This thesis has been submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for a postgraduate degree (e.g. PhD, MPhil, DClinPsychol) at the University of Edinburgh. Please note the following terms and conditions of use: This work is protected by copyright and other intellectual property rights, which are retained by the thesis author, unless otherwise stated. A copy can be downloaded for personal non-commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the author. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the author. When referring to this work, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given. ENCOUNTERING CHINA: THE EVOLUTION OF TIMOTHY RICHARD’S MISSIONARY THOUGHT (1870-1891) BY ANDREW T. KAISER DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY THE UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH 2014 ii Declaration I, Andrew T. Kaiser, hereby certify that this thesis has been written by me; that it is the record of work carried out by me; and that it has not been submitted in any previous application for higher degree. Signature __________________________________ Date ___________15_______________________ January 2014 To Heather Abstract In pursuit of the conversion of others, cross-cultural missionaries often experience their own “conversions.” This thesis explores the ways in which one particular missionary, the Welshman Timothy Richard (1845–1919), was transformed by his encounter with China. Focusing specifically on the evolution of his understanding and practice of Christian mission during the first half of his career with the Baptist Missionary Society, the study is structured chronologically in order to capture the important ways in which Richard’s experiences shaped his adaptations in mission. Each of Richard’s adaptations is examined within its appropriate historical and cultural context through analysis of his published and unpublished writings—all while paying careful attention to Richard’s identity as a Welsh Baptist missionary. This approach reveals that rather than softening his commitment to conversion in response to his encounters with China, Richard was driven by his persistent evangelical convictions to adapt his missionary methods in pursuit of greater results. When his experiences in Shandong and Shanxi provinces convinced him that Christianity fulfilled China’s own religious past and that God’s Kingdom promised blessings for souls in this life as well as in the next, Richard widened his theological horizons to incorporate these ideas without abandoning his essential understanding of the Christian gospel. As Richard adjusted to the realities of mission in the Chinese context, his growing empathy for Chinese people and their culture increasingly shaped his adaptations, ultimately leading him to advocate methods and emphases on the moral evidences for Christianity that were unacceptable to some of his missionary colleagues and to leaders in other missions, notably James Hudson Taylor. As the first critical work of length to focus on the early half of Richard’s missionary career, this thesis fills a gap in current scholarship on Victorian Protestant missions in China, offering a challenge to the simplistic conservative/liberal dichotomies often used to categorize missionaries. The revised picture of Richard that emerges reveals his original understanding of “the worthy” in Matthew 10, his indebtedness to Chinese sectarian religion, his early application of indigenous principles, his integration of evangelism and famine relief work, his relative unimportance in the China Inland Mission “Shanxi spirit” controversies of the 1880s, and—most significantly—his instrumental rather than evangelistic interest in the scholar-officials of China. By highlighting the priority of the Chinese (religious) context for Richard’s transformation, this thesis also contributes to the growing volume of historiography on Christianity in modern China that emphasizes the multi- directional influences present in the encounters between Christianity and Chinese culture and religion. Finally, connections between Richard’s evolution and changes taking place within the larger missionary community are also explored, situating Richard within wider discussions of accommodationism in mission, the rise of social Christianity, and evangelistic precursors to fulfillment theology. Acknowledgements I am grateful to God for bringing me to New College and allowing me the privilege of intensive study. At precisely the moment when I had made peace with the idea of not pursuing a doctoral degree, three different mentors all independently approached me encouraging me to do so. First of all, Dr. Thomas Askew, my champion and persistent supporter for the last twenty years of my career in China pushed me to pursue further study, offering invaluable time and encouragement to me at a time when his own health was less than robust. Tom and his wife Jean have been dear friends and passionate encouragers of our entire family throughout all the vicissitudes of life overseas. Professors Richard Lints and Garth Rosell, my advisors while I studied the American missionary to China Samuel Wells Williams for my Masters thesis at Gordon Conwell Theological Seminary, added their wise council and encouragement, agreeing with Tom’s suggestion that Edinburgh was the place for me. Following their advice, I contacted Professor Brian Stanley, Director of the Centre for the Study of World Christianity at New College within the University of Edinburgh. His quick reply and warm interest in my proposed topic were a foretaste of the dedicated assistance and sage guidance that characterized all my interactions with him. I cannot imagine completing this project with anyone else: his high standard of scholarship, pastoral concern for his students, and sincere empathy for the evangelical missionary project made the task enjoyable. His detailed and insightful critiques of my work as it developed have made it far better than it otherwise would have been. I am indebted. I am also grateful for the camaraderie and encouragement I enjoyed with my fellow students at New College. Conversations in Rainy Hall over lunch, the stimulation of the World Christianity seminars, and especially the collegial atmosphere of the Semples study room made my time more productive and stretched me in many positive ways. Fellow student Marina Wang reminded me that the history of Christianity in China was important, and that I had a small contribution to make. David Kirkpatrick was a constant source of encouragement and assistance as we struggled in parallel to produce theses that would satisfy the demands of our wise and gifted supervisor. Alexander Chow, Chancellor’s Fellow in World Christianity, arrived at New College just in time to provide welcome China-specific guidance for my work, and to become a friend and companion in my life-long study of China. Mark McLeister, Senior Teaching Fellow in Chinese Studies, also came to Edinburgh at just the right time, ensuring that I would not forget the contemporary Chinese church during my time in Scotland. Over the years, many scholars from around the world have generously shared their knowledge and resources to help expand my understanding of Chinese history. Professor Roy Grow and his wife Mary Lewis are perhaps most responsible for my having ended up in China in the first place. From the very beginning I had the tremendous benefit of being taught to view China with wonder and anticipation, rather than fear; for this I will always be grateful. The late Drs. Edvard Torjesen and Norman Cliff were always happy to pass along photocopied bits from their decades of study, making possible my earliest attempts to understand Shanxi. Once I began my formal work on Richard, Margaret Wyatt’s provision of food and housing made possible my extended time exploring the Baptist Missionary Society Archives at Regents Park College, Oxford. Archivists Emily Burgoyne and Emma Walsh were my sure guides, making what might have been arduous a pleasurable and productive experience. I am especially grateful to Professors Kathryn Edgerton-Tarpley and Henrietta Harrison, two gifted scholars of Chinese history with abiding interests in Shanxi. Their kindness and graciousness towards me—a far less rigorous historian—and their willingness to include me in their conversations about Shanxi are an example of the open mindedness and generosity towards which all scholarship aspires. The footprints of their ideas, no doubt distorted by the waves of my muddled prose, can be seen throughout this work. My colleagues in China have had to take on an extra share of the work there during our years in Edinburgh; they encouraged me in spirit, and through their labors freed me to undertake this study. We are family, and without their support this thesis would not have existed. I look forward to repaying them in kind over the next few decades. I am also grateful to the many individuals and churches that have continued to support our family during this detour through Edinburgh. In the coming years we will endeavor to remain faithful stewards of their investment. My parents have always been my strongest advocates, even when my life has gone in paths different from theirs. Their prayers, their emotional and material support, and especially their willingness to send their only son to the other side of the world, are a constant demonstration of their faith in an eternal glory that truly outweighs all earthly rewards or troubles. Their sacrifices have made my life of service possible. I regret that I can only hope to be faithful, never worthy. Finally, my family has always been with me. The life we have chosen makes it possible for us to spend so much of our time together, and I am grateful for the joy they have brought by accompanying me on this Scottish adventure. My children Sophia and Rebekah gamely entered a schooling situation so different from their experiences in China, and negotiated new social and academic minefields with tremendous grace.