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Introduction

CONFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES

Today in era of digitalization, sound strange that analog efforts of old times were very important. It seems that in the past, in looking for mass production, our ancestors spent centuries to detect some basic principles of mass production. Because of the work of two genii humanity received necessary acceleration. First genius was Leonardo da Vinci, father of mechanisms machines. Second one was Nikola Tesla, inventor of the electricity (alternate current). After electric motor was invented in 1886, world was experienced explosion of new products and technologies. Henry Ford developed assembly line. As time passing the need for individual production has continued to increase. Machine tools started to get numerical control. Numerical control is expanded on printers, plotters and finally on 3D printers. Big shift in production is shift from subtractive manufacturing to additive manufacturing too. This chapter describes the development of the centuries that have left behind.

INTRODUCTION

Through the centuries needs for consumer products growing. Producing equal parts leads to mass production. Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Alternate names of mass production are flow production, repetitive flow production, series production or serial production. Job production, batch production and mass production are three main production methods. A 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica first time was used mass production based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company (Hounshell, 1984). Introduction

The concept of mass production includes the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products that use assembly line technology.

Pre-Industrial Production

Standardized parts, sizes and factory production techniques were known in pre-industrial times. Prior the invention of machine tools, the manufacture of precision metal parts was very difficult and labor intensive. Let see first example in Figure 1: crossbows. Crossbows had bronze parts and were produced in Ancient China during the Warring States period. The Qin Emperor unified China by equipping large armies with crossbows, with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. The Carthaginians in their perfect equipped harbors, allowed them to efficient control of the Mediterranean, produced galleys (Ships of war) on a large scale at a moderate cost. Many centuries later, the Venetians also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines. The Venetian produced nearly one ship per day. This was effectively the world’s first factory that employed up to 16,000 people in peak period. Mass production in the publishing industry started with the Gutenberg Press. First use of press was for Martin Luther’s 95 Thesis, but first serious job was print The Holy Bible in the mid-15th century.

Figure 1. Crossbow Sketch by Leonardo da Vinci (Source: Vinci, Leonardo da-Crossbow sketch-1500.jpg, 2010)

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Woodcut from 1568 shows the left worker removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages per day, see Figure 2.

Industrial Revolution

Machine tools, as a device for mass production, started to appear around First Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution (also called First Industrial Revolution) is a change from hand and home production to machine and factory production. Transformation was happened in the period from about 1760 - 1820 (1840). James Watt’s steam engine was the invention that transformed

Figure 2. Workers at Gutenberg’s press (Source: Propaganda during the Reformation, 2017)

xviii Introduction the existing steam engine from a reciprocating motion (translation) that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the existing steam engine. Now we will say few words about etymology of the term Industrial Revolution. Term Industrial Revolution was appeared in a letter from 6th of July 1799. French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, wrote that France had entered the race of industrialization. (Crouzet, 1996) In next thirty years, the following improvements had been made in important industries:

• Textiles: Mechanized steam (or water) power cotton spinning significantly increased the productivity of a worker. The performance of workers who managed steam powered looms increased by a factor of over 40. Removing seed from cotton using steam powered cotton gin increased productivity by a factor of 50. Large improvements occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but effects were lower than in the previous two examples. • Steam Power: Improvements in steam powered engine technology required 10-20% much fuel. (Smil, 2005) The invention of rotary steam engines by James Watt made them suitable for industrial uses. First locomotive, engineered by George Stephenson in 1830, opened race for railways building. The high-pressure engines, with increased power, stand suitable for transportation. • Iron Making: After James Watt used coke to power his engine, new invention was the substitution charcoal with coke. This substitution significantly reduced the fuel cost for pig iron and increased iron production. Using coke also allowed building larger blast furnaces. As a result, was economy of scale. Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898), the British metallurgist, introduced cheap steel production through the Bessemer process. Cheap steel transformed industry and transportation. Where once this costly metal had been reserved for small uses—arms, razors, springs, files—it could now be used to make rails and build ships. Steel rails lasted longer, carried more; steel ships had thinner skins and carried more. In 1856, Bessemer designed a converter, a large, pear-shaped receptacle with holes at the bottom and blew compressed air through the molten pig iron. In just a few minutes, the metal became even hotter, remained molten and ready for die-casting.

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During the Industrial Revolution, first known simple mass production techniques were used in the Napoleonic Wars at the Portsmouth, England to make ships’ pulley blocks for the Royal Navy.

Electrification of Factories

Electrification of factories began in the 1890s after the presentation of a functional DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after Nikola Tesla, Galileo Ferraris and others developed the AC motor. Nikola Tesla received the rights to be inventor of the AC motor because of his patents from May 1, 1888 (Tesla, 1888). Galileo Ferraris published only paper that he invented AC motor in March 1888. Westinghouse company committee tested both solutions – Tesla’s was more efficient: 67% vs. 60%, like in basketball match with good defense. First AC power plant (hydraulic) was opened in January 1897 at Niagara Falls. Electricity produced at this plan supplied nearest industrial city Buffalo with new type of energy because of magnificent work of Nikola Tesla. Electrification of factories in the USA was fastest between 1900 and 1930. In this period were established electric utilities with central stations. This expansion led to the lowering of power costs, especially in the period from 1914 to 1917. At the beginning of 20th Century, efficiency of electric DC motors was several times larger than efficiency of small steam engines. Reasons were: i) transmission system invented by Nikola Tesla and ii) line shafts and belts had high friction losses. Electric motors were more flexible in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories increased productivity for more than 30% just from changing to electric motors.

Mass Production

As shown earlier, Encyclopedia Britannica popularized the term mass production. The New York Times used the term mass production in the headlines of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article. (Hounshell, 1984) This type of production begun at the middle of Second Industrial Revolution started at 1880s with invention of Bessemer process. Henry Ford, one of the greater industrialists of all time, recognized mass production as a critical factor of his business.1(Henry Ford, Samuel

xx Introduction

Crowther, 1922). Figure 3 present Ford’s Magneto Assembly line, symbol of mass production, was the first invention after Second Industrial Revolution started. Mass production leaded to assembly lines and specialization of works. Mass production is capital intensive and energy intensive. Mass production systems include transport of fluid maters (using pipes), conveyors (to transfer raw materials) and assembly lines. Conveyors are very useful for transportation of heavy (in the case they parts are hung from an overhead crane or monorail) or bulky materials. In a factory that producing a complex product, instead than one assembly line, there may be numerous auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to a backbone main assembly line. A graph of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the fish skeleton rather than a single line. These topics are out of the scope of this book.

Single-Part Production and Prototyping

In many situations, we have request for production of one to few components of some parts. Best-known situation is prototype production. A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or process or to act as a thing to be replicated or learned from. [1] A prototype is designed to test and try new features, to enhance precision by

Figure 3. For Magneto Assembly line, 1913 (Source: Swan, 2013)

xxi Introduction system analysts and users. Prototyping serves to provide specifications for a real, working system rather than a theoretical one. In some workflow models, creating a prototype (a process sometimes called materialization) is the step between the formalization and the evaluation of an idea. The word prototype derives from the Greek πρωτότυπον prototypon, in the meaning of “primitive form”, neutral of πρωτότυπος prototypos, “original, primitive”, from πρῶτος protos, “first” and τύπος typos, “impression”. From other side, we have request for producing some mechanical parts in small series. This is different from prototype production from one side and batch production, where manufacturers must produce numbers of the same product, consists of equal or similar parts.

Rapid Prototyping

With addition of use of three-dimensional computer-aided design (CAD) data, we can easy remodel some parts of new product. Construction of the prototype parts or assembly is usually done using or additive layer manufacturing technology. Together with CNC subtractive methods, the CAD/CAM workflow in the traditional Rapid Prototyping (RP) process starts with the creation of geometric model, continuing with generation of geometric data, either as 3D solid using a modeling technique on CAD workstation, 3D surfaces using Bezier or NURBS surfaces, or 2D slices using a scanning device (LIDAR – Light Imaging, Detection and Ranging. Lidar may be used to scan buildings, rock formations, small to large objects, etc., to produce a 3D model.). For RP this data must represent a valid geometric model. This means that boundary surfaces of model, or shell, enclose a finite volume. Shell cannot contain holes exposing the interior, and do not fold back on themselves (such as Moebius strip). Object must be without dangling edges or faces (surfaces). The object must be regular: to have interior and closure. The model is regular if for each point in 3D space the computer can determine that point lies inside, on, or outside the boundary surface of the model. CAD post-processors will approximate the internal CAD geometric forms (e.g., B-splines) with a simplified mathematical form (such are faces), within specified tolerances. Data calculated by post-processing software can be expressed in specific format (standards defines this format). Such data represent geometric part of input for additive manufacturing. One of the first standards was developed for stereo- (STL).

xxii Introduction

STL is de facto standard for transferring solid geometric models to SFF machines. To obtain the necessary motion control trajectories for driving the actual SFF, Rapid Prototyping, 3D printing or additive manufacturing mechanism, the prepared geometric model is typically sliced into layers. The slices are scanned into lines (producing a 2D drawing used to generate trajectory as in CNC`s tool-path or 3DP head movement). Slices can represent 3D data in 2D planes providing the layer-to-layer physical building process. At the middle of eighties of 20th century, machining “was married” with printing – forming new device: 3D Printer. We can describe main events in both fields in historical order.

Confluence of Technologies: Mainstream–Machining

Machining is the broad term used to describe removal of material from a work piece. It is important to view machining, as well as all manufacturing operations, as a system consisting of the work piece, the tool and the machine. The processes that have controlled material removal, are today collectively known as subtractive manufacturing, in distinction from processes of controlled material addition, which are known as additive manufacturing (note: additive manufacturing is not equal to additive layer manufacturing, and represent superset of additive machining). Exactly what the “controlled” part of the definition implies can vary, but it usually implies the use of machine tools (in addition to just power tools and hand tools). Classic classification of manufacturing technology is:

• Forming ◦◦ Bulk forming ▪▪ Forging ▪▪ Rolling ▪▪ Extrusion ◦◦ Sheet metal ▪▪ Rolling ▪▪ Blanking ▪▪ Piercing ▪▪ Bending ▪▪ Embossing ▪▪ Coining

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• Casting ◦◦ Sand ◦◦ Investment ◦◦ Die ◦◦ Centrifugal ◦◦ Sequence • Welding ◦◦ Gas ◦◦ Arc ◦◦ Resistance ◦◦ Friction ◦◦ Laser ◦◦ Plasma ◦◦ Electron beam • Machining ◦◦ Traditional ▪▪ Chip Removal abrasion ◦◦ Non-traditional ◦◦ Erosion abrasion

The development of metal cutting machines (briefly called machine tools) started from the invention of the cylinder that was changed to a roller guided by a journal bearing. The ancient Egyptians used these rollers for transporting the required stones from a quarry to the building site. Clockmakers of the Middle Ages and renaissance men such as Leonardo da Vinci (1452-1519) helped expand humans’ technological milieu toward the preconditions for industrial machine tools. He built first deep drilling machine, see Figure 4. James Watt was unable to have an accurately bored cylinder for his first steam engine, trying for several years until John Wilkinson invented a suitable boring machine in 1774. Wilkinson was invented first commercial engine in 1776. The advance in the accuracy of machine tools was because of Henry Maudslay (1771–1831) and refined by Joseph Whitworth. Maudslay had established the manufacture and use of master plane gages in his shop located in London about 1809. James Nasmyth who was employed by Maudslay in 1829, attested to lathe.

xxiv Introduction

Figure 4. Da Vinci’s deep drilling machine in Codex Atlanticus, Folio 1089, Source: (Vinci)

In 1840, the first engine lathe was introduced. Maudslay added the lead screw, back gears, and the tool post to the previous design. Today, we have different processes than in 1840s, especially or drilling and lathe machining. Machining is a part of the manufacture of many metal products, but it can also be used on materials such as wood, plastic, ceramic, and composites. Today, operations where machining is performed is calling machine shop. However, mobile machine shops exist, especially for military purposes, when time is critical. Reparation on the field is part of mobile machine shops, see Figure 5.

Computer Numerical Control (CNC)

As in every other major change in philosophy, whether technological or nantechnological, reasons for the change in development can always be traced in history. In the case of numerical control, the history can be related to man’s attempt to control manufacturing processes. The first attempt to control manufacturing by using some form of control medium was the development of Jacquard Loom in 1801. Joseph Jacquard, a young inventor who lived in Paris, France, devised a loom that used perforated cards to control the design of the fabric. By shifting hole patterns of the cards, various woven floral designs be produced automatically, see Figure 6

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Figure 5. Mobile machine shop truck of the US Army with machinist working on automotive park, New Guinea, 1943 (Source: U.S. Army Center of Military History, 2015)

Figure 7, showing later development was the automatic player piano that uses a perforated paper roll as the control medium. The player piano operates through on air motor and a series of valves and pneumatics activated by vacuum produced by a set of bellows. Meanwhile a variety of equipment in the manufacturing field was being automated using cams, templates and similar cycling devices. The previous examples are devices for automatic control but cannot be defined as numerical control. The programmed cards in the case of the Jacquard Loom, the punched tape used on the player piano, and the cam utilized in the automatic screw-manufacturing machine all actuate a device because of position of a punched hole or the peaks and valleys of cam. xxvi Introduction Figure 6. Jacquard Loom (2008)

Figure 7. Players piano (Source: Player piano “The Entertainer-Youtube.2013)

xxvii Introduction

Numerical control is different in that, on the control medium, it uses either symbols, which represent a number that creates a dimensionally controlled movement, or a code, which triggers an action such as spindle start and shop. Thus, the physical location of number on the control medium has no direct correspondence to a physical dimension to be executed. In the defense industry, a need arose for very accurate cams for tracer- controlled equipment to produce complex parts with increasingly tighter tolerances. The technique finally reached the stage at which the cams had to be manufactured manually by hand operated jig bore equipment produced closely spaced holes. This technique was naturally extremely tedious, and a certain amount of hand finish was always necessary to remove the scallop heights created by the drill. The Parsons Company (Traverse City, Michigan, USA), had great need for accurate templates in their manufacture of helicopter blades. The Parsons engineers, in producing the X and Y location for holes, developed limited curve fittings and offset routines with the partial use of electronic computers. The mathematically precise positions, however, still had to be manually fed into the jig-bore machine by the operator, and hand finish had to be applied to obtain the required surface finish. For each different configuration of helicopter blades manufactured, up to 50 templates had to be made, to be used for both manufacturing and inspection purposes (Olesten, 1970). The birth of NC is generally credited to John T. Parsons (1913-2007, see Figure 8) (Olexa, 2001) a machinist and salesperson at his father’s machining company, Parsons Corp. In 1942, he remarked that helicopters were going to be the “next big thing”. He called Sikorsky Aircraft to ask about possible cooperation. Soon he got a first contract to build the wooden stringers in the rotor blades. In forties of last century, technology of building rotor blades (rotary wings) was based on NACA 012 blueprints. At this time, only few airfoils existed. Today we have airfoils for all types of helicopters (and airplanes). Fixed wings had a long tubular steel spar with stringers (or ribs). Airfoils representing aerodynamic shape that was then covered with a stressed skin. Sikorsky provides design for the stringers for the rotors, sending to Parsons a series of 17 points defining the outline. Parsons then generated outline through the series of dots using a French curve. A wooden jig was built up to form the outside of the contour. Under the pressure, pieces of wood forming the stringer, against the inside of the jig forming the proper curve. A series of two-force members (structural component where force is applied only to two points-trussworks) were then assembled inside this outline to provide strength (Olexa, 2001). xxviii Introduction

Figure 8. John T. Parsons (Source: Lee, 1995)

Parsons then started production. Problems arose when one of the blades failed. Problem was in the spar. Then he redesigns the stringer construction, exchanging the order of spot welding operation. Spot welding was geometry critical operation. Parsons suggested a new method, first time used in aircraft design. He used adhesives to attach the stringers directly to the spar. They used stamped metal stringers instead of wooden ones. This new method was much stronger and far easier to make as well, eliminating the complex layup, glue, and screw fastening on the wood. Wooden jig was replaced by a metal cutting tool made of tool steel. Such a device would not be easy to produce forming the complex outline. During his visit of Wright Field company, he met Frank Stulen. During their conversation, Parsons hired him. Stulen started work on 1 April 1946, together with three new engineers (Olexa, 2001). One of them was Stulen’s brother who worked at Curtis Wright Propeller. He used punched card calculators for engineering calculations. Stulen improved the idea to run stress calculations on the rotors using punched card machines. These were first detailed automated calculations on helicopter rotors. Parsons asked Stulen to generate an outline with 200 points instead of the initial 17 and offset each point by the radius of a mill-cutting tool (Numerically Controlled Milling Machine, MIT Servomechanisms Lab, 1950s, 2013) Offsetting then became crucial technique for calculating centers of the milling tools. If you

xxix Introduction cut at each of those points, it would produce a relatively accurate cutout of the stringer. Stulen performed such programs very easy producing large tables of numbers that would be delivered onto the machine floor. Three operators took care about coordinates of tool: first read the numbers off the charts and to two other operators, controlled coordinates of X and Y-axes. For each pair of coordinates the operators would move the cutting head to the indicated position and then lift-down the tool to make the cut (Olexa, 2001). This was called the plunge-cutting positioning (Numerically Controlled Milling Machine, MIT Servomechanisms Lab, 1950s, 2013) At that time, it was a labor-intensive operation. Today we have 2.5 axis machining (two-and-a- half-axis machining).

Figure 9. Parsons patent no. 2,820,187 (Source: Patent US2820187 - Motor controlled apparatus for positioning machine tool, n.d.)

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At that point, Parsons conceived of a fully automated machine tool. With enough “density” of points, no additional manual work would be needed to clean it up. If the machine’s inputs were attached directly to the card reader, system will work without delay and manual errors. Today we call this method - Direct Numerical Control (DNC). Using of DNC the number of points dramatically increased. At this time, manipulating with extremely large number of points was very expensive. However, at the time Parsons had no funds to develop his ideas. One day, one of Parsons’ salespersons visited Wright Field. He reported of the problems the newly formed US Air Force had with new jet-powered designs. They asked if Parsons had any idea to help them. Parsons presented Lockheed their idea of an automated mill, but they did not express interest. Instead of that, Lockheed bought expensive 5-axis cutting machine for producing template copiers to produce the stringers. Parsons wrote in his diary:

Now just picture the situation for a minute. Lockheed had contracted to design a machine to make these wings. This machine had five axes of cutter movement, and tracer using a template controlled each of these. Nobody was using my method of making templates, so just imagine what chance they were going to have of making an accurate airfoil shape with inaccurate templates (Olexa, 2001).

Lockheed’s engineers protested that they could not fix the problem. In 1949, the Air Force approved budget for Parsons to build his machines on his own. Early work did not perform a perfectly smooth, because of the accuracy of the machine. Parsons made his first attempt using machine tool with direct drive that was controls from motors. Problem was in the mechanical controls that did not respond in a linear fashion. No matter how many points you included, the outline would still be rough. Parsons was faced with the same problem that had prevented convergence of Jacquard-type controls with machining. Solution required feedback system, like a Selsyn (or Synchro), for direct measurement. Faced with the “mission impossible” of building such a system, in the spring of 1949 Parsons visited Gordon S. Brown’s Servomechanisms Laboratory at MIT, world leader in mechanical computing and feedback systems at this time. They successfully transferred the technology into a prototype of Parsons’ automated by-the-numbers machine. William Pease assisted by James McDonough led the MIT team. They quickly concluded that Parsons’ design could be greatly improved; for mills to move from point A to point B is not necessary to have a large number

xxxi Introduction of intermediary cutting points to simulate a line, but to have smooth path between points A and B. In other words, MIT worked on linear movement motors. This means that curves will be decomposed in series of lines rather than a large series of points. Parsons, MIT, and the Air Force signed a trilateral agreement. Duration of project was one year (July 1949 - June 1950). The scope of the contract was the construction of two Card-a-Matic Milling Machines, a prototype and a production system. Both systems were handed to Parsons for attachment to one of their mills in order to develop a deliverable system for cutting stringers. In 1950, MIT bought “Hydro-Tel” from Cincinnati Milling Machine Company and signed a contract with the Air Force that froze arrangement with Parsons (Olexa, 2001). Parsons would later comment that he “never dreamed that anybody as reputable as MIT would deliberately go ahead and take over my project.” To protect his development in cooperation with MIT, Parsons filed for a patent on “Motor Controlled Apparatus for Positioning Machine Tool” on 5 May 1952. MIT responded with his patent “Numerical Control Servo-System” on 14 August 1952. Parsons (see Figure 9) received US Patent 2,820,187 (Parsons, 1958), on 14 January 1958, selling instantly an exclusive license to Bendix. IBM, Fujitsu and General Electric took sub- licenses after having already started development of their own devices. MIT fitted gears to the various hand wheel inputs and drove them with roller chains connected to motors, one for each of the machine’s three axes (X, Y, and Z). System had three cabinets for the motor controllers. First cabinet had three controllers, one for each motor that control each of three axes. The other two cabinets were for the digital reading system. Originally, Parsons’ used punched cards. MIT used standard 7-track punch tape for input. Three of the tracks were used to control the three axes of the machine, while the other four encoded various control information. The tape reader is cabinet for reading the tape Cabinet had six relay-based hardware registers, two for each axis. With every read operation, the previously read point was copied into the starting point register, and the newly read one into the ending point register. The tape was read continually and the number in the registers incremented with each hole encountered in their control track until a stop instruction was encountered. The final solution had a clock that sent pulses through the registers, compared them, and generated output pulses that interpolated between the points. The pulses were sent into a summing register in the motor controllers, counting by the number of pulses every time they were received. The summing registers

xxxii Introduction were connected to a digital-to-analog converter that increased power to the motors as the count in the registers increased, making the controls move faster. The registers were decremented by encoders attached to the motors and the mill itself, which would reduce the count by one for every one degree of rotation. Once the second point was reached the counter would hold a zero, the pulses from the clock would stop, and the motors would stop turning. Each 1-degree rotation of the controls produced a 0.0005-inch movement of the cutting head. The programmer could control the speed of the cut by selecting points that were closer together for slow movements, or further apart for rapid ones. The system was presented to the public in September 1952 (McDonough& Susskind, 1953) appearing at the same time in Scientific American. MIT’s system experienced an outstanding success, quickly making any complex cut with extremely high accuracy. System was very complex, and consists of 250 vacuum tubes and 175 relays. System was expensive; the total cost was $360,000.14 ($3,260,403 in 2016). Between 1952 and 1956, the system was used to mill a number of designs for various aviation firms, in order to study their potential economic impact. As the NC equipment development progressed, it became apparent that a programming technique to create the control media had to be developed. The relative simple part programming for two-dimensional (2D) milling soon gave way to more complicated three-dimensional (3D) programming tasks and showed the need for computer-aided programming systems.

Figure 10. Ash tray produced on MIT in February 1958 using APT (Source: Computer History Museum, 2017)

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As the new NC machine tools were placed in contractor’s plants, a sizable effort was put forth to get the machines into production use. Despite occasional start savings using the NC manufacturing technique, considerable difficulties were encountered because no efficient part programming system was available. It is true that early in 1956, an automatic programming system was suggested and demonstrated in the well-known MIT Engineering Report #16 by Arnold Siegel. (Siegel, 1956) This programming technique had been developed at MIT for the Whirlwind #1 computer. IBM was most installed computer in aircraft industry at this time. Therefore, IBM engineers developed proprietary computer programs based on original MIT Report to aid the increasingly difficult part-programming task. Parallel with their efforts, an advanced symbolic programming concept was being developed at MIT under Air Force sponsorship. It was named APT-Automatically Programmed Tools. (Ward, 1960) The basic idea was to develop a program by which the part programmer could communicate with the computer using a simple English-like language. Thus, if a circle is specified describing a part configuration, the word CIRCLE is used with the center location and radius specified just as you would in words. Similarly, a line would be specified by the word LINE between two points, Pa and P2, each point being previously defined with its respective X and Y locations. If the intersection of two lines were needed, the command would be INTOF/LINE1, LINE2, meaning the intersection of Line 1 and Line 2 (Figure 10). It was obvious that the idea of automatic programming with APT was excellent and easily understood, but the system requirements was so large that would be uneconomical at this time even for large companies to undertake the programming development by themselves. In addition, the Air Force was anxious to secure standardization of both part programming and control media to enable production of parts and spares at different geographical locations merely by the simple transfer of control media between different manufacturing installations. The above-mentioned circumstances led to a unique joint development of enormous importance to the whole industry. American computer scientist, Patrick Hanratty made similar developments at GE (in partnership with G&L) on the Numericord. He developed PRONTO CNC language, beating APT into commercial use when it was released in 1958. (The CAD/CAM Hall of Fame, 1998) Next Hanratty’s project was MICR, magnetic ink characters used in cheque processing. Then he moved to General Motors and work on the famous DAC-1 CAD system. Hanratty is “father of CAD/CAM”. (Pattrick Hanratty) xxxiv Introduction

Further extensions of APT included curves in 2D-APT-II. After publishing this public release, MIT reduced its focus on NC and shifted focus to CAD experiments. Illinois Institute of Technology Research continued APT development with the AIA, signing contract in San Diego in 1962. Work on making APT an international standard started in 1963. At this time manufacturers of NC machines were free to add their own extensions to APT (like PRONTO). Standardization takes effect after 1968. There were 25 optional add-ins to the basic system. First version of APT was released in the early 1960s, with the appearance of second-generation computers (lower-cost transistorized computers). Second-generation of computers was able to process much larger volumes of information. This reduced the cost of programming for NC machines. By the mid-1960s, APT runs accounted for a third of all computer time at large aviation firms.

When CAD Meets CNC: Birth of CAD/CAM

While the Servomechanisms Lab was in the process of developing their first mill, in 1953, undergraduates from another MIT department - Mechanical Engineering Department introduced courses in drawing. The instructors were merged into the Design Division. They opened an informal discussion about computerized design. Parallel with this, the Electronic Systems Laboratory, (former Servomechanisms Laboratory) opened discussion about design with the aid of computers. In January 1959, an informal joint meeting between two MIT labs was held involving individuals from both the departments. Formal meetings followed in April and May, resulted with the “Computer-Aided Design Project”. Later this year, General Motors started an experimental project to digitize, store and print the many design sketches generated in the various GM design departments. Meanwhile, MIT’s Lincoln Labs started with improvements on Whirlwind, substituting electronic of first generation (diodes and capacitors) with transistors. New computer was known as TX-2. Parallel with this idea was testing various circuit designs and smaller version known as TX-0 (TX-0 was built first). After initial development on TX-0, Ivan Sutherland’s deploy Sketchpad program on the TX-2 (Figure 11). Sutherland then moved to the University of Utah. However, his work inspired other MIT graduates to attempt the first true CAD system. It was Electronic

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Figure 11. Ivan Sutherland (Source: Business Wire, 2012)

Drafting Machine (EDM), sold to Control Data and known as Digigraphics. Company Lockheed used Digigraphics to build parts for the C-5 Galaxy. This was the first example of an end-to-end CAD/CNC production system. By 1970, a wide range of CAD firms were on the market including Intergraph, Applicon, Computervision, Auto-trol Technology, McDonnell Douglas Unigraphics and others, supported by large vendors like CDC and IBM. Finally, as computer networks evolved, previously mentioned direct numerical control (DNC) reach his full functionality. Finally, long-term coexistence with NC and CNC, CAD and network formed unique base for further development. However, almost all companies still used classic transport of data to machine tools via tape storage media and punched tape. One such standard from this time become very common - the G-code (also RS-274). G-code was originally used on Gerber plotters and then adapted for CNC use (Thomas R. Kramer, Frederick M. Proctor, ELena Messina, 2000). The file format has many variants. Generally, there is one international standard – ISO 6983.

xxxvi Introduction CONCLUSION

Printing is much older technique than CNC machining. Table 1 represents the history of the development of printing (). Until recently, printing -- on clay, papyrus, cloth or paper -- was always a two-dimensional process. Then, starting in the 1980s, various technologies evolved to add the Z-axis, which allowed machines to build three-dimensional objects from a CAD model or a 3D scan. The original general term for this process was additive manufacturing, and the canonical use case was rapid prototyping

Table 1. and printing technologies

Name Year 200 1040 Printing press c. 1440 c. 1515 1642 Aquatint 1772 Lithography 1796 1837 Rotary press 1843 1869 1875 1884 1886 Photostat and Rectigraph 1907 1910 Spirit duplicator 1923 1938 1949 Ink jet printing 1951 Dye sublimation 1957 1968 1969 c 1972 3D printing 1984 1991

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-- the production of a plastic, wax or even metal object as an integral part of the product design workflow. Nowadays, 3D printing is the umbrella term for these and other similar activities. 3D printing (3DP) is popular term for additive manufacturing (AM). This technology uses various processes to synthesize 3D object. 3D printing is not unique technology. International standard ISO/ASTM52900-15(52900, 2015) defines seven categories of AM processes (shown in alphabetical order):

• Binder Jetting, • Directed Energy Deposition, • Material Extrusi • Material Jetting • Powder Bed Fusion • Sheet Lamination • Vat Photopolymerization

3D printing is a process for making a physical object from a three- dimensional digital model, typically by laying down many successive thin layers of a material. The term also describes a wider variety of additive manufacturing techniques. As applications grow, the users of the technology grow as well. Once relegated to high-tech laboratories at Fortune 100 companies, additive manufacturing now is employed by the smallest organizations – and increasingly even by individuals. At every point along that spectrum are users with new ideas and unique applications. It seems that almost any problem involving three-dimensional objects can be solved faster and better with the use of additive manufacturing technology. The prerequisite for using additive manufacturing was once a CAD model, but now input can be generated by scan data, entertainment software, as is the case with computer game avatars, and simple drawing and sketching programs. This frees the average individual from the need to learn complex, technical (and relatively costly) software in order to create 3D content for additive manufacturing. In addition, users can purchase 3D content online from companies like Shapeways or download them for free at other companies like Thingiverse.

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Prototyping was among the earliest applications of additive manufacturing technologies and remains one of the most powerful tools for product development. As material quality, surface finish, and dimensional accuracy have improved, additive manufacturing models have been increasingly used for functional prototyping and for tooling and metal casting processes. Consumer products/electronics is the leading industrial sector, followed closely by motor vehicles. Medical/dental has established itself as a strong sector for additive manufacturing, followed by aerospace.

REFERENCES

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Lee, J. A. N. (1995). John T. Parsons. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http:// history.computer.org/pioneers/parsons.html J. C. McDonough, A. W. Susskind. (1953, March). A Numerically Controlled Milling. Computer History Museum. Numerically Controlled Milling Machine, MIT Servomechanisms Lab, 1950s. (2013). (MIT) Retrieved July 30, 2016, from http://museum.mit.edu/150/86 Olesten, N. O. (1970). Numerical Control. New York: Wiley-Interscience. Olexa, R. (2001, August). The Father of the Second Industrial Revolution. MAnufacturing Engineering, p. Volume 127 No 2. Patent US2820187 - Motor controlled apparatus for positioning machine tool. (n.d.). Retrieved April 25, 2017, from https://www.google.com/patents/ US2820187 Player piano “The Entertainer-Youtube.” (2013, October 5). Retrieved from https://i.ytimg.com/vi/aseMAEctM1s/maxresdefault.jpg Siegel, A. (1956, October). Automatic Programming of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools. Control Engineering, 3(10), pp. 65–70. Smil, V. (2005). Creating The Twentieth Century: Technical Innovation of 1867-1914 and Their Lastimg Impact. Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/0195168747.001.0001 Swan, T. (2013, April 30). Ford’s Assembly Line Turns 100: How It Really Put the World on Wheels - Feature. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http:// www.caranddriver.com/features/fords-assembly-line-turns-100-how-it-really- put-the-world-on-wheels-feature Tesla, N. (1888, May 1). Patent No. US 381968 A. USA. Thomas R. Kramer, Frederick M. Proctor, ELena Messina. (2000). The NIST RS274NGC Interpreter - Version 3. NIST. U.S. Army Center of Military History. (2015, December 2). Buffalo Soldiers on the Eve of War. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from http://www.history.army. mil/photos/WWII/ErlyYrs/WW2-ErlYrs.htm Vinci, L. d. (n.d.). Drill with Self-Centering Chuck. Codex Atlanticus Folio 1089.

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Vinci, Leonardo da-Crossbow sketch-1500.jpg. [Photograph] (22 June, 2010). Retrieved from https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Vinci,_Leonardo_ da_-_Crossbow_sketch_-_1500.jpg Ward, J. E. (1960). Automatic Programming of Numerically Controlled Machine Tools, Report no 6873-FR-3. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT, Electronic Systems Laboratory. Wikipedia. (2016, July 30). Pattrick Hanratty. Retrieved July 30, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Patrick_J._Hanratty Wikipedia. (2016, July 31). Printing Press. Retrieved July 31, 2016, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Printing_press Wikipedia. (2017, April 06). Propaganda during the Reformation. Retrieved April 25, 2017, from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propaganda_during_the_ Reformation

ENDNOTE

1 His famous quote was: “customer can have a car painted any color… so long as it is black,” described mass production idea in his book: “My Life and Work”

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