The Role of News Media in Supporting Democracy in Kurdistan Region Hataw Hama Saleh Hussein A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfilment of the Requirements for the School of Arts and Humanities at Nottingham Trent University for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Communication, Culture, and Media Studies 2018 i Abstract This thesis has chosen the Kurdistan Region of Iraq as a case study to examine the media’s function in newly democratised countries. In any new transitional democracy, the media will be influenced by the new political system and they will frequently be criticised for being unable to act as a watchdog because of the close relationship with the political elites. However, there are also many other factors, such as cultural, political and economic pressures that affect the development of the media. This thesis makes an original contribution by furthering understanding of the role of the media in supporting an emerging democracy in the Kurdistan Region after 2003. It argues that there is also an assumption the news media will try to keep their independence from political dominance, and work actively to expose the political and government wrongdoings. Therefore, this thesis aims to examine the state of the news media in playing the role of watchdog and holding power to account. It also assesses the working environment for journalists in Kurdistan to see whether the general situation encourages media to the same degree as in established democratic societies. To understand the current situation of the media and how the news media take a critical stance towards political corruptions, this thesis has conducted in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. The results show that the media have demonstrated good practice in exposing corruption and malfeasance in the government. It argued that the media are present in the political scene and have performed their task as a forum for the public, providing the public with the necessary information. However, as a newly democratised country, the general environment in the political system is not helpful, for example, the executive, legislative and judicial authorities do not have enough power to play a key role in the democratic system. Various pressures on the media still exist, and the country lacks effective democratic institutions supporting the media, which are essential to build a strong democratic system. This has certainly limited the media's ability to stand against political corruption and hold the government to account. ii Dedication To God, be the glory. To those journalists who struggle to develop democracy in Kurdistan. iii Acknowledgements First and foremost, my sincere thanks go to my supervisor, Dr Olga Guedes Bailey, who has believed in me throughout, and whose comments and ideas have been greatly influential in the construction of my thesis. My special thanks also go to my second supervisor, Professor Martin O'Shaughnessy, for the constant encouragement, insightful feedback and much-needed suggestions for improving my thesis. Also, I would like to thank my third supervisor, Dr Colin Alexander, for his intellectual direction and for always challenging me to develop a critical perspective. I am grateful to have been their student and am indebted to them for the time and generosity they dedicated to reviewing my work. I am also grateful to my sponsor, the Human Capacity Development Programme (HCDP), at the Ministry of Higher Education in Kurdistan, for funding my doctoral studies at Nottingham Trent University during the period 2013-2017. I’m grateful to the Kurdish interviewees, editors, journalists, media experts and politicians, too numerous to mention them individually, for participating in this research and providing their valuable information. Without them, the thesis could not be undertaken. Also, I would like to thank the University of Sulaymaniyah, the University of Halabja and the University of Human Development, who have definitely supported me in my academic journey. Back to Nottingham Trent University, I would like to thank my all schoolmates and the staff of the Graduate School. Also to Christine McCall for her excellent and supportive English teaching to improve my academic writing. I am also grateful to my family, especially my husband Hardy who came to England for me, who believes in me, and who always encouraged me when I felt tired and discouraged. Finally, my additional thanks go to all my Kurdish friends from the HCDP in Leicester, Nottingham and Bradford, to those who lived together and shared our academic experience throughout the 4 years of being in the UK. Thank you all for joining me on a very challenging but fruitful journey. iv Table of Contents Abstract ................................................................................................................... ii Dedication ................................................................................................................. iii Acknowledgements ............................................................................................................ iv Table of Contents ................................................................................................................ v List of Figures .................................................................................................................. ix List of Tables .................................................................................................................. ix List of Acronyms and Abbreviations .................................................................................. x Introduction ................................................................................................................... 1 Research Problem ............................................................................................................... 7 Research Questions ........................................................................................................... 13 Methodology ..................................................................................................................... 13 Structure of the Thesis ...................................................................................................... 15 Chapter One: Media Transformation in Kurdistan in the process of Democratisation .... 18 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 18 What is Democracy? ........................................................................................... 20 Democratisation Progress in Iraq and Kurdistan ................................................ 22 Media Transformation in the Political System ................................................. 34 The Four Theories of the Press .......................................................................... 36 Media as a ‘Watchdog’ or as a ‘Fourth Estate’ .................................................. 44 The Media as an Informative Tool and as a ‘Marketplace of Ideas’ ................. 46 Do Free Media Exist? ......................................................................................... 49 Media Environment in New Democracies .......................................................... 54 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 62 Chapter Two: History of Kurdistan and Development of the Media in 20th Century ...... 65 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 65 Overview History of Kurdistan ........................................................................... 66 Iraqi Kurdistan after World War I until Autonomy in 1991 ............................... 68 Iraqi Kurdistan after Autonomy in 1991 ............................................................. 73 Conducting the First General Elections .............................................................. 75 Establishment of Kurdistan Regional Government (KRG) ................................ 76 Growth of Democratic Organisations ................................................................. 76 Early History of Kurdish Media until 1991 ........................................................ 79 The Kurdish Public Media .................................................................................. 81 v Kurdish National Movements Media (Partisan Media) ...................................... 84 The Kurdish Media After Autonomy 1991 ......................................................... 88 Conclusion .......................................................................................................... 90 Chapter Three: Methodology ............................................................................................ 94 Introduction ......................................................................................................... 94 Research Methods ............................................................................................... 95 In-depth Interviews ............................................................................................. 95 Categories of Interviewees in the In-Depth Interviews ...................................... 99 Focus Group Discussions .................................................................................. 100 Data Analysis .................................................................................................... 105 Chapter Four: Development