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The Development of Buddhist Repentance

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The Development of Buddhist Repentance THE DEVELOPMENT OF BUDDHIST REPENTANCE IN EARLY MEDIEVAL CHINA A Dissertation Presented to The Faculty of the Department of Religious Studies University of the West In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree Doctor of Philosophy by De Hong Fall 2014 APPROVAL PAGE FOR GRADUATE Approved and recommended for acceptance as a dissertation in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Religious Studies. De Hong December 3rd, 2014 Development of Buddhist Repentance in Early Medieval China APPROVED Joshua Capitanio, Supervisor December 3rd, 2014 Jane Iwamura, Committee Member December 3rd, 2014 William Chu, Committee Member December 3rd, 2014 I hereby declare that this dissertation has not been submitted as an exercise for a degree at any other institution, and that it is entirely my own work. © 2014 De Hong ALL RIGHTS RESERVED ACKNOWLEDGMENTS This dissertation has been made possible through the guidance and support from many people including: my professors, my mother and siblings, relatives, and friends. In particular, I would like to express my gratitude to and acknowledge the following significant contributors: First and foremost, I would like to thank Dr. Joshua Capitanio. Dr. Capitanio has provided me the most unprecedented guidance and encouragement. He has kindly read my dissertation and offered invaluable and meticulous advice on the structure, content, and details of the dissertation. Next, I would like to thank Dr. Iwamura for her expert advice on the organization of this dissertation, from its proposal stage to its completion. She has graciously spent a great of time advising me on the organization and details of the dissertation. In addition, I would thank Dr. Chu for his support on the dissertation. I would like to extend my sincere thanks to Hisayo Suzuki for her assistance in editing this dissertation. Third, I would like to thank Dr. Lancaster for his invaluable advice and guidance in the past five years. I would also like to express my gratitude to all the teachers who have taught me in the past six years and a half in pursuit of the master and doctor of philosophy degrees. A heartfelt appreciation goes to the International Buddhist Education Foundation for its financial support of my graduation education. Finally, many thanks go to my mother and siblings, relatives, and friends for their enduring support. ii ABSTRACT This dissertation examines the development and legitimation of repentance rituals within the initial formative period of Chinese Buddhism in the early medieval period. Repentance can be considered as one of the many phases in the process of Sinicization of Buddhism. Repentance scriptures were initially developed, as a liturgy, for the purpose of eradicating unwholesome karma and attaining samādhi or Buddhahood by the individual. They gradually became part of the cultivation process in many Chinese Buddhist traditions as well as a dynamically living tradition of devotion among the Chinese Buddhists. Out of the dozens of repentance scriptures dated up to the sixth century CE, the Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on Manjuśrī's Teaching of Repentance 佛說文殊悔過經 T. 14, No. 459 (271 CE) prescribes one rather simple six-part repentance ritual involving prostrations in front of Buddha statues. By performing repentance, one would be able to purify one’s transgressions and attain samādhi, the scripture claims. The major components in the repentance rituals, I argue, resemble the discourses of confession and punishment and prostrations in pre-Buddhist China along with the acts of grace and were subsequently accepted and integrated into daily Buddhist liturgy in Chinese religious life. These early repentance rituals were later modified into many complex rituals for the living as well as on behalf of the deceased. By studying the repentance rituals, this dissertation attempts to determine if there are any changes in structures and contents over time. Such an examination allows us to see the development and transformation of a simple Indian confession practice into a genre of repentance rituals with different soteriological goals that are still in practice in East Asia and beyond today. This iii dissertation makes a valuable contribution to the field of religious studies in Chinese Buddhism by providing insights into an understanding of the development and acceptance of repentance rituals into Chinese religious life in the early medieval period. iv PREFACE My interest in Buddhist repentance (chanhui 懺悔) goes back to eight years ago prior to becoming a Buddhist monk in 2004. As a layman, I was taught by several Vietnamese Buddhist nuns to perform repentance rituals on the uposatha days and as much as possible. The Buddhist nuns, and all monastics and lay Buddhists in the Mahāyāna tradition, believed that repentance rituals can eradicate negative karmic deeds. It was claimed that negative karmic deeds were the source of hindrances in one’s path for enlightenment. After taking the tonsure and before my full ordination in the Vietnamese Mahāyāna tradition in 2006, I was instructed to perform various types of repentance rituals. After being ordained as a Buddhist monk, performing repentance rituals was again a regular part of my daily cultivation. Upon starting my master degree in Buddhist Studies at University of the West, I tried to research on the history and reasons for the practice of repentance rituals. However, due to time constraint, I was unable to achieve the expected goal and ended up choosing the Compassionate Water Repentance Ritual (Cibei shuichan fa 慈悲水懺法) for my master’s thesis. The reasons why repentance rituals were accepted in early medieval China and continue to influence present day practices by most Mahāyāna Buddhists remained unanswered. Thus, as I completed my Ph. D. coursework and was in the process of researching for a topic for my dissertation, I decided to continue my quest to determine why repentance rituals were developed and gained acceptance by Chinese Buddhists in the early medieval China. To my surprise, much of the Chinese cultural characteristics before the arrival of Buddhism and the development of repentance rituals were really identical v with many attributes found in many of the Buddhist repentance scriptures and practices. The parallels between the Chinese culture and Buddhist repentance rituals enabled the Chinese, especially Chinese Buddhists, to accept repentance rituals as a form of practice for their salvation and spiritual enlightenment. It is my hope that this study contributes to the academic study of Chinese Buddhism as a whole and helps us to understand the process of Sinicization of Buddhism in China in particular. vi TABLE OF CONTENTS Acknowledgments…………………………………………………………………. ii Abstract…………………………………………………………………………….. iii Preface……………………………………………………………………………… v List of Abbreviations………………………………………………………………. x Chapter One: Introduction…………………………………………………………. 1 I. Confession in Indian Buddhism……………………………………. 3 II. Repentance in Indian Buddhism…………………………………… 6 III. Literature Review…………………………………………………...12 IV. Methodology……………………………………………………….. 20 V. Chapter Summaries………………………………………………… 21 Chapter Two: Confessional Practices in Pre-Buddhist China……………………… 24 I. Fault Recognition, Regret, and Self-Reproach in Confucian Texts and Pre-imperial Chinese Classics………………………………………26 II. Prostrations in Chinese Culture……………………………………. 35 III. Voluntary Surrender and Confession in Chinese Penal Code……… 39 IV. Amnesties and Acts of Grace………………………………………. 46 V. Chapter Conclusion………………………………………………… 53 Chapter Three: Daoist Rite of Confession in the Early Medieval Period………….. 56 I. The Political Background and Social Climate……………………... 56 II. Daoist Rite of Confession………………………………………….. 66 III. Chapter Conclusion………………………………………………… 87 vii Chapter Four: The Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on Manjuśrī's Teaching of Repentance…………………………………………………………………………. 89 I. Arrival and Rise of Buddhism……………………………………... 90 Phase 1: From the Beginning through the Three Kingdoms to the Western Jin………………………………………………………….90 Phase 2: The Eastern Jin and the Sixteen Kingdoms………………. 93 Phase 3: The Southern and Northern Dynasties…………………… 96 II. Hagiography of Dharmarakṣa and His Works……………………... 99 III. Analysis of the Sūtra Spoken by the Buddha on Manjuśrī's Teaching of Repentance………………………………………………………. 100 i. Structure…………………………………………………. …..... 100 ii. Cast…………………………………………………………….. 101 iii. Central Themes…………………………………………. …….. 102 a. Repentance……………………………………………... 103 b. Wisdom of the Buddha………………………………… 104 c. The Bodhisattva and His Cultivation…………………... 106 d. The Doctrine of Śūnyatā……………………………….. 107 e. Virtuous Roots..…………………………………….. … 108 f. Filial Piety……………………………………………… 109 iv. Han and Daoist Influences……………………………………... 110 IV. Components of the Repentance Ritual……………………………... 113 a. Veneration of the Buddhas/Transfer of Merits……………... 113 b. Invocation of Buddhas and Bodhisattvas…........................... 114 c. Confession…………………………………………………. 114 d. Making Vows………………………………………………. 117 e. Offering…………………………………………………….. 118 viii f. Exhortation…………………………………………………. 118 II. Component Analysis……………………………………………….. 120 III. Repentance Rituals in Chinese Historical and Cultural Context…... 122 IV. Efficacy of Repentance Rituals……………………………………. 130 V. Chapter Conclusion………………………………………………… 133 Chapter Five: Ritual Comparisons…………………………………………………. 136 I. Comparison of Mañjuśrī’s Repentance Sūtra to Zhiyi’s Lotus Confessional Liturgy and Zongmi’s Perfect Enlightenment
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