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Representations of Indigenous Identity Within Australian Cinema

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CAMERA OBSCURA: REPRESENTATIONS OF INDIGENOUS IDENTITY WITHIN AUSTRALIAN CINEMA Suneeti Rekhari A Thesis Submitted in Fulfilment of the Requirement for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy School of Sociology and Anthropology The University of New South Wales March 2006 Abstract Karen Jennings (1993) and Peter Krausz (2003) in their works, written ten years apart, note the changing ways in which the academic world and the media have dealt with representations of Indigenous identity. It was hoped that the latter work would have been discussing the way in which things have already changed. The fact that it does not, initiates the questions addressed in this thesis: whether Australian cinema explores Indigenous issues in sufficient depth and with cultural resonance. Can a study of cinematic representations lead to a better understanding of Aboriginal identity? In representing Aboriginality on screen does the cinema present a representational complex for Indigenous Australia, which is constructed on their behalf by the cinema itself? In this thesis these questions are theoretically framed within a semiotic methodology, which is applied to the examination of the complexities of representation. This is done through an analysis of the connotations and stereotyping of Indigenous identity in filmic narratives; and the operation of narrative closure and myth making systems through historical time periods; and dualisms in the filmic narratives such as primitive/civilised, us/them, self/other; and the presence of Aboriginality as an absent signifier. The four films chosen for comparative analysis are Jedda, Night Cries, Walkabout and Rabbit Proof Fence. These films span a period of fifty years, which allows for an explication of the changes that have occurred over the passing of time in their visual representations of Aboriginal identity. Hence social and cultural filmic identity representations are juxtaposed with the historical and political discourses prevalent at the time of their production. Through such a detailed analysis of the four film texts, the dominant social discourses of Australia are analysed in relation to their operation as representational frameworks for Indigenous Australians. i Acknowledgements During the writing of this thesis I have become indebted to many individuals and academic organisations. The following merit particular attention for the advice, assistance and support they have offered me. Throughout my research I have received guidance and encouragement from my supervisor, Celia Moon. I am extremely grateful for her insight into my work and the manner in which she consistently challenged my thinking to sharpen, focus and improve. I must also thank Sue Green who provided the initial impetus for my questioning and helped me lay down the framework of my research. In addition I must thank other academic and administrative staff of the Nura Gili Indigenous Programs Centre and the School of Sociology and Anthropology for providing a supportive environment in which to conduct research. In particular I would like to thank Frances Lovejoy from the School of Sociology and Anthropology who has provided me with sound advice right from my very early days at the department. I also gratefully acknowledge the assistance of Anne Holmes at Billy Blue Schools for providing me with access to resources at the school and her stalwart surety in my work. Many of my friends have given me unending encouragement during the writing of this thesis and I wish to thank all of them. I would particularly like to thank: Megan McCarthy for her feedback on an incomprehensible first draft of this work, Laura Fisher for listening to my theoretical musings and providing valuable counter- arguments to include in my research, Jamie Quasar for saving me from editing hiccups. I would also like to thank my extended family of friends who have worked with me in the trenches of research and helped me battle through the production of this PhD: Garth Thomas for patiently allowing me to ramble about topics of little interest to him, Liz Wilson for her true and pragmatic judgements on work and life, Angela Bishop for her ability to understand the inner workings of page breaks and for working tremendously fast on my language and expression, Dan Simmonds for quite simply – rocking and Stuart Clegg for his calmness at the crucial end stage of writing up and enriching my academic and non-academic life with happiness. A very special thanks to Shruti Devgan who has provided me with years of friendship, sisterhood and steadfast unfailing belief in my work and self, without which this thesis would never even have been attempted and Sophia Papoutsi, who even from afar acts as a mentor, guide and twin. My final debt of thanks goes to my family. I would not know where to begin to thank them for their lifetime of support. They provided me with the confidence instrumental in my search for academic rigour. My mother for providing me with strength and love; my sister for her brilliance, professionalism I always strive to copy, compassion and guidance; and most importantly my late father who laid the foundations for who I am as a person today and whose excellence in work and family life I endeavour to emulate. I hope through this thesis I have succeeded in acknowledging the hard work and intellectual merit of his achievements in life. ii The terms ‘Indigenous’, ‘Indigenous Australians’, ‘Indigenous people’, and ‘Aboriginal’, ‘Aboriginal Australians’, ‘Aboriginal people’ have been used in this thesis. It recognises that these terms are gaining increasing currency in academia as inclusive terms. This thesis follows the conviction set by Jackie Huggins when she stated: “a” is for apple, agile, anger, another, address, alphabet, but not Aboriginal. It is insulting and destructive to use a small “a”. This spelling is extremely racist, as are the biologically racist definitions of part, quarter, half-caste and full blood Aboriginals. It is indicative of notions of superiority/inferiority of Blacks and whites in this country. On the basis of white superiority it could be presumed that the initiators of a small “a” subconsciously act out their power games in order to further maintain their privileged position, and to keep Blacks in their “subjugated” line. The usual excuse is that there has been a “typo”, but I have yet to see “europeans” or “australians” in Australian books. Why therefore does the typewriter possess an incredibly persistent disability when it comes to Aboriginal? My preference is for the term “Aboriginal” both as a noun and adjective. “Aborigines” has long been a term used to classify and demean Aboriginal people in the repressive state of Queensland, particularly by the old Department of Aboriginal and Islander Advancement. It also assumes an “air of superiority” by a dominant culture and attempts, as does small “a”, to operate as a divide and rule tactic. - Huggins, Jackie (1991) Hecate Vol. XVII, No 2, p 171 1 TABLE OF CONTENTS INTRODUCTION 3 PART I Aboriginality and Film-texts: Literature Review 22 Chapter 1: Aboriginalism and Orientalism……………………………………… 24 Chapter 2: Reality of Film………………………………………………………... 27 Chapter 3: Location of Audiences……………………………………………….. 30 Chapter 4: The Notion of ‘Truth’………………………………………………... 32 Chapter 5: Race and Aboriginality………………………………………………. 35 Chapter 6: Questions on Identity………………………………………………… 38 PART II Cinema and Semiotics: Methodology 41 Chapter 7: Fundamentals of Cinematic Semiotic Analysis…………………….. 44 Chapter 8: Syntagmatic Relations………………………………………………...50 1. Denotation and Connotation………………………………………………... 52 2. Myths and Absent Signifiers………………………………………………... 55 3. Decoding and Audiences…………………………………………………… 60 Chapter 9: Grande Syntagmatique Revisited…………………………………… 62 1. Identification of Initial Concepts…………………………………………… 63 2. Visual Construct of Model………………………………………………….. 66 3. Explanation of Terms used in the Model…………………………………… 69 4. How the Terms Used in the Model Collaborate……………………………. 74 Chapter 10: Method of Film Analysis……………………………………………. 76 2 PART III An Analysis of Film Texts 80 Chapter 11: Beginnings- Jedda ..………………………………………………… 82 Chapter 12: Continuations - Night Cries.……………………………………… 101 Chapter 13: Transitions – Walkabout…………………………………………... 110 Chapter 14: Transformations - Rabbit Proof Fence…………………………… 132 Chapter 15: Comparative Analysis of Film Texts …………………………….. 155 1. Narrative Closure and Historical Time Periods …………………………... 156 2. Myths and Absent Signifiers………………………………………………. 160 3. Binary Oppositions………………………………………………………... 166 CONCLUSION 170 APPENDICES 183 Appendix 1: List of films ……………………………………………………….. 184 Appendix 2: Relations among film theories…………………………………… 187 Appendix 3: Differences between shot and word……………………………… 188 Appendix 4: Camera techniques………………………………………………... 189 BIBLIOGRAPHY 192 3 INTRODUCTION Make visible what, without you, might perhaps never have been seen. (Bresson, 1986: 64) Knowledge is never innocent or neutral. It is a key to power and meaning. It is used to dominate and control. (Moreton-Robinson, 2000: 93) 4 This thesis puts forth an offer of a tour through the expanse between the sociological, cultural, textual and historical channels of film and Indigenous representation. It attempts to examine the representations of Indigenous identity within Australian cinema and investigates whether these filmic representations adequately explore Indigenous issues in depth and with cultural resonance. The interest in conducting such research arose from the observation
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