOA. Lower Limpopo River basin assessment (Draft). Regional activity Centre- Priority Actions Programme. Ministry for Coordination of Environmental Affairs (MICOA), Maputo, Mozambique, 1998.
UTIP. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora-Bassa north project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment. Maputo, 1999.
UTIP. Mepanda Uncua and Cahora Bassa north project. Preliminary Environmental and Social Impact Assessment - Main Report. Document No. 012/A, December 1999. Joint Venture Lahmeyer International, Knight Pieésold, EDF- Electricité de France in association with Consultec, Impacto and Austral. Unidade Técnica de Implementacao de Projectos Hidroeléctricos (UTIP), Republic of Mozambique, 1999.
Vaz, A.C. Some lessons from the floods in Mozambique. Paper presented at the International Conference for Mozambique Flood Floods. Maputo, 27-28 October 2000.
Page 90 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Wilson, J.D.K., Pinto, D.A. and L. Pimentel. Commercialisation and distribution of processed fish, Zambézia Province. IDPPE. Maputo, 1994.
Whittington, M., Pereira, M.A.M., Gonçalves, M. and A. Costa. An Investigation of the Ornamental Fish Trade in Mozambique. MICOA. Maputo, 2000, 33 pp.
World Bank. Consultations in preparation of the country assistance strategy for the World Bank Group for Mozambique, November 1999 to March 2000. Draft Report. October, 1999, 5 pp.
World Bank. A preliminary assessment of damage from the flood and cyclone emergency of February- March 2000. A Document of the World Bank. March. Maputo, 2000, 28 pp.
World Bank. From emergency to sustainable development. Consultative Group Meeting. World Bank. Paris, 1993.
Page 91 of 113
Mozambique National report 040302
Annex I
Identification Sheet: Hot Spot, Sensitive Areas and/or Overriding Issues
Hot Spot 1
1. Title: Maputo Bay.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: Southern Mozambique (26o S).
3. Surface Area/Definition: 200 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Maputo Bay hosts an important an international harbour. It is associated to two international corridors(South Africa and Zimbabwe). It hosts the capital of the country.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)3:
Pollution of existing supplies, Over fishing, Solid Waste.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, transports, trade, tourism, agriculture, building.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Tropical cyclones, heavy rain, floods.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Erosion, pollution, over fishing, Inadequate management of Incomati river, Urban and industrial development, depletion of mangroves.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance
Socio-economic X X X significance
3 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 93 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
11. List of Available Data Sets:
National Directorate of statistics, Fisheries, Ministry of Environment, National directorate of Water, GPZ, Ministry of Health.
Page 94 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Hot Spot 2
1. Title: Sofala Bank.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: Central Mozambique (16o S to 21o S).
3. Surface Area/Definition: 4638 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Sofala Bank hosts an important shrimp fishery associated to international fishing companies and markets. It hosts, further, an international harbour.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)4:
Over fishing, destructive fishing practices, excessive by-catch and discards.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, transports, trade, tourism, agriculture, mining.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Tropical cyclones, heavy rain, floods.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Erosion, pollution, over fishing, inadequate management of Cahora Dam, urban development, depletion of mangroves.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
11. List of Available Data Sets: National Directorate of Statistics, Fisheries, Ministry of Environment, National directorate of Water, GPZ, Ministry of Health.
4 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 95 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Hot Spot 3
1. Title: Nacala Bay and Mozambique Island.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: Northern Mozambique.
3. Surface Area/Definition: 24000 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Mozambique Island has been declared World Heritage Site and Nacala Bay hosts an international harbour.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)5:
Solid wastes, loss of ecosystems or ecotones, degradation of infrastructure.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, transports, trade, tourism, agriculture, mining.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Tropical cyclones, heavy rain.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Erosion, pollution, over fishing, depletion of corals, withering of historical buildings.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
11. List of Available Data Sets:
National Directorate of Statistics, Fisheries, Ministry of Environment, Ministry of Health.
5 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 96 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Sensitive Area 1
1. Title: Bazaruto Archipelago and surrounding areas.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: Inhassoro and Vilanculos Districts Southern Mozambique.
3. Surface Area/Definition: 11000 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Bazaruto Archipelago is a potential tourist attraction site.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)6:
Modification of ecosystems and ecotones, over-exploitation of fish resources, destructive fishing practices.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, building, tourism.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Storms.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Tourism resorts development, destruction of fishing habitats.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
11. List of Available Data Sets:
National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, national directorate of fisheries.
6 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 97 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Sensitive Area 2
1. Title: Inhaca Island.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location:
Inhassoro and Vilanculos districts southern Mozambique.
3. Surface Area/Definition: 11000 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Bazaruto Archipelago is a potential tourist attraction site.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)7:
Modification of ecosystems and ecotones, over-exploitation of fish resources, destructive fishing practices.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, building, tourism.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Storms.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Tourism resorts development, destruction of fishing habitats, population pressure, depletion of mangroves.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
7 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 98 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
11. List of Available Data Sets:
National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, National Directorate of Fisheries.
Page 99 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Sensitive Area 3
1. Title: Quirimba Archipelago.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: Northern Mozambique, from district of Ibo to Plama.
3. Surface Area/Definition: 500 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Borders with Tanzania. The fishery resources are shared with Tanzania.
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)8:
Modification of ecosystems and ecotones, over-exploitation of fish resources, destructive fishing practices.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, farming.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Cyclone storms.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural):
Destruction of fishing habitats, use of dynamites for fishing, population pressure, depletion of mangroves.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
11. List of Available Data Sets:
National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, National Directorate of Fisheries.
8 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 100 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Sensitive Area 4
1. Title: Marromeu Wetland and Zambezi Delta.
2. Region (Administrative) and Location: At the Delta of Zambezi, Central Mozambique.
3. Surface Area/Definition: 10000 km2.
5. Transboundarity Elements - Please identify whether and in what ways the site extends to other country(ies)/region and whether and in what ways adjacent areas influence the site:
Zambezi is an international river. The river is managed through hydroelectric power dams of international importance (e.g. Zambezi, Kariba).
6. Relevant [GIWA] Issue(s)9:
Reduction in stream flow, modification of ecosystems and ecotones, over-exploitation of fish resources.
7. Context of the Site:
7a. Main Human Activity(ies) Related to the Site:
Fishing, Agriculture.
7b. Natural Conditions/Phenomenon Related to the Site:
Floods and droughts.
8. Nature of Threats and Extent of Threats (Human and Natural:
Restriction of river water by the upstream dams.
9. If heavy incidence of pollution, list the type of source (point, non point, diffuse) and pre- identify the exact source(s):
10. Value of the site: Local National Regional/global Environmental X X X significance Socio-economic X X X significance
11. List of Available Data Sets: National Directorate of Forestry and Wildlife, National Directorate of Fisheries, DNA.
9 GIWA issues are: reduction in stream flow of freshwater; pollution of existing supplied of freshwater; lowering watertables of freshwater; microbiological pollution; eutrophication (harmful algal blooms); chemical pollution; suspended solids pollution; solid wastes; thermal pollution; radionucleides pollution; spills pollution; loss of ecosystems of ecotones; modification of ecosystems or ecotones, including community structure and/or species composition; overexploitation of fisheries resources; excessive bycatch and discards of fish stocks; destructive fishing practices; decreased viability of stock through pollution and disease; impact on biological and genetic diversity; changes in hydrological cycle; sea level change; increased radiation as a result of ozone depletion; changes in ocean CO2 source/sink function. See attached table 1.
Page 101 of 113
Mozambique National report 040302
Annex II
Summary Table of Prioritised Hot Spots and Sensitive Areas
Country: Mozambique Total population: Coastal population:
Issues Identification Selected Hot spots Selected Sensitive Areas Overriding Issues
Nacala Bay Bazaruto e Inhaca Quirimbas Zambesi Maputo Bay Sofala Bank 1 2 3 and Mz islands amedoces reserva Archipelago Delta 23.Degradation 14. Over- Issue 1 2. Pollution of of infra- 13. Modifi- 13. Modifi- 1. Reduction exploitation 14. Over- existing structure cation of cation of in stream of fisheries exploitation. supplies. (cultural ecosystems. ecosystems. flow. resources. 12 and 13. heritage). 16. Dest- Loss and 14. Over- 14. Over- 12. Loss of 18. Impact on ructive Issue 2 16. Destructive 14. Over- 16. Destructive 13. Modifi- modification exploitation exploitation ecosystem or biological fishing fishing exploit- fishing cation of of eco- - fishing. of fisheries ecotones - and genetic practices. practices. ation. practices. ecosystems. systems. resources. erosion. diversity. Issue 3 15. Excessive 16. Destructive 13. Modifi- 14. Over- 8. Solid waste. by-catch and 8. Solid wastes. fishing cation of exploitation discards. practices. ecosystems. .
Page 103 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Reporting Tables
Table 1a. Reporting and Calculation Tables for Scoping Exercises for Hot Spots: Consequences of Environmental Problems upon the Environmental Context and the Socio-Economic Activities on the Selected Hot Spot and Perception of Perceived Change in Impacts
Impacts Table Country: Mozambique Date: 26 January 2001 Hot Spot 1: Hot Spot 2: Hot Spot 3: Maputo Bay Sofala Bank Nacala Bay and Mz. Islands
Scores Scores Total for Scores Scores Total for Scores Scores Total 0 - 3 -3 to 3 issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue
(a+b+ (a+b+ (a+b+ Major concern Issue ( c) ( c) ( c) (a) (b) c/2) (a) (b) c/2) (a) (b) c/2) Perception Perception Perception Environ- Socio- Environ- Socio- Environ- Socio- of future of future of future mental economic min= -3 mental economic min= -3 mental economic min= -3 change change change max= 9 max= 9 max= 9
I. 1. Reduction in Stream Flow. Freshwater shortage. 2. Pollution of existing supplies. 1 2 +1+3 6 II. 8. Solid Wastes. 2 2 +2+3 6.5 1 3 +1+2 4.5 Pollution III. 12. Loss of ecosystem - erosion. 2 3 +1+2 6.5 Habitat and community modification. 13. Modification of ecosystems. 14. Over-exploitation of fisheries 2 3 +1-2 4.5 2 3 +2-2 5 resources. 15. Excessive by-catch and IV. Unsustainable exploitation 3 2 +1-1 5 of fisheries and other living discards. resources. 16. Destructive fishing practices. 3 3 +2-2 6 18. Impact on biological and
genetic diversity. V.
Global change. VI. 23. Degradation of infrastructure 0 3 0+2 4 Other. (cultural heritage).
* The habitats and communities suffering most significant damage will be reported on Table 2.
Page 104 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Table 1b. Reporting and Calculation Tables for Scoping Exercises for Sensitive Areas: Consequences of Environmental Problems upon the Environmental Context and the Socio-Economic Activities on the Selected Hot Spot and Perception of Perceived Change in Impacts
Impacts Table Country: Mozambique Date: 26 January 2001 Sensitive Area 1: Sensitive Area 2: Sensitive Area 3: Sensitive Area 4: Bazaruto and surroundings Inhaca reserva Quirimbas Archipelago Zambesi Delta Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores for 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 issue
Major (a+b+ Issue ( c) (a+b+ ( c) (a+b+ ( c) (a+b+ ( c) concern c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per-
Environ- Socio-eco- ception Environ- Socio- ception Environ- Socio- ception Environ- Socio- ception min= - mental nomic of future min= -3 mental economic of future min= -3 mental economic of future min= -3 mental economic of future 3 change max= 9 change max= 9 change max= 9 change max= 9 1. Reduction in Stream 3 1 +2-1 4.5 I. Flow. Freshwater shortage. 2. Pollution of existing supplies. II. 8. Solid
Pollution. Wastes. 12. Loss of eco- III. system - Habitat and erosion. community 13.Modification modification. of eco- 2 1 +1-2 2.5 2 1 +2-1 3.5 1 2 +1-1 3 3 1 +2+0 5 systems. IV. 14. Over- Unsustainabl exploitation 1 2 +1-1 3 1 2 +1-1 3 3 1 +2-1 4.5 e exploitation of fisheries of fisheries resources. and other living 15. Excessive by-catch resources. and discards.
Page 105 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Impacts Table Country: Mozambique Date: 26 January 2001 Sensitive Area 1: Sensitive Area 2: Sensitive Area 3: Sensitive Area 4: Bazaruto and surroundings Inhaca reserva Quirimbas Archipelago Zambesi Delta Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores Total Scores Scores for 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 for issue 0 - 3 -3 to 3 issue
Major (a+b+ Issue ( c) (a+b+ ( c) (a+b+ ( c) (a+b+ ( c) concern c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per- c/2) (a) (b) Per-
Environ- Socio-eco- ception Environ- Socio- ception Environ- Socio- ception Environ- Socio- ception min= - mental nomic of future min= -3 mental economic of future min= -3 mental economic of future min= -3 mental economic of future 3 change max= 9 change max= 9 change max= 9 change max= 9 16. Destructive fishing 2 2 +0-1 3.5 3 2 +1-1 5 practices. 18. Impact on biological 1 1 +0-1 1.5 and genetic diversity. V. Global change. 23.Degradation of infra- VI. structure Other. (cultural heritage).
*The habitats and communities suffering most significant damage will be reported on Table 2.
Page 106 of 113 Mozambique National report 040302
Annex III
Table 1c. Reporting and Calculation Tables for Scoping Exercises for Overriding Issues: Consequences of Environmental Problems upon the Environmental Context and the Socio-Economic Activities of the Country or National Ecosystem as a Whole
Impacts Table Country: Mozambique Date: 26 January 2001
Scores Scores Total for 0 - 3 -3 to 3 issue (b) ( c) (a+b+c/2) (a) Major concern Issue Socio- Perception of min= -3 Environmental economic future change max= +9 1. Reduction in Stream Flow I. 2. Pollution of existing supplies Freshwater shortage.
II. 8. Solid Wastes Pollution.
III. 12. Loss of ecosystem - erosion 1 2 +1+1 4 Habitat and community 13. Modification of ecosystems 1 2 +1+1 4 modification. 14. Over-exploitation of fisheries 3 3 +1-1 6 IV. resources Unsustainable 15. Excessive by-catch and
exploitation of fisheries discards and other living 16. Destructive fishing practices 2 2 +1+1 5 resources. 18. Impact on biological and
genetic diversity
V.
Global change.
23. Degradation of infrastructure VI. (cultural heritage) Other.
*The habitats and communities suffering most significant damage.
Page 107 of 113
Mozambique National report 040302 Annex IV
Summary Table for the Scoping Exercises
Country: Mozambique Date: 26 January 2001 (b) Number of Final (a) Average total sites Ranking Total score score per issue: (where the Sites Major concern Issues of the per issue (a) divided by issue is issues number of sites evidenced) I. 1. Reduction in Stream Flow. Zambesi Delta Freshwater shortage. 2. Pollution of existing supplies. 6 6 1 Maputo Bay II. Pollution. 8. Solid Wastes. 11 5.5 2 Maputo Bay, Nacala Bay 12. Loss of ecosystem - erosion. 10.5 10.5 1 OI, Nacala Bay III. OI, Bazaruto, Inhaca, Quirimbas, 13. Modification of ecosystems. 18 4.5 4 3 Habitat and Zambesi Delta community OI, Maputo Bay, Sofala Bay modification. 14. Over-exploitation of fisheries 26 5.2 2+3 Bazaruto, Quirimbas, Zambesi 1 resources. Delta IV. 15. Excessive by-catch and discards. 5 5 1 Sofala bay Unsustainable OI, Sofala Bay exploitation of 16. Destructive fishing practices. 18.5 6.1 1+2 2 Bazaruto, Quirimbas fisheries and other living 18. Impact on biological and genetic 1.5 1.5 1 Inhaca resources. diversity.
V. Global change.
VI. 23. Degradation of infrastructure 4 1 Nacala Bay Other. (cultural heritage).
Page 109 of 113
Mozambique National report 040302
Annex V
Hot Spots - Working Table
Page 111 of 113
Mozambique National report 040302
Annex VI
Sensitive Areas - Working Table
Page 113 of 113