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The Misunderstood Placebo | Climate Change Controversy | Relics of the Cross
Vol. 34 No. 6 | November/December 2010 THE MAGAZINE FOR SCIENCE & REASON
Published by The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/24/10 2:27 PM Page 2
AT THE CEN TERFOR IN QUIRY /TRANSNATIONAL
www.csicop.org Paul Kurtz, Founder Joe Nickell, Senior Research Fellow Richard Schroeder, Chairman Massimo Polidoro, Research Fellow Ronald A. Lindsay, President and CEO Benjamin Radford, Research Fellow Bar ry Karr, Ex ec u tive Di rect or Richard Wiseman, Research Fellow
James E. Al cock, psy chol o gist, York Univ., Tor on to Sus an Haack, Coop er Sen ior Scholar in Arts and Lor en Pan kratz, psy chol o gist, Or e gon Health Mar cia An gell, MD, former ed i tor-in-chief, Sci en ces, professor of phi los o phy and professor Sci en ces Univ. New Eng land Jour nal of Med i cine of Law, Univ. of Mi ami Robert L. Park,professor of physics, Univ. of Maryland Kimball Atwood IV, MD, physician, author, Harriet Hall, MD, family physician, investigator, Jay M. Pasachoff, Field Memorial Professor of Newton, MA Puyallup, WA Astronomy and director of the Hopkins Steph en Bar rett, MD, psy chi a trist, au thor, con sum er C.E.M. Han sel, psy chol o gist, Univ. of Wales Observatory, Williams College ad vo cate, Al len town, Pa. David J. Helfand, professor of astronomy, John Paulos, math e ma ti cian, Tem ple Univ. Willem Betz,MD, professor of medicine, Univ. of Brussels Columbia Univ. Massimo Pigliucci, professor of philosophy, Ir ving Bie der man, psychol o gist, Univ. of Doug las R. Hof stad ter, pro fes sor of hu man City Univ. of New York–Lehman College South ern Cal i for nia un der stand ing and cog ni tive sci ence, In di ana Univ. Stev en Pink er, cog ni tive sci en tist, Harvard Sus an Black more, Vis it ing Lec tur er, Univ. of the West Ger ald Hol ton, Mal linc krodt Pro fes sor of Phys ics and Philip Plait, astronomer, lecturer, and writer of Eng land, Bris tol pro fes sor of his to ry of sci ence, Har vard Univ. Mas si mo Pol id oro, sci ence writer, au thor, ex ec u tive Hen ri Broch, phys i cist, Univ. of Nice, France Ray Hy man, psy chol o gist, Univ. of Or e gon di rect or CI CAP, It a ly Jan Har old Brun vand, folk lor ist, pro fes sor emer i tus Le on Jar off, sci en ces ed i tor emer i tus, Time James “The Amazing” Randi, magician, CSICOP of Eng lish, Univ. of Utah Stuart D. Jordan, NASA astrophysicist emeritus, founding member; founder, James Randi Mar io Bunge, phi los o pher, McGill Univ., Montreal science advisor to Center for Inquiry Office of Educational Foundation Robert T. Carroll, emeritus professor of philosophy, Public Policy, Washington, D.C. Mil ton Ro sen berg, psy chol o gist, Univ. of Chic a go Sacramento City College, writer Ser gei Ka pit za, former ed i tor, Rus sian edi tion, Wal la ce Sam pson, MD, clin i cal pro fes sor of med i cine, Sean B. Carroll, professor of molecular genetics, Sci en tif ic Amer i can Stan ford Univ., ed i tor, Sci en tif ic Re view of Univ. of Wisconsin–Madison Law rence M. Krauss, foundation professor, School Al ter na tive Med i cine John R. Cole, an thro pol o gist, edi tor, Na tion al of Earth and Space Exploration and Physics Dept., Am ar deo Sar ma*, chairman, GWUP, Ger ma ny Cen ter for Sci ence Ed u ca tion director, Origins Initiative, Arizona State Univ. Ev ry Schatz man, former pres i dent, K.C. Cole, science writer, author, professor, Harry Kroto, professor of chemistry and French Phys ics As so ci a tion Univ. of Southern California’s Annenberg biochemistry, Florida State Univ.; Nobel laureate Eu ge nie Scott, phys i cal an thro pol o gist, ex ec u tive School of Journalism. Ed win C. Krupp, as tron o mer, di rect or, di rect or, Na tion al Cen ter for Sci ence Ed u ca tion Fred er ick Crews, lit er ary and cul tur al crit ic, pro fes sor Grif fith Ob ser va to ry, Los Angeles, CA Rob ert Sheaf fer, sci ence writer emer i tus of Eng lish, Univ. of Cal i for nia, Berke ley Paul Kurtz, professor emeritus of philosophy, El ie A. Shne our, bi o chem ist, au thor, president and Rich ard Dawk ins, zo ol o gist, Ox ford Univ. SUNY at Buffalo research director, Bi os ys tems Re search In sti tute, Geof frey Dean, tech ni cal ed i tor, Perth, Aus tral ia Law rence Kusche, sci ence writer La Jol la, CA Cor nel is de Ja ger, pro fes sor of as tro phys ics, Le on Le der man, emer i tus di rect or, Fer mi lab; Seth Shostak, senior astronomer, SETI Institute, Univ. of Utrecht, The Neth er lands No bel lau re ate in phys ics Mountain View, CA Dan i el C. Den nett, Univ. pro fes sor and Aus tin B. Scott Lil ien feld, psy chol o gist, Emory Univ. Dick Smith,film pro duc er, pub lish er, Ter rey Hills, Fletch er Pro fes sor of Phi los o phy, di rect or of Lin Zix in, former ed i tor, Sci ence and N.S.W., Aus tral ia Cen ter for Cog ni tive Stud ies at Tufts Uni v. Tech nol o gy Dai ly (Chi na) Rob ert Steiner, ma gi cian, au thor, El Cer ri to, CA Ann Druyan, writer and producer, and CEO, Je re Lipps, Mu se um of Pa le on tol ogy, Univ. of CA, Vic tor J. Sten ger, emer i tus pro fes sor of phys ics Cosmos Studios, Ithaca, NY Berke ley and as tron o my, Univ. of Ha waii; ad junct pro fes sor Ken neth Fed er, pro fes sor of an thro pol o gy, Eliz a beth Loft us, pro fes sor of psy chol o gy, of phi los o phy, Univ. of CO Cen tral Con nec ti cut State Univ. Univ. of CA, Ir vine Jill Cor nell Tar ter,as tron o mer, SE TI In sti tute, An to ny Flew, phi los o pher, Read ing Univ., U.K. Da vid Marks,psy chol o gist, City Univ., Lon don Moun tain View, CA Barbara Forrest, professor of philosophy, Mar io Men dez-Acos ta, jour nal ist and sci ence writer, Car ol Tav ris,psy chol o gist and au thor, Los Ange les, CA SE Louisiana Univ. Mex i co City, Mex i co Da vid Thom as, phys i cist and math e ma ti cian, An drew Fra knoi, as tron o mer, Foot hill Col lege, Kenneth R. Miller, professor of biology, Per al ta, NM Los Al tos Hills,CA. Brown Univ. Steph en Toul min, pro fes sor of phi los o phy, Kend rick Fra zier*, sci ence writer, ed i tor, Marv in Min sky, pro fes sor of me dia arts and sci en ces, Univ. of Southern CA SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER M.I.T. Neil deGras se Ty son, as tro phys i cist and di rect or, Christopher C. French, professor, department Da vid Mor ri son, space sci en tist, NA SA Ames Re search Hay den Plan e tar ium, New York City of psychology, and head of the Anomalistic Cen ter Ma ri lyn vos Sa vant, Pa rade mag a zine Psychology Research Unit, Goldsmiths Rich ard A. Mul ler, pro fes sor of phys ics, Univ. of CA., con trib ut ing ed i tor College, Univ. of London Berke ley Stev en Wein berg, pro fes sor of phys ics and as tron o my, Yves Gal i fret, executive secretary, Joe Nick ell, sen ior re search fel low, CSI Univ. of Tex as at Aus tin; No bel lau re ate l’Union Rationaliste Jan Willem Nienhuys, mathematician, Waalre, E.O. Wil son, uni ver si ty pro fes sor emer i tus, Luigi Garlaschelli, chemist, Università di Pavia The Netherlands Har vard Univ. (Italy), research fellow of CICAP, Lee Nis bet, phi los o pher, Med aille Col lege Rich ard Wis eman, psy chol o gist, Uni ver sity the Italian skeptics’ group Steven Novella, MD, assistant professor of Hert ford shire Maryanne Garry, professor, School of Psychology, of neurology, Yale Univ. School of Medicine Benjamin Wolozin*, professor, department of Victoria Univ. of Wellington, New Zealand Bill Nye, sci ence ed u ca tor and tel e vi sion host, pharmacology, Boston Univ. School of Medicine Mur ray Gell-Mann, pro fes sor of phys ics, San ta Fe Nye Labs Marv in Zel en, stat is ti cian, Har vard Univ. In sti tute; No bel lau re ate James E. Oberg, sci ence writer Thom as Gi lov ich, psy chol o gist, Cor nell Univ. Irm gard Oe pen, pro fes sor of med i cine (re tired), * Mem ber, CSI Ex ec u tive Coun cil Mar burg, Ger ma ny (Af fil i a tions giv en for iden ti fi ca tion on ly.) SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/24/10 2:27 PM Page 3
Skep ti cal In quir er November / December 2010 | Vol. 34, No. 6
SPECIAL ISSUE COLUMNS FROM THE EDITORS MONSTER A Medley of Monsters and Mayhem...... 4 NEWS AND COMMENT MAYHEM Three-Country Evolution Poll: Stark Contrast in U.S. vs. Canadian and British Beliefs/The Amaz!ng Meeting of 2010/ 36 Mosquito Zappers/Study: If Asked, God Frankenstein May Improve Vision and Hearing/Ghost Was Not a Doctor Hunter Killed Seeking ‘Ghost Train’/The RON WATKINS Loss of Climate Scientist Stephen H. Schneider ...... 5 40 INVES TI GA TIVE FILES Zombie! The True Cross: Chaucer, Calvin, and the Relic Mongers Joining the Living Dead JOE NICK ELL...... 18 JOE NICKELL NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD 44 How to Make a Monster! Ghost-Hunting Mistakes The Legend of Creating Artificial Science and Pseudoscience in Life: From the Golem to Pinocchio MAS SI MO POLIDORO ...... 22 Ghost Investigations BENJAMIN RADFORD THINKING ABOUT SCI ENCE The Wired Future of Humanity 48 MAS SI MO PI GLI UC CI...... 25 From the Edge of Postcards THE SKEPTICAL INQUIREE The Wem Ghost Photo Infrared Cameras and BLAKE SMITH Ghost Hunting BENJAMIN RADFORD...... 26
51 PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS Passion for the Paranormal Hovering UFO Closes TONYA KEYSER Chinese Airport ROBERT SHEAFFER...... 27
SPECIAL REPORT INTERVIEW SCIENCE WATCH Life after JCVI-syn1.0 11 14 KENNETH W. KRAUSE ...... 30 An Open Letter in MythBusters’s THE SCIENCE OF MEDICINE Defense of Reason Adam Savage The Poor, Misunderstood Placebo STEVEN NOVELLA ...... 33 TOMASZ WITKOWSKI KAREN STOLLZNOW LETTERS TO THE EDI TOR...... 60
THE LAST LAUGH...... 66 REVIEW The Storms over Climate Change DAVID MORRISON...... 54
Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of about the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Scientists Obscured the Truth on Issues from Our Last Chance to Save Humanity Tobacco Smoke to Global Warming By James Hansen By Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway
Science as a Contact Sport: Inside the Cover photo: “BED” by Joshua Hoffine. Battle to Save Earth’s Climate [email protected] By Stephen H. Schneider SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/27/10 9:35 AM Page 4
[ FROM THE EDITORS Skep ti cal In quir er™ THE MAG A ZINE FOR SCI ENCE AND REA SON
ED I TOR Kend rick Fra zi er A Medley of Monsters and Mayhem ED I TO RI AL BOARD James E. Al cock, Thom as Cas ten, Ray Hy man, Joe Nick ell, Am ar deo Sar ma, Benjamin Wolozin ou may find this issue a bit scarier than the last. After all, it’s got monsters CON SULT ING ED I TORS Sus an J. Black more, Ken neth L. Fed er, Barry Karr, E. C. Krupp, on its cover and inside its pages. Monsters are everywhere these days—at Scott O. Lil i en feld, Da vid F. Marks, Jay M. Pasachoff, least in pop culture. From the vampires in the Twilight movies to the spirits Eu genie Scott, Rich ard Wis e man Y CON TRIB UT ING ED I TORS in the hit Ghost Hunters TV show (now in its sixth season), interest in monsters and Austin Dacey, D.J. Grothe, Harriet Hall, paranormal predators has never been higher. To celebrate all things spooky, we have Kenneth W. Krause, Chris Moon ey, James E. Oberg, Rob ert Sheaf fer, Karen Stollznow, Da vid E. Thom as assembled a special issue devoted to monsters—all from a skeptical perspective. MAN A GING ED I TOR Ben ja min Rad ford Massimo Polidoro fills us in on the golem monster of Jewish legend, while ART DI RECT OR Chri sto pher Fix our own intrepid Joe Nickell dishes the dirt on zombies (including his cinematic PRO DUC TION Paul Loynes stint as the undead). Blake Smith discusses the interesting case of a famous ghost ASSISTANT EDITORS Julia Lavarnway, Gretchen McCormack photo taken in England; Tonya Keyser provides a revealing look at the recent surge WEB DEVELOPER Jon Childress in paranormal romance fiction, and Ron Watkins re-examines the titular scientist PUBLISH ER’S REP RE SENT A TIVE Bar ry Karr in Mary Shelley’s classic horror novel Frankenstein. Plus, I contribute an analysis of COR PO RATE COUN SEL Bren ton N. VerPloeg common ghost-hunting mistakes. And the fun doesn’t stop there—be sure to check BUSI NESS MAN A GER Pa tri cia Beau champ out our website for Karen Stollznow’s special online-only installment of her “Naked FIS CAL OF FI CER Paul Pau lin VICE PRESIDENT OF PLANNING AND DEVEL OPMENT Skeptic” column on the monstrous Frog Boy. Sherry Rook While there is an undeniable entertainment element to monsters, there can DATA OF FI CER Jacalyn Mohr also be a more serious side. No one really believes in ghosts or vampires or STAFF Pa tri cia Beau champ, Cheryl Catania , Roe Giambrone, Leah Gordon, Melissa Braun, witches, right? In fact, polls show that many Americans do believe in ghosts and An tho ny San ta Lu cia, John Sul li van, Vance Vi grass haunted houses. In late August, a North Carolina man was killed during a search IN QUIRY ME DIA PRO DUC TIONS Thom as Flynn for specters. He, along with a dozen members of an amateur ghost-hunting DI RECT OR OF LI BRAR IES Tim o thy S. Binga group, were on a railroad bridge hoping to glimpse a “ghost train” when a real The SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER is the of fi cial train came along. The vampire beast el chupacabra is thought by many to exist jour nal of the Com mit tee for Skeptical Inquiry, throughout Latin America, and a recent poll found that over half of those living an in ter na tional organ i za tion. in sub-Saharan Africa believe in witchcraft—which results in the murders of many innocent children and albinos. The SKEP TI CALIN QUIR ER(ISSN 0194-6730) is pub lished bi month - ly by the Com mit tee for Skeptical Inquiry, 3965 Rensch Road, Am herst, NY 14228. Print ed in U.S.A. Pe ri od i cals post age paid at Buf fa lo, NY, and at ad di tion al mail ing of fi ces. Sub scrip tion pri ces: one year (six is sues), $35; two years, $60; three years, $84; sin gle is sue, $4.95. Ca na di an and foreign or ders: Pay ment in U.S. funds drawn on a U.S. bank must ac com pa - ny or ders; please add US$10 per year for ship ping. Ca na di an and for eign cus tom ers are en cour aged to use Vi sa or Mas ter - Card. Canada Publications Mail Agreement No. 41153509. A New Column Return undeliverable Canadian addresses to: IMEX, P.O. Box 4332, Station Rd., Toronto , ON M5W 3J4. In quir ies from the me dia and the pub lic about the work of the e introduce a new column in this issue: “The Science of Medicine” by Com mit tee should be made to Barry Karr, Executive Director, Steven Novella, MD. In his first contribution, Novella provides a nu- CSI, P.O. Box 703, Am herst, NY 14226-0703. Tel.: 716-636- 1425. Fax: 716-636-1733. anced explanation of the much-misunderstood placebo effect (more Man u scripts, let ters, books for re view, and ed i to ri al in quir ies W should be sent to Kend rick Fra zi er, Edi tor, SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER, properly effects) that I think will be valuable to skeptics and nonskeptics alike. 944 Deer Drive NE, Albu querque, NM 87122. E-mail: kendrick Novella is one of the country’s best-informed and most active skeptics. A clinical [email protected]. Fax: 505-828-2080. Be fore sub mit ting neurologist, he is assistant professor and director of general neurology at Yale any man u script, please con sult our Guide for Au thors for styles, ref er en ce requirements, and submittal re quire ments. School of Medicine. He’s well known in the world of skepticism as founder and It is on our website at www.csi cop.org/pub lications/guide. president of the New England Skeptical Society and host of its lively podcast Or you may send a re quest to the ed i tor. the Skeptics’ Guide to the Universe. He is also executive editor of the Science-Based Ar ti cles, re ports, re views, and let ters pub lished in the SKEP TI - CALIN QUIR ERrep re sent the views and work of in di vid u al au thors. Medicine blog and has his own useful blog, NeuroLogica. Novella is a Committee Their pub lica tion does not nec es sa ri ly con sti tute an en dorse - for Skeptical Inquiry fellow. He joins a powerhouse list of regular physician- ment by CSI or its mem bers un less so stated. Cop y right ©2010 by the Com mit tee for Skeptical Inquiry. All skeptic contributors to the SKEPTICAL INquIRER. rights re served. The SKEP TI CALIN QUIR ERis avail a ble on 16mm mi - cro film, 35mm mi cro film, and 105mm mi cro fiche from Uni - ver si ty Mi cro films In terna tion al and is in dexed in the Read er’s Guide to Pe ri od i cal Lit er a ture. Sub scrip tions and chan ges of ad dress should be ad dressed to: SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER, P.O. Box 703, Am herst, NY 14226-0703. Or call toll-free 1-800-634-1610 (out side the U.S. call 716- 636-1425). Old ad dress as well as new are nec essa ry for change of sub scrib er’s ad dress, with six weeks ad vance no - tice. SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER sub scrib ers may not speak on be half of Committee for Skeptical Inquiry CSI or the SKEP TI CAL IN QUIR ER. Post mas ter: Send chan ges of ad dress to SKEP TI CALIN QUIR ER, P.O. “...promotes science and scientific inquiry, critical thinking, Box 703, Am herst, NY 14226-0703. science education, and the use of reason in examining important issues.”
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[ NEWS AND COMMENT
Three-Country Evolution Poll: Stark Contrast in U.S. vs. Canadian and British Beliefs Kendrick Frazier
We already know that compared with Origin of Humans most developed countries of the world, Which of these statements comes closest to your own point of view acceptance of evolution in the United regarding the origin and development of human beings on Earth? States is dismal. Jon Miller and col- leagues reported in 2006 that polls in thirty-four countries showed that only Canada United States Great Britain one—Turkey—had a lower rate of ac- ceptance of evolution. The United Human beings evolved from less 61% 35% 68% advanced life forms over millions States was, as he put it, “out on a limb of years. by ourselves” (SI, May/June 2006). A new three-country poll not only God created human beings in their 24% 47% 16% present form within the past re veals data on how far behind the 10,000 years. United States is on this point—com- pared to its two closest nations in the I’m not sure. 15% 18% 15% English-speaking world, Canada and Britain—but also gives fascinating re- gional details. Polls of representative samples of In Britain, two-thirds of respondents Amer icans, Canadians, and Britons (68 percent) side with evolution, while were carried out by Angus Reid Public fewer than one-in-five people (16 per-
Opinion in the first nine days of July cent) choose creationism. At least 2010 and announced on July 15. The seven-in-ten respondents in the South Americans remain contrast among nations is starkly of England (70 percent) and Scotland worded in the title of the company’s (75 percent) believe that human beings own an nouncement of the results: firmly on the wrong evolved from less advanced life forms “Amer icans are Creationists: Britons side of the science over millions of years. At 58 percent, and Canadians Side with Evolution.” London holds the smallest proportion Americans remain firmly on the when it comes to of evolutionists. wrong side of the science when it comes In Canada, three-in-five respon- to evolution, which is perhaps the key evolution, which is dents (61 percent) select evolution from fundamental unifying principle of biol- the options provided, while one-in- ogy. Evolution has strong multiple lines perhaps the key fun- four people (24 percent) choose cre- of supporting evidence and has long ationism. Quebec (66 percent), along been accepted by life scientists, who damental unifying with British Columbia and the Atlantic value its explanatory power. provinces (64 percent), hold the highest The online survey asked respondents principle of biology. proportion of respondents who believe whether their own point of view is closest human beings evolved. At the other end to the notion that human beings evolved of the spectrum, 39 percent of the resi- from less advanced life forms over mil- dents of Manitoba and Saskatch ewan
lions of years or the idea that God created think God created human beings in human beings in their present form their present form. within the past 10,000 years.
Skeptical Inquirer | November/ December 2010 5
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In the United States, almost half of re spondents (47 percent) believe that GREAT BRITAIN God created human beings in their Which of these statements comes closest to your own point of view regarding the origin and development of human beings on Earth? present form within the past 10,000 years, while one-third (35 percent) think human beings evolved from less ad vanced life forms over millions of GREAT BRITAIN years. Half of midwesterners (49 per- cent) and southerners (51 percent)
agree with creationism, while those in the Northeast are more likely to side with evolution (43 percent).
In the United States, more males than females accept that human beings evolved UNITED STATES Which of these statements comes closest to your own point of view from less advanced regarding the origin and development of human beings on Earth? life forms. REGION UNITED STATES Northeast Midwest South West Gender and age breakdowns showed Human beings evolved from 35% 43% 37% 27% 38% some interesting differences as well. In less advanced life forms over millions of years. the United States, more males than fe - males accept that human beings evolved God created human beings in 47% 38% 49% 51% 45% from less advanced life forms (43 per- their present form within the past 10,000 years. cent vs. 28 percent). Americans aged eighteen to thirty-four were evenly di- I’m not sure. 18% 19% 13% 21% 16% vided between evolution and creation (41 percent vs. 41 percent), while those age fifty-five and over were less accept- ing (32 percent saying humans evolved vs. 51 percent saying God created hu- CANADA mans in their present form). Those in Which of these statements comes closest to your own point of view the intermediate age group (35–54) regarding the origin and development of human beings on Earth? showed beliefs not much different from their older counterparts (33 percent evolution, 49 percent creation). CANADA In Britain, 72 percent of males vs. 65 percent of females accept evolution; the age distribution is fairly even. In Can - ada, 69 percent of males and 54 percent of females accept evolution, and younger people are more accepting. The accompanying tables display some of the comparisons. The full poll is available online at www.visioncritical.com/2010/07/amer- icans-are-creationists-britons- and- canadians-side-with-evolution/.n
6 Volume 34 Issue 6 | Skeptical Inquirer
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[ NEWS AND COMMENT
The Amaz!ng Meeting of 2010 Karen Stollznow
“What’s a TAM?” we’re asked by the un initiated. We reply, incredulously, “You haven’t heard of TAM?” Those who self-identify as skeptics know that TAM is the acronym for The Amaz!ng Meeting, which is hosted by James “The Amazing” Randi and his organization, the James Randi Educa - tional Foundation ( JREF). The world’s largest conference on critical thinking, TAM is like a Tech - nology, Entertainment, Design (TED) conference, a G8 summit, or a World
Economic Forum (WEF) Annual Meet - Photography Press F. Bruce Photo: ing for skeptics. D.J. Grothe interviews biologist Richard Dawkins at TAM8. Now in its eighth year, TAM has Tavris. TAM8 also concentrated on the come a long way from its humble origin history and roots of skepticism. This of merely 150 skeptics assembled in year’s meeting paid homage to seminal Fort Lauderdale, Florida, back in 2003. skeptics Paul Kurtz, Ray Hyman, Ken My first meeting, TAM3, attracted TAM is like a Frazier, and James Randi and paid last some 500 guests—this is where I met respects to Martin Gardner, arguably conference birth-giver Girl 6, as she Tech nology, the founder of the modern skeptical knitted quietly in the front row of the Entertainment, Design movement. conference hall. TAM has grown expo- Some skeptics deny there is a “skep- nentially to welcome some 1,300 atten- (TED) conference, tical movement”—due to the phrase’s dees in the United States, with ad ditional a G8 summit, religious and bureaucratic connota- events including meetings in England tions—and prefer “critical thinkers” or and Australia and cruises. or a World Economic “com munity.” During an interview with Held at the South Point Hotel in comedy writer David Javerbaum, Javer - Las Vegas, July 8–11, 2010, the central Forum (WEF) Annual baum argued against the idea that there themes of TAM8 were unification, ed- Meet ing for skeptics. is a “movement,” remarking that “trying ucation, and outreach. to organize skeptics is like herding cats.” Skeptics certainly aren’t cats or sheep Come Together to be herded, but there were 1,300 of us With D.J. Grothe at the helm as presi- there... dent, the JREF has focused on the uni- tions were represented by skeptics who fication of the skeptical movement. appeared on various panels and work- Preaching to the Unconverted Local organizations and grassroots shops, including CSI’s Barry Karr, Ken (and the Converted) groups are always encouraged; there is Frazier, and Joe Nickell and Skeptic Years ago, TAM moved from a winter strength in numbers, though, and we’re magazine’s Michael Shermer, Pat Linse, date to a summer schedule to enable all unified by our ideology and common and Daniel Loxton. educators to attend during their school goals. At Grothe’s insistence, TAM8 The meeting featured its usual holidays. Randi’s organization is busy was a coming together of the world’s “celebrity skeptics,” including Myth - keeping the “education” in “JREF.” major skeptical organizations, and the busters’s Adam Savage (see my Point of In their commitment to pedagogy, event was co-sponsored by the Com- Inquiry interview, excerpted in this the JREF secured Michael Blanford as mittee for Skep tical Inquiry (CSI) and issue), mentalist Banachek, and notable director of education and established a the Skeptics Soci ety. These organiza- academics Richard Dawkins and Carol number of educational initiatives—in -
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cluding workshops that provide re - tion. We need to “preach” not only to we spoke about skeptics’ duty of care sources for teachers and other educators the unconverted but also to the choir; toward believers, and we encouraged and grants to encourage the creation of even the choir can forget the songs. skeptics to be diplomatic when repre- critical-thinking courses at secondary senting skepticism. Becoming a skeptic and tertiary levels. Do unto Others means becoming an activist—a face and TAM8 offered more workshops than TAM8 acknowledged the importance voice for skepticism. ever before, focusing on grassroots skep- of outreach and grassroots activism, but Phil Plait also tackled these themes. ticism and education. “Skepticism in the it also recognized the need to improve In what has become known as the Classroom” featured Daniel Loxton, the public image of skepticism. The “Don’t Be a Dick” speech, Plait voiced Matt Lowry, and Michael Blanford, who message was that we can increase our his concerns over the public perception presented materials and practical tips to effectiveness and increase our numbers of skeptics as antisocial, egotistical, and increase science literacy, science appreci- by simply being . . . nicer. abrasive. He reports that the growing ation, critical thinking, and skepticism— We all know the stereotypes of skep- popularity of Skepticism 2.0 has also not only in schools but in society. We tics. There is the boring, bearded, be - seen a rise in rudeness online. Plait’s don’t need to be teachers to teach, and of spectacled old man. There is the cynical plea was that we should avoid undue at- course skepticism begins at home. and cantankerous curmudgeon. There tacks and insults because we’re most In my “Skepticism 101” workshop is the self-righteous, smug, superior persuasive when we are respectful and with Jeff Wagg, we highlighted the im - know-it-all. Rather than worrying rational. portance of not only teaching critical about gender or age, we should worry Of course, there’s a time to be con- thinking but continuing to learn it our- about ap proaches and attitudes. frontational, but there’s also a time to be selves. Skepticism is an ongoing educa- In the “Skepticism 101” workshop, considerate. Such animosity is often di- rected toward believers, but the conflict also occurs among skeptics, manifesting MonsterTalk Podcast Celebrates in feuds and factions that appear online. Anniversary with Parsec Nomination Now is an exciting and necessary time to be a skeptic; we should ignore inter- MonsterTalk, a free audio podcast that critically examines the science behind monsters such nal bickering and schoolyard squabbles as Bigfoot, Nessie, and werewolves, recently celebrated its first anniversary with a Parsec so we can just get on with the job. award nomination (for Best Fact Behind the Fiction podcast) and over 10,000 downloads per episode. Hosted by Blake Smith, SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Managing Editor Benjamin Radford, and What Happens in Vegas . . . CSI columnist Karen Stollznow, MonsterTalk goes beyond typical, superficial media-friendly TAM8 was a long weekend of rousing sound bites. Its long-form interviews allow experts (who are often working scientists) to pro- vide depth and context to their subjects. It is also one of the few skeptical podcasts that pres- talks, workshops, panels, stimulating ents original research by the show’s co-hosts. The topics are diverse, and past show topics speakers, socializing, and networking. have included Mothman, dinosaurs, genetic engineering, hybrids, H.P. Lovecraft, the ivory- Hopefully, what happened in Vegas billed woodpecker, vampires, Bigfoot “dermal ridges,” insects, ghosts, and the chupacabra. won’t stay in Vegas. MonsterTalk can also be heard via subscription on iTunes; Skeptics are still “coming down” for more information visit www.skeptic.com/podcasts/monstertalk/. after what is known as the “TAM high” and eagerly awaiting next year’s event. Let’s maintain the motivation and stay in spired. Barring unwanted acquisi- tions, such as gambling debts or sur- prise spouses, don’t let what happened in Vegas stay there. Take home the new friendships you forged, the knowledge you gained, the ideas, and the inspira- tion. But don’t keep these to yourself; share them with your family, friends, and community. This is what skepticism is all about.n
See photos from Randi's Amazing Meeting in Las Vegas at: www.csicop.org/SIExtras MonsterTalk podcast co-hosts Blake Smith, Benjamin Radford, and Karen Stollznow SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/29/10 12:18 PM Page 9
[ NEWS AND COMMENT
Study: If Asked, God May Mosquito Zappers Improve Vision and Hearing Get Zapped Benjamin Radford Terence Hines
A study released in August 2010 claimed son who takes a placebo that they be- We’ve all seen them: those ads for de - to have found evidence that, if specifi- lieve is a pain reliever might experience vices that repel mosquitoes by emitting cally requested, God might heal those less pain. a high-frequency sound that—it is with impaired hearing and vision. Furthermore, the study did not con- claimed—prevents little biters from ac- Candy Gunther Brown, an associate trol for the pre-existing beliefs of the tually biting. Now a malaria scientist in professor in the Department of Religious patients. According to the study, “sub- the Nether lands has been taking action Studies at Indiana University–Bloom- jects were recruited at Charismatic against those claims. As reported in Sci- ington, led the study of “proximal inter- Protestant meetings . . . widely reputed ence (“Mosquito Buzzer Won’t Fly,” March 5, 2010), Bart Knols, who runs cessory prayer.” The study, published in among Pentecostals globally as ‘special- the website MalariaWorld.org, saw an the Sep tember issue of the Southern ists’ in praying for those with hearing and titled “Study of the ad for the MozStop device in KLM Medical Journal and vision impairments.” That is, all Thera peutic Effects of Proximal Inter- Royal Dutch Airlines’s in-flight maga- the subjects in the study not only firmly cessory Prayer (STEPP) on Auditory zine. He complained to the airline and believed in the power of prayer, but they and Visual Impairments in Rural Mo - the ads were removed. Since the report believed such prayer was especially zambique,” measured improvements in in Science, British Air ways and Finnair vision and hearing in a rural area of the helpful in treating eye and ear prob- have also removed such ads. Knols was southern African country. lems. The subjects could have easily especially concerned that people going The team used an audiometer and vi- been influenced by what scientists call to places where malaria is endemic sion charts to evaluate fourteen patients “demand characteristics”: patients tel ling would buy the product and believe, in- who reported impaired hearing and the re searchers (and those who prayed) correctly, that they were being protected. eleven who reported impaired vision, what the patients think the researchers Knols’s website provides a link to a 2007 both before and after members of a local want to hear. It would be interesting (and paper, “Electronic Mos quito Re pel lents church prayed for their healing. Subjects important) to know whether or not mal- for Preventing Mosquito Bites and reported a small but statistically signifi- adies in atheists, agnostics, and others Malaria Infection” (by A.A. Enayati, J. cant improvement in hearing and vision who lack a pre-existing belief in the Hem ingway, and P. Garner), that was following the prayers. power of prayer would be improved. published as a Cochrane Re view. This At first glance the study is interesting, It is worth noting that better-de- review found that the devices “have no but upon closer examination serious lim- signed studies have found prayer is inef- effect on preventing mosquito bites.” itations become apparent. First, the sam- fective. In 2006, researchers at six major Thus, it is highly irresponsible to adver- ple size is tiny; with only twenty-four medical centers, including Harvard and tise them with any implication that they participants the results are very difficult the Mayo Clinic, completed the largest prevent malaria. to generalize to a larger population. Sec- prayer study to date—“Study of the Knols’s successful efforts to remove fraudulent ads show that it is possible for ond, the measures studied by Brown and Therapeutic Effects of Intercessory skeptics to make a difference, one little her colleagues were inherently subjective Prayer ‘STEP’ in Cardiac Bypass Pa- and were not objectively measured. In- bit at a time. This maxim has proved true tients,” published in the American Heart deed, the authors admit that “auditory in my own experience as well. A few Journal. Research for this study, led by and visual impairments are . . . not unaf- years ago, I had very good results in hav- Dr. Herbert Benson, was conducted over fected by psychosomatic factors.” ing ads pulled from a number of local almost a decade. Two thousand cardiac A double-blind study (that is, one in radio stations—for the “See Clearly” surgery patients were randomly as- which neither the researchers nor the method of eyesight improvement. The patients know who gets the treatment signed to different prayer groups. See Clearly method claimed that eye- and who is in the control group) would Prayer was found to have no beneficial glasses actually make vision worse. have been far more reliable. It would effect on recovery time, death rate, or As the saying goes: think globally; help control for the well-known placebo any other factor. act locally. n effect; it is not only possible but likely Brown and her colleagues addressed that those who receive personal, special neither the mechanism by which the Terence Hines is professor of psychology attention from prayer groups and re- prayer was supposedly effective (how at Pace University and author of Pseudo - searchers might genuinely believe that exactly the prayer helped) nor why a science and the Paranormal (Prometheus they can see or hear better, at least tem- benevolent god would help only those Books). He may be reached via e-mail at porarily—much in the way that a per- whom he is specifically asked to assist. n [email protected].
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Ghost Hunter Killed while ghost hunting at a historic Univer- He was a strong defender of good sity of Toronto building. The woman, science and had thought deeply about Seeking ‘Ghost Train’ along with a man with whom she was on the responsibilities of scientists: both to Benjamin Radford a first date, had entered the building at perform good science and to work with around 2AM and was searching for ghosts policymakers, media, and members of In the wake of popular “reality” TV when she fell three floors to her death the public to explain their findings. Un- shows like Ghost Hunters and Para - from the roof. like many scientists, Schneider was normal State, police across the country The tragic irony is that there is no sci- comfortable and effective when working have seen a recent upsurge in people entific proof that ghosts exist (and if they at the turbulent crossroads of science being ar rested, injured, and even killed do, they certainly have never injured or and public affairs. He gave frequent while looking for ghosts. killed anyone), yet the pursuit of ghosts congressional testimony, made regular Christopher Kaiser was killed on can be a very dangerous activity.n media ap pearances, and was a fine August 28, 2010, while ghost hunting writer and communicator. His book with a group of friends. The group of a about his experiences in the Climate dozen amateur ghost hunters had gath- The Loss of Wars, Science as a Con tact Sport , is re- ered on a bridge over Third Creek near viewed in this issue. Statesville, North Carolina, hoping to Climate Scientist Schneider’s short invited piece “Cli - see the ghost of a train that crashed Stephen H. Schneider mate Change: Skeptics vs. Deniers” ap - there 119 years earlier, killing thirty Kendrick Frazier peared in our May/June 2009 issue. It people. The ghost-hunting group be- is still very pertinent. Earlier this year lieved a local legend that the train’s Those who work at the intersection of Schneider was nominated to become a ghost would materialize on the an- science and the public, especially those fellow of the Committee for Skeptical niversary of the accident. The ghost in the world of climate science, have Inquiry and in dicated he would accept train did not appear, but a real one did: been mourning the death of Stephen if elected. a Norfolk Southern came around a H. Schneider. Paul Ehrlich, Schneider’s Stanford bend heading toward them. Kaiser was the sole fatality. Kaiser’s death is the most recent ex- ample of the dangers of looking for ghosts. But also in August 2010, in Meriden, Connect icut, three ghost hunters were seriously injured while fleeing from police after trespassing in an old building reputed to be haunted. When police arrived at the building, which is private property well marked with “no trespassing” signs, the men scrambled to avoid arrest—running off a cliff in the darkness. In August 2006, an Ohio girl was shot while exploring a supposedly haun - ted house near a cemetery. In their hunt Stephen H. Schneider for ghosts, Rachel Barezinsky and her Schneider, one of the world’s most Uni versity friend and colleague, offered friends had trespassed onto the prop- respected and outspoken climate scien- a moving personal tribute in the August erty of Allen Davis, who fired a rifle at tists, died of an apparent heart attack 13 issue of Science. Other testimonials the teens—who he mistook for vandals. on July 19 while traveling to London. by friends and colleagues worldwide Barezinsky was critically wounded with He was sixty-five years old. can be found on the web. n gunshots to the head and shoulder; she Schneider was a member of the Na- survived but remains disabled with tional Academy of Sciences, a Mac - Short tributes to Stephen H. Schneider by short-term memory loss and limited Arthur Fellow, and a co-recipient of the Kendrick Frazier and Thomas Casten are use of her arms and legs. 2007 Nobel Peace Prize for his work available on the CSI website at In September 2009, a twenty-nine- with the Intergovernmental Panel on csicop.org/specialarticles. year-old Canadian woman was killed Climate Change.
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SPECIAL REPORT ]
An Open Letter in Defense of Reason
In its official Classification of Occupations and Specializations, the Polish Ministry of Labour and Social Policy included, among others, the professions of fortune-teller, astrologer, and dowser. Polish scientists from all over the world have protested against this absurdity.
TOMASZ WITKOWSKI
any of my friends know that I am interested in Labour and Social Policy, have pub- lished on the Internet (www.psz. pseudoscience and other related absurdities, so they praca.gov.pl) a document entitled: Moften send me information concerning such issues. Classifi cation of occupations and specialisations. This document . .. In February 2009, one friend wrote to me that Poland’s ap proves the exercise of occupations official governmental classification of occupations includes listed in the Classification in Poland, as well as, in an exceptionally precise such entries as fortune-teller, astrologer, and dowser manner, defines what the essence of performing the occupations in ques- (among others). After taking a closer look at these entries tion is. and finding them preposterous, I decided to comment We, the undersigned, deem it scandalous to add to the list a number on their inclusion in my blog In Defence of Reason of occupations not having anything in (www.tomaszwitkowski.pl). common with the civilisation of the twenty-first century, and by no means Some of my readers reacted with a smile with the official mission declared by about what Poland’s Ministry of Labour the government of the Republic of and Social Policy did; others reacted with Poland to create a society based on disbelief or pity. Among the latter group knowledge and reason. Such entries include the “professions” of astrologer, was Professor Lukasz Turski from the fortune-teller, bio-energy therapist, re- Center for The oretical Physics of the flexology therapist, dowser, etc. [One Polish Acad emy of Sciences. Turski, questionable entry is] described at Tomasz Sowiński (also from the Center length below: ... for Theoretical Physics), and I wrote a “Fortune-teller letter about the inclusion of these pro- Synthesis: fessions in the official governmental intentionally uses inborn talents to act classification of occupations and posted in the area of supernatural phenom- ena, gains insight into past and future Tomasz Witkowski is a researcher and it on the Internet; it was signed by many events with the application of various writer with a PhD in psychology. He is au- readers who shared our view. Below are forms of foretelling shaped by tradi- thor of many books, including Zakazana excerpts from the letter: tion, such as: cards (tarot in particular), fortune-telling, I-ching (based on the Psychologia: Pomi dzy Szarla taneri a Nauk Open letter to Jolanta Fedak, Ancient Chinese Book of Changes), the Minister of Labour (Forbidden Psychology: Between Charla- chiromancy (palm reading), catoptro- and Social Policy tanry and Science). His website is at mancy and crystalomancy (foretelling www.tomaszwitkowski.pl, and he can be Dear Minister, by means of a mirror or crystal), and others. reached via e-mail at witkowski@modera- Labour Offices, being public institu- tor.wroc.pl. tions subordinate to the Minister of Professional tasks:
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• foretell, or, occasionally, reveal validated in the directive as one of Poland, as an unqualified insult. On past—depending on the adopted the types of crafts was the basis for behalf of all those people we demand method and level of the fortune- the Supreme Court to allow opinions an apology and removal of the “occu- teller’s knowledge—related with of dowsers on equal grounds with pations” in question from the Classi- specific counselling or psychother- opinions issued by other forensic ex- fication. apy; perts. Professor Lukasz A. Turski, PhD • counsel with respect to missing per- ... We indicate that the publica- Tomasz Witkowski, PhD sons or belongings; tion of the document “Classification Tomasz Sowiński, PhD • explain the origin and settings of of occupations and specialisations— phenomena defined as extraordinary. descriptions of groups and occupa- Soon after our letter was published, we mailed out information about our protest. The letter was made available for signing for five days and was signed by 4,982 persons. Initially, primarily sci- entists signed it. In addition to repre- sentatives of the majority of Polish The definition of dowsing validated universities, among the signatories were in the directive ... was the basis for the employees of scientific institutions the world over. Supreme Court to allow opinions The media quickly spotted the an - nouncement of the protest, and for a of dowsers on equal grounds with few days information about our cam- paign had the status of hot news. It was opinions issued by other given wide coverage on Polish TV, in the daily press, and on the Internet. forensic experts. Journalists re quested that the Ministry take a stance on our letter. The below quotation is the first official statement with respect to fortune-tellers in Poland: “We will not exclude fortune-tellers Additional professional tasks: tions” on the website of an institution from the list of occupations; there is an • use the skill of clairvoyance, clairau- subordinate to the Minister ridicules occupation of scientist, there is also a dience, [to] support the foretelling your office and thus jeopardises the fortune-teller,” Bożena Diaba, press of - with mediumistic phenomena, use dignity of the Republic of Poland. ficer of the Ministry of Labour and telepathy, teleportation, as well as We believe that wasting of public Social Policy, said to the Polish Press draw on information in morpho- funds and funds provided by the Eu- Agency with reference to the letter of genetic fields; ropean Union for the preparation of scientists protesting against such occu- • apply methods characteristic of as - these kinds of absurd documents pations as astrologer, fortune-teller or trol ogy, numerology, psycho-graph - should be subject to punishment. bio-energy therapist being placed on ology or other bio-tronic areas.” That is why we demand that full the list. (http://tinyurl.com/29o3zt9) We firmly state that the text . .. names of perpetrators of this scan- of the above [entry is] completely dalous list should be made public. Apparently, the press officer had not senseless and full of fundamental sci- Owing to economic turbulence on bothered to look through the occupation entific errors. [The questionable en- the world markets Poland is in a very document, which lists neither “scientist” tries] also spread superstitions as well difficult situation, which will be not nor, for instance, “poet.” We closed the as a para-scientific approach to the easy to escape. In this challenging reality. They also allow persons who task we will find no support from list of signatures on March 2, 2009, and conduct healing activities to invoke fortune-tellers or shamans, but [will submitted it, along with our open letter, the aforementioned document in find support] from engineers, scien- to the Minister of Labour and Social case of revelation of such activities tists, teachers, doctors and other Policy, Jolanta Fedak. A copy of those which breach the law, e.g., conduct- hard-working people from different documents was also submitted to the ing a kind of “healing” practice (com- walks of life. We consider placing pare Professional tasks of astrologer). them on the same list as astrologers Secretary of State in the Chan cellery of We would like to emphasise the and reflexology therapists, allowed by the Prime Minister of the Republic of fact that the definition of dowsing the constitutional authorities of Poland. We received an official reply
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SPECIAL REPORT ]
from the Ministry on March 13, pre- teller, reflexology therapist, dowser, tablishing a forensic expert in the area sented in five pages. It is worth quoting astrol oger or bio-energy therapist. of fortune-telling, astrology, bio-energy this fragment in full: As mentioned earlier, the Classi - therapy, or similar specialization on the fication of occupations and specialisa- III. Fortune-teller in the Classifi- tions is primarily applied to conduct same grounds as other forensic experts? cation of occupations and speciali- statistical research and prepare analy- It is only a matter of time now before a sations ses of the labour market. If it lacks any clever lawyer makes use of this provi- of [the] occupations/specialisations The Classification of occupations sion and forces a divorce decree with actually found in the labour market, it the help of a clairvoyant. After all, a and specialisations for the needs of may significantly distort the image of the labour market, called often for reality. clairvoyant’s opinion is of the same short an economic classification, weight as, for instance, a criminologist’s. MINISTER comprises those occupations and I fear even to think about other possible specialisations, which in fact are Jolanta Fedak found on the labour market. Hence such classification should objectively reflect the fact of existence of a set of occupations performed by persons active economically, and the types of What if ... the Polish Supreme Court activities conducted by them. They also include activities that are deem - ed unconventional, e.g., paramedical, were to allow establishing a forensic astrological, spiritualistic, etc. It is of no significance what their ontologi- expert in the area of fortune-telling, cal status and the essence of per- formed ascribed tasks are. The astrology, bio-energy therapy, clas sification does not provide for any obligation to use services of en- or similar specialization on the same tities/persons performing individual occupations, either. The of ficial grounds as other forensic experts ? recognition of a given occupation, which is preceded by inclusion in the Classification, is understood exclu- sively as a possibility to keep on in records, primarily for statistical pur- One may try to re-read this text sev- consequences of such decisions. poses. Fortune-tellers, astrologers, There are also some legal conse- and bio-energy therapists will pro- eral times, replacing the mentioned oc- vide their services irrespective of cupations of fortune-teller, dowser, quences of this situation for education. whether names of their occupations astrologer, and others with such profes- The inclusion of these occupations cre- will be allowed or deleted in the sions as matrimonial racketeer, prostitute, ates a legal opportunity to compile a Classifica tion. The advantages of drug dealer, or contract thug. The logic formal de scription of the occupation of such deletion seem doubtful, since it fortune-teller by a minister competent would lead to an incomplete or lim- of arguments will be equally coherent in ited image of the structure of occu- these cases: These are actually performed for this specialization. Then, in re - pations found in the labour market. occupations, functioning on the labor sponse to an application of, for exam- The fact of including an occupa- market, and nobody forces anybody to ple, the Harry Potter Society of tion in the Classification indicates use the services of these pro viders. These Fortune-Tellers, the minister could only that this occupation functions in prepare a catalogue of skills necessary the labour market, regardless of the people also provide their services regard- fact whether it is legally sanctioned less of whether their jobs are included in for performing the tasks of a fortune- or not. The Classification of occupa- the Classification or not. The lack of teller—based on that, the education tions should not be mistaken for a these occupations in the Classification minister could work out curricula for so-called list of regulated professions, schools and standards of examinations. the exercise of which is subject to does lead to an incomplete or limited regulations of law. image of reality. The only thing left is to hope that no- Assuming that each working per- The Minister has not, however, body in court will have to face an opin- son should find their professional af - taken a stance toward possible legal ion issued by a forensic expert in the filiation in the Classification of consequences resulting from individual field of fortune-telling, and no wizard occupations, it should be understood societies will flood ministers with pe- that this also relates to those persons occupations being included in the who perform such controversial—in Classi fication. What if, for example, the titions. But this is only a hope. Un for- your view—occupations as fortune- Polish Supreme Court were to allow es- tunately, Polish law allows for it. n
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[ INTERVIEW
We recognize that in that MythBusters’s push-pull there’s a tremen- dous amount of strength. Adam Savage There’s a check and a balance that means that everything we work on together is inherently going to be stronger than the things we work on separately. Adam Savage is co-host of the Discovery Channel’s MythBusters. He has a diverse background in animation and design, and for almost two decades he’s concentrated on the special effects So what do you say to people industry in film, theater, and television. A prominent skeptic, Savage lectures in science education and is a strong promoter of critical thinking. Karen Stollznow, a host of the Center for Inquiry’s who claim that your show is Point of Inquiry podcast, recently spoke with him. not sufficiently rigorous and that you don’t always apply the scientific method?
Do you consider yourself to It just grew out of our So how would you say be a skeptic? Do you call realization that we had you apply that to your yourself a skeptic or an done something wrong. experiments? atheist or a free thinker or a humanist? It’s brilliant that you’re open Probably the best tool that to saying that you’re wrong Jamie [Hyneman, my All of the above. I had about something and to be MythBusters co-host] and never sought out to iden- able to re-evaluate. That is I have applying skepticism tify myself as a skeptic. part and parcel of being a to our experiments is each I hadn’t quite realized critical thinker. other. Our relationship, where MythBusters placed like any strong partnership, within the cosmology of There’s a phrase I came up is based on a tremendous the skeptical universe, but, with early on in doing the amount of creative tension. you know, we’re smack in show: “Failure is always an We have large and small the middle of it. We always disagreements constantly option.” I had that printed are thinking critically, es- about the way to proceed on our crew hats and crew pecially about ourselves. with things. shirts and I realized, in We are, I think, still the fact, it is a deeply scientific Healthy skepticism? only television show phrase because people willing to say that we got think of an experiment as an entire hour of program- Yeah. We are always pok- something set out to prove ming wrong. We’ll go back ing holes in the other’s something. And it’s not. and revisit our results. ideas. We will fight for Often the episodes in It’s something set out to what we want to do until which we come back with test something. So whether the right idea really does new data and come to you’re right or wrong about make itself clear. Then different conclusions than your preconceptions, the we’ll give up. We have no before are our favorite experiment that yields ego when it comes to the episodes. We recognize data is still a successful elegant solution. But the that’s probably the most experiment. That’s what fact is, up until that elegant important scientific lesson we mean by “Failure is solution has been reached we can teach in the show. always an option.” we argue almost constantly.
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I admit outright that our show is not sufficiently rig- orous. It’s not meant to be a “I admit outright that our show is not show about scientific in- quiry. It’s meant to be a sufficiently rigorous. It’s not meant to be a show about critical inquiry and where to begin looking show about scientific inquiry. at it from a scientific standpoint. I say that we It’s meant to be a show about critical do not stand by our results. inquiry and where to begin looking at it I stand solidly behind our methodologies. We always from a scientific standpoint.” would like to have more than one test, more than three tests. Our show is not meant to be taken as any kind of science fact in
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terms of our results. into each other and prove [James] Randi would call to us. We have brought ex- The science is in how to the point that we demon- woo-woo [and] what we perts in from the outside proceed from one experi- strated with the medium- call oogie-boogie. I’m still from time to time. That ment to the next with scale testing. ashamed we ever went near introduces problems from what you’ve learned. pyramid power as a story to a production standpoint. If That’s ultimately what test. All of those mystical you’re going to be testing Preliminary tests [are] not everyone wants to see. things. Dowsing is an open the paranormal, by defini- meant to be conclusive. question that we’ve been tion you’re bringing people It is. Even after a hundred thinking back and forth in, and there’s a gotcha as- Exactly. The structure of and ninety eight hours and about for years whether or pect to that. That is not our show is five or six acts eight years of doing this not to do it on the show. what MythBusters is about. depending on the com- show, everyone still comes We’re never going to look It’s not to say that I don’t mercial break and on up and says, “I love that ce- for the Loch Ness Monster. realize that everyone where in the world you ment truck when it blows We’re never going to look claiming to have mystical watch it. In general, you up!” After three thousand for Bigfoot. We’re not powers is a charlatan, but I start out with, What’s the different explosions over going to try to prove a neg- don’t think within the nar- myth? What’s the plan? the years… ative. We are always going rative of our show that Then we go down to the to look for something that kind of arc works for us. shop; we do some scale You can remember we can actually get our It’s very, very tricky. It testing. We often do all of them? hands on and do tests to- sounds very easy to test whether or not someone can stop a watch with their mind, but when you get into it, if all you end up with are negatives, you “Science teachers are among don’t really have a televi- sion show there. Not, at our most fervent fans. They say least, MythBusters.
Thursday mornings after our show To some extent you need to have brief shows where airs are some [of] their most exciting you can treat something sufficiently within a talks in their classes.” single episode.
We are constrained by the time. It’s absolutely true. One of the shames is the medium-scale testing. ...they’re like wines to ward the goal of coming to international cut of Myth- Then we do full-scale Jamie and me. We can a conclusion. Busters is fifty-two minutes testing. Pretty much all sense their differences and long, but the U.S. cut is the science happens by the their nuances. But for me, There are a lot of paranormal forty-four minutes long, so time we’re done with the falling hot water heaters is and pseudoscientific themes there are eight minutes medium-scale testing. the single greatest thing I that you could test and missing from every U.S. That’s the point at which like to watch blow up. actually come up with a episode. Often, great jokes we have really illuminated There is no more satisfying reasonable conclusion. So lose their punch lines in the features of the physics thud in the world. have you ever wanted to do a the edit. It’s unfortunate. that we’re exploring. The show or a spin-off show that full-scale testing is usually Are there any topics that are focuses on the paranormal? The show is so popular, but just the trick we use to off-limits to you guys? how do you think people keep people watching until It’s very difficult. One of feel when you’re taking away the end where they get to There are several categories the things I like about our these myths and these watch full-size cars smash we don’t touch: what show is it’s very localized legends from them?
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INTERVIEW ]
I’ve never gotten a com- allow people to go all the meme, if you will. I think idiot than an atheist. If you plaint. Also I’ve never had way through a PhD pro- we pass those around be- troll the Discovery forums, anyone e-mail me on the gram doing all theoretical cause they’re easy bites of you will find countless, positive side and thank us work on the computer, information to pass around. countless posts of people for all the groundbreaking now require their grad stu- Also we are storytellers. saying we are total idiots; work we’re doing in urban dents to do hands-on We like telling each other we have no idea what we’re legend research. I think work. He believes it is in stories whether they’re true doing. Then the people everyone realizes that the no small part due to how or not. Sometimes the who step up and defend us premise of the show is an MythBusters has been part most elaborate stories for are working scientists at excellent scarecrow on of the DIY zeitgeist that us provide the most lovely NASA, Sandia [National which to hang a show that has absolutely exploded in fodder for a myth because Laboratories], and [ Jet tricks you into learning the last five years. there are so many parts to Propulsion Laboratory]. about science. work on. All over the country work- We recognized early on It’s a winning formula ing scientists are the ones that the structure had that for you guys. Would you say that more of knowing that we are doing sort of trick in it. We have the myths you investigate the right kind of work, [had] these great stories I hope so, because we want happen to be true or false? even if we’re not doing it as that often ended with hi- to develop some more What’s the ratio? rigorously as anyone, espe- larious or terrible things shows for Discovery. We’ve cially us, would like. The happening, and we got to just signed on for several Something like sixty methodologies are sound. demonstrate them, which more years of MythBusters. percent of the stories are is inherently interesting. It’s still rating as strong as busted, and then an even How does it feel to be such And then there’s our en- it ever has been, actually. split of them are plausible a guardian for science and thusiasm. We realize our It’s the longest-running or confirmed. We don’t skepticism and atheism? enthusiasm is a great driver show on Discovery, at this care whether we bust or toward what the audience point. In addition, we’ve prove something. We’re A guardian for science? enjoys watching. We as signed up to develop for totally agnostic where [Laugh ing.] communicators, both of us Discovery several new that’s concerned. through totally different shows with some business I take the responsibility means, are good at com- partners we have. We’re re- Has there ever been any seriously. I follow my natu- municating what we’re en- ally, really excited about it. kind of backlash coming ral inclination, and the joying and why we’re We have a deck of ideas. out as a skeptic? success comes from that. I enjoying it. That is inher- Some very strong, some follow what feels right to ently involving. medium formed, some very I’ve had kids e-mail me me. I let that guide me loosely formed. and say, “Why do you rather than the idea that I What influence do you think this?” I don’t respond am a guardian or I am a think you’ve had on science You’ve got the best to all of it; I’m not looking voice. When you are a communication and job on Earth! for a fight. I have occasion- public figure, your job is to science education? How did all these ally written back to some- be truthful. n myths originate? one and said, “How nice Karen Stollznow is a SKEPTICAL Science teachers are among for you” when they’ve told INQUIRER contributing editor and our most fervent fans. I’ve thought a lot about me I’m an idiot. But for a skeptical investigator. She has They say Thursday morn- why great myths perpetu- the most part, everyone is a doctorate in linguistics and ings after our show airs are ate. We all want to know incredibly respectful. researches endangered writing some [of ] their most excit- how the world works. systems at the University ing talks in their classes. That’s the natural human Do you find that most of the of California, Berkley. An MIT professor told us inclination. When a good detractors complain about that he thought Myth- narrative helps you under- your being an atheist rather Read Karen Stollznow’s Busters was a significant stand how the world works than your being a skeptic? full-length Point of Inquiry reason that engineering you latch onto it. The nar- podcast interview with schools, which about ten rative provides a mnemonic Actually, I get far more Adam Savage at: www.csicop.org/SIExtras years ago often would device for your brain. A complaints about being an
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[ INVESTIGATIVE FILES JOE NICKELL Joe Nickell, PhD, is CSI’s senior research fellow and author of such books as Inquest on the Shroud of Turin, Relics of the Christ, and Looking for a Miracle.
The True Cross: Chaucer, Calvin, and the Relic Mongers
lthough there is little justifica- which according to legend was discov- That ‘Greed is at the root of all evil.’” tion in either the Old or the ered in the fourth century by St. He- But the Pardoner is merely a hypocrite. lena. A New Testament to support what First, he displays his letters of approval would become a cult of relics in early Chaucer’s ‘Pardoner’s Tale’ signed by the Pope. Then he brings out Christianity, such a practice did de- his reliquaries, with bits of cloth and (ca. 1386 –1400) is velop. The earliest veneration of Chris- The Canterbury Tales other alleged relics, including the Geoffrey Chaucer’s fictional classic tian relics can be traced to about CE 156 shoulder bone of a sheep, and declares: when Polycarp, the bishop of Smyrna, compilation of stories told by traveling was martyred and his burned remains pilgrims, including the host of the “If when this bone be washed in any Tabard Inn in Southwark, England, well, were gathered for veneration. In time, If cow, or calf, or sheep, or ox the distribution and veneration of pack- from whence said Pilgrims set out, should swell ets of dust and tiny fragments of bone wending their way to Canterbury From eaten worm, or by a snake’s or cloth, and the like—associated with Cathedral. “The Pardoner’s Tale” sati- been stung, Take water of that well and wash its martyrs and saints—became common. rizes phony relics in a classic of skepti- cism worthy of a brief retrospective tongue, At about CE 400, St. Augustine de- And it is healed forthwith; and fur- plored the excesses and outright fraud here. The Pardoner—one who sells the thermore, of the relic business, disparaging “hyp- church’s forgiveness of sins—is a pre- Of poxes and of scabs and every ocrites in the garb of monks for hawk- tentious fellow, as hinted in the opening sore lines (in quaint Middle English): Shall every sheep be healed, that of ing about the limbs of martyrs,” adding this well skeptically, “if indeed of martyrs” (En- ‘Lordynges,’ quod he, in chirches Drinks a draft; take heed of what I cyclopedia Britannica 1978, s.v. “Relics”). whan I preche, tell.” Among other, later, critics was Geof - I peyne me to han an hauteyn speche, He adds that the relic-treated water frey Chaucer (ca. 1340–1400), whose And rynge it out as round as gooth will cause farm animals to multiply and great unfinished work The Canterbury a belle, will put an end to all human jealousy, Tales contains a satirical attack on relic For I kan al by rote that I telle. including distrust of a wife’s faithful- My theme is alwey oon, and ever mongering. An even more scathing con- ness—even if she has lain with two or demnation comes from John Calvin was— “Radix malorum est cupiditas.” three priests! Of another ruse, he ad- (1509–1564), the Protestant reformer, mits, whose Treatise on Relics is a surprisingly That is, as I translate it (and all that modern look at the Roman Catholic follows) into modern English: “By this trick I’ve won, year by year, A hundred marks since I was Par- Church’s veneration of relics. Both “My Lords,” said he, “in churches doner. Chaucer and Calvin weighed in on when I preach, I stand as if a cleric in my pulpit, those most quintessentially Christian I do take pains to have a haughty And when the common people relics, fragments of the reputed Holy speech, down do sit, And ring it out as roundly as a bell, I preach, so as you’ve heard me say Cross itself. Here is a summary of their For I know by rote all that I tell. before, views, supplemented by my own inves- My theme’s to be the same and al- And even tell a hundred falsehoods tigations and research on the cross, ways will more.”
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Acknowledging his hypocrisy, he states: Chris tian and a man of seeming in- ferred to Turin until 1578 [Nickell 2009, “Thus can I preach against the self- tegrity, suggests that Chaucer accepts 40]). same vice the relic allegedly found by St. Helena Calvin had much to say about the Which I do use, and that is avarice. as authentic. Never theless, if he does not pieces of the alleged True Cross—the lo- But, though I too am guilty of that condemn all relics outright, Chaucer cation of which was supposed to have sin, does identify and disparage fraudulent been miraculously revealed to St. Helena Yet can I make other folk to turn From avarice, and hurry to repent. relic practices. At the time when he was in CE 326. Calvin suggested that “if we But that is not my principal intent.” writing, this was a bold stance for a writer were to collect all these pieces of the to take. Reformist John Calvin, however, True Cross exhibited in various parts, The Pardoner then goes on to tell his writing a century and a half later, took they would form a whole ship’s cargo.” tale. (It features three young rogues the matter several steps further. He also said that there were more relics who set out on a drunken quest to slay of it “than three hundred men could evil Death. An old man directs them to a spot where they instead discover a treasure of gold coins. Unfortunately they end up killing each other out of avarice and so indeed find death.) Finished with his morality tale, the Pardoner makes a direct pitch to his host, who rails against the fraudulent relics while indicating his own belief in the relic of the True Cross. The Par- doner begins the exchange: “Come forth, sir host, and offer first then, And you shall kiss the relics every one, Yes, for fourpence! Unbuckle now your purse.” “Nay, nay,” said he, “then I’d have Christ’s curse! It shall not be, however you beseech me. You would have me kiss your old breeches, And swear they were a relic of a saint, Although they’re stained with your own fundament! But by the cross which Saint He- lena found, Figure 1. The Titulus Crucis, allegedly the placard on Jesus’s cross as mentioned in the gospels, has now been I’d like to have your bollocks in my radiocarbon tested. (Drawing by Joe Nickell) hand Instead of relics or reliquarium; Calvin on Relics carry!” adding: “As an explanation of this, Let’s cut them off, I’ll help to carry John Calvin’s condemnation of relics is [the relic mongers] have invented the them; sweeping. In his Treatise on Relics (1543), tale, that whatever quantity of wood may They shall be enshrined within a he observes that “the desire for relics is be cut off this true cross, its size never hog’s turd.” never without superstition, and what is decreases. This is, however, such a This pardoner answered not a worse, it is usually the parent of idolatry” clumsy and silly imposture, that the word. . . . (Calvin 1543, 218). He is unrelenting in most superstitious may see through it” (The Knight helps make peace be- his withering look at relics—from the (233). tween the two men, whereupon the pil- reputed Holy Blood, “exhibited in more Calvin specifically refers to the al- grims “rode forth on their way.”) than a hundred places” (226), to the leged fragment known as the Titulus Now, Chaucer’s own view of the many bogus Holy Shrouds (including Crucis (cross title board). Bearing the in- True Cross is unstated, but having it en- to day’s controversial one, which was kept scription “This is the King of the Jews,” dorsed by his central character, a good at Nice in Calvin’s time; it wasn’t trans- the Titulus—with text in Greek, Latin,
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cast doubt on the inscription. Another doubtful feature is the letters having not just been painted but first incised into the wood—a seemingly gratuitous en - hance ment—whereas one would in- stead expect a hastily prepared placard in tended to be used quickly and then discarded. Indeed, such suspicions are con- firmed via radiocarbon dating. A sample of the walnut wood ( Juglans regia) was taken from the back of the slab, cleaned to remove any contamination, and then subjected to the carbon-dating process. Control samples of varying ages were also included to confirm the accuracy of the process. The tests on the Titulus re- vealed that it was made between CE 980 and 1146 (Bells and Azzi 2002)—a date range incompatible with its alleged first- century origin, but consistent with the period (1144–1145) when the artifact was apparently acquired (Nickell 2007, 86–90).
The Fragments Over the years I have encountered pieces of the alleged True Cross (figure 2), to- gether with the pious legends of their ac- quisition. In my own collection are a pilgrim’s token of the True Cross (reput- Figure 2. Purportedly, the True Cross, “discovered” in the fourth century, could replenish itself edly made in the seventh century by mix- miraculously—no matter how many pieces like these, mounted in a cross reliquary in Genoa, ing clay with some ash from a burned were removed. (Photograph by Joe Nickell) piece of the cross) and a small bronze Byzantine cross of about the same time and Hebrew—was ordered by Pilate to and Latin lines. Based on my research period (Nickell 2007, 79, 93). The latter be placed on the cross (Luke 23:38). on the history of writing, as soon as I was a legacy of Constantine the Great Two churches, Calvin delights in ob- saw this error (See my drawing, figure (274–337), who made Christian ity the serving, lay claim to this relic. Actually, 1), I thought it a prima facie indication Roman Empire’s official religion after Helena supposedly divided the Titulus of spuriousness. (See my Pen, Ink, and having a miraculous vision of a flaming into three pieces, only one of which now Evi dence [Nickell 1990].) cross in the sky—a vision, as doubtful as remains—kept, as Calvin noted (234), Another paleographic error is found it is, of late vintage (Nickell 2007, 77–79). in Rome’s Church of the Holy Cross. in the Greek line. Although it is written It is another reputed vision—that of Modern science has validated in mirror-image fashion from right to Constantine’s mother, Queen Helena Calvin’s skepticism of the Titulus. First, left, one letter—the z—is not reversed. (later St. Helena)—to which is attrib- the artifact contains a number of This further emphasizes the problem- uted the finding of the True Cross. In anachronisms and other problematic el- atic nature of the writing and suggests 326, nearly three centuries after the ements that indicate it is a probable that the writer may not have been fa- crucifixion, Helena went to Jerusalem forgery (Nickell 2004). For example, al- miliar with the ancient languages. Un- where she allegedly discovered the site though the Hebrew (or Aramaic) let- less we accept the rationalizations of the of the cross’s concealment, supposedly ters are correctly written from right to Titulus’s defenders (Thiede and d’An- with divine inspiration: either by heav- left, so—incorrectly—are the Greek cona 2000, 96–100), spelling errors also enly signs, dreams, or the guidance of a
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Jew named Judas. In fact, she suppos- than four pieces of the “True Cross” ar- Acknowledgments edly located, beneath rubble, three rayed in an elaborate reliquary cross I am grateful to my many Italian friends— crosses—supposedly of Jesus and the (figure 2). The fragments were specifi- notably Massimo Polidoro, Luigi Garla - two thieves crucified with him (Mat- cally claimed to be from the True schelli, and Stephano Bagnasco—for helping make possible my visits to many relic sites in thew 27:38)—but was unable to distin- Cross—or so “tradition has it.” (Transla- Italy. At the Center for Inquiry, Director of guish which was Jesus’s own. Each cross tion: “This is only a handed-down Libraries Timothy Binga assisted as usual was then tested on a mortally ill woman, tale.”) Known as Croce degli Zaccaria (or with research. Financial assistance came from and one—according to the fanciful leg- “cross of the Zac caria”), it was formerly John and Mary Frantz and the Committee end—miraculously healed her, thus owned by a family of that name, who for Skeptical Inquiry, whose executive direc- proving it was the Vera Crux, the True were among the major merchant traders tor is Barry Karr. I also want to express my gratitude to Paul Kurtz and his Prometheus Cross. of the eastern Mediter ranean when Supposedly a portion of the cross Books for publishing John Calvin’s Treatise Genoa was at its commercial and polit- on Relics and inviting me to write the intro- was given to Constantine, while an- ical peak. The reliquary was reportedly duction. To the many others who help make other was taken to Rome. The main first commissioned in the ninth century, such investigations possible: CFI staff, portion remained in the custody of suc- then remade in its present form (again donors, friends, and family—especially my cessive bishops of Jerusalem; it was cap- see figure 2) between 1260 and 1283— wife, Diana Harris—I express my sincerest thanks. tured by Persious in 614 but then a gilt and bejeweled cruciform artifact victoriously returned in 627. Finally, in now displayed in the Museum of the References 1187 it was lost forever, after crusading Treasury of the Cathedral of San Franks occupied Jerusalem. Calvin, John. 1543. Treatise on Relics, trans. Count Lorenzo (St. Lawrence) of Genoa Valerian Kasinski 1854; 2nd ed. Edinburgh: Nevertheless, alleged fragments of the (Marica 2007, 6; “Museum,” n.d.). John Stone, Hunter and Co., 1870, 217–18; True Cross and Roman nails from the reprinted, with an introduction by Joe Nickell, Again, the lack of any credible prove- crucifixion proliferated. As early as the Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books, nance (its traceability to some known mid-fourth century, St. Cyril of Jeru - 2009, 49–112. point)—together with the incredible Chaucer, Geoffrey. Ca. 1386–1400. The Canter - salem (ca. 315–386) wrote that “already proliferation of such fragments and even bury Tales. Various editions, e.g., trans. by the whole world is filled with fragments Coghill (2003) and Tuttle (2006); see also No the suspicious neatness of these four of the wood of the Cross.” From the fifth Fear (2009) and Dunn (1952). pieces of the “True Cross”—makes the Coghill, Nevill, trans. 2003. Geoffrey Chaucer: The century on, a “cult of the Cross” devel- a piece to be entirely Canterbury Tales. London: Penguin Books. oped and churches were erected in the Croce degli Zaccaria skeptical of, not revered. Cruz, Joan Carroll. 1984. Relics. Huntington, In- True Cross’s name. In a letter, St. Pauli- diana: Our Sunday Visitor. nus of Nola (353–431) dared to explain Dunn, Charles W., ed. 1952. A Chaucer Reader: Conclusion Selections from The Canterbury Tales. New (and Calvin would later satirize, as we There is no credible evidence that He- York: Harcourt, Brace and World. have seen) the claim that, regardless of Encyclopedia Britannica. 1978. Chicago: Encyclo - how many pieces were taken from the lena, or anyone, found Jesus’s cross (with pedia Britannica. cross, it never diminished in size—a or without accompanying crosses of the Marica, Patrica. 2007. Museo del Tesoro di San two thieves) in the fourth century—or at Lorenzo. Genoa, Italy: Sagep Edditori Srl. “fact” that has been compared with Jesus’s “Museum of the Treasury of the Cathedral of St. miracle of the multiplying loaves and any other time for that matter. The Lawrence of Genoa.” N.d. Four-page guide fishes (Cruz 1984, 39). provenance is laughable. Even more so text in English, provided by the museum. In Turin in 2004, I was able to view is the absurd tale of its miraculousness: Nickell, Joe. 1990. Pen, Ink, and Evidence: A Study its infinite ability to restore itself, no mat- of Writing and Writing Materials for the Pen- a purported piece of the True Cross, set man, Collector, and Document Detective. Lex- in a cruciform reliquary (along with a ter how many pieces were taken from it. ington: University Press of Kentucky. purported relic of the Holy Blood). The The proliferating pieces of the True ———. 2007. Relics of the Christ. Lexington: Uni - Cross have been rivaled for outlandish- versity Press of Kentucky. lighted reliquary is the focal point of a ———. 2009. Introduction to Calvin’s Treatise on relic chapel—the crypt of the Church ness by many other bogus relics—such as Relics 1543. Amherst, New York: Prometheus of Maria Ausiliatrice—which contains over forty shrouds of Jesus and multiple Books, 2009, 7–48. a fabulous collection of some five thou- corpses of Mary Magdalene (Nickell No Fear: The Canterbury Tales by Geoffrey Chaucer. 2007, 40, 116). Geoffrey Chaucer and 2009. New York: Spark Publishing (div. of sand relics of saints, exhibited in seem- Barnes and Noble). ingly endless panels and display cases John Calvin were justifiably critical of Thiede, Carsten Peter, and Matthew d’Ancona. along the walls. Included are relics al- relic hucksterism in their respective 2002. The Quest for the True Cross. New York: leged to be from Mary Magdalene and, times, and we—with our modern scien- Palgrave. Tuttle, Peter, trans. 2006. The Canterbury Tales, by more credibly, St. Francis of Assisi. tific means of analysis, such as radiocar- Geoffrey Chaucer. New York: Barnes and In 2009 in Genoa I saw no fewer bon dating—must be no less so. n Noble Classics.
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[NOTES ON A STRANGE WORLD MASSIMO POLIDORO Massimo Polidoro is an investigator of the paranormal, lecturer, and co-founder and head of CICAP, the Italian skeptics group. His website is at www.massimopolidoro.com.
How to Make a Monster! The Legend of Creating Artificial Life: From the Golem to Pinocchio
veryone knows the tragic tale of of Adam before life was infused into rests today. (Czech investigator Ivan Victor Frankenstein, the man him. Mackerle went searching for the Ewho, in the 1818 novel by Mary In classic tradition, the golem is a golem’s body in the roof space of the Shelley, succeeded in bringing back to strong and obedient creature made of synagogue but couldn’t find anything life a corpse, only to immediately lose clay that a rabbi can activate for servi- useful; his interesting report can be control over it. But the human dream tude just by writing on his forehead a found in Fortean Times 238, July 2008). of creating artificial life goes far beyond word meaning “God is truth.” By eras- the creature that terrified Victorians. ing one of the letters of this word, the Androids and Humunculus This dream belongs to the Roman word that remains means “God is Other examples of artificial creatures poet Ovid, whose short story “Meta mor- dead,” and the golem stops. with human-like features can be found phosis,” dating back to 8 CE, tells the In a version of this tale set in seven- in Greek mythology as well. Cadmus, story of Pygmalion, King of Cyprus, who teenth-century Poland, of which traces founder of Thebes, buried dragon’s modeled a female statue in ivory. He can be found in a letter dated 1674, a teeth, which transformed into soldiers. called her Galatea and fell in love with golem became an unstoppable menace Hephaestus, god of metalwork, created her, considering the statue to be well for his master. The master, Rabbi Elija mechanical slaves, ranging from girls above any flesh and blood woman. Pyg- Ba’al Schem from Chelm, asked the made of gold and with a sentient mind malion ended up praying to Aphrodite golem to take off his shoes; when it to three-legged tables that could move to let him marry the being he had cre- kneeled down, the clever Rabbi wiped by themselves. ated, and the Goddess relented. Ovid the word life from the creature’s fore- Inuit legends tell of the Tupilaq, an tells how Pygmalion saw his statue head. The golem then died, but he fell avenging monster created by a wizard to slowly coming to life, breathing, and upon the rabbi and killed him. hunt and kill an enemy. But the Tupilaq opening her eyes. The most famous version of the can be a double-edged sword, for a vic- With his story, Ovid meant to under- story, however, dates from the eigh- tim who knows magic can stop the crea- score the devotion of the artist to the teenth century and is set in Prague’s ture and turn it back on its creator. product of his work, which can go as far ghetto. Here, the golem—created by In the fourteenth century, philoso- as identifying oneself in it. Ovid did not beloved Rabbi Jehuda Löw Ben Bezalel pher, theologian, and scholar Saint Al- imagine that he was writing the proto- at the beginning of the seventeenth bertus Magnus was the first to use the type of many modern science-fiction century—was a defender of the Jewish word android to define living beings cre- tales! people from persecutions and anti- ated by man through alchemy. Accord- Semitic pogroms. The rabbi, however, ing to legend, Albertus was able to build Creatures without Control lost control over the golem, and it a real android made of metal, wood, wax, Much older than Ovid’s Galatea, how- began to destroy everything it met. and glass. He gave it the power of speech ever, is the figure of the golem, a sort of Once the rabbi regained control over and used it as a servant at the Domini- giant created by magic in Jewish the situation, he decided to deactivate can monastery of Cologne. mythology who first appears in the the golem and hide it in the attic of It was in the Middle Ages that tech- Bible. Jews link the word gelem (“raw Prague’s Old-New Synagogue, in the nology allowed people to not only material”), which appears in the Old heart of the old Jewish quarter, where— imagine but to build the first mechan- Testament (Psalm 139:16), to the figure according to the legend—his body still ical automatons, which were mainly
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moving dolls used to embellish bell towers and churches. Even Leonardo In the Middle Ages technology da Vinci showed interest in the subject; project plans dating to about 1495 allowed people to not only imagine show a mechanical knight in armor. In da Vinci’s plans, the figure should have but to build the first mechanical been able to stand up; move his arms, head, and jaw; and emit sounds from automatons. his mouth due to a complex percussion mechanism hidden in his chest. It is possible that the mechanical knight was just an idea da Vinci drew up for Duke Ludovico Sforza, for whom he worked at the time, to liven up parties at the Sforzesco Castle in Milan. Nobody knows if it was ever built. It was only in the eighteenth century that automatons became sophisticated figurines able to write, dance, do magic tricks, perform acrobatics, and play chess and musical instruments. How - ever, even then they were just mechan- ical creatures controlled by man without a will of their own—unlike the homunc ulus, which according to al- chemical tradition was a real human being created in vitro. Paracelsus, the Renaissance alchemist, went so far as to write a recipe for creating a homuncu- lus. The recipe began with a man’s semen, which was left resting for forty days in a vial kept warm by a horse stomach and fed with human blood. After forty weeks the contents of the vial would supposedly transform into a real boy—complete and perfect but smaller than a human baby and, like the golem, lacking a soul.
Frankenstein and Pinocchio At the start of the nineteenth century, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing. Taking inspiration both from the experiments of Luigi Galvani (who used electrical arcs to induce movement in a corpse) and from the golem story, in 1818 Mary Wollstonecraft Shelley anonymously published her celebrated gothic novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus. It’s the story of a Swiss sci- entist, Victor Frankenstein, who, shock - ed by the death of his mother, cultivates PROJEKTIONS-AG “UNION”, BERLIN/Album/Newscom “UNION”, PROJEKTIONS-AG an impossible dream: creating an intel- Der Golem (shown in the U.S. as The Monster of Fate) is a 1915 silent horror film. The film is an original work inspired by ligent human being with perfect health ancient Jewish legend.
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Rossum’s factory and are used as low- cost laborers. The dream of the owner of the factory is to free the human race from slavery and physical work, but the effects are catastrophic. Humanity reacts With a stroke of fantasy that by embracing all sorts of vices and idle- ness, allowing robots to take control and still warms the hearts of children aim for inevitable human extinction. But if R.U.R. was the first to intro- today, Carlo Collodi imagined in duce the word robot, the most famous android of the 1920s certainly is 1883 that a block of wood could femme-bot Maria from Fritz Lang’s film Metropolis (1927). The complex take on life and transform into plot devised by Lang, set in a disquiet- ing future world with strong class sepa- a boy, Pinocchio. ration, sees Maria as an evil creature who creates dissent among the masses in revolt. Although certainly the most famous, Lang’s robot was not the first mechan- and a long life. Frankenstein’s illicit Adam first used the word android in a ical android in cinema. That medal goes studies, which include dissecting novel, L’Eve Future, in which he imag- to magician Harry Houdini, who in corpses stolen from cemeteries, allow ined inventor Thomas Edison creating 1919 introduced one such creature in him to obtain the knowledge necessary an almost perfect artificial woman. his cliffhanger serial for the cinema ti- to turn his dream into reality. But the Even in my country of Italy, the sub- tled The Master Mystery. Here, the creature, deformed and with superhu- ject has fascinated our literati. Ippolito robot, called Automaton, is at the serv- man strength, escapes his creator. Nievo, in his 1860 novel Storia Filoso - ice of a criminal gang against whom Even more so than the golem, then, fica dei Secoli Futuri (Philo sophical His- Houdini, star of the series, has to fight. the figure of Frankenstein (a name often tory of Future Centuries), imagined that By the end of his adventures, Houdini misapplied to the monster itself ) be- in the future there would be “man-ma- is able to destroy the armor of the robot came a real modern myth, drawing his chines,” which he labeled an invention and discover—hidden inside the mythical power from the fear that tech- “that surpasses anything man has ever robot—the boss of the gang. It was, nological progress can escape man’s con- imagined.” Much more modestly, but then, a half robot. Or perhaps it could trol. It is no surprise, then, that many with a genial stroke of fantasy that still have been called a cyborg: a cybernetic consider Frankenstein the first true sci- warms the hearts of children today, organism made of both artificial and bi- ence-fiction novel. Carlo Collodi imagined in 1883 that a Throughout the 1800s, there were block of wood could take on life and ological parts. stories and novels telling of unusual transform into a boy, Pinocchio. It’s From the 1930s on, the idea of the mechanical or artificial creatures. In true that Pinocchio is a fairy tale, but the automaton, the robot, or the replicant “Sand man” (1815), writer E.T.A. Hoff - story contains all of the fundamental el- artificially created by man has become mann told the story of a love between ements of future tales about androids very popular and is constantly seen in a man and a mechanical doll. The Steam (including Steven Spielberg’s sci-fi sci-fi novels and films. From the many Man of the Prairies (1815), a dime novel movie A.I.: Artificial Intelligence). books about robots by Isaac Asimov to by Edward S. Ellis, is about a big me- movies like Westworld, Star Wars, Term - chanical steam man used to carry coaches Robots and Androids ina tor, Blade Runner, Alien, RoboCop, across prairies. It wasn’t until 1921 that the very first Star Trek, and so on, the subject has Luis Senarens, known as the “Amer- true robots made their appearance in never lost its appeal. It will certainly ican Jules Verne,” in 1885 imagined the the three-part drama by Czech author continue to fascinate people, at least first mechanical man activated by elec- Karel Čapek titled R.U.R. (Rossum’s until the day when robots become so tricity in his book Frank Reade and His Universal Robots). These robots (more common that nobody takes notice of Electric Man. The following year, properly androids because they have them anymore. If such a day ever Frenchman Mathias Villiers de l’Isle- human features) are the product of comes, that is. n
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[ THINKING ABOUT SCIENCE MASSIMO PIGLIUCCI Massimo Pigliucci is professor of philosophy at the City University of New York–Lehman College, a fellow of the American Association for the Advance ment of Science, and author of Nonsense on Stilts: How to Tell Science from Bunk. His essays can be found at www.rationallyspeaking.org.
The Wired Future of Humanity
devoted my previous “Thinking point considered a serious challenge for Teleology immediately leads to the about Science” column to recent Darwinian evolutionary theory, but they postulation of intelligent design, a possi- Iclaims that the Internet is seriously have been brilliantly accounted for by bility that—when we are talking about affecting our mental health. This time, work (pioneered by British biologist the laws of nature themselves—equally I’m going to talk about claims that the W. D. Hamil ton) that explores the un- un avoidably means supernatural intelli- Internet is going to be the future of our usual reproductive systems of these in- gent design, arguably the most antiscien- mental health! One such claim comes sects. It turns out that workers are more tific concept ever proposed. Wright from New York Times writer Robert closely related to the queen’s offspring realizes that what he calls “card-carrying Wright (author of The Evolution of than they would be to their own— Darwinians,” among which he includes God). In a re cent column (“Building hence the evolution of their instinct to himself, might have a problem with that. One Big Brain,” July 6, 2010), Wright help the queen maximize her (and the Indeed, he has debated both Daniel welcomes a forthcoming book by for- colony’s) reproductive output. Dennett and Steven Pinker on this very mer executive editor of Wired magazine Can human brains loosely connected topic. Yet he seems largely unperturbed Kevin Kelly, titled What Tech nology to each other via Internet websites in by his arbitrary mishmash of naturalism Wants. any meaningful sense be thought of as and teleology. It’s not that teleology is Wright begins by asking a fairly odd cells in a superorganism, analogous to impossible a priori, mind you, but it is question: Is technology really about us? workers in an ant colony? If so, I haven’t such a profoundly un-naturalistic view To which I respond, how can it not be encountered any articulate reason for it, that those who take it seriously ought to about us, since we are both the creators other than the catchiness of the be prepared to mount a solid argument and consumers of technology? What metaphor itself. But things get signifi- backed up by plenty of evidence. Ex- Wright means is that “technology is cantly worse from this shaky starting traordinary claims and all that, you know. weaving humans into electronic webs point. I bring up Wright’s bizarre views not that resemble big brains—corporations, Wright goes on to articulate the because they are intrinsically interesting online hobby groups, far-flung N.G.O.s. main reason he thinks the Internet-as- but rather because they are yet another And I personally don’t think it’s out- superorganism metaphor actually example of an intellectual, articulate landish to talk about us being, increas- makes sense: “Could it be that, in some writer falling for a simplistic metaphor ingly, neurons in a giant superorganism.” sense, the point of evolution—both the and running with it in the pages of the Well, it may not seem outlandish to biological evolution that created an in- premier national newspaper. Skeptics Wright, but does it make any sense? telligent species and the technological have an easy time debunking the non- The superorganism metaphor is used by evolution that a sufficiently intelligent sense being thrown right and left in the some biologists to indicate natural en- species is bound to unleash—has been media and populating the ever-expanding tities that are made of what we would to create these social brains?” In a word: bookstore spaces devoted to spiritualism, normally consider individual organisms, no. It couldn’t be, unless evolution were religion, and “alternative” world views. It is yet they also act as a unit in some mean- what philosophers call a teleological much harder to account for why smart ingful (and scientifically explorable) phenomenon: a process that actually people engage in some serious mental sense. Colonies of eusocial insects are aims at a particular goal to be achieved gymnastics to deny the conclusion that the classic—though by no means through mechanisms such as natural there is no point to evolution. Neither we only—example: the workers in an ant selection, mutation, etc. (I would note nor the Internet, and certainly not fantas- colony are organisms by any reasonable in passing that we also have no good tically hypothetical human-Internet su- definition of the term, yet they sacrifice reason to assume, based on a sample perbrains, are why the dinosaurs went their own reproductive fitness for the size of exactly one, that “sufficiently in- extinct and Lucy started to walk on two benefit of the fitness of the queen. telligent species” are “bound” to unleash limbs. There is no “why,” only the end- These kinds of situations were at one technology. But that’s another story.) lessly fascinating “how.” n
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[ SKEPTICAL INQUIREE BENJAMIN RADFORD Benjamin Radford is a research fellow at the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and author or co-author of five books including Scientific Paranormal Investigation: How to Solve Unexplained Mysteries.
Infrared Cameras and Ghost Hunting
I recently saw an episode of the “reality” TV show Ghost Hunters, and the T.A.P.S. team used an infrared camera to look for ghosts. At one point a camera captured a form in the general shape of a person near a wall— : but everyone is accounted for and the ghost hunters see nothing except via the camera. Any idea what that was? Q —C. Kalscheur
Ghost Hunters is the world’s eyes can see—makes up only a fraction not been recording that area (or if I top ghost-themed televi- of the electromagnetic waves in the hadn’t seen the investigator create the sion show, and it has been world. The next-lowest category of fre- warm spot), it likely would have remained misinforming the public quency below visible light (and above mysterious. This is quite common on TV about both ghosts and radio waves and microwaves) consists of ghost-hunting shows, and it is likely the science for six seasons (see “Ghost-Hunt- infrared electromagnetic waves. In a nut- explanation for what you saw. n ing Mis takes: Science and Pseudoscience shell, infrared cameras simply allow us to in Ghost Investi ga tions” on page 44 of see a lower-frequency wavelength, de- this issue). The Ghost Hunters team prides tecting variations in heat instead of light. itself on using modern technology to de- Heat is of course far less transient tect ghosts and other paranormal phe- than light; if we turn off a light switch in nomena, and infrared cameras are among a closed room, the area goes dark almost their staple devices. Like the other scien- instantly. But if we turn off a source of tific gear that ghost hunters employ, in- heat—including body heat—in an area frared cameras are valid and useful devices or room, the heat may remain long after when used correctly. the source has been removed. This can More often than not, infrared cam- seem mysterious to amateur ghost eras create false-positive readings that hunters. amateur ghost hunters mistake for At an investigation I carried out last ghostly activity. Without seeing the spe- year for the TV show MysteryQuest, one cific video clip that you are referring to, of the ghost hunters used a forward it’s impossible to know exactly what was looking infrared (FLIR) camera to de- recorded, but in my years of ghost inves- tect a foot-long vertical warm spot on tigations I have encountered many simi- a pillar. No one in the room could ex- lar readings. To uninformed audiences plain what caused it; one person sug- and unscientific investigators, the fact gested it was a sign that a ghost had that an infrared camera reveals a human- been watching us. In fact I had seen one shaped form where clearly no one is of the ghost hunters leaning against the around can seem very spooky and mys- pillar a few minutes earlier, and the terious. There is, however, often a per- warm spot matched exactly the height fectly rational and scientific explanation. and shape of the man’s upper arm. All The first step to explaining the nature the ghost hunters swore that none of of these “ghostly auras” is understanding them had leaned against the pole, but the nature of the electromagnetic spec- when I suggested they review a video trum. Visible light—the light that our tape, they saw I was correct. If they had
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[ PSYCHIC VIBRATIONS ROBERT SHEAFFER “Psychic Vibrations” has appeared in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER for the past thirty years. Sheaffer is also author of UFO Sightings: The Evi dence (Prometheus 1998). His website is www.debunker.com.
Hovering UFO Closes Chinese Airport
ightings of alleged UFOs occur pretty often, but it’s rare indeed Sfor one to affect scheduled air traffic. We should not be surprised, then, to find that such an event has made the news. What was the mysteri- ous object that allegedly hovered over Hangzhou’s Xiaoshan Airport, China’s ninth-busiest, on the evening of July 7, 2010? At about 8:40 PM local time, a UFO was reported by a flight crew that was preparing to land. As a precaution, flight controllers delayed or redirected eighteen flights. As is often the case, conflicting and confusing accounts of the UFO inci- dent make it difficult to determine ex- actly what happened. Reporters want
an exciting story, and UFOlogists want Express Metro Photo: One of several published images purportedly showing a UFO over Xiaoshan Airport. This image appears to be to win converts. They will typically grab a long-exposure photograph of a police helicopter with a searchlight beam shining down. It was posted to the onto any photo or video that is sup- Internet long before the incident at Xiaoshan. posed to represent the object and report lights, shining a searchlight on the ing saucer’ more often than the planet as fact practically any claim that is ground. In any case, because these pho- Venus. The study of these mistakes made regardless of its source or veracity. tos were posted to the Internet a year proves quite instructive, for it shows be- Many images of the alleged airport before the sighting, they obviously have yond all possible dispute the limitations UFO—images that were supposed to nothing to do with the July 7 incident. of sensory perception and the weakness show the UFO over Hangzhou but ob- Other photos accompanying news ac- of accounts relating shapes and motions viously showed a different object—soon counts of this incident show a rocket of point sources or objects with small ap- began circulating in news stories and on launch, probably that of the Russian parent diameters,” wrote the well-known the Internet. Most frequently seen is an Progress M-06M supply ship launched pro-UFOlogist Jacques Vallee in his impressive-looking rectangular object, to the International Space Station on 1966 book Challenge to Science. from which a beam of light shines out June 30. A brief video snippet of the “UFO” underneath (see the accompanying news However, it is significant that the about twenty seconds into a Chinese- report at http://tinyurl.com/273h68h). brilliant Venus in the evening sky at that language news report on the incident At first I thought the image was the re- time, was nearing its maximum bright- shows a tiny, bright dot against a dark flection of an interior fluorescent light ness before setting about two-and-a-half sky (see http://tinyurl.com/2c9ft7o). It fixture, as may be seen when looking hours after the sun. One would think it might be a camcorder image of Venus, out a window. After studying the other impossible for a group of educated and although the slight fuzziness on the left photos in this series and reading some seemingly rational people to mistake the side may possibly result from an off- of the online discussions, I agree that brilliant planet Venus for a UFO, but ex- axis image. Alternatively, it might in- it’s probably an exposure of a few sec- perience shows otherwise. “No single stead show the plumes of a distant onds showing a helicopter with flashing object has been misinterpreted as a ‘fly- rocket launch. Without more informa-
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tion, we cannot say for sure. Officials crew reported seeing just one bright ob- a mostly-cloudy and not-yet-dark sky said that the object did not turn up on ject, not two, Maillot concluded that the (see www.whatsonxiamen.com/news13 radar. Ruan Zhouchang, spokesperson “UFO” reported by the crew was Venus 305.html), but it’s not clear if the illus- for the Xiaoshan Airport in Hangzhou, and not some separate object (www. tration is supposed to be an actual photo said through an interpreter, “There was ufologie.net/htm/afp270100.htm). of the incident or a reconstruction using an unknown object seen in the skies An official investigation by Chinese photo editing software (even if claimed over the airport. So according to our aviation experts was launched into the otherwise, it’s probably the latter). regulations we had to close the airspace. incident at Xiaoshan Airport. They con- Several explanations for this sighting Aircraft movements were suspended cluded that the object probably was “an come to mind. Witnesses may have seen from 8:45 PM to 9:41 PM.” However, the airplane on descent reflecting light” (see a display involving searchlights or lasers photo accompanying that news report, http://tinyurl.com/2bw272q), one which from a distance. I witnessed once—and supposedly showing the object, ap - apparently kept descending for an hour only once, in my many years of sky- peared to be that of a high-altitude con- or more. They said it might also have gazing—a rare phenomenon of a mock- Jupiter, essentially the same thing as a mock-Sun or “sun dog,” which looks like a vertical ribbon hanging in the sky. I glimpsed it only briefly before an ap- One would think it impossible proaching front of cirrus clouds covered it. Possibly the witnesses may have seen for a group of educated and a very rare phenomenon of that sort, al- though I suspect that the clouds con- seemingly rational people to taining the ice crystals that were creating the phenomenon would have obliterated mistake the brilliant planet the sky before the object count got to fifty. Or, since this account contains very Venus for a UFO, but experience few details and does not contain the full name of any witness, the whole story may shows otherwise. be made up. Such are the circumstances one often encounters when one starts to critically investigate UFO claims.
trail (see http://tinyurl.com/2vd2zuz). been an “unexpected flying vehicle,” * * * A 2001 incident occurring at the whatever that is. Imagine how embar- In the July/August issue of the SKEPTI- Barnaul Airport in southern Siberia rassing it would be to have to conclude, CAL INQUIRER, I reported on the sting- sounds very much like the incident at “Air Traffic Controllers at one of our ing comments made by James Carrion the Xiaoshan Airport. The Agence- major Chinese airports mistook Venus when he resigned as head of MUFON, France Presse reported from Moscow for an unknown hovering aircraft.” the largest UFO group in the United on January 27, 2001: Whatever may or may not have hov- States. He described the UFO phenom- An airport in southern Siberia was ered above Hangzhou, a feverish UFO enon as being based in “humans deceiv- shut down for an hour and a half on excitement seemed to grip the region. ing humans,” which is no less than rank Friday when an unidentified flying On July 14, from about 8–9 PM, a UFO heresy to the mostly hardcore UFOlo - object (UFO) was detected hovering was reported in Shaping Park in gists in MUFON, to whom UFOs must above its runway, the Interfax news Chongqing. This sighting also sounds be extraterrestrial spacecraft. Now Car - agency reported. The crew of an Il- 76 cargo aircraft of the company very much like Venus. But according to rion has announced the formation of “Altaï” refused to take off, claiming the Chinese newspaper Southeast Ex - the Center for UFO Truth (CUT), which they saw a luminescent object hover- press, at about 11:30 PM on July 9, two according to him is “not a UFO organ- ing above the runway of the [sic] men in Xiamen reported seeing “dozens ization nor is it affiliated in any way Siberia’s Barnaul airport, local avia- of vertical luminous beams” in the sky. with Ufology. Instead CUT is a histor- tion company director Ivan Komarov was quoted as saying. According to one witness, identified ical re search organization focused on only as Mr. Wang, “At first, there were examining the question long ignored by As in Hangzhou, nothing appeared only five of them, hanging very low in historians: was the UFO subject pur- on the radar. UFO investigator Eric the sky, but after a short while, the num- posely created by the United States and Maillot—from the Cercle Zetetique, a ber increased to about fifty, and they its allies as part of a cold war operation French rationalist organization—looked were higher and higher, just like a stave and perpetuated to this day for national into this case. He discovered that the hanging in the sky.” The story was ac- security reasons?” (see http://tinyurl.co time and direction of the UFO matched companied by an impressive-looking m/UFOtruth). the position of Venus. And because the photo showing hovering yellow lights in Almost as soon as this announce-
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ment hit the Internet, some of UFOl- istence of UFOs. Mark Pilkington, a UFOs just a personal interest of theirs, or ogy’s wolves started howling at Carrion, writer and filmmaker living in London, were UFOs related to their CIA work? as he described in his next blog posting, is author of Mirage Men: A Journey into Enough persons with a CIA or other in- “Blasphemy Will Get You Stoned.” He Disinforma tion, Paranoia, and UFOs. Ac - telligence background have turned up in also relates what happened when he cording to the publisher’s blurb, “Mirage UFO circles over the years to make the presented his theory of psi-war UFO Men explores the strange and symbiotic question an interesting one. Even the deception at the UFO Crash Retrieval relationship between the U.S. military well-known skeptical believer, the late Con ference in Las Vegas in 2009. “I re- and intelligence agencies and the com- Karl Pflock, was a former CIA man. alized that presenting a human theory munity who believes strongly that UFOs These men should not be confused for the origin of UFOs at a UFO con- have visited earth.” The review in the with what seems like a small army of de- ference is tantamount to blasphemy.” U.K.’s Daily Mail says, “According to ceivers and impostors who claim to have I don’t think that Carrion is going Pilkington, the campaign to promote the intelligence and/or a military background down the right path here. I don’t see how idea of UFOs was masterminded in the that turns out to be simply made up. For the CIA could have manipulated Ken- Fifties by the head of the CIA, Allen example, a man originally known only as neth Arnold, Ray Palmer, and the other Welsh Dulles. More recently, many of “Source A,” who claimed to be a high- founding fathers of UFOlogy, or why the leaked fake documents and bogus ranking Navy officer, gave “confirma- they would want to. I think that the stories seem to have come from the U.S. tion” of tales of U.S. military officials UFO subject owes its existence not to Air Force’s Office of Special Investiga- meeting with extraterrestrials. He was spy wars but primarily to processes that tions (AFOSI)” (see http://tinyurl.com/ recently identified as Richard Theil - Charles Mackay described in his book 28oknqb). Of course, by the 1950s, fly- mann, an impostor who apparently never Extraordinary Popular Delusions and the ing saucers had already promoted them- served in the Navy; he wore a chest full Madness of Crowds. However, it is en- selves quite effectively to the public of medals that he never earned (see tirely possible that some governments without any help from the government, (including our own) may have exploited and Pilkington’s claim that the famous http://tinyurl.com/SourceA). the public’s existing belief in UFOs for UFO contactee George Adamski was a More puzzling is the confession of their own ends. I commend Carrion for victim of CIA deception—complete UFOlogist William Moore, co-author having the courage to go his own way, with alien impersonators in fake sau- of The Roswell Incident and The Phila - and I wish him well. Even if his journey cers—is implausible in the extreme. delphia Experiment, who famously told doesn’t lead to “UFO truth,” I’m sure Still, it is undeniable that one of the the audience at a MUFON conference he’ll turn up some interesting stuff along early directors of the National Investi- in 1989 that he had been recruited by the way. ga tions Committee on Aerial Phenom - intelligence agencies to spy on the By a very interesting coincidence—if ena (NICAP), the most influential UFO somewhat unhinged UFOlogist, the it is a coincidence (cue sardonic laugh- group of the 1950s and ’60s, was Roscoe late Paul Bennewitz. If Moore is telling ter)—a book just published in the H. Hillenkoetter, who was also the first the truth, this supposed spy mission United Kingdom makes the same kind director of the CIA. Another early makes no sense. If he’s not, why would of argument as Carrion: that the U.S. NICAP director was former CIA “psy- he make up a story that has caused government has been secretly promoting chological warfare” chief Colonel Joseph everyone in UFOlogy to revile him? Of belief in UFOs. This goes against the Bryan III, and there were at least two course, that assumes that Moore was conventional UFOlogy belief that the other NICAP directors in the CIA (see acting rationally, and in UFOlogy ra- government is trying to cover up the ex- http://tinyurl.com/NICAP-CIA). Were tionality is often in short supply. n
Announcing the New Online SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Newsletter
The Committee for Skeptical Inquiry and the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER Features include photos, guest-authored articles from key fig- magazine have created one more way for readers to keep up ures in today’s skeptical movement, introductions and suc- with news and events. The inaugural edition of the electroni- cesses of skeptics’ groups, reports from events and cally delivered Skeptical Inquirer News (yes, SIN) launched conventions, news of investigations, updates on developing December 17, 2009. With this free monthly e-news publica- stories, matters of concern to the skeptical community, legis- tion, CSI will keep readers updated on new material, activities, lation and policies to keep an eye on, links to media stories and events of interest to the skeptical community. featuring CSI members, and more.
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[ SCIENCE WATCH KENNETH W. KRAUSE Kenneth W. Krause is a contributing editor and books editor/columnist for the Human ist and a contributing editor for the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER. He may be reached at [email protected].
Life after JCVI-syn1.0 ‘New’ Adventures in Media Coverage, Politics, National Security, and—Oh, Yes—the Promise of Synthetic Biology
. Craig Venter is no stranger to entire genome from scratch. In his en- million-base-pair chromosome digitally success—or to glitzy headlines in lightening if somewhat self-gratifying synthesized from the natural M. my- Jthe popular press. By 1995, the autobiography, A Life Decoded, Venter coides blueprint—but with a few crucial “bad boy” of molecular biology had revealed his grand designs: changes. The recipient was an M. capri- overwhelmed his critics by becoming I now want to go further. My com- colum shell and cytoplasm. The cell’s the first person to decode an entire pany, Synthetic Genomics, Inc. [SGI], progeny, capable of continuous self- genome, that of Haemophilus influenzae. is already trying to develop cas- replication, demonstrate the expected Then, as part of a larger goal to distin- settes—modules of genes—to turn an phenotypic properties and thus appear organism into a biofactory that could to be controlled solely by the donor’s guish life’s minimal genome, he did it make clean hydrogen fuel from sun- again, sequencing the bacterium My- light and water or soak up more car- synthetic genome. More than a billion coplasma genitalium. bon dioxide. From there I want to daughter cells later, a strain of M. my- Perhaps most memorably, Venter ef- take us far from shore into unknown coides austerely christened JCVI-syn1.0 fectively humiliated the U.S. govern- waters, to a new phase of evolution, to now awaits regeneration in a Maryland the day when one DNA-based species ment in 2000 by winning the race to can sit down at a computer to design freezer. unravel and sequence a rough draft of another. I plan to show that we under- So, exactly what has Venter achieved the human genome, sixty percent of stand the software of life by creating this time? Certain popular headlines which turned out to be his own. He and true artificial life. have misstated the feat rather wildly. his privately funded team at Celera Ge- Given his record, one has to believe Popular Mechanics called it the “first nomics accomplished this feat using Venter will eventually accomplish every synthetic cell.” New Scientist termed it their new and, to that point, much ma- bit of it. Indeed, in connection with his an “immaculate creation.” Refusing to ligned “shotgun” sequencing method latest conquest of the popular headlines, be outdone, the Wall Street Journal and that, in the end, allowed them to expose Venter, along with project co-leader the Guardian celebrated the creation of the chain more accurately and less ex- Daniel Gibson and their col leagues at a “synthetic organism” and a “synthetic pensively than the simultaneous $3 bil- the Venter Institute, came at least one life form,” respectively. lion National Institutes of Health colossal step closer to doing so. On In a thoughtful opinion piece in the (NIH) project led by Francis Collins. May 20, 2010, they announced the May 27 issue of Nature, however, eight Then, in 2007, Venter stunned the “Creation of a Bacterial Cell Con- diversely situated yet highly respected world yet again when he transformed trolled by a Chemically Synthesized experts on synthetic biology attempted one life form, Mycoplasma capricolum, Genome” in the online version of the to clarify the situation. Some focused into another, Mycoplasma mycoides, by prestigious journal Science. Their formal on the essential facts. Harvard geneti- transferring the latter’s native genome report, with the same title (by Gibson, cist George Church, for example, dif- into the former’s evacuated cell. But Ven- et al.), then was quickly published in ferentiated the creation of life from the ter wasn’t one to rest on his laurels. A year the July 2 issue of Science. Their ambi- synthesis of DNA by way of a vivid later, he and his twenty-member “dream tious project was funded primarily by analogy: “Printing out a copy of an an- team” at the J. Craig Venter Institute SGI, to the tune of $40 million. cient text,” he said, “isn’t the same as came astoundingly close to actually cre- Venter’s “new” cell consisted of two understanding the language.” More ating life by constructing M. genitalium’s components. The donor was a 1.08- skeptical yet was Reed College profes-
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sor of humanities, Mark Bedau, who re- when disrupted one at a time. of Bioethical Issues. Palpably concerned, jected even the less ambitious claim of JCVI-syn1.0’s genome is almost Obama asked Gutmann to prepare a having created a synthetic cell. Venter’s twice as voluminous as that of M. gen- broad study of this “scientific milestone” new bacterium, he argued, is just a cell italium. But Venter plans to whittle within six months, focusing on “poten- with a prosthetic genome accounting away at its genetic complement as well, tial health, security or other risks” and for only 1 percent of the organism’s dry until he can exploit a minimal cell as a “identifying appropriate ethical bound- weight. platform for distinguishing the func- aries.” Strangely, the president requested Others were more philosophical and tion of every gene essential to its exis- that the commission “consult with a reflective. Arthur Caplan, bioethicist at tence. The ultimate triumph, of course, range of constituencies,” including “faith the University of Pennsylvania, an - will be to combine the technical suc- communities.” nounced quite optimistically that Ven- cesses of synthesis and transplantation On May 27, the editors of Nature ter has begat “an end to a debate about with a profound knowledge of genetic cautiously praised Obama’s inquiry, the nature of life that has lasted thou- utility into something genuinely magnif- calling it a “belated step in the right di- sands of years.” JCVI-syn1.0, Caplan icent. If, through these researchers’ hard rection.” Urging the swift establishment contended, seems to “extinguish” all vi- work and creative genius, we learn to of an international framework of gov- talist views, including religious claims, control entire genomes from their very ernance on synthetic biology, the edi- that life requires some “special force or inception—to make them do our bid- tors warned that the construction and power”—other than human ingenuity, ding—indeed, what can’t we accomplish? transplantation of whole genomes “may that is—to exist. And finally, David Which is precisely the heady ques- be routine within five years,” and that Deamer, biomolecular engineer at the tion that has many lay people, politicians, universities, individual investigators, University of California, Santa Cruz, and even some experts on edge. Also on and governments are “almost certainly wrote that, thanks to Venter’s successful May 20, Barack Obama penned a letter not attentive enough to security risks” reassembly of a synthetic genome, we on the subject to Dr. Amy Gutmann, posed by “do-it-yourself ” biologists. might soon be able to “answer one of University of Pennsylvania president and Others appear somewhat less dis- the great remaining questions of biol- now co-chair (along with Emory Uni- tressed. Although troubled by the par- ogy: how did life begin?” versity President James Wagner) of the ticipation of nonprofessionals in this However ambitious they are, neither Presidential Commission for the Study nascent “life sciences revolution,” health Venter nor his colleagues are especially Creating Bacteria from Prokaryotic Genomes Engineered in Yeast given to hyperbole or delusions of Credit: J. Craig Venter Institute grandeur. In their May 20 press release, the Venter Institute claimed no more than the “successful construction of the Insertion of yeast vector into bacterial genome first self-replicating, synthetic bacterial cell.” In their original research article, they acknowledge the natural origin of the recipient cell’s cytoplasm but point out that JCVI-syn1.0’s progeny act “as Isolation if the whole cell had been produced Resolution synthetically.” Moreover, Venter admits in the paper’s introduction that “our ge- Engineered bacteria nomic knowledge remains very limited” and that “no single cellular system has Genome with all of its genes understood in terms of Recipient cell a yeast vector their biological roles.”
No matter how one characterizes it, Transformation Venter’s latest accomplishment devel- Transplantation oped out of a larger project that began Bacterial genome in 1995. When he sequenced M. geni- Methylation cloned talium, the bacterium with the smallest (if necessary) in yeast genetic complement of any known or- ganism capable of growth in the labo- ratory, his ultimate goal was to build a Isolation cell with the minimum genome needed Genome to survive. At that time, Venter discov- engineering ered that 100 of that species’ 485 pro- tein-coding genes were expendable
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bothersome bug that causes mastitis in goats. But the project’s breakthrough has triggered a dynamic discussion regard- ing future safeguards. Although cells with synthetic genomes are unlikely to survive outside the laboratory, they could be programmed with limited life spans or with on/off switches, as Bedau has suggested. Or perhaps they could be engineered with sequences that sim- ply cannot exist in nature. Though an environmental group, Friends of the Earth, has asked the FDA and the EPA to “fully regulate all synthetic biology experiments and products,” it may turn out that private entities—with govern- ment assistance, of course—are better equipped and motivated to oversee their experiments and control their out-
Credit: Institute J. Craig Venter JCVI Synthetic Biology Team comes. So what about the potential benefits experts Mildred Cho and David Rel- argued that the rules of the game have of JCVI-syn1.0? Venter admits that his man de-emphasized the potential risks indeed changed considerably because of cell is of no immediate practical use. associated with JCVI-syn1.0. In the the relative ease with which large Such latency is typical of great science, July 2 issue of Science, they argued that chunks of DNA can now be con- Venter’s latest accomplishments “do not structed with a synthesizer from digital after all. But Venter remains tightly fo- cause particular concern” in terms of code. Now, they warned, the process is cused on the future, including possible biosecurity and that “few, if any, new available even to students and amateurs. applications he envisioned long ago. ethical issues are raised.” More vital for These witnesses called for further regu- Already, he and SGI are collaborating Cho and Relman is the scientific com- lations requiring DNA synthesis busi- with ExxonMobil—which is prepared munity’s relationship with an already nesses—including Blue Heron Bio- to spend $600 million on the venture— distrustful public. Now more than ever, technology, for example, the company to create a novel strain of algae capable they advised, synthetic biologists need that filled the Venter Institute’s order— of capturing carbon dioxide and using it to communicate their intentions, min- to screen requests for the sequences of to manufacture diesel fuel. Venter has imize conflicts of interest, and abstain known pathogens that could be used as also received funding from the NIH and from incendiary language referring to bioweapons. The presidential commis- is working with Novartis in the hope of “programmed” or “artificial life.” sion is scheduled to convene again in quickly developing synthetically derived Then, on July 8–9, thirteen promi- September and November of this year. proteins for use in flu vaccines. nent scientists gathered to testify as Venter and his colleagues were keenly Such are only isolated examples, of part of the president’s bioethics com- aware of these concerns when they cre- course, in a brave new world of limitless mission in Wash ing ton, D.C. Some ated JCVI-syn1.0. To make the cell’s potential. Combining chemistry, cell bi- contended that, despite Venter’s re- progeny retraceable to their owners and ology, genetics, and computer science, search, very little in biology has changed to distinguish them from their natural synthetic biology is no doubt as much a during the past fifty years in terms of se- counterparts, the team inserted into Pandora’s box as it is a magician’s hat. curity threats, and that existing regula- JCVI-syn1.0’s genome four “water- But let’s hope that scientific curiosity tions and oversights are sufficiently marks”: the key to an alphanumeric code, and entrepreneurial passion drive the broad and brawny to handle the differ- a website address for those who have im pending debate at least as forcefully ence. Harvard geneti cist Raju Kucher- solved it, the names of the forty-six sci- as fear and, most certainly, envy. With lapati, for in stance, remarked that the entists who contributed to the project, inspired innovators like J. Craig Venter same concerns were raised and ad- and pithy quotes from James Joyce, and his colleagues in the game—peering dressed beginning thirty-five years ago Robert Oppenheimer, and Richard over the box’s edge or past the hat’s in response to recombinant DNA Feynman (“What I cannot build I can- brim—we might finally learn to expect technology. not understand”). Venter also disabled and, in appropriate cases, appreciate the Others, including Venter himself, the native genes rendering M. mycoides a unexpected. n
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[ THE SCIENCE OF MEDICINE STEVEN NOVELLA Steven Novella, MD, is assistant professor of neurology at Yale School of Medicine, the host of the Skeptics’ Guide to the Universe podcast, author of the NeuroLogica blog, executive editor of the Science-Based Medicine blog, and president of the New England Skeptical Society.
The Poor, Misunderstood Placebo
recent study looking into the ef- panding health claims within an in- course. For any variable symptom, peri- fects of acupuncture on relieving creasingly unregulated market. ods of time when symptoms are at their A back pain was widely re ported in worst are likely, by chance alone, to be the media as finding that “acupuncture Operational Definition of Placebo followed by a return to more average works, even fake acupuncture.” Behind In the context of research, the “placebo symptoms. the headlines, the authors were more effect” has a very specific operational Other artifacts include the biases of circumspect in the paper it self, con- definition: it is the treatment effect the researchers and the subjects. Re - cluding: measured in the placebo arm of a clin- searchers want their interventions to ical trial, which includes those subjects work and may therefore bias their as- Although acupuncture was found ef - fective for chronic low back pain, tai- who have received a fake or inert treat- sessments to be more positive. Subjects loring needling sites to each patient ment. If a trial is rigorously designed, want to receive an effective treatment and penetration of the skin appear to placebo effects should include every- and to meet the expectations of the re- be unimportant in eliciting therapeu- thing other than a physiological re- searcher. They want to justify their risk, tic benefits. These findings raise ques- sponse to a biologically active treat ment. expense (even if it’s just time), and their tions about acupuncture’s purported mechanisms of action. It remains un- Therefore, we can subtract placebo-ef- decision to receive a treatment or enter clear whether acupuncture or our fect findings from the treatment group, a trial. Conditioning, in which one asso- simulated method of acupuncture who will display treatment effects plus ciates a treatment ritual with feeling provide physiologically important placebo ef fects, and we are left with a better, is another related placebo effect. stimulation or represent placebo or measurement of the treatment effect There are also a number of nonspe- nonspecific ef fects. (Cherkin et al. 2009) alone. cific effects, such as the well-docu- This simple but effective logic is the mented observer effect (also called the The authors compared acupuncture cornerstone of medical research. It is Hawthorne effect), in which the very fact to placebo acupuncture (creating the necessary because there are a variety of of being observed in a clinical trial re- sensation of acupuncture with tooth- effects that can create the false impres- sults in a change in behavior and re- picks that do not penetrate the skin) sion that a treatment is working even porting (McCarney et al. 2007). People and found no difference. When a drug when it isn’t. It is a mistake to assume are more likely to be compliant with is compared with a placebo and there is that the only relevant false impression treatment, take better care of themselves, no difference in the response, the stan- is a “mind over matter” effect resulting and get regular medical attention as part dard conclusion is that the drug has no from belief in the treatment. This is not of a trial. Related to this is the cheerleader effect—it does not work. But that logic the case. effect: for any functional assessment, peo- is being turned on its head by what is ple will tend to try harder if they are being called “placebo medicine,” in Placebo Effects being encouraged, if they feel they which the placebo effect is seen as a Placebo effects fall into several cate- should be doing better, or if they have real, valuable, and desired outcome of gories: illusions of observation, bias, hope that the treatment is working. patient treatment (Novella 2009). nonspecific effects, and physiological ef- And finally there are real physiologi- Placebo effects (plural), however, are fects. Much of what is measured as a cal effects resulting from the ritual of varied and complex. For the most part placebo effect is, in fact, simply an illu- treatment. For example, treatment may they are not a biological response to the sion of the process of observation. These in volve relaxation or simply taking a expectation of benefit, which is what illusory effects include regression to the break from your otherwise hectic daily most people assume. Understanding mean, which is a statistical phenome- routine. Believing one is being treated placebo effects is critical to making non that includes extreme symptoms may reduce anxiety about the illness or sense of medical research and ever-ex- becoming less extreme as a matter of symptoms, which in turn may reduce
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sympathetic activity, reduce blood pres- reporting relief; the augmented group trials, are mostly due to bias. Spe - sure and strain on the heart, and reduce (those who received placebo acupunc- cifically, significant placebo effects were the levels of stress hormones. Hands- ture plus enhanced interaction with the found only for subjectively reported on treatments have the benefit of therapist) reported a drop of over eighty symptoms. Further, the size of this ef- human contact, which improves mood points, with over 60 percent of patients fect varied widely among trials. and provides an overall feeling of well- reporting relief. being. It’s very interesting that the group Conclusion The perception of pain in particular that received no intervention, not even Increasingly, placebo effects are being is subject to these nonspecific effects, a placebo, still had a 30 percent re- used to justify the use of ineffective and such as when an improved mood re - sponse. This response is likely entirely even inert treatments, with the assump- duces the perception of pain. In addi- due to observational artifacts (Haw - tion that “the” placebo effect is a true tion, conditioning, expectation, and thorne effect, etc.). The placebo inter- healing effect. What the research indi- nonspecific benefits may actually cause vention also led to an improved cates, however, is that there are many the release of natural endorphins that response—in this case, expectation and placebo effects, and they are mostly bias reduce pain transmission (Benedetti conditioning might be having an effect. and illusion—not real effects. There are 2007) or the release of dopamine in the The enhanced intervention group also nonspecific effects that are likely reward centers of the brain (de la showed the strongest effect, likely rep- valuable, but these effects can mostly be Fuente-Fernández and Stoessl 2004). resenting an increase in the nonspecific categorized as stress reduction and im- benefits of a positive therapeutic rela- provement in mood through attention Breaking It Down tionship. and encouragement. It should be re- Given this more thorough understand- Hróbjartsson and Gøtzsche have membered that any placebo effect ing of placebo effects, it is not reason- been studying placebo effects for years. worth having will also accompany a le- able to assume that the measured They recently reviewed clinical studies gitimate treatment that actually works. that contain a no-treatment arm as a placebo effect in a clinical trial is mostly On close inspection, placebo effects are way of measuring placebo effects. They or entirely a real “mind over matter” not a justification for substituting conclude: health benefit. Instead, the placebo ef- hocus-pocus for real medicine. n fect may consist mostly or entirely of il- We did not find that placebo inter- lusion and bias. One might ask, “Which ventions have important clinical ef- References kinds of effects are contributing to the fects in general. However, in certain Benedetti, F. 2007. Placebo and endogenous measured placebo effect of specific settings placebo interventions can in- mechanisms of analgesia. Handbook of Experi - fluence patient-reported outcomes, mental Pharmacology 177: 393–413. treatments?” The answer is that it de- especially pain and nausea, though it Cherkin, D.C., K.J. Sherman, A.L. Avins, J.H. pends on what is being treated. is difficult to distinguish patient-re- Erro, L. Ichikawa, W.E. Barlow, K. Delaney, For example, a study of placebo ef - ported effects of placebo from biased et al. 2009. A randomized trial comparing fects in the treatment of irritable bowel reporting. The effect on pain varied, acupuncture, simulated acupuncture, and usual care for chronic low back pain. Archives syndrome (Kaptchuk et al. 2008) found even among trials with low risk of bias, from negligible to clinically im- of Internal Medicine 169(9): 858–66. a substantial placebo effect in place with portant. Variations in the effect of De la Fuente-Fernández, R., and A.J. Stoessl. the use of placebo acupuncture. The placebo were partly explained by vari- 2004. The biochemical bases of the placebo effect. Science and Engineering Ethics 10(1): same study also found that the enhanced ations in how trials were conducted 143–50. placebo group—members of which re- and how patients were informed. Hróbjartsson, A., and P.C. Gøtzsche. 2010. ceived placebo acupuncture with en- (Hróbjartsson and Gøtzsche 2010) Placebo interventions for all clinical condi- tions. Cochrane Database Systematic Review hanced interaction between the Let’s break this down a bit. First, (1): CD003974. therapist and the subject—reported Hróbjartsson and Gøtzsche found that Kaptchuk, T.J., J.M. Kelley, L.A. Conboy, R.B. added “warmth, attention, and confi- when you look at any objective or clin- Davis, C.E. Kerr, E.E. Jacobson, I. Kirsch, et dence.” After three weeks, the waiting- al. 2008. Components of placebo effect: Ran- ically important outcome—the kinds of domised controlled trial in patients with irri- list group (those who received no things that would indicate a real bio- table bowel syndrome. British Medical Journal treatment—not even placebo) had about logical effect—there is no discernible 336(7651): 999–1003. a thirty-point drop on the symptom placebo effect. That is, there is no McCarney, R., J. Warner, S. Iliffe, R. van Haselen, M. Griffin, and P. Fisher. 2007. The severity scale, with almost 30 percent of “mind over matter” self-healing that Hawthorne Effect: A randomised, controlled patients reporting adequate relief; the can be attributed to the placebo effect. trial. BioMed Central Medical Research treatment group (those who received What the authors found is also most Methodology 7: 30. Novella, S.P. 2009. The rise of placebo medicine. placebo acupuncture) had a forty-two- compatible with the hypothesis that Available online at www.sciencebasedmedi- point drop, with 44 percent of patients placebo effects, as measured in clinical cine.org/?p=672.
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Monsters, both real and imagined, have fascinated mankind for millennia. From zombies and Frankenstein’s monster to the golem and ghosts, abnormal creatures continue to fascinate and frighten us.
We hope you enjoy our roundup of monsters, as science sheds light behind the myths—and under the bed. SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/24/10 2:29 PM Page 36
Frankenstein Was Not a Doctor
Misconceptions about the novel Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus arose from the errant and misleading interpretations of the story in film adaptations.
RON WATKINS
he concept many people have of Frankenstein is the story and its sequel, The Bride of Frankenstein, of a mad doctor who creates a monster from stolen, dead are now considered classics, it is most likely in the original film that the mis- Tbody parts but mistakenly endows it with a criminal application of the name began. When brain. The resulting creature—called “Franken stein”—is an the newly created and somewhat un- uncontrollable, murdering fiend who eventually kills his own steady being first appeared on screen, his creator cautioned him, “Take care, creator. Though widely recognized as the authentic telling of Herr Frankenstein, take care!” This en- the classic horror tale, this concept, which stems from various dearing scene is not found in the novel, film adaptations, is not the story written by Mary Shelley in which the initial encounter between Frankenstein and his creation is quite published in 1818. It is true that movies often differ from the different: books on which they are based, but critical misconceptions I beheld the wretch—the miserable about Shelley’s brilliant work that have become ingrained into monster whom I had created. He held up the curtain of the bed; and the public consciousness over the years can be traced back to his eyes, if eyes they may be called, the movie versions of the story, beginning with Universal Pic- were fixed on me. His jaws opened, and he muttered some inarticulate tures’s Frankenstein in 1931. The movie has become more sounds, while a grin wrinkled his cheeks. He might have spoken, but I familiar to people than the original novel. “Frankenstein.” This corruption of the did not hear; one hand was stretched It has a life of its own, apart from the name can be directly attributed to the out, seemingly to detain me, but I es- book, and has little to do with Shelley’s numerous motion pictures stemming caped and rushed downstairs. (Shel- ley 1991, 43) work itself, other than the title. In the from the extraordinary novel, in partic- novel there is no criminal brain; the ular the eight made by Universal Pic- In addition to the misuse of Victor’s creature does not kill his creator; and tures during the 1930s and ’40s last name, the Universal screenwriters though he may have been mad, Frank - (beginning with 1931’s Frankenstein and took the curious step of reversing the enstein was not a doctor! ending with 1948’s Abbott and Costello first names of Victor Frankenstein and Most people probably realize that the Meet Frankenstein). The latter movie and his friend Henry Clerval; Frankenstein name “Frankenstein” is properly applica- some of the others—namelyThe Bride of becomes “Henry” and his friend is ble to the creator, Victor Frankenstein, Frankenstein (1935), The Ghost of “Victor.” There seems to be no motiva- and not his creation, which is often re- Frankenstein (1942), and Frankenstein tion for, or benefit derived from, such ferred to as “the creature” in the novel Meets the Wolfman (1942)—compound an alteration. Shelley saw Victor Frankenstein, or the Modern Prometheus. this confusion because their titles refer Franken stein as playing God and may Still, popular culture continues to iden- directly to the creature, not the creator. have drawn his name from Paradise tify the creation, or “the monster,” as Although Universal’s Frankenstein Lost, in which Milton refers to God as
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“the Victor”; thus the filmmakers vio- lated Shelley’s original intention with this unwarranted editing. Another misconception from the movies is the belief that the creature is inarticulate, though an attempt is made in The Bride of Frankenstein to follow the novel by giving him speech. Able to communicate, the creature forces Frankenstein to create a mate for him. Although this storyline is similar to what happens in the book, the results differ sharply. In the original story, Frankenstein destroys his work on a fe- male being before completion, thus in- curring the further wrath of the creature. In the movie, Frankenstein completes his work, but the creature ex- periences another rejection when his intended “bride” finds him repugnant and will have nothing to do with him. In this same film, the creature learns language from a blind hermit with whom he shares some tender moments, learns to laugh, and even sheds some tears. These appealing scenes are not found in the novel, but they do resem- ble a meeting therein between the crea- ture and a blind man named De Lacey who lives with his family in the woods. Unfortunately, while The Bride of Frankenstein makes an effort to develop the creature along lines similar to the novel, later film versions return him to the role of dumb, murderous brute. On the contrary, Mary Shelley’s creature becomes an articulate, edu- cated being who learns to speak and read French. He knows the history of prior civilizations and is familiar with
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to the dead. Hollywood answers the question of the life-giving process with an awesome and frightening display of lights and electricity amid showers of sparks and explosions produced by an array of electrical machines. The ma- chines harness the lightning and feed it The creature becomes capable not through the electrodes attached to the creature’s neck, causing a quickening of only of logical thought and speech muscles, activation, and life. The process described in the novel is not but also of diabolical scheming. nearly as dramatic: I collected the instruments of life around me, that I might infuse some spark of being into the lifeless thing that lay at my feet. It was already one in the morning; the rain pattered dis- mally against the panes, and my can- dle was nearly burnt out, when, by the glimmer of the half-extinguished great literature, such as Milton’s Para- quite a vengeful character in the book light, I saw the dull yellow eye of the dise Lost, in which he compares himself and does commit murder to cause suf- creature open; it breathed hard, and to the rejected Satan instead of the nur- fering to Frankenstein and family. In a convulsive motion agitated its limbs. (Shelley 1991, 42) tured Adam. Frankenstein’s creation his tormented mind, he feels justified achieves all this while hiding in a hovel for his crime; there is rationale and pur- Frankenstein’s success seems to stem next to the De Lacey family cottage, pose to his horrific deeds, and he is not more from chemical or mechanical observing them for a year. At one point, the ignorant automaton of the movies. stimuli that result in a slow physiolog- while the rest of the family is away, he In the novel, Victor Frankenstein ical transformation than from a sudden presents himself to the blind family pa- tells us through his journal that his time “shocking” into existence. Furthermore, triarch in a passionate but naive appeal and effort during his stay in college were the scientist’s studies had always been for friendship. He experiences initial devoted to the study of the human devoted to natural philosophy, includ- success because his host cannot see his frame and, in particular, the monumen- ing fields such as chemistry and math- hideous appearance but hears only his tal question of just where life originated. ematics, not electricity—which would inner suffering and need, a further in- In reading the novel, we too become cu- support a quieter, less spectacular event dication of the creature’s humble, not rious and wonder just what secret than what the movies give us. (Just hostile, nature. Sadly however, the re- Frankenstein discovered and by what what the “instruments of life” are, we’re turning family, who see only the crea- process he applied it to his creation. Be- left to ponder.) ture’s outward ugliness, drive him away cause we are so engrossed in the story In her author’s introduction to the to continue his friendless wandering. that we half expect a valid answer, we novel, Shelley is a bit more specific His hatred toward his creator for aban- find Frankenstein’s rather casual revela- when she describes her dream that in- doning him intensifies daily. tion somewhat disappointing: spired the frightful tale: The creature becomes capable not After days and nights of incredible I saw the pale student of unhallowed only of logical thought and speech but labor and fatigue, I succeeded in dis- arts kneeling beside the thing he had also of diabolical scheming. He inno- covering the cause and generation of put together. I saw the hideous phan- cently approaches Victor’s little brother life; nay, more, I became myself capa- tasm of a Man stretched out, and then, William for solace but strangles him ble of bestowing animation upon on the working of some powerful en- lifeless matter. (Shelley 1991, 37) when the boy also rejects him. The gine, show signs of life and stir with an creature then plants the boy’s locket on After this profound understatement, uneasy half-vital motion. (Shelley 1991, xxv) Justine, Frankenstein’s sleeping servant Frankenstein refuses to share the secret girl, in a successful attempt to have her of life on the grounds that it will lead Still, it is not clear exactly what tran- accused of the crime and hanged. Such the reader to “destruction and infallible spired to quicken and give life to devious planning and forethought re- misery” and “mankind will be happier Frankenstein’s assembly of dead tissue. veal a mind capable of complex reason- without it.” Obviously Mary Shelley “The working of some powerful en- ing. Thus the creature is, admittedly, did not know the secret of restoring life gine” should not be equated with Hol-
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lywood’s shocking electrical display be- people may be surprised to learn that these changes have been burned into the cause the phrase was used in Shelley’s they don’t know the real version at all. human psyche not by the stage plays but time and earlier as a vague catch-all re- Subsequent films and television shows by the various movies with which most ferring to any mysterious or seemingly have missed opportunities to correct people are familiar. magical device, procedure, or manifes- this problem, and in fact they may have Does it really matter that a work of tation. (See, for example, chapter 2 of exacerbated it by claiming to be “the fiction has been so misinterpreted? Gulliver’s Travels by Jonathan Swift, in true story of Frankenstein.” Kenneth After all, the movies are fun to watch, which Gulliver’s watch, comb, and Branagh’s 1994 film interpretation is the story they tell is an intriguing one, razor are called “powerful engines” by entitled Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein, and a movie can’t be expected to repli- the Lilliputians.) which implies that the movie is based cate a book in all aspects. While all this All the descriptions in the novel and directly on the novel. Though it is may be true, it does matter that the the movies of Victor Frankenstein’s ob- faithful to a point, there are many er- Hollywood versions of this story are vious scientific knowledge and surgical rant details, culminating in a silly se- lacking the novel’s major themes and skills lead us to assume that he must quence that has Victor revive his wife, plot details. What we believe about this have been a doctor, and he is often re- Elizabeth (whom the creature has classic literary work is simply false, yet ferred to as such in films, television, and killed), only to have her die again in a society has accepted it as true. It’s as if commentary. However, he is never re- fiery suicide. This drama is not taken the novel has been cast aside and for- ferred to as such in the novel. Had Vic- from the book, in which Elizabeth dies gotten, and that probably matters most tor achieved such status, surely he would just once, permanently. of all. have been addressed as “Dr. Franken- Aside from plot details, there are also Hollywood filmmakers have created stein” by Shelley. Although Frankenstein major thematic differences in the story such a vast gap between the novel and was educated in the schools of Geneva between the novel and the film inter- the films that what we have today is not and attended the University of Ingol- pretations. The question of how far sci- just two types of media telling the same stadt, where he became quite successful entists should go in their quest for story, but two types of media telling with his studies and experiments, there knowledge is a major theme of the novel completely different stories. They are is no evidence in the novel that the sci- but is only implied in the films. This is both about a man who creates a man, entist ever graduated or received any still an important and relevant question but that is where similarities end. Other kind of medical degree. In fact, the title in this age of technological develop- film adaptations, such as Gone with the character tells us that he had reached ments such as cloning. Secondly, the in- Wind, have been much more successful the point where he felt he could learn tense suffering resulting from the in maintaining the integrity of the orig- no more, and that his presence at Ingol- rejection and isolation of Frankenstein’s inal work. Original books can often still stadt was no longer conducive to his creation—because he is different— be recognized in their associated films, improvements; thus, he considered re- forms a very important theme of the but Frankenstein has been so overshad- turning home to Geneva, until his as- work, which Shelley clearly emphasizes owed by film versions that the book is tounding discovery prompted him to but the movies fail to consider. no longer relevant to most people. This delay his departure. Richard Holmes, in his remarkable is a shame because Shelley’s Franken - After his discovery, Frankenstein study, The Age of Wonder (2008), reveals stein is a great work of literature with pushes his efforts to their eventual hor- that the corruption of Mary Shelley’s multiple levels of meaning; however, rible success, but he is wracked with re- novel began in stage plays soon after its contrary to popular belief, Shelley’s gret over what he has done and lapses publication. Holmes goes on to state that story has never been told accurately on into bouts of intense fear and fever—re- the changes in these plays have influ- the screen. n quiring medical attention and a return enced almost all subsequent stage and home. The rest of his life is consumed film productions (p. 334). However, it is References by determined but frustrating efforts to difficult to believe that these early stage Shelley, Mary. 1991. Frankenstein. New York: Bantam Books. right his wrong and destroy his creation productions, so far removed from the Holmes, Richard. 2008. The Age of Wonder. New due to the death and sorrow it has in- Universal films of the 1930s and ’40s, York: Pantheon Books. flicted upon his family. Shelley gives no could have had any direct influence on account of Frankenstein returning to the them, and it is not these stage plays with Ron Watkins, who has master’s university or receiving any medical award which most people identify when they degrees in theology and educa- that would qualify him as a doctor. contemplate Frankenstein. Although tion, taught high school English For those who “grew up” with the Holmes’s work does reveal an early ten- for fifteen years. His previous Frankenstein films but have not read the dency to change Shelley’s plot articles have appeared in Writ- novel, these movies are their first, and details, such as portraying the unfortu- ing Award, Discovery, and Rem- perhaps only, exposure to the story; nate creature as an inarticulate monster, inisce magazines and English Journal.
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Zombie! Joining the Living Dead
In studying the zombie in popular culture, the author even metamorphoses into one—perhaps as real as any.
JOE NICKELL
n popular culture, the zombie is a mindless, walking Popularized by Hollywood film stu- dios, the zombie legend was boosted in corpse. An element of the Haitian cult of vodun, or 1932 by the movie White Zombie, star- voodoo, zonbi is a word loaded with numerous meanings ring Bela Lugosi. The zombie has since I rivaled the vampire, the undead mummy and implications. Technically, a zonbi is a portion of a (played by Boris Karloff), and Franken- human soul that is stolen and forced to work. stein’s monster in celluloid popularity. The common zombie is called zonbi astral, the spirit of a According to Colin and Damon Wilson (1992, 413), “No one who has seen a film deceased person that is captured magically—by a bokor (or sor- like King of the Zombies can ever forget cerer)—and typically contained in a bottle; an empty rum bot- the shot of a zombie marching on like a tle is often used. After a spirit is captured in it, the bottle is robot while someone fires bullet after bullet into its chest.” adorned with magical charms. The resulting fetish is thus alive But what about stories telling of with spirit and capable, voodoo practitioners believe, of “real” zombies? They are difficult to in- vestigate, not only because of their re- working on the behalf of the person who possesses it moteness but because many anecdotal —effecting healings, removing bad spirits, and performing accounts are on par with Elvis Presley other magical duties. An excellent introduction to this subject sightings, angelic visitations, or extrater- restrial encounters. Some investigators may be found in Elizabeth McAlister’s in some districts, if he is allowed to look suggest that persons targeted as enemies 1995 book chapter, “A Sorcerer’s Bottle: upon the sea, he will return to his grave. may be “zombified” by the use of some The Visual Art of Magic in Haiti.” It is held that, if necessary, a zombi can “quick-acting poison” (Wilson and Wil- Another type of zonbi is the rare be turned into an animal, slaughtered, son 1992, 413–17). Owen S. Rachleff, living-dead entity in the form of a re- and the meat sold in the market, in The Occult Conceit (1971, 218), insists animated corpse. According to the au - whence derives the belief among Hait- that “the cataleptic status achieved by thor itative Funk and Wagnall’s Standard ian peasants that they have not only some of the celebrants of voodoo some- Dictionary of Folklore, Mythology, and seen zombies but have bought their times becomes so severe as to be perma- Legend (1984), the sorcerer digs up the flesh. This, it is thought, can be distin- nent.” Still another theory, advanced by body after its interment, using it as he guished by the fact that such meat will the director of Port-au-Prince’s Psychi- wishes. It is believed that if the zombi is spoil much more readily than ordinary atric Center, holds that so-called zom- allowed to eat food flavored with salt or, meat. bies are merely drugged and enslaved
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Makeup artist Rod Durick of Zombified Studios applies prosthetics to the author.
agricultural workers (Reader’s Digest It is quite a tale, but it must be said 2008, observed that TTX produces 1982, 113). that no serious scientific investigation symptoms markedly different from Wade Davis, an ethnobotanist, claim- was conducted into this claimant’s those observed in alleged zombies. ed in his 1985 book The Serpent and the story. The grave of Clairvius Narcisse Hines suggests that Davis’s book “is an Rainbow: A Harvard Scientist’s Astonish- was not opened to see if his body was excellent example of a credulous for- ing Journey into the Secret Societies of Hait- missing, and of course DNA testing eigner taken advantage of by local trick- ian Voodoo, Zombis, and Magic that had not yet come to the fore (Hahn sters and is full of scientific absurdities.” zombification could be caused by “zom- 2007). Psychologist Terence Hines, Other alleged zombie stories have sim- bie powder,” which reportedly contains writing in the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER in ilarly been discredited. the poison tetrodotoxin (TTX). He pre- sented the case of a man named Clairvius Narcisse who died and was buried on May 2, 1962. Eighteen years later, a man claiming to be Narcisse surfaced—rather literally, he claimed. This man convinced people, including a relative of Narcisse, that he had been drugged into a state of The sorcerer digs up the body after suspended animation. He said he could remember being buried and subsequently disinterred by a bokor and his helpers. its interment, using it as he wishes. The man claimed that he was enslaved on a plantation for two years but escaped with other zombies in an uprising. He supposedly spent the following years wandering about, looking for his family.
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At least two modern cases of alleged zombification were disproved by DNA testing. One claimant was diagnosed with brain damage resulting from anoxia; the other appeared to suffer from fetal alcohol syndrome (Hahn 2007). As with reports of other strange creatures, however, it is unlikely that most zombie tales will have a single, simple explanation. Least likely, of course, is a supernatural cause: the no- tion that zombies really are the “walk- ing dead.” Nevertheless, on June 19, 2010, I be- came a zombie of the popular type—a “real” one in the carnival/circus side - show sense of that word: with real makeup, real fake blood, and in a real phony trance state for the new horror movie The Final Night and Day (pro- duced by DefTone Pictures Studios of Hamburg, New York, and slated for a March 2011 DVD re lease). Some 325 zombie extras and “hero” zombies (those with more elaborate makeup due to their proximity to the camera) par- ticipated, and I was in the latter group. My makeup was done by Rod Durick of Zombified Studios of Lackawanna, African American writer Zora Neale conditioned to believing the real exis- New York, who applied the silicone Hurston, in her book Tell My Horse: tence of a superhuman phenomenon. prosthetics, and his associate Tammy Voodoo and Life in Haiti and Jamaica, re- Miss Hurston herself, unfortunately, Janinum, who added color and blended lates the case of a woman who appeared did not go beyond the mass hysteria to everything to achieve a suitably horrific in ragged clothing in 1936, claiming to verify her information, nor in any way effect. Later I received liberal applica- be a woman named Felicia Felix-Men- attempt to make a scientific explanation tions of “blood” on the set, and from tor who died in 1907. However, psychi- of the case.” Dr. Mars, noting that the dusk to midnight I shuffled and atrist Louis P. Mars, reporting in the real Felicia Felix-Mentor had been lurched along the main street of “Met- journal Man: A Record of Anthropological lame due to a broken left leg, x-rayed zburgh” (Angola, New York) in my Science (1945), said of Hurston: “Evi- both of the claimant’s legs and found zombie role. My interpretation was less dently she got her information from the no evidence of any fracture. He diag- a Haitian-voodoo-style entity than a simple village folk, whose minds were nosed this “zombie” as schizophrenic. Hollywoodized ghoul that has taken on—so to speak—a life of its own. The irony is that this performance may have been as authentic as any other. Zombie slaves embody the notion of From dusk to midnight I shuffled induced mind/body control. The concept is pervasive, with paranormal entities and lurched along the main street of typically possessing some means of mon- itoring mortals as a prelude to control. Examples range from mythological be- “Metzburgh” in my zombie role.” ings—like Cupid, whose magical arrows infect men’s hearts with love, and Mor- pheus, who forms sleepers’ dreams—to superstitious beliefs in angelic guidance,
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demonic possession, voodoo hexes, and the like. Folklore includes abductions to fairyland from which people return with addled wits or sapped vitality. Popular literature brings examples such as Bram Stoker’s Dracula (1897) and the mes- merizing Svengali in George du Mau- rier’s Trilby (1894). Science fiction helped develop the alien-takeover con- cept with movies like Invasion of the Body Snatchers (1956). A 1967 Star Trek episode, “Errand of Mercy,” features a “mindsifter,” a device used by the alien Klingons to probe prisoners’ thoughts during interrogations (Okuda and Okuda 1997, 141, 303; Nickell 2001, 204–5). n
Acknowledgments I am grateful to Tim Binga, Paul E. Loynes, Christopher Fix, and my wife, Diana Harris, for help with this article.
References Davis, Wade. 1985. The Serpent and the Rainbow: A Harvard Scientist’s Astonishing Journey into the Secret Societies of Haitian Voodoo, Zombis, and Magic. New York: Simon and Schuster. Funk and Wagnall’s Standard Dictionary of Folk- lore, Mythology, and Legend. 1984. Compiled by Maria Leach. New York: Harper and Row, s.v. “zombi.” Hahn, Patrick D. 2007. Dead man walking: Wade Davis and the secret of the zombie poison. Available online at www.biology-online.org/ar- ticles/dead_man_walking.html. Hines, Terence. 2008. Zombies and tetrodotoxin. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 32(3) (May/June): 60– 62. Hurston, Zora Neale. 1938. Tell My Horse: Voodoo and Life in Haiti and Jamaica. Philadelphia: Lippincott. Mars, Louis P. 1945. The story of zombi in Haiti. Man: A Record of Anthro pological Science 45(22) (March/April): 38–40. McAlister, Elizabeth. 1995. A sorcerer’s bottle: The visual art of magic in Haiti. In The Sacred Arts of Haitian Vodou, edited by Donald J. Cosentino, 305–21. Los Angeles: UCLA Fowler Museum of Cultural History. Nickell, Joe. 2001. Real-Life X-Files: Investigating the Paranormal. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky. Okuda, Michael, and Denise Okuda. 1997. The Star Trek Encyclopedia. New York: Pocket Books. Rachleff, Owen S. 1971. The Occult Conceit. Chicago: Cowles. Reader’s Digest Mysteries of the Unexplained. 1982. Pleasantville, NY: Reader’s Digest Associa- tion. Wilson, Colin, and Damon Wilson. 1992. Un- solved Mysteries: Past and Present. Chicago: Contemporary Books. The author, drizzled with “blood,” appears on location for The Final Night and Day. SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/24/10 2:29 PM Page 44
Ghost-Hunting Mistakes Science and Pseudoscience in Ghost Investigations
There are thousands of amateur ghost hunters around the world whose techniques are modeled after hit cable television shows such as Ghost Hunters, which claim to use good science. But a close examination of typical ghost-hunting methods reveals them to be mostly pseudoscience.
BENJAMIN RADFORD
illions of people are interested in ghosts. One 2005 and “We approach ghost hunting from a scientific point of view” (Hawes and Gallup poll found that 37 percent of Amer icans be- Wilson 2007, 270). lieve in haunted houses, and even more believe in Yet in their 2007 book Ghost Hunt- M ing: True Stories of Unex plained Phenom- ghosts. The “reality” TV show Ghost Hunters has been a huge ena from The Atlantic Paranormal hit for the Syfy channel, lasting six seasons so far and in- Society, Hawes allots a grand total of spiring other shows. The show’s ghost-hunting methods four paragraphs (within 273 pages) to a chapter titled “The Scientific Ap- have been adopted by thousands of amateur ghost investi- proach.” He doesn’t have much to say gators across the country and around the world. about science or scientific methods, and in fact it’s the shortest chapter in the book. Hawes is wrong in his belief that Just about every ghost-hunting understandings. It can be very easy to he and his T.A.P.S. crew are using good group calls itself “skeptical” or “scien- accidentally create or misinterpret evi- scientific investigative methods. After tific.” Many investigators believe they dence: Is that flash of light on the wall watching episodes of Ghost Hunters and are being scientific if they use electro- a flashlight reflection—or a ghost? Are other similar programs, it quickly be- magnetic field (EMF) detectors or in- the faint sounds recorded in an empty comes clear to anyone with a back- frared cameras—or if they don’t use house spirit voices—or a neighbor’s ground in science that the methods psychics or dowsing rods. But the best radio? It’s not always clear, and investi- used are both illogical and unscientific.1 way to know whether an investigator or gators must be careful to weed out the Some of the T.A.P.S. crew’s methods group is scientific is to examine meth- red herrings and focus on the verified are slightly better than those of earlier ods and results. Does the investigator information. groups (for example, Hawes and Wilson use the pseudoscientific methods de- The most famous ghost hunters in were among the first ghost hunters to scribed here? What is the group’s track the world, Jason Hawes and Grant dismiss the “orbs of light are ghosts” the- record of solved cases? Does an inves- Wilson (co-founders of The Atlantic ory), but they are not much more scien- tigation end with inconclusive and am- Paranormal Society—T.A.P.S.—and tific. The Ghost Hunters lacked good biguous results or a solved mystery? stars of Ghost Hunters), agree that using science to begin with, and their methods Ghost investigations can be decep- science is the best way to approach in- have not become any more scientific (or tively tricky endeavors. Very ordinary vestigations. They have always claimed any more effective) since they began. events can be—and indeed have to use good scientific methods and in- What follows is a short survey of the been—mistaken for extraordinary ones, vestigative procedures, for example most common logical and methodolog- and the main challenge for any ghost writing that “T.A.P.S. uses scientific ical mistakes being made by the investigator is separating the facts from methods to determine whether or not T.A.P.S. team and other groups that a jumble of myths, mistakes, and mis- someone’s home might be haunted,” carry out ghost investigations.2
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1. Assuming that no specialized Another common error is over-in- voice. These types of reports are very knowledge or expertise is needed terpreting supposedly anomalous phe- common and cannot be accepted at face to effectively investigate ghosts. nomena. Ghost reports are filled with value. One of the most common assumptions phrases like “one investigator heard a 3. Considering subjective feelings among ghost investigators is that in the young girl singing softly” or “the shadow and emotions as evidence of paranormal field “there are no experts.” of an old man appeared in the hallway.” ghostly encounters. If there are no experts, then of course How, exactly, does the ghost hunter anyone can effectively investigate know for a fact it was a young girl’s voice Ghost hunters often report descriptions ghosts. Almost all ghost hunters are or an old man’s shadow? I know adult of personal feelings and experiences like amateur, part-time hobbyists, and they women who can convincingly mimic the “I felt a heavy, sad presence and wanted come from all walks of life. On Ghost soft singing of a young girl or cast a to cry,” or “I felt like something didn’t Hunters, two ordinary guys who work shadow that might look exactly like an want me there,” and so on (see, for exam- as plumbers during the day are touted old man’s. It is of course possible that the ple, Avakian 2010). They may also de- as experts on ghost investigations, al- sound and shadow are of a young girl scribe in detail how they got goose though none of the team members has and an old man, respectively, but an in- bumps upon entering a room or grew any background or training in science, vestigator must be careful not to go be- panicked at some unseen presence, as- investigation, forensics, or any other yond the established facts and assume suming they were reacting to a hidden field that might help solve mysteries. that his interpretation is the correct ghost. Why it’s a mistake: Paranormal inves- one. After you have made a specific, de- Why it’s a mistake: Subjective experi- tigation requires no certificate; anyone clarative statement like “a young girl ences are essentially stories and anec- can do it with no training, knowledge, singing softly,” you have locked yourself dotes. There’s nothing wrong with or expertise whatsoever. Whether they into that interpretation without keep- personal experiences, but by themselves are effective or not—actually able to ing an open mind about other interpre- they are not proof or evidence of any- solve mysteries—is another matter en- tations. Unless someone verifies the thing. Most people who report such ex- tirely. Effec tively investigating claims source of a sound, it is logically impos- periences are sincere in their belief that and solving mysteries does require some sible to identify with any certainty who a ghost caused their panic, but that be- experience and expertise—specifically or what created that sound. An adult, lief does not necessarily make it true. in investigation, logic, critical thinking, an animal, a breeze whistling through The problem, of course, is that there is psychology, science, forensics, and other an unseen passage, or something else not necessarily any connection between areas. altogether might sound like a child’s a real danger or a ghostly presence and
2. Failing to consider alternative explanations for anomalous or “unexplained” phenomena. Ghost hunters often over-interpret ev- idence and fail to adequately consider alternative explanations, assuming for example that “orbs” are ghosts, EVPs (electronic voice phenomena) are ghost voices, and so on. Why it’s a mistake: The designation of “unexplained” or paranormal must be accepted only when all other normal, natural explanations have been ruled out through careful analysis. The expla- nation that orbs are flash reflections of dust, insects, mist, etc., has been widely discussed for years (see Radford 2007, Nickell 1994). Many ghost hunters who accept the scientific, skeptical ex- planation for orbs continue to record EVPs as ghost voices despite the fact that scientific evidence of the validity of EVPs is as poor as it is for orbs.
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how a person feels. The power of sugges- Sampling errors a sensitive thermometer would be useful. tion can be very strong, and a suggestible In my book Scientific Paranormal Inves- If ghosts were known to emit ions, then ghost hunter can easily convince her- tigation, I explain why a ghost stakeout a device that measures such ions would self—and others—that something weird or overnight investigation is a bad idea. be useful. is going on in a dark and creepy house. But there’s another, less obvious, basic The problem is that there is no body of scientific mistake made by many ghost research showing that anything these de- 4. Using improper and unscientific hunters. Usually ghost hunters will vices measure has anything to do with investigation methods. begin their stakeout by taking readings ghosts. Until someone can reliably demon - Ghost hunters often misuse scientific with their high-tech equipment. Even strate that ghosts have certain measurable equipment and ignore good scientific though a thorough investigation into characteristics, devices that measure those research methods. A few typical exam- specific claims or phenomena (such as a characteristics are irrelevant. ples of this type of error follow. door opening on its own or a strange Ineffectively using recording devices noise) can be conducted in a matter of Investigating with the lights off hours, a complete investigation into a EMF detectors, ion counters, and other Nearly every ghost-themed TV show has haunted location can’t be done in a few gear have no use in ghost investigations. several scenes in which the investigators hours or even during an overnight stay. Ordinary cameras and audio recorders, walk around in a darkened place, usually The reason is very simple: a few hours however, can be helpful if used correctly. at night, looking for ghosts. Purposely or overnight is not enough time in Unfortunately, many ghost hunters conducting an investigation in the dark which to gather enough information. don’t know how to use such equipment intentionally hobbles the investigation Estab lish ing a valid set of baseline (or effectively. and is completely counterproductive. It control) measurements for what “nor- One common example is the use of also violates common sense and logic: If mal” (i.e., presumably ghost-free) con- voice recorders. Most ghost hunters, in- you are trying to identify an unknown ditions are at the location takes a lot cluding the T.A.P.S. team, use handheld object, is it better to look for it under more time. voice recorders in an attempt to capture bright lights or in a darkened room? To know what is extraordinary for the a ghost voice or EVP. Often the ghost There are no other objects or entities in area, an investigator must first determine hunter addresses the supposed spirit the world that anyone would think are what is ordinary. Many ghost hunters while holding the recorder and either better observed in darkness instead of understand this general principle but standing in the middle of a room or light; why would ghosts be any different? greatly underestimate the importance of walking around. Sometimes a voice-like Humans are visual creatures, and our eyes valid sampling. For valid experiments, sound or noise will be heard at the time; need light to see—the more light, the scientists must take dozens—sometimes if so, the ghost hunter(s) will ask more better. Darkness, by definition, severely hundreds—of independent measure- questions, or the sound or EVP will be limits the amount of light and therefore ments and analyze the results to derive a saved for later analysis. the amount of visual information avail- statistical average (along with a range of Unfortunately, this is an ineffective able. Searching at night in the dark puts normal variation), which then can be protocol. To identify the nature of the investigators at an immediate and obvious used as a basis for research. The time sound (human, ghost, cat, furnace, etc.), disadvantage in trying to identify and un- frames and number of samples that most an investigator must first determine its derstand what’s going on around them. ghost hunters use are far too small to source, which in turn involves locating Furthermore, this strategy fails on its yield any scientifically meaningful base- the sound’s origin; this can be very diffi- own terms. Although some report see- line numbers. cult for a ghost hunter to do, especially in ing ghosts as glowing figures, many a darkened room. If the sound came from people report them as shadows or dark Using unproven tools and equipment an open window, that suggests one expla- entities. Searching a dark room for a Many ghost hunters consider themselves nation. If the sound’s origin can be traced shadowy figure is an exercise in futility. scientific if they use high-tech scientific to the middle of an empty room, that Unless a ghost or entity has been equipment such as Geiger counters, might be more mysterious. Locating the specifically and repeatedly reported or EMF detectors, ion detectors, infrared source of a sound is nearly impossible photographed emitting light, there’s no cameras, sensitive microphones, and so using only one recording device. valid, logical reason for ghost investiga- on. Yet for any piece of equipment to be A better way to scientifically deter- tors to work in the dark. The reason it’s useful, it must have some proven connec- mine the source location of a sound is often done for television shows is obvi- tion to ghosts. For example, if ghosts with more than one microphone—at ous: it produces more dramatic footage. were known to emit electromagnetic least three, and the more there are the It’s spookier and more visually interest- fields, then a device that measures such better. By placing sensitive micro- ing to film the ghost investigators with fields would be useful. If ghosts were phones throughout the location (and night-vision cameras. known to cause temperature drops, then certainly in the four corners of a room),
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the signal strength of the sound can be wandering around the premises, setting stakeout or lockdown is a completely measured at each microphone. Along up cameras, taking readings, and so unscientific waste of time. with a basic knowledge of acoustics and forth. All ghost-themed TV shows fea- Ultimately, of course, whether ghost math, these readings allow the investi- ture this activity, which is standard pro- hunters choose to use scientific meth- gator to triangulate within a few feet cedure for most ghost-hunting groups. ods and strategies is up to them. I per- where the sound came from. Ideally It’s also a sure sign of pseudoscience and sonally don’t care either way; it’s not my this work should be done in real time amateur investigation. time, effort, and money that’s being so that ghost hunters can immediately Why it’s a mistake: As an investigative wasted by doing fundamentally flawed investigate the cause; finding some modus operandi in ghost hunting, the investigation. But over the years I have “anomaly” while reviewing evidence stakeout (or “lockdown,” as it’s some- gotten results and solved many cases days or weeks later is pointless. times melodramatically called) has a using scientific techniques. 100 percent track record of failure; of If ghost hunters don’t care about per- 5. Focusing on the history of a haunted the hundreds of stakeouts conducted by forming scientifically valid investigations location instead of the specific ghost hunters, not a single one has and are happy with the level of evidence phenomena reported at it. yielded any significant evidence of they are getting, they are welcome to ig- Ghost hunters often spend consider- ghosts. (As I previously noted, they nore this information. But they can’t able time and effort researching the might have better success if they left the complain that no one offered a science- history of a house or building by scour- lights on.) A stakeout is essentially a sci- based paradigm for paranormal investi- ing local records and newspapers to de- entific experiment without the science. gation. I believe that if ghosts exist, they termine when the place was built, who Real experiments are carefully controlled are important and deserve to be taken se- built it, and who may have lived or died by the investigator: he or she controls riously. Most of the efforts to investigate there or by looking for stories, legends, some variables or conditions and meas- ghosts so far have been badly flawed and tragedies, lists of past owners, and so on. ures the variation. Ghost hunters seem unscientific—and, not surprisingly, fruit- This is a staple of Ghost Hunters inves- to think that by controlling access to the less. If investigation is to be done, it tigations, which often begin with the property in question, they are reducing should be done right. n T.A.P.S. crew and the TV audience lis- or eliminating any false evidence of tening to (real or fictional) stories about ghosts. Notes the history of the place. However, in a stakeout the ghost 1. Ironically, Hawes and Wilson formed T.A.P.S. because they were dissatisfied with the Why it’s a mistake: Although a sup- hunter cannot control all, or even most, lack of good investigation methods they saw posedly haunted location might have a of the variables and conditions in the among ghost hunters. According to Jason Hawes, fascinating history, this almost always experiment he’s conducting. It’s impor- “Finally I said, ‘Screw the rest of what’s out there,’ referring to other ghost hunters and their meth- has little or nothing to do with the cur- tant to remember that nearly anything ods. ‘Let’s do it our own way’” (Hawes and Wil- rent haunting claims or phenomena. If that anyone thinks is odd for any reason son 2007, 5). a ghostly figure is reported in a stair- can be offered as evidence of a ghost. 2. There are far too many mistakes in the typ- ical ghost investigation to discuss them in any well, a spooky face is photographed in There is an impossibly broad spectrum depth here. A fuller discussion can be found in a bedroom, or a mysterious noise is re- of phenomena that have been claimed as chapter 4 of my new book, Scientific Paranormal ported coming from the attic, knowing signs of ghosts, including lights, shad- Investigation. who built the place in 1928 (or the ows, noises, silence, heat, cold, moving References name of the little girl who died in a fire objects, smells, uneasiness, and so on. If Avakian, Laura. 2010. Surviving lockdown: Be- there fifty years ago) is completely ir- the presence of a ghost could be nar- hind the scenes with the Ghost Adventures relevant. It has nothing to do with the rowed down to a specific phenome- crew. Haunted Times 4(3): 19. face or noises, which must be investi- non—for example, if everyone agreed (or Hawes, Jason, and Grant Wilson. 2007. Ghost Hunting: True Stories of Unex plained Phenom- gated completely independently of this it had been somehow proven) that ena from The Atlantic Paranormal Society. New information. Sometimes ghost hunters ghosts give off red light or a certain York: Pocket Books. will hear or record what they believe is high-pitched sound—then the problem Nickell, Joe. 1994. Camera Clues: A Handbook for Photographic Investigation. Lexington: Uni- the sound of a voice and assume it must of not having a controlled location versity Press of Kentucky. be a ghost, then get so wrapped up in re- would be greatly reduced. An investiga- Radford, Benjamin. 2007. The (Non)mysterious searching the house’s history trying to tor wouldn’t need to rule out every pos- orbs. SKEPTICAL INQUIRER 31(5) (Septem- ber/October): 30. “identify” the ghost that they neglect to sible source of sound, smell, light, etc., fully investigate the source of the sound. but instead would need to rule out merely any sources of red light or high- 6. Conducting a stakeout or “lockdown.” pitched sounds. But because just about A longer version of this article is A stakeout is typically an overnight “in- any phenomenon can be attributed to available as a free downloadable PDF at: vestigation” into a haunted location, usu- ghosts, there is no way to rule out or www.csicop.org/SIExtras ally with a half dozen or more people control for the conditions. A ghost
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From the Edge of Postcards The Wem Ghost Photo
Following a fire in a small English town, a mysterious photo of the blaze—seemingly depicting a girl ghost—circulated around the world.
BLAKE SMITH
n November 19, 1995, the town hall of the English by the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), which investigated the case for market town of Wem burned, leaving only a charred its television show Out of this World, brick shell. Among the locals watching the building hosted by current Independent Televi- O sion (ITV) presenter Chris Choi. burn was Tony O’Rahilly, who brought his camera and took In the BBC show, Choi interviewed several photos of the blaze. A few months later, in March O’Rahilly in his garden and also toured 1996, O’Rahilly developed the photos of the fire in a little the burned-out remnants of the town hall. The conventional story of the film studio he’d constructed in a shed in the garden behind ghostly photo was also told. But when his home. The series of pictures showed dramatic images the BBC took the photo to the National of fire, light, and darkness. But one showed something even Museum of Pho tography, Film, and Television (now known as the National more astonishing—a ghostly girl standing amid the flames Media Museum), viewers learned a dif- (Topham, n.d.). ferent story. Both of the photography O’Rahilly sent the photos to the As- sociation for the Scientific Study of Anomalous Phenomena (ASSAP) for analysis. The ASSAP, which specializes in paranormal investigations, assisted O’Rahilly by having Vernon Harrison, former head of the Royal Photographic Society, examine the photos. Harrison concluded, “The negative is a straight- forward piece of black-and-white work and shows no sign of having been tam- pered with” (Laursen 2007). The ASSAP’s conclusion was that the photo (see figure 1) showed a sim- ulacrum (a random, ambiguous image interpreted as meaningful) caused by falling debris filmed during the fire. It did not appear to be a hoax. However, Figure 1. Tony O'Rahilly's hoaxed photo created by combining actual images from the town hall fire with an old this conclusion was called into question postcard. (Courtesy of The Fortean Picture Library)
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experts there, Paul Thompson and Will Stapp, agreed that the photo showed signs of manipulation and double expo- sure. Thompson in particular noted that he saw horizontal scan lines, as though the image consisted of a photo of a face on a video screen pasted into the picture of the fire. With that damning revelation, Choi returned to confront O’Rahilly, who responded, “No way . . . It’s none of my doing.” I first became interested in investi- gating this case in September 2009. At that time, the allegations of the Out of this World show were not widely avail- able on the Internet. As is usual in the echo chamber of ghost literature, the ghost stories rang loud and clear while the facts lay quietly subdued out in the Figure 2. This 1922 postcard, reprinted in the Shropshire Star, helped prove O’Rahilly’s hoax. back shed. I came across the BBC piece online and found it very interesting. A to Janet Bord at the Fortean Picture Li- check of the ASSAP’s website showed brary. She was able to provide me with a that they still felt the case was one of high-resolution photo as well as a shot of pareidolia instead of hoaxing. I found the negative strip from which it was pro- that intriguing and asked them why; duced. As the ASSAP had said, the orig- they replied that the photo they’d pro- inal did not have any scan lines. It vided to the BBC during the television showed a ghostly girl in the fire, but there investigation had been a duplicate, and was no evidence of digital scan lines. in their opinion the “scan lines” ob- I tried to contact Paul Thompson served by Paul Thompson had been the and Will Stapp. Both are still involved result of duplication, not hoaxing. in photography but are no longer work- Trying to find a more pristine copy of ing with the National Media Museum. the photograph to examine, I reached out Neither Thompson nor Stapp responded
In the years since the fire, Wem has come to embrace the ghost.... People have reported seeing the ghost of Jane in the intervening years, usually carrying a candle. Figure 3. This unnamed girl from the 1922 Wem postcard was used by O'Rahilly to create the ghostly image.
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photos. O’Rahilly used this postcard image to make his ghost photo. Details missing from the ghost photo—but ap- pearing in the postcard—are due to ei- ther the photographic process used to make the fake image or to O’Rahilly cropping the postcard prior to shooting his double exposure. In the years since the fire, Wem has come to embrace the ghost. The town’s history tells of a devastating fire back in 1677, allegedly caused by a girl named Jane Churm. People have reported see- ing the ghost of Jane in the intervening years, usually carrying a candle (Karl 2007). It is no surprise that many have claimed that the girl in the photo must be Jane. After all, what’s a ghost photo without a backstory? Even the spot where the ghost was “photographed” had been adorned with documentation of the paranormal event. Perhaps Wem’s townsfolk should move that bit of doc- umentation over to the late O’Rahilly’s shed? It’s a pity that O’Rahilly died before Figure 4. Lines show how the details of the this postcard came to light. He got “ghost” image line up with those of the postcard girl. plenty of media coverage when the photo was released originally, and now to my inquires, and other photography to the famous ghost girl and alerted the with the coverage of the explanation he experts I approached were unwilling to Star. In the May 17 article, the news- could have enjoyed a second wave of in- opine on the matter. paper showed details from O’Rahilly’s terest. Indeed, he would have gotten To be clear, I didn’t think the photo photo and the postcard and agreed with double the exposure. n showed a ghost—but I was deeply cu- Lear that the resemblance was “strik- References rious to know whether O’Rahilly had ing” (Neal 2010). Karl, Jason. 2007. An Illustrated History of the photographed a piece of debris with an Striking may be an understatement. Haunted World. London: New Holland Pub- uncanny resemblance to a girl or had Rarely does such a clear explanation for lishers, Ltd. deliberately faked the photograph. I a ghost photo come to light. Rather Laursen, Chris. 2007. In the doorway of a burning building. Available online athttp://seminars.tor would have liked to have asked him, but than simply show both photos, I have ontoghosts.org/blog/index.php/2007/07/11/wei he passed away in 2005. created an animation demonstrating rd_wednesday_with_chris_laursen_32. And then the answer arrived in the that the two girls are indeed the same Neal, Toby. 2010. Does postcard solve ghost riddle? Shropshire Star (United Kingdom). Available morning mail. On Monday, May 17, photographic image: the one superim- online at www.shropshirestar.com/news /2010 2010, the Shropshire Star, the local posed on the fire photograph by /05/17/does-postcard-solve-ghost-riddle/. paper serving Wem, ran a story titled, O’Rahilly via a double exposure. On the Topham, Ian. n.d. Wem town hall. Available online at www.mysteriousbritain.co.uk/england/shrop- “Does Postcard Solve Ghost Riddle?” blog of The Atlanta Skeptics, my ani- shire/hauntings/wem-town-hall.html. The Star had run a photo a few weeks mated image of the girl on the postcard earlier showing a postcard from 1922 of dynamically fades in over the ghost a street in Wem (see figure 2). An alert photo; the alignments should also be Blake Smith is a ghost reader named Brian Lear, a seventy- apparent from the still image shown in researcher and computer seven-year-old grandfather, noticed figure 4. The points of the girl’s hat, the technician living in Kennesaw, Georgia. that the girl pictured in the postcard eyes, the nose, the neckline, and the (see figure 3) bore a strong resemblance beltline align perfectly between the two
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Passion for the Paranormal The Supernatural in Romance Fiction
Romance novels have enchanted readers for years. A relatively new subgenre of these novels, incorporating paranormal themes, has become increasingly popular.
TONYA KEYSER
“He reached for her, cupping one big, capable hand along The article further reports that Char- laine Harris, author of the Sookie her jaw and holding her there as he leaned in and touched Stackhouse novels (the series featuring his lips to hers.... The contact brought sparks of light and a telepathic waitress who falls in love heat, a sizzle of connection and a sense of oh, yes that rip- with a vampire, upon which HBO’s hit series True Blood is based), had nine of pled through her in waves, reverberating and overlapping, her books in the top 100 sellers of the heightening as she murmured her pleasure and moved year. In the first quarter of 2009, Stephenie Meyer, author of the Twilight closer.... Michael glanced back at her, expression resolute as series, dominated USA Today’s Best- he said very quietly, ‘I’m going to cast a shield. Cross your Selling Books list, with four titles in the fingers that they don't have a magic-sniffer with them.’ ” top twenty (DeBarros et al. 2009). While those are familiar names to many, (Andersen 2009). additional authors, such as Sherrilyn Kenyon, author of the Dark-Hunter se- kykeepers, a novel by Jessica category on The New York Times, USA ries, are also remarkably popular. Kenyon Andersen, is one of countless Today, and Publishers Weekly bestseller had six number-one rankings on the recent offerings incorporating lists in 2008, according to the ROM- New York Times bestseller list in just over S twelve months; a 2008 convention supernatural themes and characters into Stat Report (Romance Writers of romantic fiction. The evolution of the America 2009), which reported that scheduled in her honor was sold out in less than three minutes (Bond 2009). widely read romance genre to include one out of four Americans had read at Books with a supernatural emphasis these ideas has spawned a relatively least one of these novels that year. accounted for $1.37 billion in sales in new—and increasingly popular and While romance novels are especially 2008 (Romance Writers of America profitable—subgenre of fiction: the popular, fiction incorporating supernat- 2009). Given these numbers, it is not at ural elements is also profitable. Accord- paranormal romance. all surprising to discover that publishers According to the Romance Writers ing to the January 15, 2010, issue of are eager to entertain submissions of this of America (2010), one of the two ele- USA Today, paranormal fiction (which type. According to Kensington editor- ments a romance should contain is a includes the paranormal romance sub- in-chief John Scognamiglio, “Paranor- central love story with a conclusion that genre) featuring vampires and/or other mal romance remains red hot and shows provides emotional satisfaction to the undead creatures accounted for at least no signs of stopping. Anything paranor- reader (often referred to as the “happily 17 percent of all book sales tracked in mal is immediately moved to the top of ever after” ending). In spite of a de- 2009 (DeBarros et al. 2010). This im- the submission pile” (Bond 2009). crease in book sales in general, romance pressive percentage showed an increase In recent years, fanged immortal novels have remained popular. This of fifteen points in just two years, with protagonists, lycanthropic lovers, and genre of fiction was the top-performing reports from 2007 at only 2 percent. fanciful faeries have become a welcome
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addition to the bodice-ripping hero- While vampires are currently run- ines and shirtless, sword-wielding pi- ning rampant among the pages of these rates that have traditionally served as tales, other supernatural superstars are the mainstay of romance novel covers. also emerging. Werewolves, time trav- “What’s going on in the world now elers, shape shifters, ghosts, and even has an impact. With wars and the angels are making their way into the economy, romance is fantasy—these imaginations of fans of the genre. Even books are the ultimate escape,” says the iconic and highly popular vampire Erika Tsang from Avon. Also, “Read- has transformed over the years from the ers are always looking for something evil bloodthirsty murderer to the seduc- new” (Bond 2009). Paranormal ro- tive, heroic lover. Individual paranormal mances often include the timeless romance novels do not confine them- “Beauty and the Beast” formula, invok- selves to only one type of character, ei- ing the relationship of a heroine falling ther. Consider author Gena Showalter’s in love with someone that is, on the description of hero Aden Stone from surface, so very different and other- Unraveled: worldly but to whom she (and the One of his best friends is a werewolf, reader) can relate. After all, romance his girlfriend is a vampire princess novels are driven by characters that who hungers for his blood, and he’s “must come to understand themselves supposed to be crowned Vampire King—while still a human! With and their relationship with each other” four . . . human souls living inside his (Saricks 2009). How better to add to head, Aden has alway been “different” that conflict than by making one or himself. These souls can time-travel, more of the characters a supernatural raise the dead, possess an other’s mind and, his least favorite these days, tell being? The reader is led on a journey the future. ... But he isn’t about to lie intertwined with the unexpected and down and accept his destiny without foreign, which allows for an escape a fight. Not when his new friends from reality while still embracing the have his back, not when Victoria has risked her own future to be with him, comfortable and familiar characteris- and not when he has a reason to live tics of the more conventional romance for the first time in his life. (Showal- novel. ter 2010)
Fanged immortal protagonists, lycanthropic lovers, and fanciful faeries have become a welcome addition to the bodice-ripping heroines and shirtless, sword-wielding pirates that have traditionally served as the mainstay of romance novel covers.
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Readers of paranormal romance how forbidden. We all want what we other types of books, who might not novels find the prospect of love with an can’t have, after all,” states one fan venture into the stigmatized romance otherworldly being, which is outside of (Keyser 2010). She adds, “The idea that section. In addition, authors often cross the scope of their experience, appealing. someone with strength needs saving genres or subgenres, sometimes using a “The setting is often gritty, and the and can be saved through the power of pseudonym. Fans are likely to continue characters tragic, powerful, and danger- love is one that keeps me reading these to read their offerings even when they ous. At the same time, they possess stories.” Kyrian, Sherrilyn Kenyon’s cross these boundaries. human traits and emotions, and I can hero in Night Pleasures, is a Dark- Paranormal themes are highly visi- easily relate to them,” says one habitual Hunter, responsible for protecting the ble in today’s entertainment offerings, reader of vampire romances (Keyser innocent from the horrible fate of hav- and the romance novel, popular in its 2010). The heroine in Sherrilyn Ken- ing their souls stolen. He confesses his own right, is no exception. In spite of a yon’s popular Night Pleasures, Amanda tragic and lonely existence by saying, “I downturn in general book sales, ro- Devereaux, describes the novel’s hero, find myself wondering if there’s any mance novels and paranormal-themed Kyrian, as follows: “There was some- way a woman can love a man whose books are hot sellers. The marriage of thing very unsettling and strange about battle scars run deep, and whose heart the two is a real-life “happily ever after” this new Dark-Hunter. He was still- was damaged by a betrayal so savage tale for authors, publishers, retailers, ness, she realized. Like some bottomless that he’s not sure it will ever beat again” and readers—at least for now. n pond. There was a calm serenity to him (Kenyon 2002). that was both beguiling and frighten- One of the reasons for the success of References ing” (Kenyon 2002). The power of a paranormal romance novels lies in the Andersen, J. 2009. Sky keepers. New York: Pen - guin.Kindle edition. compelling story cannot be ignored. rise of supernatural topics in popular Bond, G. 2009. When love is strange: Romance Another reader states, “I’m addicted to culture. It would be difficult to scan the continues its affair with the supernatural. the stories. Once I read one book in a cable television listings or films at the Publishers Weekly 256(21): 26. DeBarros, A., D. Donahue, C. Memmott, B. series, I can’t stop until I’ve read them local theater without encountering Minzesheimer, and C. Wilson. 2010. Trends, all. I can get completely lost in the some sort of reference to vampires, triumphs of the 2009 book year. USA Today books because they allow me to escape werewolves, psychics, ghosts, or some ( January 15, 2010). DeBarros, A., C. Memmott, and C. Wilson. and immerse myself in something mys- other mythical being. Chris Keesler, 2009. Book buzz: What's new in publishing tical. I’ve always enjoyed paranormal senior editor at Dor chester, remarks, and on the list. USA Today (April 7, 2009). novels, such as the Harry Potter books, “‘How many people of the last few gen- Guran, P. 2006. The Best New Paranormal Ro- mance. New York: Juno Books and this allows me to enjoy the same erations haven’t seen Buffy [the Vampire Kenyon, S. 2002. Night Pleasures. New York: St. kind of characters in grown-up situa- Slayer] or one of its spinoffs? Above all, Martin’s Paperbacks. tions” (Keyser 2010). I think every genre is driven and per- Keyser, T. 2010. Interviews with readers of ro- mance fiction (August 29, 2010). Although many may consider ro- petuated by the talent of its most suc- Milliot, J. 2009. Penguin launches online network. mance novels in general to be nothing cessful authors, authors who cater to Publishers Weekly. Available online at more than superficial flights of fancy, the public, to their day and age’s literary www.publishersweekly.com/pw/by-topic/in- dustry-news/publisher-news/article/12924- Pamela Regis, author of A Natural His- zeitgeist” (Bond 2009). One cannot ig- penguin-launches-online-network-.html. tory of the Romance Novel, disagrees. She nore the likely influence of hit televi- Regis, P. 2003. A Natural History of the Romance states that romance “contains serious sion shows such as HBO’s True Blood Novel. University of Pennsylvania Press: Philadelphia. ideas. The genre is not about woman’s or the teen-focused Twilight movies in Romance Writers of America. 2009. Romance bondage, as the literary critics would the surge in popularity of this subgenre. literature statistics: Industry statistics. Avail- have it. The romance novel is, to the Strategic marketing has played a role able online at www.rwanational.org/cs/the_ romance_genre/romance_literature_statistics. contrary, about women’s freedom. The as well. One book publisher, Penguin, ———. 2010. The romance genre: Romance lit- genre is popular because it conveys the has even launched an online video net- erature subgenres. Available online at pain, uplift, and joy that freedom work that features a channel entirely www.rwanational.org/cs/romance_litera- ture_subgenres. brings” (Guran 2006). Adding super- devoted to supernatural topics, such as Saricks, J. 2009. The Readers’ Advisory Guide to natural elements to the romance novel werewolves and vampires. The purpose Genre Fiction. Chicago: American Library provides the author with opportunities of this network is to give more exposure Association. Showalter, G. 2010. Unraveled. Toronto: Harlequin. to explore these ideas in new ways. to books that use these elements in “The idea that I, as a woman, have the their stories (Milliot 2009). Paranormal Tonya Keyser is a teacher, choice to love someone that may not romance novels are often shelved in filmmaker, and SheThought meet the approval of society is an ap- bookstores in the fantasy or science-fic- contributor (www.shethought.com). pealing one. The ideal romance, in my tion sections. This provides the oppor- opinion, is one that is taboo and some- tunity to gain readership from fans of
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[REVIEW The Storms over Climate Change
DAVID MORRISON
nthropogenic (human-caused) global Storms of My Grandchildren: The Truth about A warming has become an emotional the Coming Climate Catastrophe and Our issue rife with political overtones. There Last Chance to Save Humanity is no dispute among climate scientists By James Hansen. Bloomsbury Press, about the reality of global warming and New York, 2009. ISBN: 978-160819-200-7. the fact that it is primarily caused by ac- 301 pp. Hardcover, $25. celerated burning of fossil fuels. How- ever, there are nontechnical aspects of global warming that should interest readers of the SKEPTICAL INQUIRER: Specifically, how scientific evidence Science as a Contact Sport: should be assessed in such a complex Inside the Battle to Save Earth’s Climate situation—and the way this evidence By Stephen H. Schneider. National Geographic has been distorted and denied by a Society, Washington, DC, 2009. handful of scientists who are savvy ISBN: 978-1-4262-0540-8. about the politics of Washington and 295 pp. Hardcover, $28. the media. As skeptics, we need to rec- ognize the techniques used to distort Merchants of Doubt: How a Handful of Scientists and politicize the science. And as citi- Obscured the Truth on Issues from Tobacco Smoke zens, we should learn to recognize the to Global Warming similarities between these attacks on By Naomi Oreskes and Erik M. Conway. Bloomsbury climate science and those used by cre- Press, New York, 2010. ISBN: 978-1-59691-610-4. ationists to undercut the fundamentals 355 pp. Hardcover, $27. of biological science. The three books I review here offer complementary frontline accounts of the Climate Wars. Both Jim Hansen sional committees, and ultimately to all * * * and the late Steve Schneider have made of us. These two books of theirs are important contributions to the develop- first-person accounts, geared toward Jim Hansen is perhaps the most famous ment of climate science. Both started as the lay reader, that give about equal (or notorious, depending on your poli- modelers of the global atmosphere and space to the scientific issues and to their tics) climate scientist. This is ironic ocean systems. Schneider led the climate own sometimes-controversial roles in given Hansen’s midwestern roots, his team at the National Center for Atmos - them. The third book, Merchants of careful approach to science, and his con- pheric Research (NCAR) in Boulder, Doubt by Naomi Oreskes and Erik Con- servative, shy personality. Although he Colorado, and Hansen worked at (and way, brings historical perspective to this began his career as a planetary scientist now directs) the NASA Goddard Insti- issue. Oreskes and Conway compare the studying the atmosphere of Venus, he tute for Space Studies (GISS), located at global-warming controversy to earlier has been working since the 1970s on Columbia University in New York City. campaigns to undercut the science that understanding Earth’s climate, primarily Schneider and Hansen, both mem- linked tobacco smoke to cancer, acid rain as leader of a small group of climate bers of the National Academy of Sci- to smokestack emissions, and ozone de- modelers who use NASA’s powerful ences (NAS), rose to prominence partly pletion to the release of CFCs. This an- computers to simulate the processes that through their ability to explain complex tiscience propaganda is a topic I will influence atmosphere and climate. As climate issues to the press, to congres- return to later in this review. his conviction that the Earth is in
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deadly peril due to the discharge of car- working scientist. Much of his book smoke into the atmosphere. Since bon dioxide into the atmosphere has concerns his research on the science be- World War II, the output of green- grown, he has become an activist, first hind global warming as published in house gases has greatly increased—not within the government as an advisor to peer-reviewed academic journals. Han - just carbon dioxide but also methane the executive and legislative branches sen explains the fundamentals of cli- and industrial chemicals such as chloro- and more recently as an outspoken critic mate change in a way that is accessible fluorocarbons (CFCs) and hydrochloro- of “business as usual” practice and poli- to the nonscientist. He does not over- fluorocarbons (HCFCs). At the same cies. Storms of My Grand children is his whelm us with the mathematics of the time, environmentalists succeeded in re- first book. greenhouse effect or the results of com- ducing the emission of smoke and other Hansen came to prominence in the plex computer models of atmospheric aerosols. Thus we now have strong posi- hot summer of 1988, when he testified circulation. Instead, he appeals to the tive forcing, leading to rapid global at a hearing before the Senate’s Energy more basic idea of conservation of en- warming. and Natural Resources Committee. He ergy, using data about climate changes Hansen goes further, however. He said that “Global warming is now large over the past several million years to de- notes that the current system is not in enough that we can ascribe with a high rive fundamental truths about our cur- equilibrium; we are receiving more heat degree of confidence a cause-and-effect rent dilemma. than is being radiated back into space. relationship to the greenhouse effect.” The climate system reacts to changes It is this imbalance that causes rising The next day the New York Times de - imposed upon it, which is called forcing. temperature and is starting to melt the clared: “global warming is here.” There These changes include variations in the polar ice caps. Much of this excess heat had been a growing consensus among amount of energy received from the Sun, is also going into the ocean reservoir. It climate scientists that greenhouse slow changes in the orbit and tilt of the is this heat sink that assures us that warming would take place, but Hansen Earth, and of course changes in the global warming will continue for several was the first to state bluntly that it was composition of the atmosphere and its decades, even if greenhouse forcing is already happening. People listened. By clouds. Greenhouse forcing is positive, held steady or decreased. the end of the year, thirty-two climate- as several watts per square meter of ad- We can see from studies of past cli- related bills had been introduced in ditional energy are radiated from the mate that temperature and atmospheric Congress (none passed). atmosphere back to the surface. Forcing carbon dioxide are highly correlated. Hansen’s book describes his adven- due to clouds and other aerosols that Most previous climate changes were tures in the public spotlight, including reflect part of the solar energy back to much more gradual than those we are interactions with Vice President Dick space is negative. The degree of climate experiencing today, but their magnitude Cheney and President George W. change depends primarily on the bal- has been quite large (5 degrees Celsius Bush’s Climate Task Force. We also ance between the positive forcing by the in both directions). Hansen calculated hear about Hansen’s experience in 1989 greenhouse effect and the negative forc- the forcing implied from paleoclimate when he revealed, at a Senate hearing ing by aerosols. During much of the In- data to estimate the equilibrium tem- chaired by Al Gore, that the White dustrial Revolution, the two types of peratures we can expect as a function of House had altered his written testi- forcing were roughly balanced because the CO2 content of the atmosphere. He mony. In 2005 he again became the the same industries that burned coal to concludes that with the present CO2 center of a controversy over censorship, release carbon dioxide also poured concentration, we will raise sea level by as political appointees at NASA Head- quarters tried to control even the basic temperature data that were being Jim Hansen is perhaps the most posted on the GISS website. When Andy Revkin of the New York Times ex- famous climate scientist. posed this heavy-handed at tempt at po- litical interference, the NASA Public This is ironic given Hansen’s Affairs officers backtracked and blamed the “misunderstanding” on a twenty- midwestern roots, his careful four-year-old intern who had faked his college degree and boasted that his job approach to science, and his at NASA was “to make the President look good.” conservative, shy personality. Above all, Jim Hansen is a hard-
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several meters at minimum due to melt- in the world. Hansen concludes this issues of energy policy and climate
ing ice. If the CO2 should double or book by stressing that we face the most change have been sharply polarizing triple, which is likely if much of the urgent fight of our lives and noting that topics in the United States ever since. Earth’s coal deposits are mined and civil resistance to new coal plants may In this book, Schneider recounts his burned, we will slip into a new regime be our only recourse. personal story of the Climate Wars. The in which most of the ice caps will melt, highlight—and the source of the book’s raising the ocean level at least fifty me- * * * title, Science as a Contact Sport—is his de- ters, which was the level when Earth’s Stephen H. Schneider, who died this scription of the Intergovernmental Panel
atmosphere contained this much CO2 summer (see “The Loss of Climate on Climate Change (IPCC) and associ- in the past. Scien tist Stephen H. Schneider” in this ated international events in which he These considerations, based in inter- issue), was a leading climate modeler participated, such as the 1992 Earth pretation of paleoclimate data, con- much like Jim Hansen. But while Han - Summit in Rio de Janiero and the 1997 vinced Hansen of the existence of a sen is basically a reluctant public figure, summit that approved the Kyoto Proto- tipping point, when the changes we are Schneider epitomized the sophisticated col. Along the way he also fought run- producing become irreversible (on hu - scientist-politician; he was at home in ning battles with those who denied the man timescales). He believes that we the halls of Congress or on the front reality of warming and used the media to are dangerously close to that tipping line of international climate negotia- distort and obfuscate climate science. point, and he is a strong supporter of tions. Winner of the MacArthur “ge- One of the common accusations of
efforts to limit the CO2 content of the nius” prize and co-recipient of the 2007 the climate contrarians is that the IPCC atmosphere to 350 ppm (which re- Nobel Peace Prize, he left NCAR for a was a radical group in which alarmist quires a return to the level of the late senior professorship at Stanford Uni- scientists made unsupported statements 1980s). As he frequently asserts, meet- versity, providing him opportunities to about the dangers of global warming. It ing this goal precludes us from burning mentor the next generation of atmos- was thus with great interest that I read most coal deposits or trying to extract pheric scientists. His wife, also a Stan- how this large international group, con- oil from tar shale and other difficult-to- ford professor, is herself a world-class sisting of hundreds of scientists and use forms of hydrocarbons. expert on the response of ecosystems to thousands of reviewers and consultants, Hansen’s proposed moratorium on environmental change. worked for three years on each of the coal-fired generating plants directly Schneider began to investigate the three IPCC assessments. To hear the confronts our requirement for “base risk of climate change in the 1970s. As critics, one would think the radicals hi- load,” the steady electrical energy that a graduate student he wrote a thesis on jacked this process and then claimed cannot be supplied by solar or wind global cooling—when it appeared that consensus for their views. But as Schnei- power. He describes a meeting with en- negative climate forcing from smoke der explains, the IPCC was forced to ergy experts in Germany who said it and other aerosols dominated over adopt the UN definition of “consensus,” was impossible to avoid building coal- green house heating, but the facts soon which is “unanimity.” Every nation had fired generators because Germany is demonstrated otherwise. The danger of to approve every word in the document, committed to a policy of phasing out global warming was evident to many and even one veto could scuttle the en- nuclear energy. Hansen, reluctantly but during the administration of Jimmy tire process. Consequently, each state- firmly, is now an advocate for nuclear Carter, and a number of bipartisan gov- ment of fact had to be documented, and power, specifically for the new genera- ernment actions mandated increases in every suggestion of policy approved by tion of clean-burning breeder reactors the efficiency of appliances and re- even the most conservative delegations. that can actually consume current ra- quired substantial gains in automobile Schneider’s first-hand stories of dioactive waste. In reply to environmen- mileage performance. Schneider’s first these negotiations are fascinating. A tal organizations that oppose nuclear testimony before Congress was in 1979, handful of countries were the source of power, he notes that an estimated hun- a decade before Jim Hansen proclaimed almost all of the objections: Saudi Ara- dred thousand people per year die from the reality of global warming. bia, the United States, China, and Rus- exposure to coal, compared with at Two decades of bipartisan support sia—not coincidentally the biggest most a handful from our only serious for environmental science evaporated producers and consumers of hydrocar- nuclear accident at Cher nobyl in 1986. when Ronald Reagan became presi- bons. One of the most frequent phrases In his book we can see the gradual dent. He and his appointees flatly de- in the IPCC notes is “Saudi Arabia, radicalization of Jim Hansen, self-de- nied the existence of either an energy with the support of the United States, scribed as a “placid, even comfortably problem or a threat of global warming. objected. ...” Schneider also reports stolid” atmospheric modeler and theo- Famously, Reagan said that govern- that many of the members of the official rist. In 2006, Time magazine listed him ment is not the solution to our prob- U.S. delegation admitted privately that among the 100 most influential people lems, it is the problem. The linked they agreed with the majority of scien-
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tists there but were under different or- ders from their bosses in Washington. He played a central role in finding com- At least once, Schneider promises. At least once, he threatened to expose the obstructionist position of threatened to expose the the U.S. delegation to the press and in congressional testimony scheduled for obstructionist position of the the next week. Schneider’s description of the process explains why the IPCC U.S. delegation to the press assessments, far from being radical, have consistently underestimated future and in congressional warming and its consequences. Schneider’s own contributions to the testimony scheduled for IPCC reports centered on providing meaningful estimates of uncertainties the next week. in both the anticipated climate changes and their likely effect on ecosystems and economies. Although the current * * * decades and indirectly led to the prema- ture deaths of millions of smokers, who state of the climate is measurable, all es- The third book in my trilogy deals with were happy to believe that the link be- timates of future trends are uncertain to the role of contrarians like Fred Seitz tween smoking and cancer had not been varying degrees. Most of these predic- and Fred Singer and their sophisticated proven. tions are based on computer models be- campaign to undercut the science of When evidence began to accumulate cause, as Schneider often notes, you global warming. They had previously in the 1990s that there was also a link can’t collect data about future condi- also disputed the reality of ozone deple- between secondhand smoke and disease, tions. To make such assessments useful tion and the links between cigarette the same techniques were used by the to policymakers, the scientists must smoking and cancer. These individuals tobacco companies, this time with the and organizations are the “merchants of provide quantitative estimates of uncer- support of a few famous scientists such doubt” referred to in the title of the book tainty, and Schneider insisted on a con- as Fred Seitz (former president not only sistent vocabulary in the use of terms by historians Naomi Oreskes and Erik of the NAS but of Rockefeller Uni - such as “likely,” “very likely,” and “high Conway. versity), Fred Singer (first director of the confidence level.” Merchants of Doubt places the attacks National Weather Satellites Service), Schneider also describes his outrage on climate science and the IPCC in a Bill Nieren berg (former director of the in 1996 when the second IPCC assess- broader context. Seitz, Singer, and a Scripps Insti tution of Oceanography), ment report was released. In a long let- handful of other scientists have waged a and Robert Jastrow (founding director ter published in the Wall Street Journal, thirty-year campaign against a wide of the NASA GISS). solid state physicist Frederick Seitz per- range of environmental issues. They fol- These four retired physicists had sonally attacked the lead author of the lowed what is often called the “Tobacco worked on Cold War defense projects report, accusing him of a blatant at- Strategy.” In the 1950s and ’60s, evidence and held senior advisory positions in the tempt to “remove hints of the skepti- rapidly grew that cigarette smoking Reagan administration. They first cism with which many scientists regard causes lung cancer and a variety of other gained national prominence for their claims that human activities are having diseases. The tobacco industry could not outspoken support of the Strategic De - a major impact on climate” and claimed prove this claim wrong, but they could fense Initiative (SDI, commonly called that this was a falsification intended to and did try to undercut the science be- “Star Wars”). Jastrow, Seitz, and Nieren - deceive the public and policymakers. hind it. Internal tobacco memos state berg founded the George C. Marshall The accusation was flatly untrue. But that “doubt is our product.” Big Tobacco Institute, a tax-exempt educational or- what amazed the scientists was that used science to fight science by funding ganization promoting “science for public Seitz was a past president of the NAS. a few pliable academic researchers and policy” with a goal to “raise the level of Why was Seitz, who was not a climate setting up nonprofit foundations and or- scientific literacy . . . with an impact on scientist, launching this personal at- ganizations that released “scientific re- national security.” They were strongly tack—which was quickly echoed by ports” and engaged in other forms of anti-communist, opposed to co-exis- Fred Singer, another senior scientist, in “education.” Although they lost this tence or detente with the Soviet Union, a Wall Street Journal article, “Coverup in fight, their efforts delayed effective gov- and in favor of much larger defense the Greenhouse”? ernment action by more than two budgets. Many of their education efforts
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were directed at journalists and congres- nents. Billions of pounds of CFCs were described his motivation in 1989 this sional staff. The Marshall Institute being manufactured every year. In their way: “There are probably those with joined other think tanks with similar po- de fense, the chemical companies, through hidden agendas of their own—not just litical goals, such as the Heritage Foun- their trade organizations, began to follow to save the environment but to change dation, the Hoover Institution, the the tobacco strategy. They dispensed mil- our economic system. Some are social- Hudson Institute, the Competitive En- lions of dollars in research grants and es- ists, some are technology hating Lud - terprise Institute, and the Cato Institute. tablished several organizations for public dites; most have a great desire to Oreskes and Conway describe sev- relations purposes, such as the Aerosol regulate on as large a scale as possible.” eral of their campaigns in detail, begin- Education Bureau. The industry pro- In 1991 he wrote that the real agenda of ning with their assertions that a “Star moted the idea that volcanic eruptions, environmentalists was to destroy capi- Wars” missile-defense system was both not CFCs, were de stroying stratos pheric talism and replace it with some sort of feasible and affordable. As physicists ozone. worldwide utopian socialism—or per- who had worked on defense programs, In 1985, public interest and concern haps communism. (All taken from Mer- their opinions had considerable weight. were stimulated by the discovery of the chants of Doubt, which has extensive At the same time, however, they went Antarctic ozone hole. Suddenly the in- documentation.) well beyond their areas of expertise to visible chemical changes in the strato- With this background, it is easier to question the environmental harm of sphere were made visible by satellite understand Fred Seitz’s 1996 attack on acid rain and oppose regulations to re- images of the Antarctic. A counternarra- the second IPCC assessment. Actually, duce smokestack emissions. This cam- tive was soon developed, led by Fred the Marshall Institute had begun at- paign, led by Fred Singer (affiliated Singer. Writing in the Wall Street Journal, tacking climate science in 1989, the with the Heritage Foundation and a Singer criticized the “ozone scare” and year the Berlin Wall fell. The Institute White House insider), placed them in asserted that there is no proof of ozone published a booklet titled “Global direct opposition to the NAS and depletion or of a cause-and-effect rela- Warming: What Does the Science Tell the Environmental Pro tection Agency. tionship with CFCs. His thesis was that Us?” by Jastrow, Seitz, and Nierenberg, They were aligned with the Reagan ad- the science is uncertain, replacing CFCs blaming whatever global warming ministration, however. “We don’t know will be difficult and expensive, and the might be happening on the Sun. what is causing it” be came the official scientific community is corrupt and mo- Nierenberg himself briefed the report position of the U.S. government, and tivated by self-interest and political ide- to the White House. The contrarians action was not taken to mitigate acid ology—the same arguments later used by founded a faux-scientific journal called rain until 1990, under the first Bush ad- global warming deniers. the World Climate Review, partly ministration. As late as 1995, after the Montreal funded by fossil-fuel interests. They Meanwhile, there was a growing sci- Protocol had banned most manufacture used the right-wing Washington Times entific concern over depletion of ozone of CFCs, Singer testified before Con - and the Wall Street Journal, knowing in the stratosphere. Ozone blocks short- gress that the scientific concern about that these papers would not publish re- wave ultraviolet sunlight that would oth- ozone depletion was simply “wrong.” buttals from the climate scientists. erwise be a risk for all life on land. The He at tacked the Swedish Acad emy of Even as the scientific case for an- primary culprit was CFCs, which were Sciences when the Nobel Prize in thropogenic global warming became used as refrigerants and spray-can pro- Chem istry was given for analysis of more secure, Senator James Inhofe pellants and to clean electronic compo- stratospheric ozone chemistry. Singer (then-chair of the Senate Committee Additional Climate Wars Books Several other recent books discuss climate change and its political context:
Climate Change The Republican War Storm World: Science and Policy on Science Hurricanes, Stephen H. Schneider, Chris Mooney Politics, and the et al. (eds.) Battle over Global Warming Chris Mooney
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on Environ ment and Public Works) now fighting just as hard to protect our more interested in saving our souls than called global warming “the greatest hoax liberty from the evils of government reg- in addressing the science of biology. Like ever perpetuated on the American peo- ulation. That mission apparently trumps creationists, the climate contrarians are ple.” In 1997, the U.S. Senate passed a their devotion to science. “merchants of doubt,” using pseudo- resolution blocking adoption of the * * * science to undercut real science and cre- Kyoto Protocol by a vote of 97–0. In These three books were written before ate a wedge for their nonscientific beliefs. Washington, politics, money, and ideol- the “climategate” accusations of late 2009, I recommend all three of these books. ogy were in ascendancy over science. which were used effectively to smear the They are well written, timely, and The situation became even worse under IPCC specifically and climate scientists provocative. Hansen emphasizes the sci- George W. Bush, with the spectacle of generally. Most of the media went along ence and introduces some novel ways to science-fiction writer Michael Crichton with this sophisticated public-relations assess future warming without invoking appearing as an expert witness before campaign, describing this as the greatest complex computer models. Schneider Congress and lecturing at the White crisis faced by science in a generation. paints a fascinating picture of the struggle House on global warming. Some media later printed retractions and to develop a consensus on global warm- The preceding paragraphs only hint even apologized when impartial investi- ing, especially through the UN IPCC as- at the detailed history of the science- gations showed that the accusations were sessments. Oreskes and Conway place the contrarian movement described by false. But this episode demonstrated the climate controversy in perspective as the Oreskes and Conway. It is frankly dif- ability of the contrarians to influence most recent example of how ideology and ficult for a scientist to believe that other public opinion. I imagine that Oreskes politics have been used (with considerable scientists would consciously misrepre- and Conway could add this episode to success) to attack science. Their message sent the scientific facts, but the pattern their long list of public-relations battles, is one that skeptics everywhere will want is inescapable, as Seitz and Singer and but it did nothing to undercut the reality to read and ponder. n a handful of others have taken the same of global warming or the serious impli- Note denialist position on one issue after an- cations it has for our future. Of the four leading climate denialists dis- other: tobacco and cancer, acid rain, There are many parallels between this cussed here, only Fred Singer is still going strong. ozone depletion, DDT, secondhand campaign against climate science and the Bill Nierenberg died in 2000, and both Frederick Seitz and Robert Jastrow died in 2010. smoke, and now global warming. As widespread efforts to deny biological I thank several colleagues for helping to edu- documented in this book, these con- evolution and block its inclusion in sci- cate me on climate science or for offering con- structive criticism of this manuscript: Mark trarians are fighting science because of ence classes. Both climate denialism and Boslough, Clark Chapman, Bob Chatfield, Erik their political conviction that govern- evolution denialism are efforts to fight Conway, John Mashey, Naomi Oreskes, Phillip ment regulations are in themselves evil. real science with pseudoscience—these Russell, and Eugenie Scott. They believe that environmentalism contrarians publish fake science in non- leads to regulation, which will inevitably refereed journals, found NGOs, and use David Morrison is a CSI fellow who divides his lead to the loss of our freedom. They call sophisticated marketing in the halls of time between the SETI Insti tute, where he is di- rector of the Carl Sagan Center for the Study of environmentalists watermelons: green power from Washington to Austin. Ap - Life in the Uni verse, and the NASA Lunar Science on the outside but red on the inside. parently even good scientists can be Institute. Although he is a planetary scientist, not Having fought for freedom all their lives seduced by a strong ideological com - a climate scientist, he has followed the growing against the evils of communism, they are mitment, just as the creationists are much climate crisis with alarm over the past decade.
Censoring Science: Climate Cover-Up: A World Inside the Political The Crusade Without Ice Attack on Dr. James to Deny Global Henry N. Hansen and the Warming Pollack Truth of Global James Hoggan with Warming Richard Littlemore Mark Bowen
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[ INBOX
brought the industry to power. subjects was 264 mg/dl. Only a minority of people with CHD Roland Gerritsen van der Hoop, MD, PhD exhibit hypercholesterolemia, RGH Pharma which thereby limits the appli- Consulting LLC cation of the 4S findings to a West Chester, Pennsylvania small subset of those with CHD. Second, the 4S study showed no significant effect of Reynold Spector’s article “A statin treatment on all-cause Skeptic’s View of Pharmaceu- mortality in women. Only tical Progress” is a great dis- fifty-two women died in the service to the readership of SI. trial, twenty-five in the placebo His misrepresentation of group and twenty-seven in the statins as “ideal drugs” with statin treatment group, which “near universal agreement … means that its findings are rel- that moderate doses of statins evant only to hypercholes- … substantially decrease death terolemic men. Finally, Spector … and heart attacks and suggested that different treat- strokes” disregards the ments in combination with decades-long outcry from statins would produce an addi- MDs, PhDs, and science writ- tive factor in promoting sur- ers who have provided a thor- vival, a statement that is not ough analysis of the lack of supported by any scientific evi- justification for the use of dence. Indeed, the authors of cholesterol-lowering medica- the paper Spector cited stated tion. For the benefit of SI’s they “could not find differ- readership, I urge SI to request ences in outcome among pa- a rebuttal to Spector’s inaccu- tients receiving ACE rate portrayal of the safety and inhibitors with or without … effectiveness of statins as a lipid lowering therapy” (Baker cause in this un-free market Pharmaceutical Progress treatment for coronary heart et al. 2009, 868). Thus, Spec- the one being marketed to (the disease (CHD) from scholars tor’s estimate of 600,000 peo- Dr. Reynold Spector provides doctor and—through TV who have written extensively ple saved by statins is derived solid evidence that the phar- ads—the patient) is not the on this subject, such as Uffe more from his imagination maceutical industry produced one paying for the drug, at Ravn skov, MD, PhD; Duane than empirical evidence. numerous valuable medica- least not directly. Because the Graveline, MD; Joel Kauff- Once we realize that the tions to treat or ameliorate dis- development of dubious drugs man, PhD; Paul Rosch, MD; absolute difference in survival eases over the past fifty years is often less risky than going William Stehbens, MD; Barry is a mere 1.2 percent in statin- (“A Skeptic’s View of Pharma- after truly innovative com- Groves, and Anthony Colpo. treated vs. untreated subjects ceutical Progress,” SI, July/Au- pounds, board members will A thorough response to under ideal experimenter-con- gust 2010). It appears the change their attitude toward Spector’s assessment of the trolled conditions, and we con- article was written primarily to support of worthy products value of statins to CHD sider the hazards of low “rate” the usefulness of this only if the commercial incen- treatment would require a cholesterol levels on health segment of our society in view tive for marginal products de- review of the history of the and mortality (reviewed in of its rapidly deteriorating creases. This has happened in fallacy that cholesterol causes Colpo 2006; Groves 2008), public image. Of course Big many countries through limit- CHD (which has been then the appeal of statins loses Pharma is not a collective but ing reimbursement, and it will provided by the individuals its luster. Overall, with the ob- an amalgamation of very dif- also happen in the United named above). Here, I’ll pro- vious pharmaceutical-friendly ferent companies, most of States, though with some vide three of the five flaws bias in Spector’s article, SI whom are purely driven by a delay, through the same in Spector’s so-called failed to provide its readership desire to make money. process. One other change that “conservative” estimate that with a sufficiently skeptical What I submit is that may occur in pharmaceutical statins could save the lives of perspective on the limited ef- maybe the reason for the per- research and development is a 600,000 Americans, which he fectiveness of statins to reduce ceived moral downfall of Big shift from looking for small proposed based on the findings CHD-related mortality. Pharma in the past decades is improvements for many pa- of the Scandinavian Simvas- David Diamond, PhD the peculiar environment in tients to looking for large im- tatin Survival Study (4S) Professor, Depts. of which it operates. There is en- provements for select patient (1994). First, the 4S study was Psychology, Molecular Phar - couragement of development groups, something unfortu- limited to people with m a cology, and Physiology of “marginal” products that can nately not compatible with the hypercho lesterolemia—the av- University of South Florida still be marketed profitably, be- blockbuster concept that erage cholesterol level for the Tampa, Florida
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Reynold Spector replies one in a million both represent ality of the global climate cri- ... working for social and to David Diamond: the same percentage reduction, sis, and the crass efforts to economic justice . . . com- but in the first case the differ- market homeopathic and pels us to resist deficit Diamond appears not to have spending. Some people will ence is very significant while in other “alternative” medical read my paper carefully. First, counter this argument with the second, it just doesn’t mat- practices. I was talking about secondary intellectually bankrupt rea- ter. Failing to provide actual However, there are other soning such as “Deficit prevention. References to numbers of those who are af- disturbing examples of disinfor- spending is OK provided primary prevention are not fected makes the information mation not so readily tied to big the economy continues to relevant. I would point out that virtually useless. money. Perhaps the worst is the grow and it is only a small there is a lot of other work that percentage of our GDP.” Reporting research results suppression of information supports the mortality These arguments are an in- in terms of percentage im- about evolution, so that roughly advantage of statins in secondary stitutionalized economic/ provement without providing half of our children are never environmental pyramid prevention, such as the context can make even in- taught about this fundamental scheme waiting to come huge five-year Long-term Inter - significant im prove ments seem cornerstone of science. In this unraveled. vention with Pravastatin in Is- very impressive. I don’t know case, the denialism is largely chemic Disease (LIPID) trial Talk about disinformation! whether it’s the researchers or driven by organized religion. (which studied coronary artery Apparently Mr. Scott considers the reporters who produce the There is also the widespread disease [CAD] patients with three of the world’s leading articles who are responsible, belief that aliens are visiting us lower cholesterol concentrations) economists to be “intellectually but either way it’s potentially and that the governments of and showed a 22 bankrupt” and engaged in very misleading. the world are concealing this percent reduction in mortality maintaining a “pyramid information. (P< .001) with pravastatin Isaac Wingfield scheme.” Nobel laureate Paul More recently, and of par- versus placebo. I also was very San Jose, California Krugman has been uncompro- ticular interest to me, is the conservative in my estimates. misingly clear that immediate conviction held by substantial I assumed that there were ten Reynold Spector replies growth and job creation numbers of people that the million patients with CAD who to Isaac Wingfield: through further stimulus world will end, or at least took statins, but there are actu- spending trumps the dangers According to the American that there will be a global ally twenty million such patients of the deficits that such spend- Cancer Society, over 300,000 in the United States; I thus un- catastrophe, on December 21, ing creates; a glance at some of women worldwide die of cervical derestimated the potential bene- 2012. There is no evidence his recent columns in the New cancer each year. Hence, if all fit. Second, there are two large, whatever for this fear of a York Times is instructive. Nobel young women received the recent, controlled trials in 2012 doomsday, which has laureate Joseph Stiglitz echoes human papillomavirus (HPV) women that show the benefit of been manufactured out of Mr. Krugman, speaking widely vaccine, there would be 200,000 statins. I could go on and on, but nothing through Internet on the dangers of deficit reduc- fewer deaths from cervical cancer Diamond selectively references blogs and YouTube videos. tion (particularly in a poor per year. This is obviously not the literature and needs to do his The existence of such weird economy with high unemploy- a trivial number. homework better. I imagine that ideas lacks the danger of the ment) and going so far as to tell if he developed CAD, his physi- big lies about tobacco, health President Obama not to give in cian would put him on 40 mg of care, climate change, and ho- to “deficit fetishism.” Even the simvastatin and he would prob- Blindsided meopathy—however, these more conservative economist ably take it and have no side ef- by Disinformation ideas are propagated in much Nouriel Roubini has stated that fects. Because the drug is generic, the same way, primarily al though he is extremely con- he could find it at low cost. Is he Thanks for the insightful arti- through disinformation cam- cerned about the deficit, somehow different than the pa- cle by Alan J. Scott, which dis- paigns on the Internet. They he remains equally concerned tients in the 4S, LIPID, and tills a great deal of information also are often framed in terms about unemployment and Heart Protection Study trials? about how big money often of government conspiracies to slow growth. In fact, his frames the debate and distorts suppress the truth. The “culture all-but-exclusive recommenda- (or fabricates) scientific infor- of disinformation” and its tion for correcting both prob- Reynold Spector’s article “A mation (“Blindsided by a Cul- corollary—distrust of govern- lems is raising taxes—something Skeptic’s View of Pharmaceu- ture of Disinformation,” SI, ment and the scientific com- that the GOP in particular is tical Progress” includes several July/August 2010). munity—has become a part of simply never going to allow to observations about how certain The classic examples in the our landscape, and not all of it happen. drugs have improved outcomes United States include the to- is driven by big business. Ian Alterman (e.g., “reducing cervical cancer bacco lobby’s suppression of David Morrison New York, New York in women by about 70 per- information on the health Director, NASA Lunar cent”), while failing to provide dangers of smoking, the health Science Institute actual values—from how many insurance and pharmaceutical [email protected] I was dismayed to read Alan J. women, to how many? A re- industries’ distortion of the Scott’s article, not because it is duction in deaths from two in operations of the Canadian incorrect but because it deals ten to one in ten and a reduc- healthcare system, the fossil Physics professor Alan J. Scott with politics rather than sci- tion from two in a million to fuel interests’ denial of the re- is on firm ground until he says ence. Of course there is a lot of
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disinformation disseminated in it really doesn’t matter if the exceptions) to rebut his errors, this writing, the site addresses politics, whether or not science ozone hole will lead to envi- and they didn’t acknowledge the 116 arguments from climate is involved, but that disinfor- ronmental damage (increased parts of his critique that were change skeptics, including the mation is generally on all sides, skin cancer among polar bears correct or put them into proper following from Sheaffer: and it is necessary for a think- or penguins?) because alterna- context. Yet this should have global warming is due to the ing person to discriminate be- tives to Freon will be readily been quite easy to do—in fact, sun (#1), the weather hasn’t tween the noise and the data. available and are conveniently there is a website that already warmed since 1998 (#7), we’re Although I think the au- more profitable once the use of does it, John Cook’s Skeptical heading into a new Little Ice thor of this article believes he cheap CFCs has been assassi- Science. Age (#9), the “hockey stick” is is unbiased, his biases with re- nated. One can go through the As an example of the for- broken (#18), the Medieval spect to corporations and gov- rest of the list and make simi- mer, Sheaffer lists “40 percent Warm Period was warmer ernment are clearly evident lar arguments. I have inten- of the Amazon rain forest is than today (#56), the IPCC from his one-sided examples. tionally chosen items that threatened by global warming” was wrong about Himalayan Governmental, scientific, edu- most skeptics would rate as as a false claim of the 2007 glaciers (#75), Michael Mann cational, and environmental ranging from “certainly true” to IPCC AR4 report. In fact, the performed a trick in Nature to organizations can represent “certainly false” to emphasize claim is correct; the only error “hide the decline” (#77), and “special interests” just as much my point that truth doesn’t in the IPCC AR4 report was the IPCC was wrong about as corporations can. Though much matter if the claim is to cite the wrong source for Amazon rainforests (#94). this subject is interesting, it “convenient.” the claim. The “Amazongate” Jim Lippard does not belong in a scientific My list of “inconvenient” charges originated with poor Phoenix, Arizona journal. As a long-term sub- claims is shorter: global cli- research by Richard North and scriber to SI, I would like to mate change, world overpopu- were promulgated in a Sunday see the Committee for Skepti- lation, and biological Times (United Kingdom) story I have just lost all respect for cal Inquiry stick to science and evolution. Each of these is an by Jonathan Leake. The Times Robert Sheaffer. His take on avoid politics, which usually issue for which there is not a was forced to retract and apol- SKEPTICAL INQUIRER’S cover- doesn’t lend itself to skeptical “convenient” (read “profitable”) ogize for the erroneous story, age of “Climategate” is a verba- inquiry. solution, and/or they represent as described on the Real Cli- tim recitation of the thoroughly Allen Ginzburg ideological conflicts of con- mate blog (www.realclimate.org discredited received “wisdom” of Aptos, California science. Even though it would /index.php/archives/2010/06/l anthropogenic global warming seem that an “inconvenient eakegate-a-retraction/). (AGW)-denier orthodoxy. He untruth” should be a non- As an example of the latter, didn’t miss a note. Almost Climate Wars Coverage starter, the “truth” of each of Sheaffer is correct that the everything in his piece is false, these items has been chal- IPCC WGII report on Hi- misleading, or non sequitur, as lenged, obfuscated, and even Re: “Climate Wars” and the malayan glaciers was in error, as well as simply a parroting of denied, leaving the general “Follow-Up” section exchanges has been widely reported. I widespread AGW-denier talk- public ignorant of whether the in the July/August 2010 issue think it’s important to distin- ing points, showing no critical claim is true or not. So again, of SI: guish between the three IPCC thinking on his part. Sheaffer’s convenience trumps truth, and Perhaps the most prescient working groups—WGI, re- response is too long and too we are left with the dismal thing about Al Gore’s Incon- search on the physical basis of silly to rebut every point in a conclusion that any claim of venient Truth was his choice of climate change; WGII, research letter to the editor, but it is economic or ideological im- title. It appears that the truth on scientific, technical, environ- laughable that AGW deniers portance cannot be proved to of any issue of economic or mental, and social aspects of think that personal enrichment general agreement, either way. ideological importance cannot climate change (e.g., vulnerabil- through science grants and sub- Perhaps the best guide in such or will not be agreed upon as ity and adaptation); and sidies for alternate energy devel- controversies is “follow the either true or false, because WGIII, research on mitigation opment is in the same league of money.” convenience trumps truth of climate change. It’s my im- corruption-inducing financial every time. Consider some ex- Alan Harris pression that the work in influence as the vast profits and amples, which I have divided La Cañada, California WGII has received more sub- entrenched interests of the not by “truth” but by “conve- stantive criticisms than that in fossil-fuel industry. nience.” Among convenient WGI (e.g., by Roger Pielke Jr., It is distressing that a self- claims I offer: the ozone hole, I found the exchange between who has complained about his identified skeptic would be lead in paint and gasoline, as- Robert Sheaffer, Mark own work being misrepresented incapable of viewing AGW- bestos, secondhand smoke, Boslough, et al., in the July/ by WGII yet supports the re- denier nonsense with a skepti- health foods and supplements, August SI (“Climate Wars sults of WGI [see, for ex ample, cal eye. It is certainly true that diets and exercise, and religion Follow-Up”) disappointing for http://lippard.blogspot.com/20 the IPCC report contains of all sorts. I categorize these two reasons: first, Robert 09/11/roger-pielke-jr-on-clima some errors, but none of them as “convenient” because they Sheaffer, who is usually a thor- te-change_07.html]). overturn the massive body of are problems that have ready ough and reasonable skeptic, Cook’s Skeptical Science evidence that AGW is real and and profitable solutions, or made so many erroneous website ad dresses most of the a threat to our civilization. they appeal to the ideology of claims. Second, the responses claims Sheaffer has made in a Sheaffer and the rest of the the majority of people. to him failed to do two things numbered list sorted by recent AGW deniers have uncritically Taking just the first item, that adequate responses popularity (www.skeptcalscie bought into a pseudoscience the ozone hole, as an example, should: They failed (with few nce.com/argument.php). As of cynically perpetrated by the
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LETTERS TO THE EDITOR ]
fossil-fuel industry. They hold tion of your computer, and re- reason whatsoever to pay that first is protected to the max, legitimate climate scientists to vert back to that clean state af- $30 or $40 fee every year. The and the second is also super an inhuman standard of per- terwards.” The danger here is biggest threats to your smart- protected but with different fection yet give AGW deniers in the underlying assumption phone are having it stolen or products that might otherwise a free pass on logic, evidence, that the computer user will al- forgetting to take it out of your conflict. accountability, and integrity. ways be aware of the fact that pocket when putting your Rudy Iwasko his or her computer is infected. trousers in the laundry basket. Jason Spicer [email protected] Washougal, Washington This is certainly no longer the case for the average computer Jan Van Haver user: malware these days is Hamme, Belgium The section on “password usually no longer intended to Robert Sheaffer’s argument mythology” in Slagell’s article cause damage—but rather to that climate scientists are lying Adam Slagell’s “Thinking missed one myth: that chang- infect your computer and re- about global warming to get ing passwords periodically main hidden for as long as pos- Critically about Computer funding for their research makes them more secure. This sible, thus allowing the Security Trade-offs” is good, made a lot of sense to me. but I do have a comment will provide protection only if a Imagine a young man, desper- cybercrime community to use your computer (e.g., for send- about effective (home) password is changed during an ate to make his fortune, decid- computer security. actual password attack, and ing what to study in college. ing spam or storing illegal con- tent). The malware industry is His comment about virtual even then it’s highly unlikely. Should he study business or machines is excellent and Requirements for periodic environmental science? Well, big business, and the average computer user is not in a posi- correct, but I use a different password changes typically use the decision seems obvious. system. I use two computers an interval of months, whereas Nobody’s ever made any tion to judge the ever-changing threats adequately. (one I was about to donate an attack takes hours at most. money in business. Scientific after upgrading to a newer What frequently changing pass- research into weather . . . now As for Slagell’s remarks that security software is using machine). The older, slower words does achieve is increasing that’s where the money is! machine is now exclusively for the difficulty of remembering And yes, I’m being sarcastic. an excessive amount of com- puter resources and that local browsing the net. It has an op- them, which leads to the users R. Allen Gilliam firewalls are often generating erating system, a browser, and leaving passwords in places Winter Park, Florida quite cryptic messages: this in- some security (not much: Spy- where someone can find them. bot and the MS firewall). The deed was the case a couple of Dick Dunn newer, faster machine is for years ago, but great improve- Hygiene, Colorado Computer Security ments have been made in the everything else and is very se- past two years. The latest gen- cure. The important point is the “secure” As a skeptic who happens to eration of security software Science and work in the security software uses a multitude of techniques machine cannot connect to the industry (I’m the country (virus definitions, behavior web. Period. I run the two Moral Questions manager of a German software blocking, heuristics, cloud machines with an MKR switch company that develops an- technology, white-listing, etc.) that lets me run the two with Massimo Pigliucci asks, with tivirus software), I want to to reach detection levels that one keyboard/mouse/monitor. Sam Harris, if science can an- briefly comment on some are indeed very close to 100 If I absolutely must transfer swer moral questions (“Think - points in Adam Slagell’s article percent. Most vendors provide something between the two ing about Science” column, on computer security (“Think- a free trial version on their machines, I manually plug in July/August 2010). ing Critically about Computer website, so you don’t have to a thumb drive and manually Harris says yes; Pigliucci Security Trade-offs,” SI, simply take my word for it. move it over to the other wonders. I say that science has July/August 2010). You can also find comparative machine. its own internal morality. Sci- Slagell is absolutely right information on independent If the browser machine gets ence is a social endeavor, and that there is no such thing as websites like www.av-compar- anything at all, I reformat the therefore it requires its own 100 percent security, and atives.org and www.avtest.org. hard drive (or even wipe it social norms to survive. Sci- people should be skeptical One last piece of advice— completely if it looks really ence’s values include honesty, about offers making this claim. from an in sider—on FUD nasty) and reinstall from a self-honesty, precision, clarity, He also correctly states that (Fear, Uncertainty, and Doubt): clean backup, which I make a rigorous logic, skepticism, cu- security software relying on Please don’t believe those secu- few minutes after I finish riosity, open-mindedness, re- only “traditional” signature- rity vendors that try to sell you installing software. This takes spect for evidence, irreverence based malware detection is an antivirus solution for your about twenty minutes, most for illogical authority, and no longer an adequate form smartphone. There are only a of which is wait time. much else. of protection. handful of viruses for those op- My system can be called Science enforces its internal My main objection to Sla - erating systems (compared to “parallel,” but I have a geeky values by reward and punish- gell’s argument concerns his millions for desktop-based friend who uses the more so- ment; that’s normal for moral- explanation of why he leans Windows versions), and none of phisticated “series” method. ity. Some of these values are in toward use of a virtual machine them is a real threat or has a This friend has two machines, conflict (e.g., open-minded- (instead of running antivirus money-earning system behind and everything must pass ness and rigor); that too is nor- software) to be able to “do it (the driving force in the mal- through the first machine be- mal for morality. So there’s something that may risk infec- ware industry). So there is no fore reaching the second. The no such thing as value-free
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science, nor should there be. ings. Entropy is not. What’s simply can’t perform an ability later, at the very minimum. But science’s internal morality, right for entropy is wrong for that they were previously docu- Another difficulty somehow has though real, is not universal be- syntropy. mented as having. Has Lance escaped notice: the difficulty of cause other vocations have dif- Thus, what we call morality Armstrong ever woken up and predicting what natural selection ferent moralities. Irreverence and values are syntropic, and said “Sorry, guys. I just can’t re- will do inside the ship’s ecosystem for illogical authority, for in- our personal, social, and cul- member how to ride a bicycle after a few hundred or thousand stance, is not well regarded in tural actions should encourage today.” Has your accountant, generations of organisms. A ship religion or in the military. that which is syntropic in order doctor, or bus driver ever com- might arrive at its stellar to build a moral system. pletely lost their abilities for a destination with its interior filled Nathaniel Hellerstein single day? mainly with green slime mold. San Francisco, California Frank Fiore So why do the psi re- But none of these are the same Author of CyberKill searchers use this explanation as “impossible.” Interstellar travel [email protected] of psi abilities? might possibly be accomplished Massimo Pigliucci, in his discus- should some factor such as the sion of Sam Harris’s book The Joel McGinley following apply: a race with an End of Faith, takes the position Merritt Island, Florida Psi Rationalism #1 extremely long lifespan for whom that morality cannot arise from centuries are not considered science. At least the model pro- In the July/August “Letters to “too long” to travel; a ship with posed by Harris cannot. the Editor” section, Chris Impossible or an entirely robotic crew that can I disagree. Here is a model Carter stated: “With psi we Merely Unlikely? operate for tens of thousands of of such. have the added complication years or more; an intelligent race Let’s build an argument that we are dealing with a pur- Robert Sheaffer’s “UFOlogy vs. with an insect-like social structure that pulls morals, values, good, ported human ability, and few Truth” in the July/August 2010 that would willingly dedicate evil, and religious beliefs out of human abilities are perfectly issue is a fascinating essay. many generations to the explo- the equation. Let’s take an ar- replicable on demand. To use a The fact is that alien- ration. All of these suppositions gument that affirms something baseball analogy, home runs are spaceship UFOs are impossible strike me as unlikely in the and build that argument on not perfectly replicable on de- because they violate simple extreme, but I would not call science. Some of the very basic mand, but that does not mean principles of physics and any of them “impossible.” laws of science are the three that home runs do not exist.” chemistry. The amount of laws of thermodynamics—or This argument is often used to energy required to launch an the laws of entropy. explain why some people, some alien ship is so huge—because Famous Strategies Without getting technical, tests, and some people on some of the vastness of interstellar the three laws are: days, etc., either display or do space—that no civilization can with Cranks 1. You can’t win. not display psi abilities. This possibly get such a vehicle off 2. You can’t break even. seems to be a much-believed the ground. The figures are Related to Martin Bridgstock’s 3. You can’t leave the game. condition of human beings, given in the June 2008 Skeptical article about responding to But there is another side to and it is used to dismiss the Briefs on page 3. “dissenters” (“Encounters with the universe that works against negative results (misses). It is unfortunate that honest Aliens [the Local Kind])” SI, entropy called syntropy, a word This made me wonder: out investigators and skeptics have March/April 2010) and the re- invented by Buck minster Fuller of all the vast human abili- spent so much time chasing an sulting Letters to the Editor as the direct opposite of en- ties—instinctive/innate (like impossible dream (or night- (SI, July/August 2010), it is not tropy. While entropy runs the senses), learned—both mare) that can be demolished surprising that Albert Einstein things down, syntropy build mentally and physically (every- with a few familiar and simple was apparently contacted by things up. The main driver of thing from reading to walking energy equations. early dissenters. I have a 1931 syntropy is life—living sys- to mental arithmetic; throw in letter that Einstein wrote to tems—which contests the en- all the abilities shown at the Sid Deutsch just such an individual, a Mr. tropy of the physical world by Olympics, too)—are there any Sarasota, Florida Krumm who apparently sent creating order and designs of other human abilities that have an inquiry about a certain ever more advantageous and or- been given this excuse? Robert Sheaffer replies: “problem.” Interest ingly, Ein- derly patterns for growth. That I suspect the answer is no. Impossible is an awfully strong stein actually replied. which supports growth is syn- If psi ability is rooted deep in word, Mr. Deutsch! You say that The German translates to tropic. That which supports de- the brain yet is somehow this such a vehicle could never be got- something like this: “Very hon- struction is entropic. Those variable, why aren’t other ten off the ground. Neither could ored gentleman, It has been beliefs and actions that are ad- human abilities the same? the Inter national Space Station, scientifically proven that the vantageous to the advancement “Hmmm, that’s weird. I can’t which is why it was assembled in problem you mention cannot of life are syntropic. Those that smell the coffee this morning. orbit. I agree with all your calcu- be solved. Anyway, as I am al- are not are entropic. That My sense of smell is not func- lations showing the extreme diffi- ready overwhelmed with work, which creates environments for tioning. This happens a few culty in generating sufficient I cannot devote any time to creativity, like personal freedom, times a month.” energy to accelerate payload (and such a hopeless case. With ex- is syntropic. That which stunts Although the degree of per- return fuel!) to sufficient velocity cellent [could possibly be personal freedom is entropic. formance does vary from day to for interstellar travel and then to translated as greatest] respect, Syntropy is good for human be- day among athletes, they never decelerate decades or centuries Albert Einstein.”
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While pointing out that this School of Medicine is a “hopeless case,” Einstein University of California, There’s much more is still respectful to the “Very San Diego honored gentleman” he replies Skep ti cal In quir er to “With excellent respect.” Perhaps his responding and his Philip McEvoy’s memory is at content available on our website! being respectful demonstrates fault (Letters, July/August something about Einstein, 2010). It was not Isaac Asimov Here’s just a sample of what you’ll find: because most of the time the but Sir Arthur C. Clarke, in his Frog Boy: Death of an Urban Legend scientist who receives such a essay “Dear Sir” (found in his communication ignores it. book Voices from the Sky), who Karen Stollznow’s “Naked Skeptic” column It appears that Einstein said that cranks could be dealt on the mysterious Frog Boy—real monster, did not use stationery but with by sending a reply—pur- urban legend, or something in between? simply grabbed the nearest piece porting to be from one’s of paper for his response. The 3 1 secretary—saying that it would Skepticism Is Best Left to the Skeptics paper seems to be an 8 4⁄ by 11 4⁄ sheet from a graph paper pad be brought to the intended Barrett Brown examines a discussion in the that physicists and scientists recipient’s attention when he journal Foreign Policy about the significance frequently used and often was again permitted to deal and influence of the Internet. had about their offices or with his mail, or by sending laboratories. a deliberately illegible hand - written letter. Tom L. Smith, PhD Principal Statistician Ray Ward Dept. of Psychiatry London, United Kingdom
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[ THE LAST LAUGH BENJAMIN RADFORD
http://rationalwiki.org/wiki/Ghost_Hunters
Ghost Hunters
Ghost Hunters, is a comedy television show featuring the exploits of a group of mildly challenged plumbers paranormal investigators as they misuse a bunch of consumer electronics from their local Circuit City Best Buy in an effort to find “evidence” of paranormal activity. The core team is comprised of members of The Atlantic Paranormal Society (TAPS). When not appearing in episodes of this series, the crew enjoy posing for photos for the Ghost Hunters website, in which they aim to appear thoughtful, Rational Wiki skeptical, or mysterious, but in most cases the overall impression is one of puzzlement and constipation. To the skeptic, the only reason to watch is to play the "lowest IQ in this segment" competition; that and some of the team are reasonably attractive in a
confused kind of way.
An episode in a nutshell
The typical American segment consists of a situation in which someone is under the impression that they're witnessing paranormal activity. They call Ghostbusters TAPS, whose principals quickly remove their arms from the s-bends of whatever toilets they were unplugging in order to rush to investigate the alleged haunting.
The investigators then strap on their proton packs pile up a bunch of random electronic hardware in their vans, and go blow the crap out of some ghosts interview the deluded people who are convinced that they see dead people, and are desperate to have their superstitious ideas confirmed by fully qualified plumbers. C The plumbers then proceed to make the Nixon White House plumbers look brilliant, as they generally set up gear to record whatever noise, wow, and 1 An episode in a nutshell flutter they can. Cameras are set up in the dark, and sound recorders in silent rooms. They let the equipment run unattended for a few hours, while wandering around misusing other equipment, such as the magical “EMF detector.” 2.1 Digital recorder They then go home to some dump in Jersey, pore over the blank tapes and get really excited about what white noise sounds and looks like when the gain 2.2 Electromagnetic field (EMF) detector is turned up all the way. 2.3 Mini-Digital Video Camera 2.4 Thermal imaging camera The last step is to return to the scene of the slime and tell the morons, in most cases, that there really is something going on there!!! 2.5 White noise generator Once in a while they act "skeptical" and say there might be a haunting, but that they didn't couldn't find strong evidence for it. 3 See also They also occasionally unclog the mark’s haunting victim's toilet—evidently for free! 4 Footnotes
Suggested equipment
The Ghost Hunters team is kind enough to provide Steve's list of equipment for budding paranormal investigators. If you follow the references and read the Ghost Hunters descriptions of these devices, you'll notice a distinct lack of evidence. Claims for the effectiveness of a device or will typically be backed by claims beginning with the phrase "many paranormal investigators believe…". As you review the list, consider playing a drinking game. Take a shot each time you see the words "many" or "some" used to support the efficacy of a device.
Digital recorder A digital recorder, such as a portable device for recording voice memos, is perfect for observing electronic voice phenomena (EVP). Steve has the following to say about the digital recorder (our emphasis to highlight vagueness, uncertainty and anecdotal evidence): "It's the contention of many paranormal experts, and my own personal experience, that voices from the other side can manifest as EVP (Electronic Voice Phenomena). EVPs are generally inaudible to the human ear, but can sometimes be picked up on electronic recording devices. At TAPS, we use digital and analog recorders to attempt to capture EVPs." It's also the contention of many paranormal experts that underpants are best worn on the outside, or on the head. As is the case with EVP, we await evidence in support of the outside-underpants contention. The practice of using a digital recorder to capture EVP is the modern version of leaving a cassette recorder running in a darkened room, and then turning up the volume on playback to try to make sense of static and naturally occurring background noise. Based on the progression from analog tape to digital recorders, one can only assume that ghosts in the future will learn to encode their wails as MP3s, conveniently emailing them directly to paranormal investigators.
Electromagnetic field (EMF) detector This device is a lot of fun, particularly if one lacks sufficient knowledge to understand the origin of EMF. There are many different sources of electromag- netic radiation, and it's pure guesswork that ghosts have some kind of EMF signature. EMF activity is likely to always be detected to some extent, barring measurements conducted for people who live in Faraday cages. A good analogy would be to compare an EMF detector to an AM radio receiver. The radio will still pick up background noise, even if it's not tuned to a frequency being used for broadcasting. One could cite this static as proof of the existence of ghosts, and that’s pretty much what Ghost Hunters are doing, albeit in a more expensive and complicated way. Benjamin Radford of the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry, on Ghost Hunters’ nonsensical usage of measuring devices, commented “Just as using a calculator doesn't make you a mathema- tician, using a scientific instrument doesn’t make you a scientist.”
Mini-Digital Video Camera Steve's explanation of this device is particularly telling (our emphasis): “If you’re a serious paranormal investigator, the mini-digital video camera is an indispensable part of your arsenal. Not only will it provide a visual and audio record of your investigation, it will give you unrestricted access to locations and allow you to see your own reactions to paranormal activity, when it occurs, in real time”
The emphasized text shows the most important use for such cameras: To get spooky-looking footage. The ideal approach is stand in a creepy room, pointing the camera at your face, and babble incoherently about how eerie things feel. For added effect, avoid editing out footage containing rapid camera angle changes. These jerky shots enhance the feeling of trepidation. The only drawback to this type of camera is that pictures of the investigators and their clients don't look freaky enough.
September/October 2010 Hidden Messages Puzzle Contest Winner: John B. Gaston
66 Volume 34 Issue 6 | Skeptical Inquirer SI New Nov Dec pages_SI new design masters 9/24/10 2:30 PM Page 67
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