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Introduction xvi Introduction CONFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGIES Today in era of digitalization, sound strange that analog efforts of old times were very important. It seems that in the past, in looking for mass production, our ancestors spent centuries to detect some basic principles of mass production. Because of the work of two genii humanity received necessary acceleration. First genius was Leonardo da Vinci, father of mechanisms machines. Second one was Nikola Tesla, inventor of the electricity (alternate current). After electric motor was invented in 1886, world was experienced explosion of new products and technologies. Henry Ford developed assembly line. As time passing the need for individual production has continued to increase. Machine tools started to get numerical control. Numerical control is expanded on printers, plotters and finally on 3D printers. Big shift in production is shift from subtractive manufacturing to additive manufacturing too. This chapter describes the development of the centuries that have left behind. INTRODUCTION Through the centuries needs for consumer products growing. Producing equal parts leads to mass production. Mass production is the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products, including and especially on assembly lines. Alternate names of mass production are flow production, repetitive flow production, series production or serial production. Job production, batch production and mass production are three main production methods. A 1926 article in the Encyclopedia Britannica first time was used mass production based on correspondence with Ford Motor Company (Hounshell, 1984). Introduction The concept of mass production includes the manufacture of large quantities of standardized products that use assembly line technology. Pre-Industrial Production Standardized parts, sizes and factory production techniques were known in pre-industrial times. Prior the invention of machine tools, the manufacture of precision metal parts was very difficult and labor intensive. Let see first example in Figure 1: crossbows. Crossbows had bronze parts and were produced in Ancient China during the Warring States period. The Qin Emperor unified China by equipping large armies with crossbows, with a sophisticated trigger mechanism made of interchangeable parts. The Carthaginians in their perfect equipped harbors, allowed them to efficient control of the Mediterranean, produced galleys (Ships of war) on a large scale at a moderate cost. Many centuries later, the Venetians also produced ships using prefabricated parts and assembly lines. The Venetian produced nearly one ship per day. This was effectively the world’s first factory that employed up to 16,000 people in peak period. Mass production in the publishing industry started with the Gutenberg Press. First use of press was for printing Martin Luther’s 95 Thesis, but first serious job was print The Holy Bible in the mid-15th century. Figure 1. Crossbow Sketch by Leonardo da Vinci (Source: Vinci, Leonardo da-Crossbow sketch-1500.jpg, 2010) xvii Introduction Woodcut from 1568 shows the left worker removing a page from the press while the one at right inks the text-blocks. Such a duo could reach 14,000 hand movements per working day, printing around 3,600 pages per day, see Figure 2. Industrial Revolution Machine tools, as a device for mass production, started to appear around First Industrial Revolution. The Industrial Revolution (also called First Industrial Revolution) is a change from hand and home production to machine and factory production. Transformation was happened in the period from about 1760 - 1820 (1840). James Watt’s steam engine was the invention that transformed Figure 2. Workers at Gutenberg’s press (Source: Propaganda during the Reformation, 2017) xviii Introduction the existing steam engine from a reciprocating motion (translation) that was used for pumping to a rotating motion suited to industrial applications. Watt and others significantly improved the efficiency of the existing steam engine. Now we will say few words about etymology of the term Industrial Revolution. Term Industrial Revolution was appeared in a letter from 6th of July 1799. French envoy Louis-Guillaume Otto, wrote that France had entered the race of industrialization. (Crouzet, 1996) In next thirty years, the following improvements had been made in important industries: • Textiles: Mechanized steam (or water) power cotton spinning significantly increased the productivity of a worker. The performance of workers who managed steam powered looms increased by a factor of over 40. Removing seed from cotton using steam powered cotton gin increased productivity by a factor of 50. Large improvements occurred in spinning and weaving of wool and linen, but effects were lower than in the previous two examples. • Steam Power: Improvements in steam powered engine technology required 10-20% much fuel. (Smil, 2005) The invention of rotary steam engines by James Watt made them suitable for industrial uses. First locomotive, engineered by George Stephenson in 1830, opened race for railways building. The high-pressure engines, with increased power, stand suitable for transportation. • Iron Making: After James Watt used coke to power his engine, new invention was the substitution charcoal with coke. This substitution significantly reduced the fuel cost for pig iron and increased iron production. Using coke also allowed building larger blast furnaces. As a result, was economy of scale. Sir Henry Bessemer (1813-1898), the British metallurgist, introduced cheap steel production through the Bessemer process. Cheap steel transformed industry and transportation. Where once this costly metal had been reserved for small uses—arms, razors, springs, files—it could now be used to make rails and build ships. Steel rails lasted longer, carried more; steel ships had thinner skins and carried more. In 1856, Bessemer designed a converter, a large, pear-shaped receptacle with holes at the bottom and blew compressed air through the molten pig iron. In just a few minutes, the metal became even hotter, remained molten and ready for die-casting. xix Introduction During the Industrial Revolution, first known simple mass production techniques were used in the Napoleonic Wars at the Portsmouth, England to make ships’ pulley blocks for the Royal Navy. Electrification of Factories Electrification of factories began in the 1890s after the presentation of a functional DC motor by Frank J. Sprague and accelerated after Nikola Tesla, Galileo Ferraris and others developed the AC motor. Nikola Tesla received the rights to be inventor of the AC motor because of his patents from May 1, 1888 (Tesla, 1888). Galileo Ferraris published only paper that he invented AC motor in March 1888. Westinghouse company committee tested both solutions – Tesla’s was more efficient: 67% vs. 60%, like in basketball match with good defense. First AC power plant (hydraulic) was opened in January 1897 at Niagara Falls. Electricity produced at this plan supplied nearest industrial city Buffalo with new type of energy because of magnificent work of Nikola Tesla. Electrification of factories in the USA was fastest between 1900 and 1930. In this period were established electric utilities with central stations. This expansion led to the lowering of power costs, especially in the period from 1914 to 1917. At the beginning of 20th Century, efficiency of electric DC motors was several times larger than efficiency of small steam engines. Reasons were: i) transmission system invented by Nikola Tesla and ii) line shafts and belts had high friction losses. Electric motors were more flexible in manufacturing and required less maintenance than line shafts and belts. Many factories increased productivity for more than 30% just from changing to electric motors. Mass Production As shown earlier, Encyclopedia Britannica popularized the term mass production. The New York Times used the term mass production in the headlines of an article that appeared before publication of the Britannica article. (Hounshell, 1984) This type of production begun at the middle of Second Industrial Revolution started at 1880s with invention of Bessemer process. Henry Ford, one of the greater industrialists of all time, recognized mass production as a critical factor of his business.1(Henry Ford, Samuel xx Introduction Crowther, 1922). Figure 3 present Ford’s Magneto Assembly line, symbol of mass production, was the first invention after Second Industrial Revolution started. Mass production leaded to assembly lines and specialization of works. Mass production is capital intensive and energy intensive. Mass production systems include transport of fluid maters (using pipes), conveyors (to transfer raw materials) and assembly lines. Conveyors are very useful for transportation of heavy (in the case they parts are hung from an overhead crane or monorail) or bulky materials. In a factory that producing a complex product, instead than one assembly line, there may be numerous auxiliary assembly lines feeding sub-assemblies (i.e. car engines or seats) to a backbone main assembly line. A graph of a typical mass-production factory looks more like the fish skeleton rather than a single line. These topics are out of the scope of this book. Single-Part Production and Prototyping In many situations, we have request for production of one to few components of some parts. Best-known situation is prototype production. A prototype is an early sample, model, or release of a product built to test a concept or
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