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An Ethnographic Case-Study of the Gambia Caroline Samantha Mc

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An Ethnographic Case-Study of the Gambia Caroline Samantha Mc Language in Education Policy and Practice in Post-Colonial Africa: An ethnographic case-study of The Gambia Caroline Samantha McGlynn September 2013 A thesis submitted for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy University of East London Caroline McGlynn, u0106680, PhD Thesis Abstract This thesis examines the interaction between the language in education policy and classroom practices in The Gambia, West Africa. This examination takes place against a background of current and vigorous academic debate regarding policies for language in education and the learning and teaching of students, particularly in post- colonial countries. Using an ethnographic case study this thesis builds on the analysis of more than 38 hours of data collected during classroom observations of 10 teachers in three schools. Conversational interviews were held with 10 teachers and field notes from all observations were produced. Stimulated recall interviews were held with four teachers. The findings of this research suggest that the language in education policy currently in use in The Gambia is regularly subverted by the teachers and students in order to meet the pragmatic and pedagogic needs of the classroom. It was noted that the local languages were used differently in the urban sites, where evidence of a language amalgam was recorded, when compared with the rural sites, in which a phenomenon of serial monolingualism was observed. The impact of historical, political and cultural norms also affected the language in all the sites in the study. The thesis argues that there is an observable subversion of the language in education policy and different language practices are present as a result of heteroglossic conflict (Bakhtin 1981). The conflict is caused by the imposition of a monolingual language in education policy on a multilingual community. The findings reveal that the teachers and learners have developed a repertoire of pedagogic techniques, some of which are geographically specific, in order to present a demonstration of effective teaching and learning. In answering the research questions this thesis demonstrates that local languages do have a place in classroom interactions and that a reconsideration of the current English Only policy would be appropriate. There are few studies of language use in classrooms in The Gambia. This research therefore makes a significant contribution to this literature and to the ways in which language use is theorised. ii Caroline McGlynn, u0106680, PhD Thesis Acknowledgements This thesis is presented in memory of Peter W Martin, a kind and gentle man who generously shared his knowledge and passion for language with me. This work has only been made possible through the support, guidance and knowledge of so many people. My thanks go to my supervisors, Dr John Gray, at the Institute of Education, for being the sane voice of reason and Professor Jean Murray, University of East London, for your confidence in me. I recognise that during this long process my colleagues at UEL and beyond have helped celebrate my successes and listened to my woes time and time again and I am thankful to you all. It is with gratitude I remember the late John Holmes, founder of the BAAL Language in Africa Special Interest Group, providing an opportunity to meet and debate with interesting and interested colleagues. To my colleagues in The Gambia, I thank you for your participation and generosity of time, knowledge and experience. This work is for you and for future generations. I hope it makes a difference. To the glamorous ladies of the Breakfast Club, thank you for talking nonsense and keeping me grounded. Finally, there are not enough words to thank my wonderful mum and the McGlynn family in the UK for their unending emotional support and belief that I can complete. Thanks are also due to the Jabai family in The Gambia, for welcoming me into your lives and providing hospitality, friendship, guidance and knowledge. Mbe kanula durong. iii Caroline McGlynn, u0106680, PhD Thesis Abbreviations and Glossary Abbreviation Full Meaning English Only EO Gambian English GE lingua franca LF Language in Education LiE Language of Instruction/Medium of Instruction LoI/MoI LL Local Language LWC Language of wider communication mother tongue MT Non-Governmental Organisation NGO RQ1, RQ2, RQ3 Research Question 1, 2, 3 Standard British English SBE sfE Straight for English iv Caroline McGlynn, u0106680, PhD Thesis Table of Contents Chapter 1 Introduction .............................................................................................. 1 1.1 The Research Problem and its Significance for the Field ............................... 1 1.2 Genesis of the Study ........................................................................................ 6 1.3 Epistemological Position ............................................................................... 10 1.4 Aims of the Research .................................................................................... 13 1.5 Contextual Information ................................................................................. 14 1.5.1 Languages .............................................................................................. 15 1.5.2 Education ............................................................................................... 17 1.6 Structure of the Thesis................................................................................... 20 Chapter 2 Literature Review Language of Instruction Policies in Post-Colonial Contexts 25 2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 25 2.2 Historical Perspectives .................................................................................. 26 2.3 Types of Language Policy ............................................................................. 27 2.3.1 Exoglossic .............................................................................................. 27 2.3.2 Endoglossic ............................................................................................ 28 2.3.3 Plurilinguistic ......................................................................................... 28 2.3.4 Diglossic ................................................................................................ 29 2.4 Case Studies .................................................................................................. 29 2.4.1 Tanzania ................................................................................................. 30 2.4.2 Eritrea ..................................................................................................... 31 2.5 Declaration without Implementation of Policies ........................................... 33 2.6 Maintaining the Status Quo ........................................................................... 34 2.7 Arbitrary Policy Making ............................................................................... 38 2.8 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 39 Chapter 3 Literature Review Language use in Post-Colonial Classrooms ............. 41 3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 41 3.2 Asymmetrical Talk ........................................................................................ 43 3.3 Limiting Linguistic Output ........................................................................... 45 3.3.1 Choral Responses ................................................................................... 46 3.3.2 Repetition ............................................................................................... 48 3.3.3 Initiation, Response, Feedback/Evaluation ............................................ 49 3.4 The Use of ‘Other’ Languages ...................................................................... 51 3.4.1 Functional Code Switching .................................................................... 52 3.5 Classroom Materials and Wider Access to the Language of Education ....... 59 v Caroline McGlynn, u0106680, PhD Thesis 3.5.1 Materials ................................................................................................ 59 3.5.2 Wider Access to the Language of Education ......................................... 60 3.6 Conclusion ..................................................................................................... 60 Chapter 4 Research Design..................................................................................... 62 4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................... 62 4.2 Research Paradigm and Approach ................................................................ 62 4.3 Initial Research Design ................................................................................. 67 4.4 Pilot Study ..................................................................................................... 68 4.4.1 Consent .................................................................................................. 68 4.4.2 Availability of documents ...................................................................... 69 4.4.3 Representation of Data ........................................................................... 69 4.4.4 Recording Equipment ............................................................................ 70 4.5 Final
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