Film & Culture edited by: DOROTTYA JÁSZAY, ANDREA VELICH

Eötvös Loránd University | Faculty of Humanities | School of English and American Studies 2016 Film & Culture

Edited by: DOROTTYA JÁSZAY, ANDREA VELICH Layout design by: BENCE LEVENTE BODÓ Proofreader: ANDREA THURMER © AUTHORS 2016, © EDITORS 2016 ISBN 978-963-284-757-3 EÖTVÖS LORÁND TUDOMÁNYEGYETEM

Supported by the Higher Education Restructuring Fund |

Allocated to ELTE by the Hungarian Government 2016 FILM & CULTURE 75 87 155 143 110 124 186

Macbeth

Culture(s) Through Films:

itchcock’s itchcock’s

The Miraculous Life of Henry of The Life Miraculous |

| Multiculturalism, History and H

Shakespeare on Film: Romeo and Film: Romeo Shakespeare on | The British DocumentaryThe British Film |

|

| John Huston’s Adaptation of James England, my England

|

Movement from the mid-1920s to the mid-1940s: mid-1940s: the to mid-1920s the from Movement Context Aesthetic and Social,Its Political, Approach A Literary “The Dead”: Joyce’s Purcell: On the Cultural Historical Contexts of of Contexts Historical Cultural On the Purcell: Filmthe Learning Opportunities in Canadian Egoyan’s Atom Film: Identity Ararat Juliet Revisioned Miklós Lojkó Péteri Éva Zsolt Komáromy Dorottya Holló János Kenyeres MarcellGellért Márta Hargitai 5 19 62 30 44

in the

JamesBond

| Being Film epresentation of Australian Australian of epresentation Utopia andUtopia Dystopia

R |

| Henry James in the Cinema: When When in Cinema: the Henry James

Introduction: Introduction: | |

Aborigines in Australian film Australian in Aborigines Screw the Turn Adapters the Screen the on Classroom

Cecilia Gall

Ákos Farkas Farkas Ákos Zsolt CzigányikZsolt Vera Benczik & Natália Pikli & Natália Benczik Vera

Géza KállayGéza

Contents Table of of Table FILM & CULTURE 210 227 196 169

The

Leap (2006) Romantic

| (1952), The Queen

TheQuiet Man (1998) and The Private life of Henry VIII Henry of life The Private The English ‘Monarchy Film’ Film’ ‘Monarchy The English Glossary

| (1911), |

Sequential Arts: Moments From the the From Arts: Moments Sequential

| Elizabeth (2010)

Revisited: From to (1933) Parallel History of Comics and Film Comics HistoryParallel of Year Ireland and the Hollywood Film Industry: Hollywood the and Ireland BawnColleen

Dorottya Jászay Andrea Velich Velich Andrea

Eszter Szép Szép Eszter Eglantina Remport & Janina Vesztergom Janina & Vesztergom Remport Eglantina Being Film

GÉZA KÁLLAY | Film & Culture ► 5

“FILM SHARES WITH OTHER GREAT ARTS THE PROPOSAL THAT EVERYTHING MATTERS — AND YOU DO NOT KNOW WHAT ‘EVERYTHING’ MEANS.” (CAVELL AND KLEVAN 169) FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 6 - - - Like novels, films, in most cases, display some narrative some films, cases, most display in novels, Like It does not need much theorizing, either, to see how how see to either, theorizing, much need not does It

dience but they heavily rely on audience-responses. On the audience-responses. on rely heavily they but dience constitute a very important partof ‘film-language’ as well. as ‘film-language’ partof important very a constitute can do more in this respect: for a backdrop, it can have an can have it a backdrop, in for this respect: can more do ample, an imaginaryample, taking story in Alps might the place a setting depicted through scenery, stage props, etc. Film etc. props, stage scenery, through depicted a setting can there a restaurant); (e.g. interior ‘realistic’ absolutely shapes and colours of these (besides the characters acting), acting), characters the (besides these of colours and shapes structure (a ‘plot’), as well, but this narrative is performed this is performed narrative but as well, ‘plot’), structure(a be shot in the Swiss Alps. Moreover, through simple pho simple through Moreover, Alps. in Swiss the shot be be a ‘real’ landscape where the fictional plot is set. For ex For set. is plot fictional the a ‘real’ where be landscape presence; they ‘are’ ‘in’ the screen, in a virtual screen, the ‘in’ manner; ‘are’ they presence; tography, shots of (actual) houses, cities, nature, and the the and nature, cities, houses, (actual) of shots tography, theatrical stage the ‘conjuring up’ is relatively limited to to limited is relatively up’ theatrical ‘conjuring the stage is a multiple art form, like novels, photographs, dramas photographs, art like novels, form, is a multiple same film the of in circulation. are copies of lots in print: as often, and presence, us, immediate in our of in front things, talking, indrama, doing etc. characters through film differs from other ‘pictorial representations,’ such as representations,’ ‘pictorial other filmfrom differs However, if we watch films, the actors are unaware of our of films,unaware are actors watch the if we However, whereas actors on stage are not only conscious of their au their of conscious only not are stage on actors whereas

------–

Film is an artefact: a kind of combination of animated of Film is an combination a kind artefact: of

enon of our everyday lives, is a series of moving images images moving of isseries a lives, everyday our of enon

one can ‘make a film’ (photograph, video-recording) with video-recording) (photograph, can a film’ ‘make one osophical one, concerning the ‘ontology’ (the ‘what-ness,’ ‘what-ness,’ (the ‘ontology’ the concerning one, osophical

ample, a painting by Botticelli, or the singularitythe or the of Botticelli, by painting a ample, and are now mostly seen in colour. The black-and-white The black-and-white incolour. seen mostly are now and

sense: i.e., if we allow, that e.g. natural phenomena, like natural that phenomena, e.g. allow, if we i.e., sense: sion, the internet, later in cinema, in ‘movie-thea the the later internet, the sion,

growing up in our (‘Western’) culture is familiar with (‘Western’) in our up growing her smart-phone quite easily, and is even able to trans to able is even and easily, quite smart-phone her

(‘pictures’) that are viewed on a smaller or larger screen, screen, larger a smaller or on that are viewed (‘pictures’) mit it to a wide audience. Film, as an ordinary phenom audience. a wide to it mit

in this that theatre or evening one a play of performance photography and, in one way or another, acting (in a broad a broad (in acting another, or way in and, one photography

trees, can become ‘characters,’ too, as in nature films). as in nature films). too, ‘characters,’ can become trees, tre’ — before we can read and write. We live in an age when in when an age live We write. and can read we tre’ — before

the ‘very being’) of film. On the everyday level, everyone everyone level, film.everyday of On the being’) ‘very the film that was the tradition until approximately the mid- the approximately film until was that tradition the

films: generally, we are exposed to them — through televi to them — through exposed we are generally, films: Moreover, film — as opposed to the singularity of, for ex singularity to for the film — asof, opposed Moreover,

1960s, is today used almost exclusively for artistic purposes. for almost exclusively used is today 1960s, ‘What is film?’ — thisphil willas a here be taken question FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 7 - - - - - As we learn about “mechanisms” behind phenomena, phenomena, behind “mechanisms” learnAs about we We also learn that while watching a film, we are we a film, alsoare vic learn watching that while We ask what film is, we are rather interested in the function in the function interested rather filmwe askare what is, lives. in and our ‘full on the of in impact and the product’ a new way of seeing: we do not, so to speak ‘watch a film’ film’ a speakto ‘watch so not, do we seeing: of way a new and Coleman 22–45). cameras, lighting, without is helpless it but lengths and sary physical prerequisites for films ‘to be;’ but when we when but be;’ films‘to for sary prerequisites physical graphic (especially today with iron-oxide) emulsion which which emulsion with iron-oxide) today (especially graphic but we see, we re-visit the world through it. Film, in cer a it. through world the re-visit we see, we but following one another in quick succession, create the im the create succession, in quick another one following makes it sensitive to light. It is a tape of various widths widths various is a tape of It light. to sensitive makes it pression that the images are ‘moving’ (hence the name: name: the (hence are ‘moving’ that images the pression point of view, usually is a transparent strip of cellulose usually cellulose strip of is a transparent view, of point devices. man-made other, of thousands and projectors, tain sense, is ‘transparent’ (cf. Bazin 9–22, Walton 246–249, 246–249, Walton Bazin 9–22, (cf. tain is ‘transparent’ sense, with photo covered and edges, the on perforated triacetate, still strip contains the illusion: optical timsconstant a of images which, when speeded up by a projector and thus thus and a projector by up speeded when which, images we are also told that film, considered from the materialthe from that film,considered are also told we The ‘being’ of film, at least when we wish to discuss it, we to is discuss wish when leastThefilm, ‘being’ at of “movie,” “moving pictures”). These attributes are neces attributes These pictures”). “moving “movie,” - - - - - an This concept

; the camera is much closer to ‘visualto like aids’ closer is much camera ; the

On the contrary, there are choices: the angle, the per the angle, the are choices: there contrary, On the

other ‘eye’ case, a means of mechanical reproduction, it can become can become it mechanical reproduction, case,meansa of on the artistic (astounding, provoking) level. level. provoking) artistic the on (astounding, or a film‘unimaginative.’ or is

of a photo is that it shows (or at least it is very close to) to) close is very it least at (or shows is that it a photo of and music). All of these decisions can easily put movies movies can easilyput All decisions these of music). and

a person ‘represented,’ not to mention the deliberate ‘dis deliberate the mention to not ‘represented,’ a person spective, the closeness to or the distance from an object, an distance the object, from or to closeness the spective, son holding the camera: the ‘natural,’ default-case feature feature default-case ‘natural,’ the camera: the holding son still or moving, do not make such demands on the per the on demands make such not do still moving, or precisely means that, since the camera is, in the default is, in default the camera the means that, since precisely

perception of ordinary reality (with accompanying sounds sounds ordinary accompanying of reality (with perception painter’s hand guided by the painter’s eye and imagina and eye painter’s the by hand guided painter’s

paintings. ‘Photographic mimesis’ and verisimilitude (even (even verisimilitude and mimesis’ ‘Photographic paintings. torting film-tricks’ applied with respect to the everyday everyday to the respect with applied film-tricks’ torting

tion. This statement does not mean that shooting a photo a photo that mean shooting not does Thistion. statement telescopes, microscopes, glasses mirrors than and the to microscopes, telescopes,

requires considerable effort from the painter. Photographs, Photographs, painter. the from effort considerable requires in black-and white) is possible in painting as well, but this but as in painting well, is possible white) in black-and

what the camera fixes, the shot, can be thought of as canbe thought shot, fixes, the camera the what what the naked eye would also Thus, camera, and the see. would naked the eye what FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 8 - - If film — like poetry, a play, a painting, or a novel — is novel — is or a painting, a play, a If film — likepoetry, In addition, there is an interesting divide between between divide is an interesting there In addition, different from one made in the 1980s. in the made one from different considered as a form of art, it is hard to tell what film art, what isis. of tell In hard as to a form it considered resilience, for a potential force, of an meaning, excess of counter-effect on the printed medium: a popular a filmmedium: is printed on the counter-effect whole books, children’s strips, comic into remade often art, compared to the everyday world, there is some surplus is some there world, everyday the to art, compared takes us simply which significance and energy of anexcess and their own conventions and style keep changing with keep style and own conventions their and thata films have multiple-mediality also part today’s of primarily films talkingbe to feature about foremost and shown in cinemas (‘movie theatres,’ as opposed to televi to as opposed theatres,’ in cinemas (‘movie shown including purposes artistic these purposes, for made sion), printed fictional stories, such as novels or or dramas. It is novels as such stories, fictional printed the times, for example: a comedy from the 1930s is very isvery 1930s the from a comedy example: for times, the in, and appeals to more than just our cognitive, ‘knowing’ than cognitive, our just more in, to appeals and igin go back to some already more or less well-known well-known less or more already some to back igin go film of ‘ontology’ the dramas. or follows, In what novels films that ‘only’ have a script, and those films whose or whose films those script, and a have ‘only’ films that will be addressed with the assumption that we are first that we with assumption will the addressed be ‘entertainment’ as well. , ------atti Star Wars to us. It is truism a us. It to that films can relation with respect to it’; i.e. filmexists i.e. our in it’; to with respect

to it, and its its and it, to we are

Films fall into numerous types and genres, usually types ac genres, and Films fall numerous into

drama). These types and genres include: documentary, documentary, include: types These drama). genres and

tudes cal, animated film, cartoon, experimental film, etc. (cf. cal, (cf. animated film,experimental cartoon, etc. film,

crime story (‘whodunit,’ ‘gangster film’), film noir, horror horror noir, film film’), ‘gangster crime (‘whodunit,’ story cording to their subject matter (love, history, etc.), specific specific etc.), history, (love, matter subject their to cording

slapstick, dark comedy, remarriage comedy, melodrama, melodrama, remarriage comedy, dark comedy, slapstick, so-called ‘feature film’ (a ‘long film,’ where where running time film,’ (a ‘long so-called film’ ‘feature

between, for example, a ‘family film’ about somebody’s somebody’s a ‘familyabout film’ example, for between, be made for lots of purposes: there are obvious differences differences are obvious there purposes: of lots for made be

family drama, musi history western, drama, romance, medium (cartoon or not), and style, some of them orig them of some style, and not), or (cartoon medium

produced by one of the powerful Hollywood filmstudios. Hollywood powerful the of one by produced poses especially between the two World Wars), and the the and Wars), World two the especially between poses

ter film, spy film, superhero film, thriller, suspense movie, movie, suspense film, film,thriller, superhero ter spy film, newsreel, silent movie, action movie, adventure film, disas adventure movie, action movie, silent newsreel,

inally borrowed from other aesthetic media (novel and and (novel media aesthetic other from inally borrowed is usually between 60 and 210 minutes) such as such minutes) is 60 210 usually and between

film, splatter, gore film, science-fiction, fantasy, comedy, comedy, fantasy, film, science-fiction, gore film,splatter, Bordwell and Thompson 318–383). Genres are seldom ‘pure’ ‘pure’ seldom are Genres 318–383). Thompson and Bordwell

wedding, newsreels (effectively used for propaganda pur propaganda for used (effectively newsreels wedding, ‘how FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 9 - - - - However, one of the characteristic elements of our our of elements characteristic the of one However, dispositions or our learning and ‘duties.’ We are temporar We learning our ‘duties.’ and or dispositions ourselves in and which is laying claim to our total selves. is claim laying total our selves. to in which and ourselves only our reactions but the very question of what counts as counts what of question very the but reactions our only that this know material we is great do ‘how is art,’ ‘what of our of make to an inventory have not do circumstances, we and unpleasant (because we are dominated by our own own our by dominated are we (because unpleasant and and the company we are in. We also that various an know are in. We we company the and art.’ of this that paradigm is the branch of or ‘what and art,’ swers can be taught and learned regarding the questions questions the regarding learned and can taught be swers live is just as much part of the mostly contingent context context contingent mostly part the of as is just much live (spontaneous) response to art may precisely be the joy that, joy the be art to precisely may response (spontaneous) pleasant (because we may ‘leave ourselves,’ our limitations) limitations) our ourselves,’ ‘leave may we (because pleasant de and strategies ‘thunderstruck’; be to tend We passions). place and time of the encounter, together with our par with our together encounter, the of time and place ticular and psychological disposition, the time of the day, day, the of time the disposition, ticular psychological and ily ‘free’ of time and place — we react to a presence we find find we a presence to react place — we and time of ‘free’ ily in which we encounter (potential) art, as specific are the (potential) encounter we in which Art may well be a kind of dual assault on us; simultaneously simultaneously us; on dual assault a kind of be Art well may vices of ‘self-defence’ can easily drop out from our minds our from can out easily drop ‘self-defence’ of vices when we are struck, ‘we do not have to care’ about historical about care’ to have not do struck, are ‘we we when ‘art’ is historically conditioned; the story, the life that we that life we the story, the is historically conditioned; ‘art’ - - ’ feel; it is often like trying is often an it give to ’ feel; really, trulyreally,

Thus, the process is painfully complex: we may find find may we is painfullyThus, complex: process the

erful than we can ever fully grasp. We, especially when erful especially when fully than can grasp. We, ever we of expectations’) that even when we try a system we give to when that even expectations’) of on us, some elements are so unexpected, they are so much much so are they unexpected, so are elements us, some on colours, and so on), yet there are so many ‘channels’ at work work at many are so ‘channels’ there yet on), so and colours, capacities. The process is annoyingly simple: we are taken we simple: is annoyingly The process capacities.

account of a dream. Cognitively, we also know that not also that not know we a dream. Cognitively, of account adequate reaction to artistic creativity. Yet we often feel feel often we Yet artistic to creativity. reaction adequate

atic account of the ‘effect,’ we are likely to feel that some some that feel to we likely are ‘effect,’ the of account atic selected, condensed and intensified, and they activate so so activate they and intensified, and condensed selected,

become a ‘medium’ as well, but we do not know exactly exactly know not do we but as well, a ‘medium’ become many factors from our past experiences (from our ‘horizon our (from past experiences our from manyfactors

that what we say or do as a response is a far cry as a response do from or say we that what that what we experience is far greater and more pow more and is far greater experience we thatwhat

in by a medium (words, pictures, figures, shapes, forms, forms, shapes, figures, pictures, (words, a medium in by what we ‘

with another artwork: perhaps this response is the most most is the this response perhaps artwork: withanother we are trained for deciding what counts as ‘art’ and how how and as ‘art’ counts what deciding are trained for we

what we are transmitting to ourselves and to the world. the to and are transmitting ourselves we to what Those who have a talent for creative art might respond art respond might creative for a talent have who Those

‘art-criticism’ should be done, will try to ‘say something.’ will something.’ try done, be ‘say to should ‘art-criticism’ ‘stimuli’ have been left out. We feel that we ourselves have have ourselves thatwe feel We out. left been have ‘stimuli’ FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 10 - - - confronted with all sorts of theories, paradigms vo and with all theories, sorts of confronted and Plato (since out worked been cabularies that have everyone else to be attracted to it, too: we would like to like to would we too: it, to attracted be to else everyone about isa fundamental it observation but is rejected) one and ways of ‘loving the other’ — although also socialised ‘loving other’ — although the of ways and course — remain of extent, some to institutionalised and a good encounter, as well as a yearning for knowledge as knowledge as as a yearning for well encounter, a good by Kant, Immanuel that first made experience, aesthetic (cf. as we same opinion the of were community a whole general, ‘universal’ level. If someone resists art resists a par or If someone level. ‘universal’ general, (as there is not much to do when our love towards some towards love our when do to much is not there (as judgements of taste go beyond the personal and we wish we and personal the beyond taste of go judgements passions into certain shapes, whereas the actual practices actual the certain practices whereas into shapes, passions to admit that ‘love is blind’ and a personal case of private private case is blind’ a personal of and that admit ‘love to an are wish drawn to artwork, we we when taste, whereas do to much not course, of is, there ticular‘art,’ we film call of world the enter and feelings personal pure transcend institutions, this transcendence also means that one is is also means that one this transcendence institutions, intimacy, yet there are obvious differences. We are ready ready We are differences. are obvious there yet intimacy, more a onto a film is that e.g. great raise judgement our Aristotle) to ‘legitimately’ mould personal responses and and responses personal mould ‘legitimately’ to Aristotle) Kant 97–106). Because judgements about artistic pieces artistic pieces about judgements Because Kant 97–106). - - - - - react. but means: we we means: there’) and and there’) love right

The vital force of falling in love and the elemental effect effect elemental the and falling of inThe love vital force This reaction is very similar with is very some This falling to reaction in love

deed, live,’ every moment has become meaningful, has we and become moment every live,’ deed, of (valid, admirable, enjoyable) art are especially similar in enjoyable) admirable, (valid, of

one, as opposed to knowing what the word word the what knowing to as opposed one, are craving for an intimate, unique relationship with the relationship unique an intimate, for are craving

give some ‘descriptions’ and ‘reasons’ but the real is the answer but ‘reasons’ and ‘descriptions’ some give both requiring personal presence (‘to be be (‘to presence personal requiring both

less we start lying to ourselves), nor artificially induce, nor nor artificially nor induce, start we ourselves), to lying less hastily set dictionaries and books on love aside; we wish we aside; love on books and hastily dictionaries set

Other. We instinctively provide our full presence: we come come we full our presence: provide instinctively We Other. (we ‘lay down our sword and shield’): we cannot cannot we shield’): and sword ‘lay our down (we

pens — by itself, ‘inchoatively’ (‘medially’), as it were. It is It were. as it (‘medially’), ‘inchoatively’ itself, pens — by persuade ourselves into through negotiations. It just hap just It negotiations. through into ourselves persuade

the Other as a whole, the self we have invested our self into. self our invested have we self the as Other a whole, the there and we do not care about explanations; we can feebly can feebly we explanations; care about not do we and there

ticulate — understanding. We can hardly help this; the love love this; the can hardly help We ticulate — understanding. to the fore as we feel something has been revealed to us; us; to has revealed been something feel as we fore the to

the Other totally to ourselves, we feel that ‘now we, in we, that ‘now feel we ourselves, totally to Other the to be in the presence of the Other all the time, we wish all Other we the time, the of in presence be the to

we feel is a ‘given,’ a gift we can neither really resist (un really resist a gift can neither we is a ‘given,’ feel we we have gained a new — although often hazy, blurred, inar blurred, hazy, often a new — although gained have we FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 11 - - - - of arrogance, but because good films won’t let me doubt me let won’t films good because but arrogance, of problems with expression, but I’m never in doubt about doubt in never I’m but expression, with problems the nature of the pursuit. This lack of doubt is not because not is doubt of lack This pursuit. the of nature the ficient, partly necessarily so, partly because of my own my of because partly so, necessarily partly ficient, My eventual writing on the film will be woefully insuf woefully be will film the on writing My eventual a theory) either. The overuse of a theory is one of the ways ways the of is a theory one of The overuse either. a theory) own. self) The the our way of language the afraid (and of, de Oxford, of University the of Department English the at scribes his struggle to ‘express film’ is instructive: highly film’ his scribes struggle ‘express to gin to ‘say,’ the same Learning thing. a theory the applying and gin ‘say,’ to keep us open and make and us alert. us carry All open keep theories risk the ferences from and with, our spontaneous deviations from, from, deviations with, spontaneous and our from ferences unknown to us but we should not become unknown to become not should we unknownus but to that when we apply them, we find, after a while, while, find, that a after all we them, apply we that when be and start analysis’ about, be to ‘under actualthe pieces dif (our ourselves to and, hence, register, theoretical the not immunize the personal, the intimate in us; it should should it in us; intimate immunize the personal, the not is it like mastering usinga language. and Yet much is very remain not language should of) which theory (the only not become thus and from, estranged can get we in which Andrew Klevan, specialist in film aesthetics and criticism Klevan, specialist Andrew criticism and in filmaesthetics - - - - - tu

for a given intuition can be of great value, indeed. value, great can of be intuition given a for

However — and this might be thought of as it a theory of thought this be might However — and Theories about film are becoming just as numerous as numerous just as filmbecoming are about Theories

erally awe-some effect directed at our uniqueness, which a which our at uniqueness, directed effect erally awe-some

one is able give voice to the usually the to inarticulate responses, voice give is able one of “worlds of race, gender, class, region, age, religion, lan religion, age, class, region, gender, race, of “worlds of

only aesthetic concerns but also “psychological, sociolog a feeling one has in her stomach, a chill on the spine) chill a spine) the on has stomach, in her one a feeling

serve as a means to avoid the often violent, astounding, lit astounding, violent, often the asserve avoid a means to self — it is my strong conviction that theory should never never that should theory conviction strong is my self — it

style, and representational politics” against the backdrop against backdrop the politics” representational and style, ition

guage, politics, and nation” (Miller 2). Theories are useful: Theories 2). (Miller nation” and guage, politics, uninterested in individual taste.

to ‘intuitions’ one has (or even to grunts that one makes: grunts makes: to that one even has (or one ‘intuitions’ to the primary impressions, many of them only amounting amounting only them many of primarythe impressions,

novel, a play, a poem, a film may have on us. Theory should on us. should Theory a film a poem, have may a play, novel, readers, they provide a matrix a vocabulary and with which provide they readers, issues, with special reference to “authorship, genre, form, form, genre, “authorship, to with special reference issues, ical, educational, consumer, criminological, and political” in literary or cultural studies. These theories involve not not involve cultural theories These in literary or studies.

when she is initiated into a work of art. To follow our our follow art. of To a work into is initiated she when when they are drawn by insightful interpreters and good good and insightful are drawn by they interpreters when FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 12 ------One of the chief fascinations with film, soon with fascinations film,soon chief the of One 1 In some public theatres, it was one form of public entertainment entertainment of public it was one form theatres, In some public

cratic’ appeal: while art galleries, ‘serious’ novels, theatres, theatres, novels, art while ‘serious’ appeal: galleries, cratic’ alpha the of knowledge the requiring even not movies, of attended by practically all layers of society, had such a a had such society, of all practically by layers attended had a similarly that ‘demo it was, indeed, after debut, its lots public, consumer ‘elite’ a more have to tend operas and somewhere between ‘high art’ like poetry, and ‘popular en ‘high ‘popular and art’ between like poetry, somewhere disman to has done been much social strata. Nowadays, bet, still appeal to large masses of people coming from all from coming still people bet, large masses of to appeal (through seeing and hearing), and the hope of watching watching of hope the and hearing), and seeing (through phase in Early Modern England between the 1570s and and 1570s the between England Modern inphase Early that hungry dogs were set lose attacking a usually blinded bear. The bear that hungry bear. blinded attacking a usually set lose dogs were tertainment. Therefore, film’s relatively easy accessibility easyaccessibility relatively film’s tertainment.Therefore, the opera, drama, etc., with much longer respective tradi respective longer drama, with much opera, the etc., Drama stage, on Carroll and 122–134). Bordwell (cf. tions was it when theatres), the of closing (the 1640s early the in arena bear-baiting-shows likefamous tertainment’ the theatres. ‘high and culture/art’ between ‘binarythe tle opposition’ 1 was tied to a pole with a strong chain. The dogs bit into the bear, which→ the bear, chain. The dogs bit into with a strong to a pole was tied ‘popular culture/art,’ resulting in the ‘sugar-coating’ of en of in ‘sugar-coating’ the resulting culture/art,’ ‘popular

- - - -

easy for your writing. Are you really doing me justice?” me doing really you Are writing. your for easy or it accompanies me into the shower: “Hey there, don’t don’t there, “Hey shower: the into me accompanies it or times it rudely interrupts my enjoyment of other films, (Klevan and Cavell 177) (Klevan and Cavell go and do something else, the film follows me. Some it. They take a hold of me. When I leave the screen, and screen, the leave I When me. of hold a take They it. forget forget me. I’m sure you’re simplifying me to make it What complicates film theory and the ‘philosophy of ‘philosophy film the theory and What complicates

early 1960s), helped to re-examine the age-old question of of question age-old the re-examine to helped 1960s), early cially whether it is an independent form of art of in and what form is an independent it cially whether

aesthetics. Questions about the status of film itself, espe statusitself, film the of about Questions aesthetics. sense (one of the central questions of film-theory until film-theory the of questions central the of (one sense

began as well. A totally new medium with po immense medium A totally new began as well. paradoxically, film, first promising light and popular ‘enter popular and light film,promising first paradoxically,

tainment,’ found itself more in the company of philosophy philosophy of in company the more itself found tainment,’ as novel, the such art-forms, ‘respectable’ than other several tential, the movie gradually rewrote the map of traditional traditional of map the gradually rewrote movie the tential,

film’ is that film as art is only about a hundred years old. years is film’ hundred that a film asabout artonly is 1920s, when film-theory and serious writing about film about writing serious and film-theory when 1920s,

The first movies of significance started to appear significance the of instarted to Themovies first ‘what is art,’ a typically philosophical question. Somewhat Somewhat question. a typically is art,’ philosophical ‘what FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 13 - - - - which, un which, mainly influenced by Sigmund Freud Freud mainly Sigmund by influenced which, (2) the(2) semiotic-semiological approach, cognitive - cognitive ap (1) the - psychological psychoanalytic desires, fears etc. visible; etc. fears desires, Saussure’s structuralism de of spell the (Ferdinand der cognitive processes from perception through reasoning to to reasoning through perception from processes cognitive one can offer fall very short of an exhaustive survey of of survey of exhaustive an fall veryshort can offer one of implications possible the and interpretations the even approach of methods their to according and way own possible): much very are labels and divisions other course, are useful because they seem to cut across the relatively relatively the across cut to seem are useful they because filmLacan, understand in to wishes Jacques by later and six main approaches appear to me to be the following (of (of following the be to me to appear six main approaches proach, past hundred odd years; it seems that in all their seems it theories, years; odd past hundred chief our re-examine and us relive helps and produces the questions themselves. However, the above questions questions above the However, themselves. questions the inference, as well as make our unconscious or repressed repressed or as as make unconscious well our inference, ing film, ask these questions in one form or another. The or another. form one in film,questions ing these ask claimingre that cinema human the to thought, relation film-‘texture’ as a very complex system of signs, where where signs,of system verycomplex as a film-‘texture’ well-discernible trends in film theory and criticism of the of in filmthe criticism trends theory and well-discernible ‘linguistic turn,’ Umberto Eco’s semiotics) has treated has treated semiotics) ‘linguistic Eco’s Umberto turn,’ - there there Macbeth

of being human, how does the moving image contrib image moving the does human,how being of assessment of the human the being? of assessment (2) How does this difference relate to the understanding to understanding the relate this does difference How (2) (1) What differentiates film from other artistic forms, other artistic filmfrom What differentiates (1) painting above.) painting ute to the aesthetic and epistemic (knowledge-related) (knowledge-related) epistemic and aesthetic the to ute not contain? (This was already very briefly addressed, addressed, (This contain? briefly was very already not when film was compared to drama, the novel and to and to drama,novel film the wascompared when what is the specificity of it that other works of artdo works other it that of specificity is the what The answers which such a brief introduction as this introduction brief a such The which answers The theoretical endeavour to ‘define’ what what film is ‘define’ has to endeavour The theoretical

art forms.

been motivated, it seems, by two central questions: central two by seems, it motivated, been may open more people up for aesthetic pleasure than pleasure other aesthetic for up people more open may

is a reference to this when Macbeth says: “They have tied me to a stake, me to a stake, tied “They have says: Macbeth to this when is a reference I cannot fly / But bear-like I must fight the course” (5.7.1-2). the course” must fight I But bear-like / I cannot fly

‘normal,’ ‘realistic action’ happening right in front of them, them, of in front right happening action’ ‘realistic ‘normal,’ → tried to chase them away with its paws. In Shakespeare’s In Shakespeare’s its paws. with to chase them away → tried FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 14 - - - - has been Philosophical most informed as a starting point, by Stanley Cavell; it fo it as a starting Stanley Cavell; by point, (6) the post-analytical philosophical approach approach philosophical post-analytical the (6) (5) the phenomenological approach, cuses on our sceptical attitude to the world as a direct world the to attitude sceptical our cuses on how and Other the from separateness our of consequence experiential and the experimental features of film,claim of features experimental the and experiential as inhabit ambiguous we in world the i.e. ‘life-world,’ our and contingent beings; by the ‘father’ of phenomenology, Edmund Husserl and his followers (e.g. Maurice Merleau-Ponty), with its most most with its Merleau-Ponty), Maurice (e.g. his followers lesbian identities and their social implications in film, and social their implications and identities lesbian ful amalgam all as of ‘tools;’ these usual, ordinary vision of the world, it reshapes our famil our reshapes it usual, world, the ordinary of vision through temporary estrangement, and thus shows us in shows thus and estrangement, temporary through they use psychoanalysis, apparatus theory, etc., or a fruit or etc., theory, apparatus use psychoanalysis, they influential exponent, André Bazin, investigates both the both the Bazin, André investigates exponent, influential our periphery) the on (puts ‘brackets’ that camera ing the external us with things to persons and iar relationship roles, the building up of masculine and feminine, gay and and masculine gay of feminine, up and building the roles, film is able to expose this, as well as how it may help us help it may how expose this,well to as as film able is Investigations Alexander Doty, etc.) study the construction of gender gender of construction the study etc.) Doty, Alexander worked out, taking Ludwig Wittgenstein’s taking Wittgenstein’s out, Ludwig worked - - - - which, like feminist which,

(3) apparatus theory (social criticism of ideologies) ideologies) of criticism (social theory apparatus (3) (4) feminist and queer theories, theories, queer and feminist (4)

cultural and literary studies such asculturalcultural such literary and studies materialism,

examined; apparatus theories are close to other socie other to are close theories examined; apparatus claiming, chiefly on the basis of Karl Marx, Michel Foucault Foucault of basis Karl on Marx,the Michel claiming, chiefly classes) of specific specific film-signs; of classes) of time, thus creating systematic taxonomies (lists types, of taxonomies systematic creating thus time, of each sign has value and function with respect to the whole whole the to with respect function and has sign each value

and queer studies in cultural in studies or literary criticism and queer and and Louis Althusser, that, like everything else in society, that, like everything in society, else Louisand Althusser,

shots, thereby gaining insights, for instance, into our sense sense our instance, into gainingfor insights, thereby shots, system, and pays close attention to, for example, the op the example, for to, attention close pays and system,

both the overt or covert ‘ideologemes’ behind film-mak behind ‘ideologemes’ covert or overt the both made on various layers of society should be meticulously meticulously be should society of layers various on made

philosophy (epistemology, ethics, etc.), can character be etc.), ethics, (epistemology, philosophy positions between one single shot and several consecutive consecutive several and shot single one between positions

theoreticians (Laura Mulvey, Ruby Rich, Clara Clover, Clara Rich, Clover, Ruby (Laura Mulvey, theoreticians ty-based — rather than individual-based — approaches in than individual-based — approaches ty-based — rather

ised more through subject matter than method; the chief chief the than matter method; subject through more ised ing, as well as the effects (moving) images make or have or have makeimages (moving) as effects as the ing, well

film is ideological and political through and through and and through and through political and filmideological is New Historicism, or postcolonial theory; FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 15

- - (Contesting Tears), , the figure of the of the figure , the the story I am watching, and how how and I am story the watching, in (Pursuit of Happiness) 3–37). Among the latter themes, one of the most intriguing is most the of one themes, latter the Among The World Viewed drinking coke). Film, then, is my existential stance in stance the existential is my Film, then, drinking coke). certain ethical norms course, it is always possible to advance entirely new ways ways new entirely advance to possible is always it course, as several has investigated Cavell film.) interpreting of and how philosophy becomes visible and animated on animated and on visible becomes philosophy how and staring at the screen (maybe munching on pop-corn and and pop-corn on munching (maybe staring screen the at between Shakespearean comedy and Hollywood re Hollywood and Shakespearean comedy between ( marriage comedy pects of the cinema: he has interpreted the relationship relationship the has he interpreted cinema: the pects of the eye of the camera recorded on the celluloid strip; film strip; celluloid the on recorded camera the of eye the the screen and what kind of philosophies film represents filmrepresents philosophies kind of what and screen the startwe if film of can best understood be that ‘ontology’ the the most attractive and applicable to her own purposes — I her to applicable and attractive most the fruitful of (And, most is the think revealing. and Cavell’s Garbo Greta by this played character is how I am, as a knowing (‘epistemological’) subject with subject I am, as (‘epistemological’) is a knowing how film: I am sitting in a chair with several people around me, me, around film: I chair people in a sitting am several with world; it is my experiencing (seeing, perceiving) through through perceiving) (seeing, experiencing is my it world; with our very situation in the movie theatre, watching a watching theatre, inmovie the situation very with our “unknown woman” in especially American melodrama, “unknown woman”

------2

Turvey claims that four theorists and film-makers started the revela the started and film-makers theorists that four claims Turvey According to subject matter, we may further may distin we matter, subject to According It varies from person to person which theory she finds she theory which person to person varies from It

expression, which should happen in taking happen full should responsi which expression,

characters on the screen and we, the witnesses and the the and witnesses the we, and screen the on characters and several sub-trends of all the above mentioned ap mentioned all of above the sub-trends several and

are ‘invisible’ to the human eye, i.e. it can only see can see only it i.e. human the to eye, are ‘invisible’ acknowledge and overcome, through meticulously watch meticulously through overcome, and acknowledge

guish auteur theory (concentrating on the film-director’s film-director’s the on (concentrating theory guish auteur bility for the uses of our language. our of uses the for bility

(close to narrative theories of prose-fiction but applied applied but prose-fiction of theories narrative to (close proaches (cf. Miller; Livingston and Plantinga 294–545). Plantinga and Livingston Miller; (cf. proaches

phy and editing, film can reveal features of realityof that features film editing, and canreveal phy personal vision behind the film), narrative narrative filmtheory film), the behind vision personal

tionist tradition: Jean Epstein (1897–1953), Dziga Vertov (1896–1954), Béla (1896–1954), Dziga Vertov (1897–1953), Epstein Jean tradition: tionist these aspects of the world with the help of the camera), the of with help the world aspects the these of

through close-ups, slow motion, time-lapse photogra to film), Malcolm Turvey’s revelationism (claiming that revelationism Turvey’s Malcolm film), to

ing small gestures shown to us, this separateness; both both us, this to smalling separateness; shown gestures Balázs (1884–1949), and Siegfried Kracauer (1889–1966) (Turvey 21–48). 21–48). (Turvey (1889–1966) Kracauer Siegfried and (1884–1949), Balázs

2 ‘critics’ of film, are presented as struggling for voice, for for voice, strugglingas for film, presented of are ‘critics’ FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 16 - about about really ways. The best way, way, The best ways. magic in film, through film, inside in film, film, through inside are who we is

details as you can, trying to pay attention to ‘everything,’ ‘everything,’ to can, detailstrying as attention you pay to of course, always fall short of what the film the what is of fall always short course, of but visible directly are not which features those to even than exercise This laborious is implied. a far more only thinks this one in first istryingstep the but regain to the and outside of the world at the same time. the at world the of outside and a picture, already a new one appears before you. Therefore, Therefore, you. before appears one a new already a picture, in as many it describe and episode independent atively Film aswell. still images (photos, after all) into your discussion. Or you Or you discussion. your after all) into still (photos, images will, which story, the start plot, the narrating action, the in its visionary, in many senses, in many senses, visionary, in its films are not easy to remember in detail and you cannot cannot detailyou in and remember easy filmsto not are I think, start to talk filmrel to to is short, take a about world we keep losing all the time in ordinary perception all in time the ordinary losing keep perception we world ‘quote’ film on the printed page: all you can do is to put put to do canis you all page: printed filmon the ‘quote’

- - -

Films are notoriously difficult to talk about: you see see you to difficult talkabout: Films are notoriously

of the phenomena and their possibilities and limits and are. possibilities their and phenomena the of

everyday life. For Cavell, film investigates the world, the the world, the film investigates Cavell, For life. everyday something but when you also wish to say something about about something also wish say to you when but something

same way — to bear witness to these events. I am in a posi events. these to bear witness same way — to given the chance — each time I watch the movie, always always movie, the I watch time chance — each the given

back, in a certain shape and mould, so that I may regain it. regain that so I may in a certain mould, and back, shape become aware that I am watching past events which took took which past events that I am aware watching become

(unless we leave the show) from the outside. The screen is The screen outside. the from show) the leave we (unless mechanically, stubbornly appearing to me in exactly the the in exactly me to appearing stubbornly mechanically,

place without me: I am an invisible outsider who is now is now who outsider I am an invisible me: without place possibilities of people and things (of ‘phenomena’) by put by ‘phenomena’) things and (of people of possibilities

tion of estrangement and I am invited in simultaneously: in simultaneously: I am and invited estrangement of tion the frame of the world, it is a shape, a mould of it and since since and it of a mould is a shape, it world, the framethe of

ting in front of us, in myriads of ways, what our pictures pictures our what us, in myriads of ways, of ting in front the film is positioning and exposing me in my ordinary, ordinary, my me in exposing and filmthe positioning is

ness, are alone with the world, having to concentrate on it it on concentrate having to with world, the are alone ness, film takes the world away from me in order to hand it it to hand order me in from away filmworld takes the

Film does so by making us hear what we are inclined to say, say, to making are inclined by so we Film us does what hear what I see is not aware of my presence, I am sitting there I am there sitting presence, my of aware is not I see what

when, and how, by creating a situation when we, in dark we, when a situation creating by how, and when, ‘unseen’ by this world; the screen makes me ‘invisible.’ I I ‘invisible.’ makes me screen the this by world; ‘unseen’ FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 17 . - - Ed. The Routledge . London and New New and London . Ed. Rupert Read and Jerry and Read Ed. Rupert A Companion to Film Theory Film as Philosophy, Essays in Cinema Cinema in Essays as Philosophy, Film Film, Theory and Philosophy: The Key Philosophy: Theory and Film, Critique of the Power of Judgement. of Power the of Critique . Montreal, Kingston, Ithaca: McGuill-Queen’s McGuill-Queen’s Ithaca: Kingston, . Montreal, after Wittgenstein and Cavell. bridge, New York, and Madrid: Cambridge University University Madrid: and Cambridge York, New bridge, Companionto and Philosophy Film Carlton: Basil Blackwell, 2004. 1–8. Print. 1–8. 2004. Basil Blackwell, Carlton: Goodenough. Houndmill and New York: Palgrave-Mac York: New Houndmill and Goodenough. millan, Print. 2005. 167–209. Eds. Toby Miller and Robert Stam. Malden, Oxford, and Stam. Oxford, Robert Malden, and Miller Eds. Toby Paul Guyer. Trans. Paul Guyer and Eric Matthews. Cam Matthews. Eric and Guyer Paul Trans. Guyer. Paul Print.Press, 2001. University Press, 2009. Print. 2009. Press, University with Stanley Cavell.” with Stanley Cavell.” Thinkers Thinking Film?’ – on Klevan inAndrew conversation York: Routledge, 2009. Routledge, Print.York: Cavell, Stanley and Andrew Klevan. “‘What Becomes of of Klevan. Andrew Stanley “‘What and Becomes Cavell, ed. Felicity, Coleman, Miller, Toby. “Introduction.” “Introduction.” Toby. Miller, Livingston, Paisley and Carl Plantinga, eds. Carl and Plantinga, Paisley Livingston, Kant, Immanuel. ------Film Art: an In an Art: Film Post-theory. Recon Post-theory. Trans. Hugh Gray. Vol. 1. Vol. 1. Gray. Hugh Trans. . Chicago: University of Chicago Chicago of University . Chicago: . Madison and London: The Uni London: and . Madison . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Harvard Massachusetts: Cambridge, . The Viewed: World Reflections on the Ontol Pursuits of Happiness: The Hollywood Com The Hollywood Happiness: of Pursuits Contesting Tears: TheContesting Hollywood Tears: Melodrama WhatIs Cinema? . Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Massachusetts: Uni . Cambridge, . 8th ed. New York: The MacGrow-Hill Com The MacGrow-Hill York: New ed. . 8th

edy of Remarriage ogy of Film ogy of of the Unknown Woman structing Film Studies troduction panies, 2008. Print. ifornia Press, 2005.ifornia Press, Print. Press, 1996. Print. Berkeley, Los Angeles, and London: University of Cal of University London: and Los Angeles, Berkeley, University Press, 1981. Print. 1981. Press, University versity Press, 1979. Print. 1979. Press, versity versity of Wisconsin Press, 1996. Print. 1996. Press, Wisconsin of versity

WORKS CITED WORKS

Cavell, Stanley. Cavell, Stanley.

Cavell, Stanley. Bordwell, David and Noël Carroll, eds. Noël and David Bordwell,

Bordwell, David and Kristin and David Thompson. Bordwell, Bazin, André. FILM & CULTURE–KÁLLAY–BEING FILM 18

. - - Film as Phi

. Critical Inquiry Doubting Vision: Film and the Revelation the and Film Vision: Doubting Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008. 2008. Press, University Oxford Oxford:

losophy, Essays in after Cinema losophy, Wittgenstein and Cavell istTradition. Print. Print. Houndmill and New York: Palgrave-Macmillan, 2005. Palgrave-Macmillan, York: New and Houndmill 11.2 (1984): 246–277. Print. 246–277. (1984): 11.2

Read, Rupert and Jerry Goodenough, eds Jerry and Goodenough, Rupert Read,

Walton, Kendall. “Transparent Pictures.” Pictures.” Kendall. “Transparent Walton, Turvey, Malcolm. Malcolm. Turvey, James Bond in the Classroom

VERA BENCZIK & NATÁLIA PIKLI | Film & Culture ► 19 FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 20 - - - - - , for example, example, , for

The Simpsons

Literary theories, such as New Historicism, starting Historicism, as New such theories, Literary attitude in curricula, the in incorpora the attitude resulted and sults confirmed the fact that the so-called postmodern age age so-called postmodern fact that the the confirmed sults among era, modern with early the many features shares groups of texts and subject areas were deemed fit ob as fit deemed areas were subject and texts of groups has proved fertile from a number of aspects. of Their re a number from fertile has proved Greenblatt and his colleagues’ landmark studies relied on on relied landmark studies his and colleagues’ Greenblatt jects of study. This paved the way towards a more open open a more towards way the This paved study. of jects undeniable presence of this two-way traffic in our day, the trafficday, our in this of two-way presence undeniable this two-way traffic diminished in later centuries. It It suf centuries. traffic later thisdiminished in two-way con to intertextual array references of a wide discover to the to In addition historical narratives. and temporary to cultural output. Attention turned from the canon canon the turned from Attention culturalto output. scorned and neglected margins, the to previously and related their and texts culture popular various of tion environment. classroom the into background theoretical interaction between popular and elite cultures, however, however, cultures, elite and popular between interaction in the 1980s, also raised awareness concerning contextual contextual concerning also raised awareness in 1980s, the Stephen Although age. any literary of texts of readings approach their era, modern early the concerning research fices to look at any episode of of episode at any look to fices which one of the most significant is the close and constant and close significant is the most the of one which - - - -

day life whether one chooses to be aware of this fact or not; this not; of or fact aware be to chooses one whether life day

opinion that these disposable products serve our amuse our serve products disposable that these opinion catering to the entertainment needs of the masses. the The of needs entertainment the to catering

ences and personalities, or simply put, it plays an impor plays it put, simply or personalities, and ences our world. We might venture to say that being exposed to to exposed that being say to venture might We world. our

and benefit of studying phenomena of popularof culture phenomena studying of benefit and and artefacts.and This academia is partially why reason the

a formative part in shaping our tastes, our language, part prefer in shaping a formative as we grow up surrounded by popular cultural products of of cultural popular by products surrounded up grow as we

superficial and inferior to ‘real’ and ‘valuable’ formsart ‘real’‘valuable’ to and inferior superficial and 1. POPULAR CULTURE: AN INTRODUCTION AN CULTURE: POPULAR 1.

later media and cultural theories blooming since the late late the since blooming cultural and media theories later has failed to recognise and appreciate the potential use potential the appreciate and has recognise to failed

for so long. However, the advent of postmodernism, and and postmodernism, of advent the However, long. so for ment only often results in regarding popular culture as popular in regarding results often only ment

print and audio-visual content from birth onwards plays plays birth from onwards content audio-visual and print tant part in who we become. Despite all this we tend to to all this tend we Despite become. tant we part in who

this is especially the case with today’s omnipresent media, omnipresent this isespecially case the with today’s Popular culture has always been an integral part been every culture has of Popular always

1960s and 1970s, decentralized the academic approach approach academic the decentralized 1970s, and 1960s view popular culture as transient, with its texts largely largely texts with its as culture popular view transient, FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 21 ------Cultural presents an they often begin with the remark that begin the with remark often the they popular culture other alternative starting point, the quantitative aspect, starting quantitative the alternative point, other between divide the upholds it definition, qualitative the of interconnection varied the negates and popular, and elite osophical-anthropological problems aside, the definition mis most models – the several on culture relies popular of xiii). (Burke non-elite” the of the official culture culture, and proposes that popular culture may be viewed as “cul viewed be that culturemay popular proposes and and popular culture, the latter negatively defined as “un as defined negatively latter the culture, popular and supremacy of ‘high culture’ and the relative worthless ‘high relative the and of culture’ supremacy 1.1. DEFINITIONS 1.1. between the two. leading though readiest being the two-tier model of elite elite of model two-tier the being readiest though leading ple” (5). While this approach negates the apparent elitism elitism apparent the negates While this approach (5). ple” problems start both narrowing meaning of the at down problems ture which is widely favoured or well liked by many peo by liked well or favoured is widely ture which ness of popular culture. John Storey in his book in his book Storey John culture. popular of ness Theory and Popular Culture: An Introduction When critics map the difficulties of defining the definingterm the of difficulties the map critics When This is a qualitative approach which insists both on the the insists on both which This approach is a qualitative ‘popular’ and ‘culture’ (Storey 1; Burke 7–19). These phil These 7–19). Burke 1; (Storey ‘culture’ and ‘popular’ - - -

The variety of media available for the expression of of expression the for available The media variety of

even billions of cultural consumers across geographical geographical across cultural of consumers billions even of cultural products has thinned considerably. Audiences Audiences has thinned culturalconsiderably. of products

combines popular culture with popular film studies. literary and combines and cultural boundaries.

active agents of cultural production themselves: web themselves: cultural of production agents active are no longer passive observers, but very often become become often very but observers, passive longer no are

as popular culture. Recent years have seen another sig another seen have years as Recent popular culture. also call for an academic interdisciplinary approach which which approach interdisciplinary also an call academic for

sites, comment threads, blogs, social media like Facebook, social like Facebook, media threads, blogs, comment sites, popular culture is manifold: music, film and print — just filmprint — just and music, culture ispopular manifold:

popularity and ubiquity of popular films popular of visualand popularity ubiquity stimuli and to cultural products, but also function as channels for also as function for channels but culturalto products, tion technology the line between producer and consumer consumer and producer between line the technology tion two decades and the rapid transformation of communica of transformation rapid the and decades two to name the most obvious — may all carry content labelled labelled all carry obvious — may name most the to content results in memes or gif images, which reach millions or millions or reach gif which or images, in memes results instant publication. Creative recycling of visual content visual of content recycling Creative instant publication. nificant change: with the internet revolution of the past of the revolution internet with the change: nificant

Tube or Instagram not only allow for immediate access access immediate Instagram for allow or only not Tube Twitter, and Tumbler, or content sharing sites such as You as You such sharingsites content or Tumbler, and Twitter, FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 22 - - - - . “The Sherlock The problem of popular culture being produced ‘of’ ‘of’ produced being culture popular of The problem

of season two, especially concerning the theories about about theories the especially concerning two, season of or ‘for the people’ is further complicated by the fact that fact the by is further complicated people’ the ‘for or of production in BBC the episodes later on are not only uncontrolled and untraceable reworkings of of reworkings untraceable and uncontrolled only are not season of the BBC series, aired on 1 January, 2014, is an 2014, in 1 January, aired on series, BBC the of season fans etc. — weakening and breaking down, sometimes even even sometimes down, breaking and fans etc. — weakening play on the canonical tradition of the Sherlock Holmes- Sherlock the of tradition canonical the on play universe, Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat also leave room room leave also Moffat Steven Mark and Gatiss universe, ular culture game. Therefore ‘of the people’ phenomena phenomena people’ the ‘of ular Therefore culture game. tricate array of referential layers: in addition to the usual the to in addition layers: referential array of tricate in hiatus the after series end the the that had surrounded transmission closely resembling the workings of folk cul folk of workings the resembling closely transmission centuries. ture inprevious of internet-society our immediacy of interconnected the producers – artists, between in boundaries the results ten other, the in turn influence to ‘original’the but also tend in the plot to reflect upon the fan-frenzy and fan theories fan fan-frenzy and theories the upon reflect to in plot the reversing the relationship between the actors inpop the actors the between relationship the reversing filmmakers, writers etc. – and consumers – readers, viewers, viewers, consumers – readers, filmmakers, etc. – and writers Empty Hearse,” the first episode of the long-awaited third long-awaited of the episode first the Hearse,” Empty ‘official’ party, for instance, fanfiction impact for having instance, an fanfiction party, ‘official’

------

Popular culture needs to be further defined regard further be to defined cultureneeds Popular

of the Bond franchise, and the first producers Albert R. producers first the franchise, and Bond the of

ences perceived to have shared interests” (Sturken and and (Sturken interests” shared have to perceived ences extent it is ‘of the people’ or ‘for the people.’ For instance, For people.’ the ‘for or people’ the is ‘of it extent

are often anonymous and go viral in an go and instantly either anonymous often are and creations, like internet memes and fan fiction (some fan and fiction memes like internet creations, and

studios, filmmakers, etc. with the intention of being con being of filmmakers, intention etc. studios, with the mass to media, unnamed by masses. Theysumed belong Cartwright 152). EON Productions, the copyright holder holder copyright the Productions, EON Cartwright 152).

profit-oriented and easily definable elite body of producers, producers, of body elite definable easily and profit-oriented unchanged or a modified format, their conception and and conception format, their modified a or unchanged

Sherlock Holmes and James Bond films are produced by a filmsproduced Bond are James and Holmes Sherlock time even fan videos), may be produced by anyone. These These anyone. by produced be may fan videos), even time

the other hand, as mentioned above, audience responses responses audience above, hand, as mentioned other the tempted to guess at what the potential market would buy, buy, would market potential the what at guess to tempted

ing its producers and consumers — whether and to what what to and consumers — whether and producers its ing fining and controlling the Bond image ‘for the people.’ On people.’ the image ‘for Bond the controlling fining and Michael G. Wilson, have been responsible for the so far so the for responsible been have G. Wilson, Michael Broccoli and Harry Saltzman, later Barbara Broccoli and and Harry and Saltzman, Barbara Broccoli Broccoli later while simultaneously being in a hegemonic position, de position, in a hegemonic being simultaneously while

which is defined as “media designed to reach large audi large reach to designed “media as is defined which 24 ‘official’ Bond films (1962–2015). They have always at havealways They (1962–2015). Bond films 24 ‘official’ FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 23 ------

of the image that signify gendered, racial, class-spe or image that the signifyof gendered, films of Bond analyses the Therefore, (26). meanings” cific number a offer eras in different adaptations Sherlock or and cultural regarding memory insights challenging of other, less accessible texts into a better frame of reference. frame of a better into texts accessible less other, ages “according to their socio-historical contexts,” since since contexts,” socio-historical their to “according ages and Cartwright 26), thus the Sherlockian method of fol of method Sherlockian Cartwright the thus and 26), 1.2 POPULAR CULTURE IN THE CLASSROOM THE IN CULTURE POPULAR 1.2 historical phenomena, and may also offer a way to put put to way a also may and offer historicalphenomena, nar an constructing interpretative then and clues lowing Other aspects of investigation include interpreting im interpreting include investigation aspects Other of Courses focusing on studying the cultural icons of Sherlock Sherlock of cultural the studying on icons focusing Courses method used in literary studies can be applied to ‘reading’ ‘reading’ to can applied in be literary used studies method ties for students and academic research alike, since the the alike, since research academic and students for ties intended, and even merely suggested readings” (Sturken (Sturken readings” suggested merely even and intended, texts. of reading close the to actually corresponds rative Holmes and James Bond provide challenging opportuni provide Bond James and Holmes we “are trained to read for cultural codes such as aspects such cultural codes for read trained to “are we visual Cartwright and As in Sturken images depth. affirm, “[w]e decode images by interpreting clues to intended, un intended, to clues interpreting by images decode “[w]e

- -

Popular culture, furthermore, seems to be anchored anchored be to seems furthermore, culture, Popular

discussion. Building on the (con)textual knowledge of of knowledge (con)textual the on Building discussion. conceived; however, the same oeuvre by now has acquired has acquired now by oeuvre same the however, conceived; considered popular entertainment in the age they were were they in age the entertainment popular considered content: for instance, William Shakespeare’s major plays, plays, major instance, William for Shakespeare’s content:

a straightforward resolution. since students are usually are familiar students since under texts with the

something that is immediate and in constant flux. On flux. On in that and constant is immediate something students of contemporary phenomena try to reflect on on try reflect to phenomena contemporary of students

go as far as to mock and tease audiences by presenting a presenting by audiences tease as and fargo as mock to between popular culture and the ‘Now’ also means that ‘Now’ the culture and popular between

performed in public playhouses like the Globe, were were Globe, like the playhouses in public performed ute to their understanding of various socio-cultural various and of understanding their to ute

the students, narratives of popular culture may contrib popular culture may of narratives students, the the other hand, this immediacy may prove a great asset asset a great hand, this other immediacythe prove may

tic attitude towards his dramas. towards This attitude tic fragile connection the status of high literature thanks to centuries of cul thanks of literature centuries high status to the of

the dawn of culture — yet ever-changing in terms of its its in terms of ever-changing culture — yet dawnthe of the escape of Sherlock Holmes after his ‘death.’ The duo The duo after his ‘death.’ Holmes Sherlock of escape the

in the present, and could be regarded as a category which which as a category regarded be could and in present, the since present existence — arguable in terms of is constant number of possible solutions, without the satisfaction of of satisfaction the without solutions, possible of number FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 24 - - - - reflects Casino Royale What is glamorous, though, is culturally bound: the is the culturally though, What bound: is glamorous, distically masculine figure of James Bond has been the hasthe disticallybeen Bond masculineJames of figure changed audience expectations and the development of completely different to a traditional peasant commu traditional a to different completely paro even overtly, the and later, decades some outdated strongly muscular and athletic appearance, which contrib which appearance, muscular athletic and strongly sire” in the spectator, becoming “icons of glamour” (38). glamour” of “icons becoming spectator, in the sire” something or little very mean may example, for same image, gentleman, able to defy the whole world if necessary. This if necessary. world whole the defy to able gentleman, looks suave and relaxed in his tailored suit, however, there there however, in suit, his tailored relaxed and suave looks knowing nothing about the worth of an Martin. Aston of worth the about nothing knowing utes to the image of a harsher and more humanised Bond, humanised Bond, more and a harsher of image the to utes the character through more than four decades. He still He than decades. four more through character the target of feminist cultural critics ever since. Daniel Craig’s Craig’s Daniel since. cultural feminist ever of target critics is a coarseness in his face. His short cropped hair and cropped His short in his face. is coarseness a character the of original conception Fleming’s to is closer iconic image is one of many that “evoke pleasure and de and pleasure many that “evoke of is image one iconic consumerism, civilization’s Western from isolated nity, seem may day one is fashionable what rapidly: quite icons British Intelligence: a cool, hip, sexy, and dangerous English English dangerous and sexy, hip, a cool, Intelligence: British visual appearance as James Bond in visual Bond as James appearance Time may also change the relevance of popular culture culture popular of relevance also the may change Time ------the very first Bond film (1962), is the de the is (1962), film first very the Bond

Dr No,

Phenomena of popular culture are often character popular culture are often of Phenomena

dia-crossing and appropriation. and dia-crossing

edge of a beautiful but dangerous precipice in a publicity in a publicity precipice dangerous a beautiful but of edge emotions, and meanings,” like the mother and child image child and like mother the meanings,” and emotions,

one) that has great symbolic meaning to many people,” that many people,” meaning has to symbolic great one) outside its individual components, something (or some (or something components, individual its outside

erary texts by A.C. Doyle and Ian and or filmic and Fleming erary A.C.Doyle by texts context, whereas the relationship between originallit between relationship the whereas context,

and is “often perceived to represent universal concepts, concepts, universal represent to perceived isand “often achieve the same effect in a large number of people. Such Such people. of number in a large same effect the achieve

shot for by and for a given (consumer) culture. Sean Connery as Sean culture. Connery (consumer) a given for and by

leaning leisurely on his Martin luxurious Aston on car the at leisurely leaning (36). However, images of James Bond and Sherlock Holmes Holmes Sherlock and Bond James of images However, (36).

Cartwright, an icon is “an image that refers to something something to that image Cartwright,refers is “an an icon fore they are best addressed as ‘cultural icons,’ constructed constructed icons,’ as ‘cultural addressed are best they fore

transmit less universal and more specific messages, there messages, specific more and universal transmit less textual adaptations also enrich our understanding of me of understanding also our textualenrich adaptations

ised by easy visual recognisability, working as triggers to as to triggers working easy by visualised recognisability, fining image of the character of the not-so secret agent of agent secret not-so of the character of finingthe image

James Bond, dressed in an elegant suit with white cuffs with white and suit inan elegant dressed Bond, James visual images are called icons. According to Sturken and and Sturken to visual According are calledimages icons. FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 25

------On Her Majesty’s Secret Service. Popular culture and the postmodern attitude to exist to attitude postmodern the and culture Popular ence, thus facilitating a multi-faceted analysis. The official a multi-faceted facilitating thus ence, in London Games Olympic 2012 the for ceremony opening of cultural the icon evoking without proceed not could other texts – references, the full meaning of which are never full are never the which meaning of texts – references, other and Sherlock also offer a vast field of research. of field vast a also offer Sherlock and According manner. self-reflexive and in an ironic ages text’s metatextual – a of number a implies appropriation sixth film (EON Productions, starring George Lazenby, starring Lazenby, sixth George Productions, film(EON sons. Such gendered and psychological readings of Bond Bond of readings psychological and gendered Such sons. is sta that the “images pastiche acquire and parody such in context – and its itself and on comments self-reflexive both male and female audiences, albeit for different rea different for albeit audiences, male female and both understood by all but address different layers of the audi of the layers different address all by but understood the English agent on Her Majesty’s Secret Service – effec Secret Majesty’s Her on agent English the the and (1963) novel Bond tenth recalling Fleming’s tively to Sturken and Cartwright, the necessary condition for for Cartwright, and Sturken condition necessary to the Such (41). understood” are commonly which tus icons, of on commenting or quoting to, tertextual – texts referring ing texts and images share the tendency to appropriate, appropriate, to tendency the share images and texts ing im well-known play-off and re-write, re-use, borrow, i.e. 1969) with the same title: with same title: the 1969) - - (2012). Skyfall in 1953, as rather a cold- asin 1953, rather Casino Royale

Despite changes, the figure of James Bond remainedhas Bond James of figure the changes, Despite

discourse which reaches its climax its in reaches which discourse clad in a suit or a tuxedo, clutching a gun – is able to evoke evoke to a gun – is able clutching a tuxedo, or in a suit clad

cater to the sensibilities of a 21st-century audience, and and audience, 21st-century a of sensibilities the to cater also be read psychologically, with the figure of James Bond Bond James of with figure the psychologically, also read be

able to fully function even if stripped of its narrative con narrative its of if stripped fully to even function able addresses stereotypes questions gender identity, of gender Assassin, a Majesty’s Her of traumatized the psyche and

agent of the first films. In addition to the nostalgia the towith first the addition of films. In agent blooded assassin than the sophisticated gentleman secret secret gentleman assassin than sophisticated the blooded luxury, and conjures up promises of a life full a life of male fan of promises up conjures and luxury, like perfume or Rolex watches. 007 signifies signifies 007 all that is watches. Rolex like perfume or tasies and adventures. Therefore, the popularity of the the popularity the of Therefore, adventures. tasies and

the atmosphere of the Bond-universe, and is often used used is often and Bond-universe, the of atmosphere the text: the silhouette of the secret agent alone – invariably alone – invariably agent secret the of silhouette the text:

interpreted as an object of desire and wish-fulfilment for for wish-fulfilment and desire of as an object interpreted in commercials, especially when advertising luxury advertising items especially when incommercials, it has become a popular culture phenomenon which is is which phenomenon culture a popular hasit become recognisably the same, and transcending the silver screen, screen, silver the transcending and same, the recognisably in the debut novel

Bond phenomenon, the icon, the films the books may the and icon, the phenomenon, Bond which the film engages the Bond-canon, it it to also tries Bond-canon, the film the engages which FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 26

- - (2006) Casino Royale (1962),

Dr.No

Laura Mulvey “Visual Pleasure and Narrative “Visual Narrative and Laura Mulvey Pleasure experiences in the British Naval Service. The figure of the of The Service. the figure Naval in British the experiences analytical and gendered readings. In the following some some following In the readings. analytical gendered and self-reflection, popular culture calls for a nuanced inter nuanced popular a callsculture for self-reflection, how on information more willprovide examples specific 2. CASE STUDIES CASE 2. BOND JAMES BOND, 2.1 BACKGROUND Cinema” (6–18), Umberto Eco “Narrative Structures in “Narrative Eco Umberto (6–18), Cinema” from literature, visual,psycho to studies literature, filmmemory from and pretation, combining the methods of different disciplines used in an academic and classroom environment. classroom and in anused academic the study of popular cultural icons may be integrated and and integrated be may cultural popular of icons study the indestructible secret service agent with a weakness for for with a weakness agent service secret indestructible Films towatch: Fleming” (144–72) Ian Fleming (1908–1964) in 1952, loosely based on his own on based loosely in 1952, Ian (1908–1964) Fleming Theory: The figure of James Bond was created by British author author British by was created Bond James of Thefigure ------) to Water Music Water

Whether ‘for the people’ or ‘of the people,’ whether whether people,’ the ‘of or people’ the ‘for Whether The video combines elite and popular phenomena, re

disposable entertainment or multi-layered cultural cab, meeting the Royal Corgies, and so forth. The forth. accom so and Corgies, Royal the meeting cab,

and a parachute, while the shot from the helicopter leads leads helicopter the from shot the while parachute, a and appearance as an actress — he acts as her personal body personal acts asas an her actress — he appearance

self and Bond when facing the (un)real Queen. (un)real the facing when Bond and self streets and even Churchill’s animated statute saluting saluting animated statute Churchill’s even and streets

guard, taking her to the Olympic Stadium by a helicopter a helicopter by Stadium guard, taking Olympic the to her her (fictitious) self in wonderfullya postmodern entwine

ferring to English traditions in a playful medley of real and of in playful a medley traditions English to ferring ment of reality and fiction: life and fantasy mingle, even fantasy even life and mingle, reality fiction: and of ment

panying music ranges from elite (Händel’s (Händel’s elite from ranges music panying us through the landmark sights of London (the London London (the London of landmark the us through sights

the traditional Bond theme in the end. The Queen plays plays The Queen in end. the theme Bond traditional the them as they fly past. as fly they them

ing escorted to the Queen — who makes her first officialfirst makes her Queen — who the to escorted ing national hero arrives, at Buckingham Palace and after and Buckingham Palace be arrives, at hero national

fictitious visual triggers – we see Bond arriving Bond see visualin a London fictitious triggers – we Daniel Craig’s identity is questioned by being both him both being by is questioned identity Craig’s Daniel

Eye, Big Ben, etc.), with MI5 personnel, ‘the people’ in the people’ ‘the personnel, with MI5 etc.), Ben, Big Eye, In the video Daniel Craig, dressed as 007 — the fictional as fictional 007 — the dressed Craig, Daniel video In the FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 27 - -

and Daniel Craig adapt the fig the adapt Craig Daniel and Casino Royale culine ideal of male fantasies? male fantasies? culine of ideal meaning also and in specific explain their character, and differences in plot structure. plot in differences and Collect images of James Bond from popular media. Try Try media. popular from Bond James of images Collect ure to the demands of the 21st century? How does the the does How century? 21st the of demands the to ure to outline the usual the the outline visualto identify which triggers the given context. film comment on the coming-of-age of James Bond? Bond? James of coming-of-age on the filmcomment Umberto Eco’s framework to analyse similarities to the framework Eco’s Umberto How does does How How does the figure of James Bond embody the masthe embody Bond James of figure the does How Employ other? each differ from Bonds two the do How BEFORE YOU WATCH: YOU BEFORE DISCUSSION FOR QUESTIONS FILMS: THE WATCHING AFTER

- - - - - Dr.

, with the benchmark performance of Sean Connery Sean Connery of performance , with benchmark the

cultural icon far transcends the printed page. Early radio radio Early page. printed far the transcends cultural icon

and is today more successful than ever, making it one of of making one it than successful ever, more isand today ally associated with Hollywood movies” (54). 24 ‘canon (54). movies” withally Hollywood associated

and television adaptations were followed in 1962 by by in 1962 followed were adaptations television and and two short-story collections, from 1953 until au the 1953 from collections, short-story two and

sort of production values, colour and spectacle more usu more spectacle and colour values, production of sort been released to date, with six actors portraying 007: Sean 007: portraying with six date, actors to released been

larly British generic tradition (the spy thriller) with the thriller) spy (the tradition generic British larly Connery, George Lazenby, Roger Moore, TimothyDalton,

the longest-lived movie franchises in film movie history. longest-lived the tus. James Chapman concludes that the reason for the the for that reason the Chapmantus. concludes James

thor’s death in 1964. However, the importance of Bond as Bond of importance the However, in 1964. death thor’s ical’ Bond films (and two ‘non-canonical’ movies) have have movies) ‘non-canonical’ (and filmsical’two Bond

film’s immense success was that it “combined a particu a “combined wasit that success immense film’s No

Despite periodic setbacks the franchise has remained alive, franchise alive, the has remained setbacks periodic Despite Pierce Brosnan, and Daniel Craig, in chronological order. order. in chronological Craig, Daniel and Brosnan, Pierce

which elevated the figure of the MI6 agent to cult sta to cult agent MI6 of the figure the elevated which women and alcohol was the protagonist of twelve novels novels twelve of was protagonist the alcohol and women FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 28 - - differently? . femme fatale gaze do they differ? How do they each conform to their own to their conform each do they How differ? they do contemporary societal expectations? How do they ap they do How societal expectations? contemporary and transformed? transformed? and gaze present in both films? Do the movies feature a feature movies films?Do in both the gaze present Compare the female characters of the two films. How films. two the How of characters female the Compare ments on the hypermasculinity of James Bond? hypermasculinity the on Bond? James ments of proach the archetype of the the archetype of the proach Employ Mulvey’s concept of the gaze: how is the male is the how gaze: the of concept Mulvey’s Employ Does the film provide any ironic, metatextualcom ironic, any film provide the Does Use Mulvey’s concept of the the of concept Mulvey’s Use Is this adaptation successful? What aspects of What aspectsof successful? Isthis adaptation ‘female gaze’? ‘Bondness’ are retained, what aspects are subverted aspects what are are retained, subverted ‘Bondness’ FILM & CULTURE–PIKLI & BENCZIK–JAMES BOND IN THE CLASSROOM 29 - - . BBC. 1 Jan. 2014. TV 1 Jan. 2014. . BBC. Film. . Dir. Peter Hunt. Perf. George George Perf. Hunt. Peter . Dir. Sherlock . Dir. Martin Campbell. Perf. Daniel Craig. Craig. Daniel Martin . Dir. Perf. Campbell. . Writ. Mark Gatiss and Steven Moffat. BBC. 2010. 2010. BBC. Moffat. Steven and MarkGatiss Writ. . . Dir. Terence Young. Perf. Sean Connery. Eon Pro Eon Sean Connery. Perf. Young. Terence Dir. . . Dir. Sam Mendes. Perf. Daniel Craig. Eon Produc Eon Craig. Daniel Perf. Sam Mendes. . Dir. ductions, 1962. Feature Film. Feature 1962. ductions, tions, 2012. Feature Film. Feature 2012. tions, Eon Productions, 2006. Feature Film. Feature 2006. Productions, Eon Lazenby. Eon Productions, 1969. Feature Film. Feature 1969. Productions, Eon Lazenby. TV Film. FILMOGRAPHY: “The Empty Hearse.” “The Hearse.” Empty Casino Royale On Her Majesty’s Secret Service Secret Majesty’s Her On Sherlock Skyfall Dr.No . - - - - The Farn Practices of Looking. Looking. of Practices . Oxford: Oxford Uni Oxford . Oxford: . 2nd ed. London and New York: I. B. York: New and London ed. . 2nd Licence to Thrill: A Cultural History of the the of History A Cultural Thrill: to Licence Cultural Theory and Popular Culture: An Intro An Culture: Popular Theory and Cultural Popular Culture in Early Modern England. England. Modern Early in Culture Popular . 5th ed. Harlow, London, and New York: Pear York: New and London, Harlow, . 5th ed.

duction son Longman,son Print. 2009. ham: Ashgate, 2009. Print. 2009. ham: Ashgate, Screen 16.3 (1975): 6–18. Print. 6–18. (1975): 16.3 Screen An Introduction to Visual Culture Role of the Reader: Explorations in the Semiotics of Texts of Semiotics the in Explorations Reader: the of Role James Bond Films Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1984. 144–72. 1984. Press, Indiana University Bloomington: Print. versity Press, 2002. Print. 2002. Press, versity Tauris, 2013. Print. 2013. Tauris,

WORKS CITED: WORKS

Chapman, James. Sturken, MariaSturken, Lisa and Cartwright.

Storey, John.Storey, Mulvey, Laura. “Visual Pleasure and Narrative Cinema.” Laura. Cinema.” “Visual Narrative and Pleasure Mulvey,

Eco, Umberto. “Narrative Structures in Fleming.” Structures in Fleming.” “Narrative Umberto. Eco, Burke, Peter. Utopia & Dystopia on the Screen

ZSOLT CZIGÁNYIK | Film & Culture ► 30 FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 31 - - - - - The concept is much older than the older is much The concept 2 Utopia, in its fullest form, is understood as an is fullest understood in its form, Utopia, 3 As Abensour argues, the oscillation between the possible interpreta between the possible As Abensour argues, the oscillation 2010. details see Vieira more For considerable detail […] that the author intended a contem a intended that author the detail […] considerable social greatly circum how consider and author, the of a positive utopia is “a non-existent society described in described society non-existent is “a utopia positive a society in which that reader lived” (9). Let us now ignore ignore Let us now (9). lived” that reader in which society Thomas at look today readers in time: change may stances plications to the original ambiguity of the term: a book original the a book to term: the ambiguityof plications poraneous reader to view as considerably better than better the as view considerably to reader poraneous tions prevents a dogmatic reading (407). (407). reading a dogmatic prevents tions that originally intended to be a utopia may now be read read be now may a utopia be to that originally intended the success of the genre: it is never obvious what exactly exactly what obvious is never it genre: the of success the time since in human thought is present term — in fact, it thing better. intention the to related arising issues from problems the readers did. This may even result in adding further in adding com result This did. even may readers in the history of the concept, and it also contributes to to also contributes it and concept, the historyinthe of a utopia. by is meant some for aslonging a form simplest immemorial in its argues, Sargent as Lyman Tower imaginary or, world, ideal 3 More’s social fantasy quite differently than contemporary thancontemporary social differently fantasy quite More’s 2 - - - - ,’ mean ,’ Nineteen ou . Special emphasis , but not excluding excluding not but , ’ This ambiguity is present ’ This ambiguity is present Equilibrium) ) no-place. here e’ or ‘ or e’ is a Greek word, it was coined by an an by was coined it word, is a Greek A ClockworkOrange ,’ meaning ‘good,’ hence the term may either either may term the hence meaning ‘good,’ ,’ and eu utopia good plac

This chapter will give a framework for understand for will This a framework give chapter 1 ’ meaning ‘place,’ whereas the first part of the word word part first the of the whereas ’ meaning ‘place,’ ,

This chapter is based on research carried out under the auspices of of the auspices out under carried This chapter is based on research First of all, some definitions need to be clarified. be to need definitions all, of First some

topoV

dapest. (Available online dapest. (Available original movies, such as such originalmovies,

counterpart dystopia have been fascinating topics for the the for fascinating topics been have dystopia counterpart ate this successful genre. ‘Topia’ refers to the Greek word word Greek the to refers ‘Topia’ genre. thisate successful

screen. literary imagination and have also found their way to the the to way their alsofound literary imagination have and

(focusing on adaptations of literary works such as such literary works of adaptations on (focusing may either be the equivalent to the Greek word ‘ word Greek the to equivalent the be either may

the Humanities Initiative Fellowship of Central European University, Bu University, European Central of Fellowship Initiative Humanities the the title of the book by Thomas More that was initi to Thomas by More book the of title the

refer to a ‘ to refer ing ‘no’ or ‘ or ‘no’ ing

ing this genre and will analyse several dystopian movies movies will and thising dystopian genre analyse several Eighty-Four

Although 1

Englishman in 1516, exactly 500 years ago. It appeared in appeared It ago. years 500 exactly Englishman in 1516, Dreams of an ideal society called utopia and its negative negative its and calledutopia society anDreams ideal of

will be laid on the recent interest in dystopian themes. interest will recent the laid on be ‘ FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 32 - - - — is basically non-existent. — is basically non-existent. (2002, dir. Kurt Wimmer) which which Kurt Wimmer) dir. (2002, eutopia Equilibrium When discussing utopia on the screen, we will we have screen, the on discussingWhen utopia causing wars etc.) is a central topic in dystopian literature literature in dystopian topic is central a wars causing etc.) and Blaim 8). Or, as Simon Spiegel argues, in “film […] the the […] argues, in “film Spiegel as Simon Or, Blaimand 8). a harmonious society which completely lacks emotions. lacksemotions. completely which society a harmonious the of main the became and theme in general, movies and horrible dystopia which robs its inhabitants of their emo their inhabitants of its robs which dystopia horrible a humanityhuman traits. of emotions lacking The issue movie titled pian films,’ filmic dystopias have become […] prominent prominent […] become have dystopias filmic pianfilms,’ utopia — the positive required elements basic the of lacks some utopia positive tions and individual personality — their most important important most personality — their individual and tions fear and (hatred disastrous to consequences lead that may tradi utopian the of side negative the on concentrate to that agree scholars and Critics movies. tion — dystopian in the cinematic production” of the past decades (Blaim past decades the of production” in cinematic the It is an ongoing debate since the publication of the book book the of publication the since debate is an ongoing It whether this world is considered to be a positive utopia, utopia, a positive be to is considered this world whether a or are absent, emotions of impacts negative the where will discussedin be detail later. There is wide agreement among scholars that a classic that a classic scholars among agreement is wide There “[c]ontrary to the meagre body of what can what called be ‘uto of body meagre the to “[c]ontrary - - - - The (1726) by Gulliver’s Travels . So we have to distinguish to be have we . So utopia; social structures better better structures social utopia; dystopia positive

and

(4th c. BC) describes an alternative society, hence hence society, an alternative describes BC) c. (4th negative

dystopia, as it can also be interpreted in a negative fash in a negative can as also it interpreted be dystopia,

of a dystopia is Book Four of of Four is Book a dystopia of of either utopian or dystopian literature. Suffice it to say to it Suffice literature. dystopian or utopian either of

or worse than the basis of comparison: the readers’ own readers’ the than comparison: basis of the worse or as a negative one, a one, as a negative

social context. There are also a number of works that are works of are alsoThere a number social context. THE EVOLUTION OF THE DYSTOPIAN GENRE DYSTOPIAN THE OF EVOLUTION THE

pianism, nor utopia as a social construct, but utopia in utopia as a social but construct, utopia pianism, nor that the genre is already present in antiquity, Plato’s Plato’s in antiquity, present is already that genre the

tures that are considerably worse than the one in which in than which one the worse turesthat considerably are lives. reader) the presumably, (and writer the tween

ion. In English literature an important early example example an early important literature In English ion. it is considered to be primarily a utopian construct — or a primarily construct — or be to a utopian is considered it

intended to be dystopias, or negative utopias: social struc utopias: negative or dystopias, be to intended film, we shall not dedicate too much space to the to history the space much too dedicate shall film,we not

Republic Republic As the focus of the present chapter is neither literary uto is neither chapter present the As of focus the

Jonathan Swift, the book that describes the world of the the of world the that describes Swift,Jonathan book the Houyhnhnms, the ultimately rational horses that live in that live horses rational ultimately the Houyhnhnms, FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 33

- - - - - As we can see in the literary example of Swift’s Swift’s of canAs in literary example the see we centrate on movies (mostly literary adaptations) that not that not literary adaptations) (mostly movies on centrate structure as social political the or a dystopian show only only aesthetically dystopian. In the following, I shallI con following, In the dystopian. aesthetically only an alternative dictatorial society and the revolt against it. revolt the and dictatorial society an alternative with I agree Lyman Tower yet overlap, genres utopian and site for a dystopian film. a dystopian for site society, is the “well-spring” of science fiction (11). For our For (11). fiction science of “well-spring” is the society, sit contemporary structure thatthe radically differs from background of the plot, but in which the social the structure in which but plot, the of background modern weapons has such a formulaic social that setting a formulaic has such weapons modern present purposes, it is enough to point out that not all that fu not out point to is enough it purposes, present utopias take place in the future). We shall only consider shall consider only We in future). the take place utopias primary is is of otherwiseuation movie the importance, Sargent who claims that historically, utopia, the imaginary the utopia, claims that who historically, Sargent ture-oriented movies are utopias or dystopias (and not all not (and dystopias or are utopias movies ture-oriented social an alternative where movies fiction science those is of defining importance — what I consider the prerequi the consider I importance — what defining isof resembles the dystopian genre in as much as it depicts depicts as it in as much genre dystopian the resembles fiction Science movie. a dystopian considered be cannot it Houyhnhnms, utopian works may have dystopian inter- dystopian have may works utopian Houyhnhnms, However, this Medieval knight’s-tale fought with hyper fought this knight’s-tale Medieval However,

------5 ). Zeit here (2015, dir. dir. (2015, The Little Prince (2012, dir. Gary dir. Ross). (2012, trilogy (2007–11), titled titled (2007–11), trilogy Zeitgeist Zeitgeist (2013–14, written by Dennis Kelly) Dennis Kelly) written by (2013–14, Quite ironically, even the British British the even ironically, Quite 4 The Hunger Games Utopia series (first movie 1977, dir. George Lucas) Lucas) George dir. 1977, movie (first series (all three directed by Peter Joseph, available online online available Joseph, Peter by directed three (all

Star Wars

Spiegel then goes on to argue that the utopian impulse in its positive Spiegel The social structure becomes more prevalent in later parts and espe prevalent becomes more The social structure

geist: Addendum geist:

almost obvious that when a movie takes place in futhe takesplace movie a that when almostobvious ety. It may be claimed that presenting the utopian reality of ‘seeing right ‘seeing of reality utopian the presenting that claimed be may It ety.

cially in the original novel trilogy by Suzanne Collins. Dystopian settings Collins. by Suzanne in the original novel trilogy cially are so popular that they appear in unexpected instances as well, such as in a in as such well, as instances unexpected in appear they that popular so are

ample is the second movie of the movie is the second ample ly with one’s heart’ makes the dystopian aspects of our civilization explicit. the dystopian heart’ makes with one’s ly

5 form is more naturally present in documentary present naturally ex films. An outstanding is more form

focuses on a dystopian plot. Dystopian movies are becom movies Dystopian plot. a dystopian on focuses a narrative film.” for

plot of, for instance, an action movie, like in case the of movie, instance,an action for of, plot pian setting often only forms a vague background to the the to background a vague forms only often pian setting

the little prince to a young girl in a dystopian suburb of a consumer soci suburb girl in a dystopian prince to a young the little undesirable social and political structure. Yet this dysto structure. social Yet political and undesirable

recent adaptation of Antoine de Saint-Exupery’s de Saint-Exupery’s of Antoine adaptation recent the first part firstthe of

ture, it needs to have a dystopian setting which depicts an depicts which setting a dystopian have to needs it ture, ing extremely popular, so much so that nowadays it is is it that so nowadays much so popular, extremely ing

Mark Osborne) where the aging aviator tells the story the aging aviator where of his meeting with Mark Osborne) 4

The TV series titled TVtitled series FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 34 - - - - - dys seems to have become nowadays an ‘umbrella’ term term an‘umbrella’ nowadays become have to seems The above elements are particularly important for the the are particularly for important elements The above definition of the dystopian filmic genre as “the term “the genre as filmic dystopian of the definition topia egory. Rick Altman argues that genres are groups of films of Altman Rick groups are argues that genres egory. already appeared in Zamyatin’s book, and they are op they and book, in Zamyatin’s appeared already individual the and individuality, threatening a society social construct that often claimssocial that beneficial. be often construct to a genre; Altman of semantic means ‘building the blocks’ (usually in a small group or at least in a love relationship) relationship) in a love least at in a small(usually or group (Maziarczyk 47), dystopia having become an aesthetic cat an aesthetic having become dystopia (Maziarczyk 47), for any work depicting a gloomy vision of horrible society” society” horrible of vision a gloomy depicting work any for im that most the can conclude we So 2). (Spiegel features” pects for fruitfully interpreting this genre. Due to the large the to Due fruitfully thispects genre. for interpreting portant semantic elements of the dystopian genres have have genres dystopian the of elements portant semantic emotions, of with repression the control mind pression, to the dystopian genre, the following case studies of some some of case studies following the genre, dystopian the to typical characters, props, and locations, but also stylistic but locations, and typical props, characters, rebelling against this threat. After this brief introduction against this rebelling Afterthreat. introduction thisbrief will useful as movies try provide to dystopian important films, intended. not a is full dystopian overview of number which share certain semantic and syntactic elements. “By “By syntactic certain and elements. share semantic which

- - - - (1921). (1921). We The Time Machine already includes the most is a mathematically organ is mathematically a We We

, a dystopian work may have utopian utopian have may work , a dystopian

or I-303 instead of names. of instead I-303 or organization aims at the total control of citizens who live live who citizens of aims total control the at organization

genre (whether on page or on the screen) becomes the lim the becomes screen) the on or page on (whether genre highlight the impossibility of human existence within human existence of impossibility the highlight

Orwell) is the Russian writer Yevgeny Zamyatin’s Zamyatin’s is Russian the Yevgeny writer Orwell) (1895) already describes a dystopian future of mankind, future of a dystopian describes already (1895)

mind control, the repression of emotions and imagi pretations (and rarely, as in the case of Anthony Burgess’s Burgess’s as Anthony in case the of rarely, (and pretations

unit, and the existence of a non-conformist revolt group, revolt a non-conformist of existence the unit, and the framework of the total state. Thus, the focus of this of Thus, total focus the the state. of framework the

topian literature and cinema ever since. These include include These since. ever cinema and literature topian the most important early dystopian work of literature literature of work dystopian early important most the

its of humanity in the context of an extremely oppressive oppressive an extremely of humanity of in context the its including the alienated protagonist whose sufferings sufferings whose protagonist alienated the including

nation, sublimation of individuality in a larger socialindividuality in larger a of sublimation nation, important basic topics which have kept occurring in dys kept have which topics basic important

in transparent glass-houses and have codes like D-503 like D-503 codes have and glass-houses in transparent ized dystopian police-state called the “One State.” This State.” “One calledthe police-state dystopian ized

interpreters). Although H. G. Wells’s H. G. Wells’s Although interpreters). A Clockwork Orange

with a major impact on other writers (primarily George (primarily writers George other on impact withmajor a The imaginary of world FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 35 ------chapters. The original British version includes Chapter 21, 21, Chapter includes The original version British chapters. committing all kinds of crimes including rape, robbery, robbery, rape, allcommitting crimes kinds including of becomes he instincts; after treatment the his violent of and even murder. He is imprisoned and offered the possi the offered and is imprisoned He murder. even and but violence acts of of only not incapable anautomaton cure until is the remains and helpless self-defence, also of again. In it fact, thisre ending enjoying and aggression bility of undergoing the experimental Ludovico treatment treatment Ludovico experimental the undergoing of bility his life as a gangster. This optimistic conclusion is absent is absent This conclusion optimistic hisas life gangster. a ful life, Alex recognises that he wants to put an end to to an end put to wants that he fulrecognises Alex life, remainsdis rather ending whose version, film the from felt free before the treatment, but in fact he was a prisoner was a prisoner he in fact but treatment, the before free felt ment blocks. Alex, the protagonist, is the leader of a gang a gang of leader is the protagonist, the Alex, blocks. ment curtails He his humanity. consequently and choice, moral turbing: aggression seems to be necessary for happiness. for necessary be to seems aggression turbing: that makes him incapable of committing acts of violence. violence. acts of committing of that makes him incapable ing met an old pal who had married pal taken who a peace and an to old met ing reversed. The film ends with Alex regainingThe of film ends his ability with Alex reversed. flects the US version of the book which contained twenty twenty contained which book of the version US flects the where Alex becomes surfeited with his lifestyle, and hav and with his lifestyle, surfeited becomes Alex where who spend most of their time watching TV watching time apart their in their of most spend who The treatment is successful and robs Alex of his ability for his for ability of Alex robs and is successful Thetreatment ’ , - - - - ), star The movie A Clockwork Clockwork A 7 A Clockwork Or A Clockwork Mechanikus narancs Mechanikus . In English the two titles the two titles . In English website. A SOCIAL DYSTOPIA SOCIAL A appeared in 1979. in 1979. appeared —

Gépnarancs The fame of the book is at least partially least is at book the The of fame 6 Dr. Strangelove, 2001: A Space Odyssey Space A 2001: Strangelove, Dr. Literature and Censorship in the Kádár Era in Hungary. in the Kádár Era and Censorship Literature ‘ One Hand Clapping Clapping One Hand (1962).

was published in Hungarian in 1990, translated by László Gy. Gy. translated by László in 1990, in Hungarian was published

The title in Hungarian is usually referred to as as to referred usually is Hungarian in title The For more on the novel consult this on the novel consult more For

ange

due to the American film adaptation released in 1971 by 1971 in released American the film to adaptation due oeuvre contains more than fifty books, yet most people re thanpeople most fifty more yet contains oeuvre books, either, until either, of the movie). The film was not released in Hungarian cinemas, as the cinemas, as the Hungarian in released The film was not of the movie). are identical (although the indefinite article is often omitted in case omitted in case is often article the indefinite (although identical are

state censorship did not allow for the publication of Burgess’s works works of Burgess’s the publication for state censorship did not allow A CLOCKWORK ORANGE CLOCKWORK A

gary see my 6

Orange (following the novel) depicts a dystopian society in near the society a dystopian depicts novel) the (following

futurewhere aggressive youth terrorize the inert majority member him for one of his earliest writings, his earliest of one him for member

major films: major ring Malcolm McDowell in the role of Alex. of in role the McDowell ring Malcolm

7 Horváth, the title is also his invention. For more on censorship in Hun more For is also his invention. Horváth, title the

Anthony Burgess (1917–1993) is one of the most popular popular most the of is one (1917–1993) Burgess Anthony English writers of the second half of the 20th century. His half century. 20th the of second the of writers English

whereas the title of the book is of the book the title whereas Warner Bros, directed by Stanley Kubrick (1928–1999, other other (1928–1999, Stanley Kubrick by directed Bros, Warner FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 36 , - - - The Thieving Magpie An important feature of the book is the artificial is the book the of An lanfeature important

disturbing when described in a language that the reader in a language that described reader the when disturbing reader the language fully offers understand; not does ern English phrasing. This phrasing. ern English language has that an effect and even though the fight becomes brutal by the end of brutalend by the becomes fight the though even and as the protector of a girl who was about to be raped by the the by raped be to was about a girl who of as protector the some protection, a linguistic insulation against violence. linguistica against insulation violence. protection, some guage the young characters use: standard English mixed mixed standardEnglish use: characters guage young the ballet-like fashion, the accompanying score is a playful score accompanying the fashion, ballet-like mildens the violence: the aggressive scenes feel much less less much feel scenes aggressive the violence: the mildens piece from Gioachino Rossini’s opera, opera, Rossini’s Gioachino from piece the scene, the viewer hardly recognises it — the violence violence it — the hardly recognises viewer the scene, the this technique. A good example of this effect is the scene scene thisis the of effect example A good this technique. ing. While watching the two gangs fight in a playful in a fight gangs two and the While watching ing. rival gang (whom Alex would otherwise gladly rape). The otherwise gladly rape). would Alex rival (whom gang fight evolves. Here Alex wins our sympathy by appearing by ourwins Here Alex sympathy evolves. fight build a theatre-like casino,” in a place takes“derelict fight with Russian words, cockney expressions, and early mod early and expressions, cockney withRussian words, a and thugs of group another meets gang Alex’s where The director’s task was to find the visual equivalent of of task find wasthe visual to equivalent The director’s

- -

A recurring point of criticism concerning both the the both concerning criticism of A recurringpoint

clothing iscolourful. clothing

eyelashes on one eye only) which created a fashion trend trend a fashion created which only) eye one on eyelashes or negative actions, whereas Alex’s creativity appears as appears creativity Alex’s whereas actions, negative or

cannot remain repulsive for long; the audience inevitably inevitably audience the long; for remaincannot repulsive and his friends in black and white, whereas all victims’ the whereas white, and hisand in friends black adds to this positive image with the extraordinary way with extraordinary image the way this to adds positive a very positive feature in the context of inertia. of The film in context the feature positive a very are passive people, lacking a potential for either positive positive either for a potential lacking people, are passive

by our repulsion towards the other characters; there are there characters; other the towards repulsion our by becomes attached to him. Yet this attachment is reinforced is reinforced this attachment him. to Yet attached becomes

book and the movie adaptation is that Alex, despite be is that despite Alex, adaptation movie the and book ferentiated the thugs and their victims by dressing Alex Alex victims their and dressing by thugs the ferentiated

practically no positive characters appearing in the plot. in plot. appearing the characters positive no practically they both may be considered to propagate violence. The violence. propagate to considered be may both they

in the 1970s. Costume designer Milena Canonero also dif Canonero Milena designer Costume in 1970s. the reason why Alex is so attractive is partly is the attractive that is Alex so he why reason

ing a violent thug, is presented as a likeable person, thus thus person, as a likeable is presented thug, a violent ing first person narrator (in both versions), and the narrator narrator the and versions), (inboth narrator firstperson

Alex dresses and the makeup he wears (including false (including wears he makeup the and dresses Alex Moreover, Alex’s parents and most of the other characters characters other the of most and parents Alex’s Moreover, FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 37 - - - Czigányik Czigányik (86–147) The Postman, The Merchant of And phenomenon is the correct word, word, correct isthe And phenomenon 9 ), starring ), HurtSuzanna and The John Hamilton. Bényei calls this feature “cultural dissemination” (169). For an analy an For (169). dissemination” “cultural calls this feature Bényei The very first scene of the movie is a powerful expres powerful is a movie of the The firstscene very depicts. We see a secular communal liturgy called “Two a secular see liturgy communal called “Two We depicts. as Orwell’s impact extends well beyond literature. His literature. beyond well extends impact as Orwell’s sion of the essence of the fictive dictatorial world the filmthe world dictatorial fictive the of essence the of sion sis of Orwell’s book see also Claeys (118–126), or in Hungarian or in Hungarian see also Claeys (118–126), book sis of Orwell’s high in various popularity contests), but its main its fea but inhigh various popularity contests), premiered title with identical the movie The British life. (1946–, other major films: major other (1946–, phrases such as “Big Brother” or “newspeak” are often often are “newspeak” or Brother” as “Big such phrases used when interpreting politics, history or contemporary contemporary history or politics, interpreting when used to be shown movies in the style of Nazi and communist communist Nazi and of instyle the movies shown be to tures are known to everyone with a link to European or or withlink a European to everyone tures are known to in the symbolic year and was directed by Michael Radford Radford Michael by was and directed year in symbolic the film is also remembered as the last appearance of Richard as lastappearance the film is remembered also 9 American culture. Minutes Hate” where people gather in a cinema-like room room in a cinema-like gather people where Hate” Minutes Burton, who did not live to see the premiere of the film. the of premiere the see to live not did who Burton, Venice “A totális szabadsághiány anatómiája” szabadsághiány totális “A

- - is here. Nineteen Eighty-FourNineteen A Clockwork Orange Orange A Clockwork

8 is not a typical dystopian movie in movie a typical is dystopian not

Similarly in another scene (starting at 32. min.), where the fight oscil fight the where min.), 32. at (starting scene another in Similarly A Clockwork Orange

clusively depicted in the form of rape, except in last the except rape, of in form the depicted clusively component is completely missing (sexuality is almost ex missing (sexuality is completely component

atmosphere is clearly dystopian; dystopian; is clearly atmosphere against an oppressive regime, yet the oppression comes comes the oppression against regime, yet an oppressive

scene), yet the ultimate lack of freedom and the general general the and freedom of lack ultimate the yet scene), seems more like a game. seems more

A MELANCHOLY MOVIE FROM 1984 FROM MOVIE MELANCHOLY A NINETEEN EIGHTY-FOUR: NINETEEN

lates between brutal and comic. For Rossini’s theme see theme Rossini’s For lates between brutal and comic. (1949). This book is not only very popular (ranking popular very very only Thisis not book (1949).

more from the passivity of the consumer society rather rather society consumer the of passivity the from more 8

trend is George Orwell’s (1903–1950) (1903–1950) Orwell’s is George trend than a particularly dictatorial political power. The love The love than a particularly power. dictatorial political

that were listed in the introduction. There is a rebel hero hero is a rebel There in introduction. the listed that were the sense that it does not feature all the semantic panels panels all semantic feature the not does that it sense the

not a political but a social dystopia. but a political not The central phenomenon of the 20th century dystopian century dystopian 20th the of phenomenon The central FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 38 - - - - - Nineteen Eighty-FourNineteen presents the workings of a to of workings the presents Nineteen Eighty-Four continuously broadcasts propaganda, but also serves as also a serves but propaganda, broadcasts continuously at either the book or the movie as a fictional work, but as but work, as a fictional movie the or book the either at totalitarian of phenomena, portrayal realistic a political see, salient symbols of the lack of freedom is the omnipresent omnipresent is the freedom of lack the symbols of salient of words and transmitting actions the surveillance device, loneliness, being unable to communicate freely. As we can As we freely. communicate to unable being loneliness, human life since his thoughts, words and actions must fol must actions and words his thoughts, since human life The most two directives. political implicit and explicit low picture of Big Brother, and the telescreen that not only only that not telescreen the and Brother, Big of picture in complete live (paradoxically) but privacy, lack pletely talitarian dictatorship in an exaggerated way, pushing to to pushing talitarianway, in an exaggerated dictatorship systems. in real political present phenomena extremes the the purpose is to make the individual express their subordi their make is purpose to the express individual the human liberty of through ingredients basic thematises dicta this of fictive world the perceive We absence. their suffers who protagonist, the of mind the through torship Thought the of members Oceania the inhabitants to the of nation and loyalty to political power. power. political to loyalty and nation Party the a by live cannot as he controlled in world the Police. Winston and all the other party members com party all and other the members Winston Police. It is not surprising, hence, that many readers do not look look not do that many readers surprising, hence, is not It - - - - Scenes of peaceful work are followed are followed work peaceful of Scenes 10

Leni Riefenstahl’s Nazi propaganda films are particularly relevant. particularly films are propaganda Nazi Leni Riefenstahl’s Orwell’s book, in my reading, focuses on human free on focuses reading, in my book, Orwell’s

dom that the protagonist Winston Smith paradoxically paradoxically Smith Winston that protagonist the dom

else follows” (Orwell 790). When a totalitarian When dictator 790). (Orwell follows” else experiences through its absence. “Freedom is the freedom is freedom the “Freedom absence. its through experiences

chief aspects of the film: how individual liberty dissolves libertyindividual how film: aspects the dissolves of chief only calmed down when the picture of Big Brother ap Brother Big of picture the when calmed down only

as they jump up and shout in hateful frenzy. They are They are in hateful frenzy. shout and up asjump they ship, which aims at controlling all aspects humanlife, aims of controlling at which ship,

suffering. The audience does not hear Goldstein’s words words hearGoldstein’s not does audience suffering. The ganda works and how the central emotions of the fictional fictional the of emotions central the how and gandaworks

by violent pictures depicting war, and the movie within movie the and war, depicting pictures violent by pears on the screen. The scene is a perfect summary is perfect a the of The scene screen. the pearson

propaganda films. propaganda to say that two plus two makes four. If that all is granted, makes two four. that plus two say to

through the power of an oppressive society, how propa how society, an oppressive of power the through the enemy but the party, that is responsible for all the for that is responsible party, the but enemy the traitor — Emmanuel Goldstein, who claims that it is not claims is not that who it Goldstein, traitor — Emmanuel the movie culminates with the appearance of the chief chief the culminates of with movie appearance the the requires the individual to claim to individual the that this sumrequires is different,

10 world, fear and hatred, control the minds of the inhabitants.the minds the of control hatred, and fear world, FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 39

- - - - Nineteen Eighty-FourNineteen Czigányik “Reader’s Responsibility.” “Reader’s Czigányik A more active resistance was expected from from was expected resistance active A more All in all, he is too melancholic and does not not does and All in all, melancholic is too he 11 12 Cf. particularly scenes when Winston visits O’Brien, and the torture torture and the visits O’Brien, Winston scenes when particularly Cf. Needless to say, neither was the book published, nor was the film published, nor was the film neither was the book to say, Needless The performance of Richard Burton in the role of of in role the Burton Richard of The performance

explicit and his unlimited power allows him to appear him appear allows to his and unlimited power explicit is fully hu inhuman looking while compassionate — he approach. seem vicious enough for a chief villain. a chief for enough vicious seem screened in Hungary during the Kádár regime.The translation of the book of the book translation in Hungary regime.The screened during the Kádár but book) the in than longer much (proportionately long are that scenes O’Brien, the party the and O’Brien, finally officialtortur misleading fects of the necessary compromises with a political power power with a political compromises necessary the of fects survival. for one’s a plays Burton interpretation. political a narrowly from most cynical intellectual who never makes his cynicism cynical never most who intellectual manistic. television in 1993. See also in 1993. television ual and dictatorial political power, yet the movie version version movie the yet ual power, dictatorial and political not particularly bloody. not particularly is a precise analysis of the relationship of the individ the of relationship analysis the of is a precise ing Winston, is particularly vigorous, yet it is also dubious is also it dubious yet is particularly Winston, ing vigorous, 12 11 was legally published first in 1989, whereas the movie was broadcasted in broadcasted was movie the whereas 1989, in first published legally was Winston by the audience that knew the destructive ef destructive that the knew audience the by Winston - - - - isessentially Nineteen Eighty-FourNineteen

In Orwell’s book the detailed portrayal of the dicta the portrayal of detailed the book In Orwell’s

exaggerated realism, was less enthusiastic in recep the enthusiastic realism, was less exaggerated opportunities of freedom. The Hungarian audience that The Hungarian audience freedom. of opportunities

consciousness of the characters. In this characters. the paralys of respect, consciousness a political statement. a political

and consider Winston and Julia as two failed heroes of of Julia and asheroes failed two Winston consider and so passionately identified their own experiences with the ownexperiences their identified passionately so

suffers in a totalitarian dictatorship. His paranoid mind mind paranoid totalitarianHis in a suffers dictatorship. lessly subservient is that the external power destroys all destroys is that external the power subservient lessly

liberty. In this respect liberty. mind of the dependant, yet the reason this help is reason mind so the yet dependant, the of mind

movie emphasises the psychological aspect: Winston on on aspect: Winston psychological the emphasises movie tion of this more moderate, melancholy psychologising

the screen is not a romantic freedom-fighter, but one who who one but freedom-fighter, a romantic is not screen the torship is always complemented with its impact on the the on impact with its complemented is always torship

is unlimited because it is internalised in the subordinated is internalised in subordinated the it is unlimited because is a necessary condition of the Party’s power; this power this power power; Party’s the of is condition necessary a

ing fear and the lack of memory play crucial roles. The crucial play roles. memory of lack the and fear ing fictional space of the book, interpreting it as a somewhat it somewhat as a interpreting book, of the space fictional FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 40

- - 13 ’s fictive so fictive ’s is “the dominant is “the Nineteen Eighty-Four Nineteen ” (Maziarczyk 46) and one 46) ” (Maziarczyk Equilibrium Nineteen Eighty-Four Eighty-Four Nineteen As it soon turns out, a number of otherAs it soon turns out, a number Fahrenheit 451, Fahrenheit and Equilibrium. . Matrix Brave New World World New Brave As often in the dystopian genre, genre, As often in the dystopian The movie takes place in the fictional state of Libria,of state in fictional the takes place The movie

dystopian intertext for for intertext dystopian emotions, people form family bonds; and a well-founded well-founded a and family bonds; form people emotions, calamities, hence banned and considered “sense offence,” offence,” “sense considered and banned calamities, hence paradoxes; obvious of a number cial structure avoid cannot action scenes, manages to confront the Big Brother-like Brother-like Big the manages confront to scenes, action could add as well as leader often has fits of anger; despite the seeming lack of lack seeming the despite of hasanger; often fits leader leader and overthrow the system. system. the overthrow and leader key elements of the film have been ‘borrowed’ from from been ‘borrowed’ of the film have elements key for a typical action-movie plot of ‘one against all’” (45). ‘one of plot typical a action-movie for police also has its equivalent, and the protagonist John John protagonist the and also has equivalent, its police their dangerous consequences, also offer a existence richer taking quits he emo the Preston, by experienced than ever spectacular of a number drug, through and tion-numbing in the fashion of the Orwellian thought crime. Thought crime. Thought Orwellian the of thought in fashion the besides Learning this that emotions, of group. ismember a 13 Preston, who will later revolt against this inhuman system, will revolt who later Preston, where emotions are recognized as the source of human of as source the are recognized emotions where the emotion, of form any suppressing supposedly while - - - - - Total Recall, Total is an “exam

, the 2002 film directed 2002 , the Equilibrium

Equilibrium ), starring), a cine Christian From Bale. EQUILIBRIUM

dystopias and enhances them with quasi-religious motifs motifs with quasi-religious them enhances and dystopias

only to use them as an appropriate oppressive background background oppressive as an use them to appropriate only concentrates on the psyche of the individual; the oppres the individual; the of psyche the on concentrates

same reason it is a most useful object for understanding understanding for useful object is a most it same reason sive nature of dictatorial political power appears through through appears power dictatorial political natureof sive

CONCLUSION: CONCLUSION: by Kurt Wimmer (1964–, other major films: major other (1964–, Kurtby Wimmer

bines the most typical elements of classic anti-utopias and anti-utopias classic of typical most elements the bines far beyond the confines of this chapter. As a conclusion I conclusion a As of this chapter. confines the far beyond

matographic point of view, this filmoutstand faris view, from of point matographic ple of cultural recycling in contemporary cinema: it com it cinema: in culturalcontemporary of recycling ple

the genre. As Maziarczyk genre. the argues, ing, and also clearly lacks a lot in originality, but for the the for but in originality, lacks lot a also and ing, clearly

its paralysing impact on the human the psyche. on impact paralysing its find it apt to introduce to introduce apt it find

Law Abiding Citizen An analysis of all the major dystopian movies would go go would movies An dystopian analysis all of major the FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 41 the larger social unit. social larger the individuality, appears in the conflict of the individual and of individual and the in conflict the appears individuality,

------or in a more formulaic formulaic in more a or This latter example also shows the alsoThis shows example latter Nineteen Eighty-Four Nineteen Equilibrium.

Nevertheless, it is also a general feature of the cin the of feature isalso general a it Nevertheless,

oppressive social system must be a central issue, com issue, central a be must social system oppressive of powerful symbols and the bleak atmosphere of dys of atmosphere bleak the symbolsand powerful of

ema as opposed to literature: visual effects have a a naturalvisual have effects literature: to as ema opposed colage […] much less comprehensive and consistent than consistent and comprehensive less much […] colage clear either, as Maziarczyk argues, it is “a dystopian bri dystopian as Maziarczyk is “a argues, it either, clear chief villain. The structure of the dystopian society is not villain.is not society chief The dystopian the structure of and imagination; and this social system, which threatens threatens this imagination; and and social which system,

social systems in a comprehensive way is seriously lim is seriously way social in a comprehensive systems system is quickly overthrown by the hero defeating the the defeating hero the by overthrown is quickly system

bined with mind control and the repression of emotions emotions of repression the and with control mind bined manneras in

primacy, whereas the possibility of depicting complex complex depicting of possibility the whereas primacy, tic elements of dystopian cinema: the presentation of an of presentation the cinema: dystopian of elements tic

temptation of getting submerged in spectacular scenes. in spectacular scenes. submerged getting of temptation the social system, whether in a psychologically accurate accurate in a psychologically whether socialthe system,

topian societies. Another strength of dystopian cinema cinema dystopian of strength Another societies. topian is the depiction of the relationship of the individual to to individual the of relationship the of is depiction the

ited. Visual images, however, allow for the presentation presentation the for allow Visual however, images, ited. Huxley’s or Orwell’s” (53). Orwell’s” or Huxley’s

way as in way The examples discussed above represent the basic seman basic the represent discussed above The examples FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 42 ------You Eds. London: Imperfect Worlds Cambridge Com Komparatistik On . Ed. Gregory Claeys. Cam Claeys. . Ed. Gregory 5.1 (1994): 1–37. Print. 1–37. 5.1 (1994): . Complete and Unabridged Novels. Utopian Studies Paradoxa YouTube, 11 Feb. 2013. Web. 5 Feb. 2016. 5 Feb. Web. 2013. Feb. 11 YouTube, 7.1 (2013): 188–199. Web. 13 Jan. 2015. 13 Web. 188–199. (2013): 7.1 andDystopian Narratives in Contemporary Cinema. line panion to Utopian Literature bridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010. 3–27. Print. 3–27. 2010. Press, University Cambridge bridge: loaded; or, The Campy Art of Bricolage.” The Art Campy Bricolage.” of or, loaded; Clockwork Orange Soundtrack.” Online video clip. clip. Onlinevideo Soundtrack.” Orange Clockwork furt: Peter Lang, 2011. Print. Lang, 2011. furt: Peter zur Utopie im nichtfiktionalen Film.” Film.” im nichtfiktionalen zur Utopie Secker and Warburg/Octopus, 1976. Print. 1976. Warburg/Octopus, and Secker ing ining Revisited.” Revisited.” Blaim, Artur Frank Ludmiła and Gruszewska-Blaim. Tube. Orwell, George. Sargent, Lyman Tower. “The Three Faces of Utopianism Utopianism of “The Three Faces Lyman Tower. Sargent, Spiegel, Simon. “Utopia in nonfiction films.” Forthcom Maziarczyk, Grzegorz. “Huxley/Orwell/Bradbury Re “Huxley/Orwell/Bradbury Maziarczyk, Grzegorz. Lestrange, Paige. “The Thiveing Magpie (Abridged) – A “The (Abridged) – A Magpie Paige. Thiveing Lestrange, Vieira, Fátima. “The Concept of Utopia.” Utopia.” of “The Fátima. Vieira, Concept —. “Authentische Wunschträume. Einige Überlegungen Überlegungen Einige Wunschträume. “Authentische —. . - - - - - Im 15.3 Budapest: Budapest: . Constellations . Eds. Bálint Gárdos et et . Eds. Bálint Gárdos Confrontations and Interac London: British Film Institute Film Institute British London: A szabadsághiány anatómiái – az em anatómiái – az A szabadsághiány Cambridge Companion to Utopian Litera Az ártatlan ország. Az angol regény 1945 után 1945 regény Az angol ország. Az ártatlan Film/Genre. Frankfurt: Peter Lang, 2011. Print. Frankfurt: Lang, 2011. Peter . Ed. Gregory Claeys. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni

beri szabadság XX. századi ellenutópiákban tions: Essays on Cultural Memory ture perfect Worlds and Dystopian Narratives in Contemporary al. Budapest: L’Harmattan Kiadó, 2011. 223–234. Print. 223–234. Kiadó, 2011. al. Budapest: L’Harmattan and Orwell.” Orwell.” and Cinema. (2008): 406–21. Print. the Kádár Era in Hungary.” Kádárthe in Hungary.” Era Akadémiai Kiadó, 2011. Print. Akadémiai 2011. Kiadó, Debrecen: Kossuth Egyetemi Kiadó, 2003. Print. 2003. Kiadó, Egyetemi Kossuth Debrecen: Publishing, 1999. Print. 1999. Publishing, versity Press, 2010. 107–134. Print. 107–134. 2010. Press, versity

WORKS CITED: WORKS Czigányik, Zsolt. Czigányik, Zsolt.

Claeys, Gregory. “The origins of dystopia: Wells, Huxley Huxley Wells, “The dystopia: origins of Gregory. Claeys, Altman, Rick.

Abensour, Miguel. “Persistent Utopia.” Utopia.” “Persistent Miguel. Abensour, Blaim,Artur eds. LudmiłaGruszewska-Blaim, and

Bényei, Tamás. —. “Readers’ responsibility: Literature and censorship in censorship and Literature responsibility: “Readers’ —. FILM & CULTURE–CZIGÁNYIK–UTOPIA

AND DYSTOPIA ON THE SCREEN 43 - Dir. George Lucas. Twentieth Twentieth Lucas. George Dir. Dir. Michael Radford. Umbrel Radford. Michael Dir. Dir. Stanley Kubrick. Warner Bros., Bros., Warner Stanley Kubrick. Dir. Dir. Gary Ross. Lionstage, 2012. Film. 2012. Gary Lionstage, Dir. Ross. Dir. Kurt Wimmer. Dimension Films, 2002. Films, 2002. Dimension Kurt Wimmer. Dir.

la-Rosenblum Films Production, 1984. Film. 1984. FilmsProduction, la-Rosenblum Century Fox, 1977. Film. 1977. Century Fox, Film. 1971. Film. 1971.

FILMOGRAPHY: Star Wars IV. – A New Hope. New IV. – A Wars Star

AClockwork Orange. Nineteen Eighty-Four. NineteenEighty-Four.

Hunger Games. Equilibrium. Henry James in the Cinema: When the Adapters Turn the Screw

ÁKOS FARKAS | Film & Culture ► 44 FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 45 - - - - , that adaptation Nowadays, “doing film” at college or university has or university college at film” “doing Nowadays, der, then, that it may raise unpleasant questions among among questions raise may unpleasant that it then, der, and Henry Why James novel? drama a contemporary or come to be regarded as something no less valuable than valuable less no as something regarded be to come an early modernist novella rather than rather an Elizabethan novella an modernist early aggeration when the provocative statement was made by J. J. by was made statement provocative the when aggeration studying Homer, Shakespeare, or Virginia Woolf. But while But Virginia or Shakespeare, Woolf. Homer, studying growing popularity of movies based on books. No won No books. on based movies popularitygrowing of hybrid form, is still seen by many as a somewhat dubious dubious many as is still by a somewhat form, seen hybrid ex a deliberate been have well may an adaptation” loves G. Boyum, one of the discipline’s earlier promoters, some some promoters, earlier discipline’s the of G. Boyum, one pline in its own right any longer, literary longer, any own right in its pline three decades ago (15). Nevertheless, adaptation studies has studies adaptation Nevertheless, (15). ago three decades that reading canonical literature had always enjoyed in enjoyed had always literature canonical thatreading the groves of academe. novices to the field. Why bother with literary adaptation adaptation literary with bother Why field. the to novices origi watching or value for books great reading of instead worth studying, is nal subject if the filmsfor even fun? And remained a contested area to this day in spite of the ever ever the of thisarea to inspite day contested a remained nobody questions the legitimacy of film studies filmas a of legitimacy studies the disci questions nobody field of scholarly inquiry. True, the assertion that “nobody “nobody that True, assertion the inquiry. scholarly of field why would one want to focus on the screen versions of of versions screen the on focus to want one would why ------(film). The Turn of the Screw The Turn

Adaptation studies being a fairly recent ad recent fairly a being studies Adaptation 1

Critical references to James’s novella are inconsistent in format, with format, in inconsistent are novella James’s to references Critical

dition to academic curricula having a academic Henry and to James dition

ers” (8). The prominent American philosopher connected connected American philosopher The prominent (8). ers” obvious choice for moviegoers, a few explanatory remarks explanatory a few moviegoers, for choice obvious

sions based on Henry James’s novella “The Turn of the the of “The Turn novella Henry James’s on based sions QUESTIONS OF A DOUBTER A OF QUESTIONS

from the titles of the various film adaptations, which are italicised: “The italicised: are which adaptations, film various of the titles the from may be required.

uses quotation marks around the title of the source text to distinguish it distinguish to text source the of title the around marks quotation uses ple […] who like movies best are among the best read best the are among best like movies who […] ple

the title appearing now in italics, now in quotation marks. This chapter marks. This chapter now in quotation appearing now in italics, the title Stanley Cavell said, almost forty years ago, that “the peo that “the ago, said, almost forty years Stanley Cavell

Screw” (1898). these two aspects of culture at a time when filmstud a time when aspects two culture at these of tion for short, through examining a number of film ver film examining of through a number short, for tion to the cinematic adaptation of literature, literary adapta literature, of adaptation cinematic the to ies had a long way to go before achieving the prestige prestige the achieving before go to way had a long ies

reputation for “seriousness” that may not make him an not that may “seriousness” for reputation 1

Turn of the Screw” (novella); (novella); of the Screw” Turn This chapter explores the potentials and problems related related problems and potentials the explores This chapter FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 46 - - - - (177), we we (177), Romeo and Juliet There is, of course, more to it than it that.to Hearing or more course, of is, There dealing with fairly similar, if not in fact identical, stories. identical, in fact ifsimilar, dealingwith not fairly sad world’s the of literary metamorphoses the describes became it before story love dest creative artists can really help retelling, or recycling, ex recycling, or artists retelling, creative can really help comedy, while in the second tragedy, but with both we are we with both but tragedy, in second the while comedy, death cruel most “the enacting mechanicals” “rude of crew will invariably audience the then Pyramus of Thisby,” and arch-borrower and tireless adapter William Shakespeare adapter tireless and arch-borrower genius, to retell the all-too-familiar narrative in a way that all-too-familiar the narrative in a way retell to genius, laugh where they should cry. Also, if it is “Arthur Brooke’s Brooke’s is “Arthur if Also, it cry. should they where laugh ference who tells the same story, where, and how. If it is a If it how. and where, same story, the tells who ference just as likely to bore as it is to reassure. It does make a dif does It reassure. is to as it bore to asjust likely takes imagination, preferably the creative imagination of a imagination of creative the takes imagination, preferably isting material. They cannot help borrowing and they will they and borrowing isting material. help They cannot that of example the is precisely It adapting. from cease not ing the fateful deaths of those lovers, as Linda Hutcheon as Hutcheon Linda lovers, those of deaths fateful the ing Porto’s version of Masuccio Salernitano’s story” concern story” Salernitano’s Masuccio of version Porto’s will surprise convincingly. But genius or no genius, few few genius, no or genius But will surprise convincingly. will probably yawn before we would either cry or laugh. It cry It laugh. or either would we before yawn will probably watching the same story twice or a hundred times over is over times hundred a twice story same or the watching Luigida of adaptation Bandello’s of Matteo versification - - - - A Midsummer Night’s

each other, “take their life” as Romeo as Romeo life” “take their other, each

having . As the arch prankster goes about setting things setting about . As prankster goes arch the

content when the basic stories have been told and retold a retold and told been have stories basic the when content

and Juliet do in utter despair. In the first instance we have we have first In the instance despair. in utter do Juliet and sics of formalist criticism, there aren’t that many stories that many stories aren’t formalist there criticism, of sics

WHY ADAPTATION? WHY Originality has been regarded as a major standard of aes standardOriginality as of a major has regarded been

fates from from fates plied, he quotes this country proverb: “Jack shall have Jill. shall have “Jack this proverb: country quotes he plied,

tions he has plotted in Shakespeare’s in Shakespeare’s has he plotted tions to go around. One cannot be very original about narrative original very be cannot One about around. go to

thetic merit in the arts at least since romanticism’s cult of of cult romanticism’s in arts the since merit least at thetic North by as demonstrated However, talent. individual the right with yet another dose of some love potion to be ap be to potion love some of dose another with yet right

number of times. As an example, most love stories end the end stories love most As times. an of example, number not William Margaret Atwood? not Shakespeare or

/ Nought shall go ill” (3.2.461–2). All is well if it ends well, well, ends All shall if it ill” is go well / Nought (3.2.461–2). Dream

American exponents of archetypal theory or Russian archetypal clas or theory of American exponents Robin Goodfellow might also say — unless one is dealing one also say — unless might Goodfellow Robin

with a pair of “star cross’d lovers” who, prevented by their their by prevented who, lovers” cross’d with “star a pair of way Puck foresees the blissful outcome of the complica the of blissful the outcome foresees Puck way FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 47 - - - James’s narrower period, the late Victorian era, is is era, Victorian late the period, narrower James’s close mutual relationship between modernist literature literature modernist between relationship mutual close cultural turn the at landscape in first and the half of the Gunning, a ma as Tom modernity, “metaphorise” came to the intermediality by out as pointed cultural recycling” link, The connecting she orist Barbara Straumann (252). in adap investment “own explains, age’s Victorian is the and film came to be a widely recognized feature of the of the feature recognized filmand a be to came widely our with which cultural salient the moments also among keenness on melodrama – or Henry James’s fascination fascination Henry James’s melodrama – or on keenness jor researcher of the cinema, put it (qtd. in Marcus 242). (qtd. it cinema, put the of researcher jor Stephenson’s exploitation of the gutter press, Dickens’s Dickens’s press, gutter the of exploitation Stephenson’s the Brontë sisters’ fondness for popular magazines, popular R. L. for fondness sisters’ Brontë the twentieth century (cf. Marcus 242). So much so, that due that due so, much So Marcus 242). century (cf. twentieth and play,” and “its appeal, popular mechanical force its to has think only to one of point, the see To (252). tation” its “tension between picturing and moving,” cinema in cinema fact moving,” and picturing between “tension its with the theatre and his lifelong attraction to ghost stories. ghost to attraction his and lifelong with theatre the “postmodern culture shows remarkable affinities in its its affinitiesin remarkable shows culture “postmodern - - - - - ? In

popular

As for the selection of the period, it is not by chance that chance by is not it period, the of selection the As for

directors and producers’ favourites when it comes to liter to comes it when favourites producers’ and directors clusion that“[i]n the workings of the human the imagination, of workings the that“[i]n clusion end her major work on literary adaptation with con the literary adaptation on work major her end ary adaptation. And it is not only because modernist texts modernist because only is not ary And it adaptation.

adaptation is the norm, not the exception” (177). exception” the not norm, is the adaptation short, why modernism and why Henry James? why and modernism why short,

WHY MODERNISM – OR EARLY MODERNISM? EARLY MODERNISM – OR WHY have been around long enough to be outside copyright pro copyright outside be to enough long around been have

manding period known as modernism? Why not some not Why known as mandingmodernism? period tection but not quite so long as to have lost contemporary contemporary lost as have to long so quite not but tection

the nineteenth and early twentieth centuries are movie movie are centuries twentieth early and nineteenth the thing more exotically distant or, for that matter, more more that matter, for distant or, exotically thing more

relevance. No, works of Victorian and (early) modernist modernist (early) and Victorian of works No, relevance. relevantly close? And why not someone more more someone not And why close? relevantly

But why watch and discuss film versions based on the on the based discussand versions film watch why But writers have more than that to offer the The thanfilmmaker. the offer that to more have writers whose work dates back to the early days of an equally of de days early the to back dates work whose work of a notoriously difficult, if not in fact elitist, writer elitist,fact not in writer difficult, if notoriously a of work whose practice of “loving rip-off” inspired Hutcheon to to “loving rip-off”Hutcheon of practice inspired whose FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 48 - - - ” (qtd. in Orr 20), i.e. a light- i.e. in Orr 20), ” (qtd. jeu d’esprit discerning audience in order to make their venture both both make venture to their in order discerning audience determination to please his public as well as his critics. It as as his It well critics. hispublic please to determination as “essentially himself described he what create to decision cess. And “The Turn of the Screw” did in fact become in become fact did Screw” the of And “Thecess. Turn culturally and respectable. feasible commercially came to be known as “The Turn of the Screw.” Given its its Given Screw.” the of known as be came to “The Turn and governess a young to ghosts imagined, a pair of or of a suc be to expected be rightly could horrors psychic of a pot-boiler and a and a pot-boiler spirits she sees — the story cannot really be described as described really be cannot story sees — the she spirits gruesome subject matter — the repeated appearance, real appearance, repeated matter — the subject gruesome hearted and witty piece of profitable entertainment that entertainment profitable of witty and hearted piece (and perhaps our own) contemporaries, his gothic tale his gothic contemporaries, own) our perhaps (and for the inexplicable and the other-worldly among James’s James’s among other-worldly the and inexplicable the for much more popular than anything else Henry James ever than popular ever anything Henry more James else much a large but to quality entertainment mained, provide to particularly light-hearted. But due to the insatiable thirst insatiable the to due But particularly light-hearted. the possible corruption of her young charges by the evil the by charges young her of corruption possible the is interesting to note that what is referred to as exper to the is referred that what note to isinteresting with his in coincides his writing period imental roughly film adapters whose dual objective was, and has ever re was, hasever and dualobjective whose filmadapters wrote. No wonder that James’s novella found its way to to way its found novella that James’s wonder No wrote. - - - - - broad and GuyDomville

But then Henry James, while he may not have been “all “all been have not may he while Henry James, then But

does not tend to make a novelist’s fiction eminently suit eminently fiction make to a novelist’s tend not does

employment of interior monologue prepared the ground ground the prepared monologue interior of employment of point of view and unreliable narrators and whose me whose and narrators unreliable and view of point of

and in fact should, serve two masters: high art high masters: two serve in should, and fact able for adaptation to film. The art of fiction is one film.thing, to is fiction of artThe adaptation for able AND WHAT IS “THE TURN OF THE SCREW”? THE OF “THE TURN IS WHAT AND BUT WHO IS HENRY JAMES HENRY IS WHO BUT (1895) the night it premiered in London – only hardened his hardened in London – only premiered it night the (1895)

for much experimental writing in the modernist and post and writing experimental in modernist the much for most ambitious play – he was actually booed when step was actually when play – he booed ambitious most

ma’s main goal since its inception, is another. inception, its main since goal ma’s modern periods, Henry James has always been a writers’ writers’ a been hasHenry James always periods, modern

ping on the stage after stage curtain the the on his on ping fell popularity. That was how he decided to try to his hand at decided That he was how popularity.

things to all men,” was convinced that a real artist was could, convinced things all to men,” the ability to cater for the widest possible audience, cine audience, possible widest the for cater to ability the

ticulous representation of mental processes through the the through processes mental of representation ticulous A major innovator of the realist novel whose consistent use consistent whose realist the novel of innovator A major

writing for the theatre. The fact that he failed with failed his The that fact he theatre. the writing for writer. Awe-inspiring as it may sound, such a reputation a reputation such sound, may as it Awe-inspiring writer. FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 49 - - - - - sums

era composer, 1959, 1984, and 1990) among the makers of makersthe of among 1990) and 1984, 1959, composer, era favourites. of a favourite been has Screw” always the of gen of the Thecombination first is the are threefold. ers all English-speaking countries and in and many parts con all of countries English-speaking as Gore Vidal and Truman Capote (scriptwriters, 1955 and and 1955 (scriptwriters, Capote Truman Vidal and asGore screen adaptation of classic modern literature, “The Turn “The Turn literature, modern classic of adaptation screen WHY SO POPULAR? SO WHY large and enthusiastic audience, while Henry James is, in Henry James while audience, enthusiastic large and (2009). Mention should also be made of such great names great such also of made be should Mention (2009). a found always have horror tales of Gothic (Boyum 4). German and even Czech contribution to the adaptation adaptation the to contribution Czech Germaneven and up the situation perfectly: middle-class cinephiles – the cinephiles – the middle-class perfectly: situation the up tinental Europe (one has to think of the Spanish, French, has think to French, Spanish, the of (one tinental Europe the novella’s film and TV versions. When it comes to the to the comes it filmWhen versions. and TV novella’s the filmmak for Screw” the of “The of Turn attractions the ing ‘quality’ entertainment. The term edutainment re’s lasting appeal and the value of “proven property” property” “proven of lasting value the and appeal re’s Beyond the popularity of the period highlighted above, above, highlighted period the popularitythe of Beyond 1961), Jack Clayton (director, 1961), or Benjamin Britten (op Britten Benjamin or 1961), (director, Clayton Jack 1961), work described above), a literary brand-name guarantee a literary brand-name above), described work - - - 1961), . These include The Innocents, 1971), Colin Firth (1999), Firth Colin (1999), 1971), 2001), and Michelle Dockery Dockery Michelle and 2001), The Turn of the Screw the of The Turn The Others, The Nightcomers,

Looking behind the statistics to assess quality assess to statistics the asLooking well behind The potential value of “The Turn of the Screw” for for Screw” the of “The of Turn value Thepotential

as quantity, we find that the screen credits of the gothic gothic of the credits screen find that the we as quantity,

screen. Jamesian scholar J. Sarah Koch counted no less less no Sarah counted J. Koch scholar Jamesian screen. by generations of filmmakers who have adapted it to the to it the adapted filmmakers of have who generations by

lar with filmmakers as the average Henry James story. Henry James lar with filmmakersaverage as the more items have been added since Koch’s list was com Koch’s since added been have items more

percent of James’s collected fiction published in the de in the published fiction collected James’s of percent piled, which raises the total to nineteen. Of the nearly 180 180 nearly the Of raises total nineteen. the to which piled, the leading parts leading the of tale’s adaptations boast some really glamorous names in really glamorous some boast adaptations tale’s the Screw.” Given that this gothic novella fills a mere two fillstwo mere a that novella this gothic Given Screw.” the

than sixteen television and feature films based on the filmson the based feature and than television sixteen the cinema has been duly recognized and fully exploited fully and recognized exploited hasduly cinema the been

novella before 2002 (Koch 351–4). To this number three three this number To 351–4). (Koch 2002 before novella finitive Library of America edition, page for frame for “The page edition, of Library America finitive

fifteen percent has thus been indebted to “The Turn of to “The indebted hasbeen thus percent fifteen films inspired by James’s entire fictional output, roughly roughly output, fictional entire James’s by films inspired

Marlon Brando ( Brando Marlon Nicole Kidman (

Ingrid Bergman (1959), Deborah Kerr ( Kerr Deborah Ingrid Bergman (1959), Turn of the Screw” has been over seven times as times popu seven has over Screw” been the of Turn FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 50 , - - - mise-en-scène in both film and novel or novella. Here is Here novella. or filmnovel in both and direct speech (namely commentary by voice-over) commentaryspeech (namely voice-over) by direct convey a character’s point of view not just through just through not of view point a character’s convey but also by means of a range of other devices, includ of a range of other devices, but also by means [In certain respects] film resembles narrative fiction fiction narrative resembles film respects] certain [In more than drama. […] Like narrative fiction, film can narrative fiction, drama. […] Like than more 253) sequences. (Straumann mind scenes and dream ing camera angle, focal length, music, music, length, focal ing camera angle, An important difference between plays on the one one on the plays between An difference important point of view of scenery during a theatrical performance, the attention of of attention the during a theatrical performance, scenery hand and films as well as narrative fiction on the other is other the on hand films and fiction well as narrative as ploited by writers of stories and makers of films to much filmsmuch makers and of to stories of writers by ploited that while the attention — the “gaze”— of the theatre-goer theatre-goer the “gaze”— of attention — the the that while is controlled. as novel-reader as the well cinema-goer the is free to roam from actor to actor or even from actor to to actor from even or actor to actor from roam is to free ries in particular to the world of film up of in a summed as in particularries world the to intermediality: on handbook recent with fiction but not with the theatre is the importance is importance the theatre not with the but with fiction sto HenryJames’s and general in fiction connects what The power to direct audience attention is something ex is something attention audience direct to The power ------

The last, but perhaps most important, advantage of of important, advantage most perhaps The last, but The second selling point of “The Turn of the Screw” has Screw” the of “The of Turn point selling The second

damentally multimodal media combining the visual the combining damentally and media multimodal

ery. The aspect that the moving picture has in common hasinThe picture common aspect that moving the ery. auditory effects of dialogue, acting performance, and scen and actingof performance, dialogue, effects auditory

atrical play. This advantage of fiction over drama be over may fiction This of advantage atrical play. adapters. While extension and abbreviation are welcome are welcome abbreviation and While extension adapters.

a full-length movie, a novel of several hundred pages will pages hundred several of a novel movie, a full-length surprising – after all film and theatre are alike being in fun

shares with fiction but not with its first cousinthe theits first not with but withshares fiction movie fans – can enjoy the thrills with the story fans – can a psychic movie enjoy of

means of updating intermedial appropriation, working working appropriation, intermedial updating means of pect essentially important for literary adaptation that film literary adaptation for important essentially pect

the clear conscience of those appreciating high culture. high appreciating those of conscience clear the to the major genre of narrative fiction. There is an as There narrative fiction. of genre major the to ter of a short story are not always felt to be enough to fill to enough be to felt always are not story a short of ter to do with its ideal length. While the plot and subject mat subject and While length. plot the ideal with its do to require too much surgical intervention on the part of the part the the of on surgical intervention much too require

industry’s second largest target audience after teenage after teenage audience target largest second industry’s James’s gothic story for literary adapters is that it belongs belongs is that it literary adapters for story gothic James’s

vella can make life a whole lot easier for the filmmaker. the for easier lot can makevella a whole life with a narrative of optimum dimensions such as no the such dimensions optimum withof narrative a FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 51 - - - (2009).

The Turn of the Screw Screw the of TheTurn and , (2006) This selection will clarifyus to to This enable extent the selection count of the incidents befalling her. Working with these with these Working befalling her. incidents the of count story and its interpretation unanswered. These are best arebest These unanswered. interpretation its and story summed up by Jamesian scholar John Tibbets: sus creative appropriation as criteria of evaluating the the evaluating as criteria of appropriation suscreative so In doing Screw.” the of “The of Turn versions screen some draw to will we in be position a Eventually sequels. AMBIGUITY AND POINT OF VIEW VIEW OF AMBIGUITY POINT AND NOVELLA SOURCE THE IN to either validate or discredit the first-person narrator’s ac narrator’s first-person the discredit or validate either to legit nature and general the about conclusions tentative it leaves a whole lot of vexing questions concerning the the concerning questions vexing of lot a whole leaves it imate uses of literary adaptation. of uses imate films we will look at the relative usefulness of fidelity ver fidelity of usefulness relative at filmsthe we willlook In a Dark Place Place Dark a In which each adaptation translates James’s consistent refusal consistent James’s translates adaptation each which and as prequels such will adaptation we fringes of the visit The chilling effect of James’s gothic tale lies in the fact fact in that gothic tale the lies James’s of The chilling effect

- - - (1999), The Innocents

The Turn of the Screw Screw the of The Turn

(1971), The Nightcomers

of view is strictly limited to the perspective of a possibly possibly a of perspective the to is strictly view limited of

of view, whereas the film maker does so by deploying the the deploying by so film the does maker whereas view, of controls our attention by manipulating narrative point manipulating narrative point by attention our controls

about transferring to the screen such a key element of of element a key such transferring screen the to about a narrative like “The Turn of the Screw” where the point point the where Screw” the of likea narrative “The Turn AND FOR WHAT PURPOSE? WHAT FOR AND WHICH PARTICULAR FILMS PARTICULAR WHICH (1961),

unreliable narrator – the perceptions of the governess tell governess the of perceptions narrator – the unreliable tions of James’s gothic novella.

than it is with live performances. This performances. than is especially is with with so live it technical means at his or her disposal. What her histechnical means really at or matters

the same extent. It is of little importance that the writer that writer the importance little is of It same extent. the ing primarily on three, to examine how adapters go go adapters primarilying examine to three, how on

reservation the same can be said for the best film best the adapta same can the for said be reservation ing her own disturbing (or disturbed) story. With certain With story. disturbed) own (or disturbing her ing

is that in either case our attention is under greater control control greater is under case attention our is that in either James’s “The Turn of the Screw” as its limited point of of point as limited its Screw” the of “The Turn James’s

view. The films to be considered include: include: The filmsconsidered be to view. We will look at five of the nineteen adaptations, focus adaptations, of nineteen the five at will look We FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 52 - - - - - endorsed and elaborated on by James’s ‘official’ biographer biographer ‘official’ James’s by on elaborated and endorsed In this it view come. to decades for prevailed explanation a series of straight ghost stories), current critical interpre current stories), ghost straight of series a ambiguity itself” story’s the on value supreme placed and actuality supernatural the (James had of in written fact ghosts are real or just figments of her imagination” neither neither imagination” her of figments just are real or ghosts have [recently] shied away from the ‘either/or’ approach approach ‘either/or’ the from away shied [recently] have like Ezra Pound or Virginia Woolf prepared the ground ground the prepared Virginia or Woolf Pound like Ezra victim. an “apparition return the occasional to With her (Bloom 17). This means that the question whether “the “the whether This means that question the 17). (Bloom from deconstruction and post-Freudian theory, “critics “critics theory, post-Freudian and deconstruction from for the ascendance of Freudian interpretations explain interpretations Freudian of ascendance the for thatdestroyed “haunted” and Miles, boy her the to ferred made by artists and intellectuals of the modernist period artists period by modernist the made of intellectuals and then and in 1939 Wilson Edmund American critic mous unrequited love for her employer, the Master, and transand Master, the employer, her for love unrequited tations prefer to remain noncommittal. Taking their cue cue their Taking remain noncommittal. to prefer tations ing the mysteries surrounding Bly with the governess’s governess’s with the Bly surrounding mysteries the ing fa the by explicated First “hysteria.” repression-induced her instincts, by sex aroused repressed governess’s is the in the belief author’s implied the ist” accepting theory Leon Edel in the 1950s and 60s, the “non-apparitionist” “non-apparitionist” the 60s, and in 1950s the Edel Leon - - - - - happened? What transpired in the in the What transpired happened? has

das? Is she sexually repressed, and transferring her and transferring repressed, das? Is she sexually or is she subjecting them to her own obsessive agen them to her own obsessive or is she subjecting and are they now somehow re-enacting those activ they now somehow re-enacting and are seemed to the governess, or willing go-betweens? go-betweens? or willing to the governess, seemed fantasies onto Miles? And finally, the central ques the central And finally, Miles? onto fantasies just figments of her imagination? (103) her imagination? of just figments past between Quint and Jessel? Were the children the children Were and Jessel? Quint between past Successive generations of critics have offered their their offered have critics of generations Successive tion which arises from all this – are the ghosts real or the ghosts real this – are all arises from which tion ities? Is the governess protecting them from real evil, real them from Is the governess protecting ities? involved? If so, were they the ‘innocents’ they first they they the ‘innocents’ were If so, involved? Worse, were they sexually abused by Quint and Jessel, and Jessel, Quint abused by they sexually were Worse, What, exactly, exactly, What,

other-worldly influences could do all sorts of appalling do appalling of allsorts could influences other-worldly contemporaries were ready to accept the proposition that proposition the accept to ready were contemporaries

and more sceptical and secularised, psychological explana secularised, and sceptical psychological more and prised a legitimate subject of scientific research, James’s James’s research, scientific of subject a legitimate prised

tions replaced belief in the existence of the supernatural the or of in existence the belief replaced tions things to the living. Later, as the new century grew more more century grew as new the Later, living. things the to

its ability to interfere with our worldly lives. Observations Observations lives. worldly with our interfere to ability its various answers. At a time when psychic phenomena com phenomena psychic when a time At answers. various FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 53 - - - The The Innocents

succeeds in mimicking the eye-movements of a of in mimicking eye-movements the succeeds

dubious point of view and thus throwing doubt on her her on throwing thus doubt and view of point dubious omniscient, position, the ghost usually ghost the which disappears, position, omniscient, alternative technique of creating the effect of subjective subjective of effect the creating of technique alternative an omniscient stance (cf. Boyum 87), camerawork in camerawork Boyum 87), (cf. stance an omniscient story of the ghosts. Although the medium of film nor of is medium the Although ghosts. the of story as originally the anony Giddens, character – Miss single gaze across the screen to locate the apparition in the next in next the apparition the locate to screen the gaze across AMBIGUITY AND POINT OF VIEW OF AMBIGUITYPOINT AND ADAPTATIONS THE IN (1961) puts camera angle and editing to the best possible possible best the to editing and angle camera puts (1961) frame. When after this the camera shifts to its “natural,” after frame.When this shifts camera “natural,” the its to foreground position in deep-focus two-shot, clearly show clearly two-shot, in deep-focus position foreground matching is employed, in which case we follow Giddens’s Giddens’s follow case we in which is employed, matching mally disposed towards the objective viewpoint and thus thus and viewpoint objective the mally towards disposed by is named in film. the Thisachieved is governess mous point of view is provided by the editing where eye-line eye-line where editing the by is provided view of point use in limiting the viewer’s perspective to the governess’s governess’s the to perspective use in viewer’s limiting the the camera usually presenting the apparitions from her her from apparitions the usually camera the presenting ing the governess and the ghost in one single frame. An single in one ghost the and governess the ing Innocents The “classic,” early, film version, Jack Clayton’s Clayton’s Jack version, film early, The “classic,”

- - - - -

After all, James himself sends out mixed messages messages mixed Afterout all, himself sends James

our perspective fully coincides with the first-person nar with first-person the fully coincides perspective our

of secondary characters who introduce the governess’s governess’s the introduce who characters secondary of could nor should be decided (Tibbetts 103).

governess’s mercy, deprived of any unbiased, external unbiased, any in of deprived mercy, governess’s between reader and story in the frame narrative. We thus in frame story the and We narrative. reader between

licating the source text’s reduced point of view and the the and view of point reduced text’s source the licating his friends with reading out his (and, formerly, Miles and and Miles formerly, his (and, his out with friends reading

have an a Christmas unnamed at guest have party recount formation either to confirm or question her story because because story her question or confirm to either formation

possessed by an omniscient narrator. Let us see whether whether Let us see narrator. an by omniscient possessed the film adaptations to be considered are capable of rep of capable are considered be to filmthe adaptations

resulting ambiguities. resulting reader being denied privileged access to the ultimate truth ultimate the to access privileged denied being reader

rator’s – the governess’s – restricted point of view. Thus the view. of point governess’s – restricted rator’s – the ing how the other frame-narrator, Douglas, entertains entertains Douglas, frame-narrator, other the how ing

ing two additional narrators, a respectable sounding pair sounding a respectable narrators, additional two ing first person narrative, as well as placing a forty-year span forty-year a placing well as as narrative, firstperson

Flora’s) long-dead governess’s age-old manuscript. Once Once manuscript. age-old governess’s long-dead Flora’s) we enter the main narrative, we are completely left at the the at left main are completely the we narrative, enter we

when he distances us from the governess’s story by insert by story governess’s the distances us from he when “essential ambiguity” of James’s gothic tale is upheld by the by tale is upheld gothic James’s of ambiguity” “essential FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 54

- - - - The Turn of the Screw the of TheTurn . True, in Ben Bolt’s Bolt’s in Ben True, . The ambiguity resulting from the alteration of sub of alteration the from The ambiguity resulting The Innocents overlooks the benighted garden from Quint’s signature signature Quint’s from garden benighted the overlooks occupy the spirit’s vantage point (cf. Tibbetts 112). The 112). Tibbetts (cf. point vantage spirit’s the occupy the perhaps and Miss Giddens are inside that they cept angles or revelatory episodes that could in any important in important any that could episodes revelatory or angles atop the tower where his apparition was first spotted by was firstspotted his apparition where tower the atop safety of the house. But this is an exceptional moment, moment, this is an But exceptional house. the safety of ghostly effect of this is that not only does at least one of one least at does only of this not is that effect ghostly looking out of our (camera-) eyes. Ghosts are real – ex Ghosts eyes. (camera-) our of out looking Clayton’s film, but nowhere else in the adaptations sur adaptations else in the nowhere film,but Clayton’s ee the have may we moment passing one just for (1999) movie-goer, too. movie-goer, jective and objective camera work is not quite unique to to unique quite is not work camera objective and jective position as the camera follows the desperate governess governess desperate the follows as camera the position previously saw Quint, and so the viewer is now forced to to forced is now viewer the so Quint, and saw previously the governess. Here it is also from above that the camera that camera the is also above from it Here governess. the the evil spirits exist, but that he might exist in our heads, exist heads, in our might that he evilthe exist, but spirits rushing to Miles to lead the wayward boy back to the the to back boy wayward the lead to rushing Miles to in view of point Quint’s sharing of ghostly the feeling rie which is not reinforced either by similarly telling camera similarly camera by telling either reinforced is not which veyed here is it used to the same dizzying effect as it is it same dizzyingis the to used as effect is it here veyed - - -

But there are at least two exceptions. One is when is when One exceptions. two least at are there But The other instance where cinematography gives sub gives cinematography instance where The other

dow to hide herself from Flora and Miles in a game, the the in Miles a game, and Flora from herself hide to dow of the film, where Miss Giddens and Miles are seen from seen from Miles are and Giddens Miss film, the where of

except that it is not Giddens but we, the viewers, who first who viewers, the we, but Giddens is not that it except above. The high-angle shot could be mistaken for objec mistaken be for could shot The high-angle above.

stance to at least one of the ghosts comes near the end end the near comes ghosts the of one least at to stance spot the face. So there is something we know, or seem to to seem or know, we is something there So face. the spot

seen the phantom (cf. Tibbetts 112). Tibbetts (cf. phantom the seen suggests that it is Giddens, and Giddens only, who has who only, Giddens and is Giddens, that it suggests

governess is terrified to see the dark face of a menacing menacing of a face see dark the to is terrified governess know, before Giddens takes notice of it. In other words, words, In other it. of takesnotice Giddens before know,

Quint’s ghost appears, or seems to appear, for the second second the for appear, to seems or appears, ghost Quint’s male figure appearing in the window. This would neatly fit neatly would This maleappearing figure in the window.

the camera here shifts into omniscient mode to validate, validate, to mode shifts omniscient into here camera the time. Stepping between a thick curtain and a French win curtain a thick between a French and Stepping time.

tive camera work producing omniscient point of view. view. of point omniscient producing work camera tive is positioned at the precise location where Miss Giddens Miss Giddens where location precise the at is positioned

rather than discredit, Giddens’s growing conviction that conviction growing than Giddens’s rather discredit, in with the effect of the subjective shots described above, above, described shots subjective of the in with effect the

Bly is haunted. This, however, is unlikely to be the case the be as is to unlikely camera the This, however, FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 55 - . This in most of the other other the of in most The Turn of the Screw the of The Turn The Innocents dent attraction to the governess, whose feminine charms feminine whose governess, the to attraction dent of her gyrating nightgown pictorially illustrating what illustrating what pictorially gyrating her nightgown of are left untouched by her seemingderangement. as Miss Giddens is when she is photographed ina swirl is photographed she is when as Miss Giddens is in as she ashelpless same dizzying confusion of interpretations as they are as are they interpretations of dizzyingsame confusion is she where institution in a mental her placing by story WHAT COMES AFTER… COMES WHAT by a young specialist, Dr Fisher. It is to be mentioned that mentioned be is to It specialist, DrFisher. young a by locked up for forensic examination after her causing the the causing after examination her forensic for up locked her name suggests: total physical and mental giddiness. mental and total physical name suggests: her forced to share with Miss Giddens in Jack Clayton’s movie. movie. Clayton’s in Jack with share Miss Giddens to forced the good doctor’s scientific curiosity is fuelled by evihis is curiosity fuelled scientific doctor’s good the is submitted to a series of diagnostic interviews conducted conducted interviews diagnostic of a series to is submitted recent adaptation, Tim Fywell’s Tim Fywell’s adaptation, recent film versions, viewers are nowhere else thrown into the the else thrown into nowhere are viewers versions, film Although the figure of the governess is made out to be just be to out is made governess of the figure the Although violent death of young Miles. At the psychiatric ward she she ward psychiatric the At Miles. young of death violent 2009 version endeavours to follow up the governess’s life life governess’s the up follow to endeavours version 2009 The single possible exception could be the novella’s most most novella’s the be could exception possible The single ------, on the other hand, provides further, liter further, hand, provides other the , on leaves the viewer just as helpless and dizzy and as just helpless viewer the leaves

The Innocents

of contrary factual evidence reinforcing the anti-appari the reinforcing factual contrary of evidence obviously left behind by the ghost. The presence of this of The presence ghost. the by behind left obviously

obsessive behaviour. and here we see her smear between her fingers a teardrop teardrop a fingers her between smear her see we here and

ally tangible evidence of the ghostly presence. For example, example, For presence. ghostly the of ally evidence tangible mer valet’s miniature portrait in a box she chances upon upon chances she miniature in box a portrait valet’s mer

physical trait of a psychic phenomenon runs face in the phenomenon psychic a of trait physical phasisingthe governess’s sexual repression behind her that Giddens’s ability to provide an incredulous Mrs Grose Mrs Grose an incredulous provide to ability that Giddens’s tionist interpretation. An example of the latter is the fact fact is the latter the of An example interpretation. tionist the employment of the subjective camera position limit position camera subjective the of employment the

ing the actual, now the imagined existence of the ghosts, ghosts, the of imagined actual, the the ing existence now in a hidden room. With material evidence now suggest now material evidence With room. in a hidden

rationally explained by her previous discovery of the for the of discovery previous her by explained rationally ing our perspective to the new governess’s point of view. view. of point governess’s new the to perspective our ing

But then, after the apparition vanishes, a dubious Giddens Giddens a dubious vanishes, after apparition the then, But Miss Jessel’s ghost is at first shown crying at a desk through cryingthrough desk shown first isat a at ghost Miss Jessel’s

with a precise description of Quint’s appearance is quite is quite appearance Quint’s of description with a precise walks up to the desk followed by the now objective camera, objective now the by followed walksdesk the to up

way contradict the film’s anti-apparitionist agenda em agenda anti-apparitionist film’s the contradict way The Innocents FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 56 - - - Is this newest film version of James’s novella all about allabout novella James’s of version film Is this newest

ogy by an oppressed woman (!) who shows him that there him that there shows who (!) woman ogyan oppressed by ess to the doctor a little earlier may not have come true. come have not may earlier a little doctor the to ess in evil, evil that will believe endure don’t If you entists. are more things in heaven and earth and than in things of in heaven dreamt more are all of a sudden morphs into the exact likeness of a leering leering a of likeness exact the into morphs allsudden a of her as a child killer. The nondescript policeman opening opening policeman The nondescript askiller. a child her a warning govern the by made whether wondering left 2009). (Fywell, you” for back coming keep (Sutcliffe)? Is it then a topical parable about an arrogant about parable topical a it then Is (Sutcliffe)? Quint, a face familiar to the good doctor from another another from familiar doctor Quint, a face good the to male doctor being taught an object lesson in parapsychol lesson an object taught being male doctor photograph examined by him earlier. The viewer is now is now The viewer him examined by earlier. photograph upturned” as the doctor is described by a TV-reviewer TV-reviewer a by is described upturned”as doctor the Shortly before the arrival of the police wagon, she had this she wagon, arrival the police the of before Shortly the back door of the patrol wagon for the female prisoner prisoner female the for wagon patrol the of door back the “Thank fate: her about apprehensive Dr Fisher to say to will in Quint, he believe don’t If you ages... the throughout where the governess is led away from the hospital ward to to ward hospital the from away is led governess the where awaiting chamber death the or cell a prison be must what you for your concern, but it’s you I’m sorry for. You sci You sorry for. I’m you it’s but concern, your for you “a cocky young man of science ha[ving] his certainties ha[ving] his certainties man science of young cocky “a

- - - - -

What happens during the sessions istruly remarka sessions the during What happens

dispelled by the presence of the young scientist, whose so whose scientist, young the of presence the by dispelled

experience clearly disposes him to listen to his patient’s his to patient’s him listen disposes to clearly experience out of nowhere in a photograph of Bly House thumbtacked thumbtacked House Bly of in photograph a nowhere of out

experience quite similar to those recounted by his patient. his by patient. similar recounted quite those to experience a straightforward medical interpretation — the non-ap interpretation — the medical a straightforward

ambiguity of her narrative is, however, for a long while while long a for however, is, narrative her of ambiguity ber comments and rational incredulity seem to give the lie lie the give to seem incredulity rational and comments ber

ble. The governess’s account, shown through intermittent intermittent through shown account, The governess’s ble. (a central motif of Ben Bolt’s ITV drama made precisely ITV drama precisely made Bolt’s Ben of motif central (a

patch in the photo disappears as Dr Fisher looks again, the looks disappears as Dr Fisher in photo the patch paritionist one. But then Dr Fisher himself undergoes an himself undergoes Dr Fisher then But one. paritionist

to a display board in his office. Although the mysterious mysterious the Although in his board office. a display to to the disturbed woman’s ghost story and thus reinforce reinforce thus and story ghost disturbed the woman’s to

the least likely agents – such as innocent children. The The children. as innocent agents – such likely least the ten years before Fywell’s BBC-adaptation) or as a shock or BBC-adaptation) Fywell’s before years ten

ther be read as symptoms of her repression-induced mania repression-induced her of as symptoms read be ther narrative with more sympathy than he has shown so far. than far. so sympathy has he shown withnarrative more

ing report of how the Evil One can manifest itself through can through Evil One the manifest itself how of report ing flashbacks, of the spooky events unfolding at Bly canei Bly at unfolding events spooky of the flashbacks,

First he sees the ghostly figure of Quint suddenly appear appear suddenly of Quint figure ghostly the sees he First This is followed then by the film’s concluding sequence sequence concluding film’s the by then This is followed FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 57

- - - - ?

In a Dark Place The Nightcomers

a realistic account of how emo how of a realistic account and

other, earlier, directors promote their various interpreta various their promote directors earlier, other, once the imagination of a suggestive female is allowed is allowed female a suggestive imagination the of once age? Is it permissible that Fywell should play a feminist a feminist play that should Fywell permissible Is it age? reading in his against off pop-psychological a agenda titled adaptation recent more the and story might be truer than the scientific convictions of a pa of a convictions than truer be might scientific story the FIDELITY THROUGH APPROPRIATION FIDELITY THROUGH LIFE-SAVER A AS ADAPTATION OR have dreamt of the issues raised by the adapter of a later a later of adapter the raised by issues the of dreamt have feminist allegory of how an apparently groundless ghost ghost groundless an apparently how of allegory feminist purportedly based on a well-known original cashing in on a well-known on based purportedly Screw” leaves the viewer wavering between two stories — a stories — a two between wavering viewer the leaves Screw” tions, from the Freudian to the politically correct, as it is as it correct, politically the to Freudian the from tions, triarchal institution, institution, triarchal like mass hysteria something can create contagion tional a filmadaptation, for legitimate is it then runto But riot. hardly could author whose story a classic on terpretations respectively done in the prequel called in prequel the done respectively its cultural prestige, in order to force its own, updated, in own,updated, its force to in order culturalits prestige, James-film as seen above? Are we to accept how a host of host a how accept to we Are above? seen as James-film With its closing shots, Fywell’s sequel to “The Turn of the the of “The to Turn sequel Fywell’s shots, closing its With - - -

deeply disturbing ambiguity. No, Fywell and his crew did did his and Fywell crew No, ambiguity. disturbing deeply

original by adding new interpretations to its old letter. interpretations original new adding by of theoretical interpretations unknown to, or irrelevant erary narrative makes a credible attempt at telling us what telling at attempt erary narrative makes a credible coming back? In any case, this sequel to the governess’s lit governess’s the to case, In any this back? sequel coming as for the innocent doctor, evils of her own making evilsher keep of doctor, innocent the as for

sad story of an impressionable young doctor influenced by influenced doctor young an impressionable of story sad happens after... after the death of Miles, where all previous all previous where Miles, of after death the after... happens

his narrowly materialist philosophy? Or is it rather the the rather Or isit materialist his philosophy? narrowly for, both Henry James and Jack Clayton, such as ap the such Clayton, Jack and Henry James both for,

mained faithful to the — deeply ambiguous — spirit of the the of ambiguous — spirit mained faithful the — deeply to parently feminist twist given to its source by one possible possible one by source twist its feminist to given parently

though, is the literary source’s and its classic film version’s version’s film classic its and literary is source’s the though, the delusional ravings of a sexy patient for whom, as much as much whom, for sexya patient of ravings delusional the

not ‘vandalise’ James’s story, as the reviewer quoted above above quoted as reviewer the story, ‘vandalise’ James’s not interpretation of Fywell’s adaptation. What is preserved What is preserved adaptation. Fywell’s of interpretation

would have us believe (Sutcliff). To the contrary: they re contrary: they To the (Sutcliff). us believe have would versions leave the story off, but also after the ascendance also but after ascendance the off, story the leave versions FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 58 - - - to really interpretation of filmic If neither scholarly critics, nor the author himself can, author the nor critics, scholarly If neither or will, offer a definitive interpretation, then what is the iswhat then interpretation, definitive a will, or offer own her his or create to can on go ess intent on making sense of her unsettling experiences. unsettling experiences. making her on of sense intent ess adapter to do? He or she is perhaps best off accepting the the accepting off best is perhaps she or He do? to adapter story where he referred to “The Turn of the Screw” as “a as “a Screw” the of “The to Turn referred he where story genuity” meant “to catch those not easily caught” (21). Left (21). easily caught” not those catch “to meant genuity” genre-confusion” (Orr 20). fairy tale, pure and simple” (qtd. in Orr 21). Such trivialSuch in Orr 21). (qtd. fairy simple” and tale, pure make of his story is no better off than the poor govern than off poor better the hismake is story no of primary to interpret, for after all for everythingprimary is already interpret, to pot-boiler.” This he later made public in a preface to the the to in preface a public made This later he pot-boiler.” tale as an “excursion into chaos” and then as a “piece of in of as a “piece then and chaos” into tale as an “excursion himself what tryingauthor the learnfrom to interpretation” (qtd. in Straumann 251). The adapter then then The adapter in Straumann 251). (qtd. interpretation” ising self-evaluation seems to be contradicted by another another by contradicted be to seems self-evaluation ising his gothic describes he where in same preface, the remark Foucauldian maxim that “[t]here is absolutely nothing nothing is absolutely maximFoucauldian that “[t]here with these mutually exclusive testimonials, the adapter adapter the testimonials, exclusive mutually with these We have seen how, in a private letter, he referred to “The to referred he letter, in a private how, seen have We Turn of the Screw” as a simple money-making venture – “a venture – “a money-making asa simple Screw” the of Turn sow to was happy “James is right: The scholar Jamesian - - - - than enough commentary. Henry James. more real

the real Henry James and, more impor more and, real Henry the James the ‘correct’ interpretation of his novella? his novella? of interpretation ‘correct’ the is is

But who who But

der to encounter the

of the most critically self-reflexive novelists of all time, novelists critically self-reflexive most the of excluding the other two. In all this confusion, one would would In all two. one this other confusion, the excluding credulously “apparitionist” through the squarely “non-ap own interpretation of “The Turn of the Screw” from the the from Screw” the of “The of Turn owninterpretation be tempted to suggest that the adapter should return to should that adapter the suggest to tempted be

being sexually abused can even more deeply traumatise deeply more can sexually even abused being left behind more than enough comments on his ghostly his ghostly on comments than enough more behind left

how witnessing Freud’s “primal scene” can leave a deep deep a can leave “primal scene” Freud’s witnessing how may seem very fishy to those who go to the cinema in or in cinema to go the who to those fishy very seem may

mately valid interpretation. And indeed, Henry James, one one Henry James, And indeed, valid interpretation. mately paritionist” to the consistently noncommittal, each each noncommittal, consistently the to paritionist” two films. In that light, such practices of filmic updating of filmic practices films.two such In that light, teenage girls as hammered home by the latter of these these of latter the by girls home as hammered teenage the rub: he left us with left he rub: the

the good old notion of authorial intention as ulti the intention authorial of notion old good the tantly, what

novella for the filmmaker to go by. But there, precisely, is precisely, there, But by. filmmaker the go to for novella imprint on children as illustrated by the former, or how how or former, the by as illustrated children on imprint

As described above, each critical school has offered its has offered critical school each above, As described James surely knew little, and probably thought less, of of less, thought probably and little, knew surely James FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 59

- to the adapt

disrespect to its maker. Quite the contrary. Creative ad Creative contrary. the Quite maker. its to disrespect

can be best achieved through ignoring the letter. That may letter. the ignoring through achieved canbest be environment’” (251). If biological adaptation ensures the the ensures adaptation If biological (251). environment’” changing expectations of a changing audience. The very a changing audience. of changing expectations original the greatest service by making by service originalit greatest the aptation, also known as appropriation, will render the the will render also as known appropriation, aptation,

should be disloyal to the spirit of the source text or show show or text source the of spirit the to disloyal be should suitable for a new purpose or to a different context or or context a different to or purpose a new for suitable

science of life, where to adapt means, as we are reminded are reminded means, as we adapt to where life, of science by Straumann, “‘to make fit,’ ‘to adjust,’ to ‘alter,’ ‘to make‘to ‘alter,’ to adjust,’ ‘to makeStraumann, fit,’ by “‘to

physical survival of a species in its natural environment, it it survival natural in its environment, a species physical of the source text. This does not mean that moviemakers that mean moviemakers This text. not does source the

the “cultural survival” of a source text. Fidelity to the spirit spirit the to survival” Fidelity text. “cultural the a source of is the work of appropriative adaptation that can guarantee adaptation appropriative of work isthe

well be the final the be in well literary adaptation. screw turn of the word adaptation is, after all, borrowed from biology, the the biology, from is, after all, borrowed adaptation word FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 60

- - - -

— Im — The In Image and : A Reader’s — . Independent Digital . Independent Eds. Steve Chibnall and Eds.Steve . Ed. Gabriele Rippl. Berlin: De De Berlin: Rippl. . Ed. Gabriele The Turn of the Screw Screw the of The Turn The Turn of the Screw the of The Turn The Independent Ed. Gabriele Rippl. Berlin: De Gruyter, Gruyter, De Berlin: Rippl. Ed. Gabriele Music . — James’s Handbookof Intermediality: Literature Music British Horror Cinema. Cinema. Horror British .” Sound London and New York: Continuum, 2009. Print. 2009. Continuum, York: New and London — — age nocents Guide. Gruyter, 2015. 249–267. Print. 249–267. 2015. Gruyter, mediality.” Sound Screw, BB1 [sic].” [sic].” BB1 Screw, ture of Ambiguity inture of Handbookof Intermediality: Literature Julian Petley. London: Routledge, 2002. 99–116. Print. 99–116. 2002. Routledge, London: Julian Petley. News and Media, 31 Dec. 2009. Web. 14 Jan. 2016. Web. 2009. Dec. Media, 31 and News 2015. 240–248. Print. 240–248. 2015. Orr, Leonard. Leonard. Orr, Straumann, Barbara. “Adaptation-Remediation-Trans Barbara. Straumann, Turn of the The Television: “LastNight’s Tom. Sutcliffe, Marcus, Laura. “Film and Modernist Literature.” Marcus, Laura. Literature.” Modernist “Filmand Tibbetts, John C. “The Old Dark House: The Architec C. House: “The Dark John Tibbetts, Old - - - Cal Henry James . Ed. Harold . Ed. Harold New York and and York New Complete Stories, Henry James Ed. Susan M. Griffin. Lexington: Double Exposure: Fiction into Film. into Fiction Exposure: Double A Theory of Adaptation. The Viewed: World Reflections on the Ontol Enlarged Edition. Cambridge, Massachu Cambridge, Edition. Enlarged Ed. David Bromwich. New York: The Library York: New Bromwich. Ed. David

. Print.

ogy of Film. ogy of of America, 1996. 635–740. Print. 635–740. America, 1996. of cutta: Seagull Print. 1989. Books, setts and London, England: Harvard University Press, Press, Harvard England: University London, setts and Goes to the Movies. the Goes to 1892-1898. 9–10. Print. Milton Park: 2006. Routledge, Print. Bloom. Broomall, PA: Chelsea House Publishers, 2001. 2001. Publishers, House Chelsea PA: Broomall, Bloom. 1979 The University Press of Kentucky, 2002. 335–358. Print. 335–358. 2002. Kentucky, of Press The University

WORKS CITED: WORKS

Cavell, Stanley. James, Henry. “The Turn of the Screw.” Screw.” the of “The Turn Henry. James,

Boyum, Joy Gould. Gould. Boyum, Joy Bloom, Harold. Introduction.

Koch, Sarah. “A Henry James Filmography.” Filmography.” Henry James Sarah.Koch, “A Hutcheon, Linda. FILM & CULTURE–FARKAS–HENRY JAMES IN THE CINEMA... 61

- 1971. Feature Film. Feature 1971.

Dir. Ben Bolt. ITV, 1999. TV-Film. 1999. ITV, Bolt. Ben Dir. Dir. Tim Fywell. BBC, 2009. TV-Film. BBC, Tim Fywell. Dir. Dir. Michael Winner. Scimitar Produc Winner. Michael Dir. Dir. Donato Rotunno. Armada Rotunno. Pictures, Donato Dir. Dir. Jack Clayton. 20th Century Fox, 1961. Century Fox, 20th Clayton. Jack Dir.

tions/Avco Embassy Pictures, Embassy tions/Avco Feature Film. Feature 2006. Feature Film. Feature 2006.

FILMOGRAPHY: In a Dark Place.

The Turn of the Screw. Screw. the of The Turn The Turn of the Screw. Screw. the of The Turn

The Nightcomers. TheInnocents. Representation of Australian Aborigines in Australian film

CECILIA GALL | Film & Culture ► 62 FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 63 - - - - - The dominant early representations of Aborigines by by Aborigines of representations early The dominant or even as a grotesque figure dressed in European cloth European in figure dressed asgrotesque a even or corporate the history preceding the white invasion into a lasting impact on public thinking. “White Australia public on a lasting has impact the in 1988, developed history” was slogan the a black by historians, such as Henry Reynolds, who aimed to in to aimed who as historians, Henryby Reynolds, such history. The arrival of the First Fleet in 1788 started The arrival a new in 1788 Fleet First the history. of forced assimilation, loss of land and culture. culture. land and of assimilation, loss forced phase in Aboriginal history — one marked with violence, inphase Aboriginal with violence, marked history — one tives in terms of the primitive, violent or ‘noble’ savage savage ‘noble’ or violent primitive, the in terms of tives not do particular the “Australians As era. Langton says: the mainstream narrative, this viewpoint has yet to make mainstream to the has this narrative, yet viewpoint Aboriginal “sur on Australians stress the world, the put ing. Such characterisations were derived from ideas about about ideas from derived were characterisations Such ing. raphy since the 1960s as a result of the work accomplished accomplished work the of as result a 1960s the since raphy Although there has been a marked change in historiog change marked a has been there Although Europeans (in all forms of art) tended to depict the na the depict to all art) tended of (in forms Europeans were informed and coloured by the dominant beliefs of of beliefs dominant the by coloured and informed were vival” than colonial rather to anything with respect else year Australia celebrated 200 years of white settlement. settlement. white of years 200 Australiayear celebrated Whilst acknowledged as the oldest continous culture in culture continous as oldest the Whilst acknowledged ‘Aboriginality’ gained from earlier travel writing, which writing, which travel earlier from gained ‘Aboriginality’ - - - - - “Well I heard it on the Radio Radio the on it I heard “Well Langton gives a critical anal Langton gives

A good starting point for such a discussion is Marcia a discussion such starting for A good point What does Langton mean by “anti-colonial” critique? critique? “anti-colonial” Langton by mean What does This chapter provides some answers to these ques these to answers some provides This chapter

and Saw it on the Television.” the on it Saw and

arts,” she claims, “can only thrive if there is a strong cri is a strong thriveif there only claims,“can she arts,” art and film” (7). “Freedom in the world of the film and world in the “Freedom (7). art film” and

and some ideas about how to make sense of these films. these of make to sense how about ideas some and she refers to as “the colonising imperative in Australian imperative colonising as to “the refers she

the perspective of the explorers — that of colonisation. colonisation. of explorers — that the of perspective the tique, and in relation to Aboriginal matters, if the critique Aboriginal to if critique the matters, in and relation tique,

tion inherent in the prespectives presented in these films? in these presented in prespectives the inherent tion tions. A short account of the representation of Australian of representation the of account A short tions.

is anti-colonialist” (8). is anti-colonialist” is followed by some specific examples of representation representation of examples specific some by is followed

resentations of a minority about which we know very little? little? very know we which about minority a of resentations Australia’s history is most often still recounted from from still often recounted history is most Australia’s

Aborigines (and their cultural practices) in Australian film cultural their practices) (and Aborigines Australian film? How can we make sense of different rep Australianof different we canmakesense How film?

Langton’s important essay, important essay, Langton’s How can we evaluate and assess the politics of representa of politics the assess and evaluate can we How

How is it possible to learn about Aboriginal learn culture from to about possible is it How ysis of the representation of the Aboriginal subject, which Aboriginal the which of subject, representation the of ysis FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 64

- - - 3 2 Jedda in Cannes. Yet on close close on in Cannes. Yet Palme d’OrPalme . Jedda is deeply problematic and confused in its in its confused and problematic is deeply (painted-up) actor, the tragic story of tragic of story the actor, (painted-up) 4

Jedda Gevacolor (later Agfa-Gevaert) is a colour motion picture process, like like process, picture motion is a colour (later Agfa-Gevaert) Gevacolor Stuart Cunningham coined the term “locationism” (qtd. in Miller 149) 149) in Miller (qtd. coined the term “locationism” Cunningham Stuart See Benjamin Miller’s excellent article for a cultural analysis of ‘black analysis a cultural for article excellent See Benjamin Miller’s

describes both the impossibility assimilation of as well doned due to lack of funding. anaysis, a “blackface” Aboriginal future of Australians.as doomed the The ti child. a lost had recently who woman a white by a baby crash, Chauvel was allowed to spray the caves in the Blue Mountains near Mountains in the Blue the caves to spray crash, Chauvel was allowed and believed to be especially suitable for on location shooting (Hayward 86). shooting location on for suitable especially be to believed and lead roles, the first to be shot almost entirely on location on entirely almost shot be to first the roles, lead Cinecolor or Technicolor for example. It was especially popular in the 1950s was especially It example. for or Technicolor Cinecolor face,’ in relation to in relation face,’ messages. Narrated by a half-caste stockman, played by by stockman, a half-caste played by Narrated messages. Sydney and re-shot the scenes there (Miller 152). “Locationism” was aban “Locationism” 152). (Miller the scenes there re-shot and Sydney to describe Chauvel’s “intense commitment” to location shooting. It is an It shooting. to location commitment” “intense to describe Chauvel’s interesting fact of trivia that as the last reel of film was destroyed in a plane a in of film was destroyed fact of trivia that as the last reel interesting the first film in Australia to be shot in colour (Gevacolor), colour first the in filmshot Australiain be to actually firstthe film the which in castAboriginal people the for compete to as was adopted died, mother whose Jedda, character, tle in the Northern Territory and the first Australianfirst the and film Territory Northern in the 3 2 4

- - - - - , (1936) or or , (1936) Uncivilised , represents a new approach. approach. a new , represents , (1935) and and , (1935) , Jedda Heritage This concept also includes those minor char (1950) by Ralph Smart. by (1950) 1

“The Natives do not appear to be numberous, neither do they seem to live neither do they do not appear to be numberous, “The Natives Chauvel’s 1955 classic

Representations of Aborigines in film Aborigines similarly of are dis Representations

of such representations would be early films of Charles filmsof early Charles be would representations such of or simply as part of the (exotic) landscape. Some examples examples Some landscape. as (exotic) partthe of simply or of no consequence, or are there to serve the white people people white the serve to are there or consequence, no of acters in movies who are “invisible,” or characters who are who characters or are “invisible,” who in movies acters as counting over 6000 representations) (24). A shock (24). 6000 representations) over as counting are a staggering number of representations of Aboriginalof representations of arestaggering a number know and relate to Aboriginal people. They relate to sto to They relate Aboriginal to people. relate and know

Chauvel, such as such Chauvel, people in Australian film (Langton quotes Michael Leigh Leigh in Australian Michael filmpeople quotes (Langton

in large bodies but dispers’d in small parties along by the water side.” (Cook) by the along in small parties but dispers’d in large bodies torted. Langton draws our attention to the fact that there that fact there the to attention our Langton draws torted.

roborates Australia’s founding story of “terra nullius” or nullius” “terra of story founding Australia’s roborates ing early feature that films characterised veryfeature was early ing the

ries told by former colonists” (33). colonists” former by told ries Bitter Springs

1 It is an important film from many points of view. Thiswas of is anview. film important It points many from

“emptyland.” “non-presence” or absence of natives, a lack which cor which lack a natives, of absence or “non-presence” FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 65 - - - - - Paul Byrnes lists the three lists the three Byrnes Paul This “quasi-documenta 8 Australian Screen Australian race of Australia and now introduces introduces now and Australia of race 7 and ROBERT TUDEWALLI, a man of the TIWI tribe a man TUDEWALLI, and ROBERT Northern of the people this film many as Marbuk. In Original spelling by Chauvel. In his notes to Jedda on In his notes to Jedda tive aboriginee tive ry of Jedda is founded on fact. (Chauvel, 1955) fact. (Chauvel, on ry is founded of Jedda NARLA KUNOTH as Jedda, a girl of the Arunta tribe of the Arunta a girl as Jedda, KUNOTH NARLA To cast this picture the producer went to the primi went the producer this picture cast To The sto roles. their re-living are of Australia Territory establish is to introduction short the of The function of Australia which carries the following text: Australia carriesof following the which stories that Chauvel’s daughter, Susanne Carlsson mentioned as the ba mentioned Carlsson Susanne daughter, that Chauvel’s stories the story These are an Aboriginal resistance sis of the plot. of Nemarluk, family who ran away from them and rejoined her people during a vaca her people them and rejoined from ran away who family 8 to bury her dead baby, and the storyto bury white of an Aboriginal girl, raised by a her dead baby, Territory. in the Northern trip spent tion fighter, the case of a white woman who had to get permission over radio over radio had to get permission who white woman the case of a fighter, the film’s authenticity: “went to the primitive aboriginee aboriginee primitive to the “went authenticity: film’s the race,” “girl of the Arunta tribe,” “man of the Tiwi tribe,” Tiwi tribe,” the of “man Arunta the of tribe,” “girl race,” Stuartby Cunningham very being as is identified rism” 7 fact.” on is story founded “the - - - - for him, and he is is him, he and for 5 This is soon replaced by a map a map by This replaced is soon 6

Katrin Althans points out that Carl Kayser’s camerawork recalls the recalls camerawork Carl Kayser’s out that points Katrin Althans The expression ‘wrong skin for someone’ refers to a complex set of set of to a complex refers someone’ skin for ‘wrong The expression The first few minutes of the film set the tone for the for tone the setof film the few Theminutes first

ducts Jedda, who is the ‘wrong skin’ is ‘wrong the who Jedda, ducts style of AlbertNamatjira. of style

sued by an assimilated stockman, who claims to be Jedda’s an by assimilated claims stockman, Jedda’s be sued to who subsequently shown to be driven mad by the rejection of of rejection the mad by driven be to shown subsequently

compassing a hill or mountain in the background. Albert Namatjira (1902– Albert Namatjira in the background. compassing a hill or mountain his own tribe as a punishment for his wrong choice. He He choice. his wrong for hisown tribe as punishment a

landscape shots are framed like a painting, foregrounding a tree and en a tree foregrounding a painting, framed like landscape shots are larger group.

5 6

for his vivid watercolours. for pull towards a primordial, ‘primitive’ world that manifests world ‘primitive’ a primordial, pull towards

rules in Aboriginal society which determined marriage patterns within a determined which in Aboriginal society rules tle appears in large font over a landscape painting in the painting a landscape over in large font appears tle

rightful suitor. is simultaneously castigated by his own people and pur and his people own by castigated issimultaneously

itself in different ways. tribal The ways. Marbuk, Aborigine, ab in different itself film shows the young girl experiencing some inexplicable inexplicable some experiencing girl young the filmshows

1959) was a famous Australian artist of Western Arrente origin, best knownbest origin, Arrente Western of artist Australian famous a was 1959) Despite the white mother’s efforts to Jedda, assimilatethe efforts mother’s white the Despite

watercolour paintings of Albert Namatjira (Althans 15). Indeed very (Althans often Namatjira of Albert paintings watercolour whole of the movie. Dramatic music plays while the ti the while plays music Dramatic movie. the of whole FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 66 - - - distance. We see a dead Aboriginal woman (a “lubra” as “lubra” Aboriginal a dead (a see woman distance. We omable. The film continues by depicting Sarah McMann’s Sarah McMann’s depicting by The filmcontinues omable. education and success he claims to have gained from his from gained claims he have to success and education and then her husband busy driving cattle in the remote busydriving in remote cattle the husband her then and starts with aerial shots of the Northern Territory and Joe’s Joe’s and starts Territory Northern the of with aerial shots baby’s death over the radio. Inside and outside shots alter shots outside and Inside radio. the over death baby’s burial place of the old totem men. The native race so old old so race The native men. totem old the burial of place (Chauvel, 1955). The landscape is described in exaggerated in exaggerated The is described landscape 1955). (Chauvel, mystery, placed outside of reason, presented as unfath presented reason, of outside placed mystery, tragedy, the way she tells the Flying Doctor Service of her her of Service Flyingthe tells Doctor she way the tragedy, the world,” “this is my land, and Jedda’s, the girl I love” girl the I love” land, Jedda’s, and “this is my world,” the ethnography: and anthropology from terms borrowed our a past beyond to stretch religions and laws that their scien off Apart showing from 1955). thinking” (Chauvel, with identified is also race” “native the tific knowledge, nate, the camera takes turns to show the grieving mother takes grieving the camera the turns mother nate, show to His accent is sophisticated, almost British, signifying almost British, the issophisticated, His accent whilst the rest of the credits are shown. The film proper The filmproper are shown. credits the of whilst rest the land. himself the and introduces he in which voiceover, “This land in parents. is oldest part the foster of white the dreamtime, Aborigines’ the of secrets the hold which “mountains of mystery, red tombs in Australia’s dead heart dead in Australia’s tombs red mystery, of “mountains - - - - Hoping to to Hoping 9 continues to play 10

See for example articles by Cunningam, Fox or Miller. Fox by Cunningam, articles example See for Stuart Cunningham claims that “Isadore Goodman prepared a musi Goodman prepared claims that “Isadore Cunningham Stuart Isadore Goodman’s dramatic music Goodman’s Isadore

and modern film star beauty” (Fox), Rosalie Kunoth was Kunoth Rosalie filmstar (Fox), modern and beauty”

cal score whose ethnographic credentials were impeccably based on A.P. based on A.P. impeccably were credentials ethnographic whose cal score lieved he truly belonged — an ancestry he was (according was ancestry (according he truly he belonged — an lieved

him his tribal name” (Elsa Chauvel qtd. in Miller 154) the the in 154) Miller qtd. him his tribal Chauvel (Elsa name” Chauvels placed Wilson back into the ancestry be the they into back Wilson placed Chauvels

Cannes Film Festival (Cunningham). Chauvel’s search search Chauvel’s (Cunningham). Cannes Film Festival from Bobby Wilson to Robert Tudawalli. By “[giving] By Tudawalli. Robert to Wilson Bobby from

for the main characters is well documented. main the is well characters for to the Chauvels) in the process of losing. in the process of Chauvels) the to

to a better sounding Narla, just as the male lead changed changed as just Narla, male the lead sounding a better to tional Aboriginal” as opposed to others who were “too “too were who Aboriginal”tional others to as opposed

the perception of the film the of “unusualas documenta an perception the inter-mixed and too far removed from the primitive that primitive the from far removed too and inter-mixed

ry-type drama” was responsible for its invitation to the the to invitation its for ry-type was drama” responsible important for Chauvel and the audiences as well. In fact, as well. audiences the and Chauvel for important

finally selected for appearing to be “closer to the to tradi the “closer be to appearing for finallyselected 9

Elkin’s recordings of Aboriginal music.” recordings Elkin’s 10

we were looking for” (Fox). Kunoth’s name was changed name was changed Kunoth’s (Fox). for” looking were we “find someone who could embody both primitive mystery mystery primitive both embody could who someone “find FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 67 - - - 12 11 For a great analysis of this scene see article by Meaghan Morris, “Be Morris, by Meaghan of this scene see article analysis a great For The reference to Topsy is made by Joe (Miller 150). Doug McMann Doug McMann 150). (Miller is made by Joe to Topsy The reference Considerable attention is devoted in the movie to to in movie the is devoted attention Considerable

one point becomes ecstatic, almost hysterical with pent with pent hysterical almost ecstatic, becomes point one after and protect her, Jedda is shown to be drawn to more more drawn be to to is shown Jedda her, after protect and serves to define Jedda as the ‘other,’ not one of us (white (white of us one not ‘other,’ Jedda as the define to serves er 151). Jezebel is regarded as arguably the most evil woman in the Bible, a most evil woman in the Bible, the as arguably is regarded er 151). Jezebel satisfied with claiming my wife, she claims my head stockman too” (Mill my head stockman too” she claims my wife, with claiming satisfied out of the window. death by being thrown met her untimely who schemer, be a person of instincts and emotions rather than rather reason. instincts of emotions and a person be makes a reference to the Biblical figure of Jezebel: “Well, that Jezebel, not that Jezebel: “Well, of figure to the Biblical a reference makes people). draw prefers she (e.g. ideas thanpractical theoretical to up sexual energy triggered by an by Aboriginal sexual triggered on up artwork energy their lives. The intertextual connection to Topsy, the slave, slave, the Topsy, to The intertextual connection lives. their look help to there is always who Joe, of watchfulthe eye she Aboriginal which music wallthe accompanying and ing animal prints rather than spelling). She is shown to to is animalshown ing than She spelling). rather prints mind. imagines in her 11 12 Jedda’s development from a baby to a young girl. Under girl. Under young a to a baby from development Jedda’s yond Assimilation: Aboriginality, Media Hisory memory.” Media and Public Aboriginality, Assimilation: yond This is especially apparent in her piano playing, which at at which playing, piano in her This is especially apparent ------The (1946, directed by by directed (1946, ). In her book, book, In her ). Duel in the Sun Sun the in Duel Uncle Tom’s Cabin Uncle Tom’s , Lesley Stern compares the opening opening the compares Stern , Lesley and

Jedda

ents Mum and Dad — they are always “Boss” and “Bardi”). and “Boss” are always Dad — they and Mum ents care. The function of these introductory scenes is to estab is to scenes introductory these care. The of function

as a result of a failed love (125). The beautiful wildflower, The beautiful wildflower, (125). love a failed of as a result sequences of

she is called in the film — a usage which is not appropriate appropriate not is is called inwhich film — a the she usage grows fond of (in fact Jedda never calls her adopted par calls adopted her never Jedda fact (in of fond grows

bound” — when removed, these flowers can rarely sur canrarely flowers these removed, bound” — when lish the scenario which makes it possible for a white couple couple a white for possible makes it which scenario the lish

Scorsese Connection Subsequent scenes show Jedda (her name meaning “lit (her Jedda show scenes Subsequent to Joe’s voiceover, “as Topsy, just grow’d” — Topsy refer grow’d” — Topsy just Topsy, “as voiceover, Joe’s to tle white goose”) growing up, as if by chance (according (according as chance if by up, growing goose”) white tle to even conceive of the idea of raising a black baby. This baby. raising a black of idea the of conceive even to

today) and a lonely newborn baby (referred to as to “pican a (referred baby newborn lonely a and today) is used with respect to the “half-breed” girl, Pearl Chaves, Chaves, girl, Pearl “half-breed” the to withis used respect

ring to a character in ring a character to is a concept that the station owner, Doug McMann, never McMann, never Doug owner, that station the is a concept

inny” — the same outdated usage as above) crying out for crying for out as usage above) same outdated inny” — the King Vidor), where the same metaphor of the wild flower wild the flower of same metaphor the where King Vidor), vive, losing their “context” and purpose, and ultimately ultimately and purpose, and “context” their losing vive, which “just grew,” strengthens the idea of being “nature “nature being of idea the strengthens “justwhich grew,” who like Jedda, dies a tragic death at the foot of a rock a rock of foot the at a tragic death dies like Jedda, who FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 68 - - - - - Joe narrates the film from beginning to end. He trans narrates filmbeginning the Joe end. to from Throughout the film music is used to heighten dra heighten to is used filmmusic the Throughout

drives the narrative, he is the storyteller, who has au the who storyteller, is the he narrative, the drives of a race so mystic and removed, should be of us in one us in one of be should removed, and mystic so a race of chase party — where again dramatic, non-Aboriginal mu againchase party — where dramatic, non-Aboriginal are alone that we can that Aboriginal hear we are alone singing. short lifetime?” (Chauvel, 1955). Us and them again: us, them and Us 1955). (Chauvel, lifetime?” short scenes’ — a fight with a crocodile and a member of the of the member a and a crocodile with fight scenes’ — a as Marbuk an wins cases, his in both is position played. sic does Joe in which his by tribe. These are scenes sentenced ground on her back as if expecting a lover to seduce her. seduce to as iflover a expecting back her on ground knows more than anybody else in the film. His voiceover in film. the voiceover than else His anybody more knows his disposal by suicide. It is only when Jedda and Marbuk and Jedda when is only It his disposal suicide. by Marbuk explains and and Jedda between conversations lates matic effect. I have already mentioned Jedda’s piano piano Jedda’s mentioned already have I effect. matic playing driven to a crescendo. Marbuk has some ‘action ‘action Marbuk has some a crescendo. to driven playing thorisation to pronounce judgement at the tragic end of of tragic end the at judgement pronounce to thorisation one that expect Jedda, to right our it “Was narrative: the not participate, yet he acts as an ‘omniscient narrator,’ he he narrator,’ acts as he an ‘omniscient yet participate, not rative resorts to showing him go mad, opening the way to to way the mad, him opening go showing to resorts rative what happens in the scene when Marbuk is rejected and and Marbuk is rejected when in scene the happens what “alpha male” cannot be undermined. This nar the undermined. be cannot is why male” “alpha

- - - -

Up to the point of becoming a woman of sixteen, sixteen, of a woman becoming of point the to Up

derer, a woman snatcher — pursued for previous crimes. previous for snatcher — pursued a woman derer,

cumb to the lure of the full moon and lie on the pure pure the on full lie the and of moon lure cumb the to criminal, sets fire to the McManns’ horse enclosure as enclosure criminal,horse McManns’ to the fire sets

comer Marbuk, Jedda is often shown inside the house house the inside shown is often Marbuk, Jedda comer are not: Marbuk dances an erotic dance and is rumoured isand rumoured dance Marbuk an dances erotic are not:

scant clothing — a red loincloth — to cover his privates. His his privates. cover loincloth — to red clothing — a scant body is muscly and attractive. Jedda and Marbuk and erot are Jedda attractive. and ismuscly body

by the death of the baby but rectified by Jedda’s arrival, is Jedda’s by rectified but baby the of death the by harmony and equilibrium in the narrative, upset briefly briefly upset in narrative, the equilibrium and harmony

(who he is told is the “wrong skin” for him) but, as truea but, him) for skin” “wrong is the is told he (who just like Sarah McMann. Doug McMann and the men like Sarah men just the McMann and McMann. Doug

the height of her attraction to Marbuk we see Jedda suc Jedda see Marbuk to we attraction her of height the the ampleness of her body and especially her breasts. At At breasts. especially and her body her of ampleness the

to be able to cast magic spells which can seduce anyone, anyone, can cast seduce to magic which spells able be to threatened by Marbuk, who not only lays claim to Jedda claim Jedda to lays only not Marbuk, by who threatened

icised in the film in the way the white characters (and Joe) Joe) (and characters white in film the the way icised in the in the film spend most of their time outdoors. The nice nice The outdoors. time of their most in film the spend

Marbuk is a very dark skinned Aborigine, wearing only Marbuk wearing is dark only a very Aborigine, skinned while Jedda is photographed from an angle to enhance enhance an to from angle isphotographed Jedda while

well. Later we learn that he is indeed a fugitive — a mur a fugitive — a learn is indeed that he we Later well. who is courted by Joe and picked instantly new the by picked and Joe by is courted who FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 69 - - - is de topos, cidedly depicted from a colonial point of view. When we we When view. of point a colonial from depicted cidedly in, participate like to would Jedda which environment, are talking about a people who successfully survived at survived at successfully who talking are people a about see we passively; as stand around Sarah or calls sit them) see Aboriginal practices like collective learning about the the learning about like collective Aboriginalsee practices as Sarah circle the McMann dis from is extracted she Sarah “arrive.” them see don’t we but leave to them shows least forty thousand years without the help of the future the of help the without years forty thousand least might be well intentioned (as protection policies of the the of policies protection (as intentioned well be might point of view of agency. The Aboriginal women (“girls” (“girls” The Aboriginal women agency. of view of point proves of associating with “dirty picaninnies.” Or, when when associating with “dirty of Or, picaninnies.” proves Sarah the from McManns. is also This remarkable scene their backs as the camera faces Sarah McMann, who, from from Sarah McMann, faces as who, camera backs the their a handing out is active, house, the of view of point the tage point of the house, “the white world,” “civilisation,” “civilisation,” world,” white “the house, the of point tage on picaninnythis first your have you’ll “If and water” the superflous — we are completely yet been) have may time film, however innovative it is as a topic or or it is topic as a innovative film,however McMann’s warnings of “Don’t leave the babies too near near too babies the leave warnings “Don’t of McMann’s we see Aborigines departing for an annual “walkabout,” an annual departing for Aborigines “walkabout,” see we van the from angle, camera depart — the them see only we 1955) (Chauvel, home” stay really should walkabout you - the house, who are unkempt are unkempt who house, the outside . These range from a celebration of of a celebration from range . These Jedda

is sickening and, at the same time, laughable for for laughable time, same the at and, is sickening

There is a relatively large body of critical writing of on large body is relatively a There

complete condemnation, to Langton’s view that “[t]oday that view “[t]oday Langton’s to condemnation, complete one in the film — narrative closure and equilibrium are equilibrium are and in film — narrative the closure one

allowed to erupt to the surface and claim its place — to a claim and place — to surface the its to erupt to allowed achieved again by his death. His death is inevitable, yet yet is inevitable, again his His death by death. achieved

and dirty, and who rush to wash their hair rush their wash as to as they who and soon dirty, and see the Boss coming). Marbuk is not mourned by any by mourned Marbuk is not coming). Boss the see

being with Marbuk), the film seems to to film the argue, seems with will Marbuk), a being be by Aborigines living living Aborigines by

Creed calls it) into high art — Creed understands “black” understands art — Creed high into calls it) Creed use of dressing up in the film, as Jedda is shown many many in film,shown the is up Jedda dressing as use of

times dressed up in pretty clothing), as opposed to them, them, to as opposed clothing), inpretty up dressed times to stand for the repressed, which in the Freudian sense is sense in Freudian the which repressed, the stand for to the inclusion of the ‘black’ topic (“Négritude,” as Barbara (“Négritude,” ‘black’ the of topic inclusion the the subject of of subject the the assimilation of girls like Jedda, although perhaps not not perhaps although girls like Jedda, of assimilation the

its racism” (47). ‘Aboriginality,’ as it is constructed by the the by is constructed as it ‘Aboriginality,’ (47). racism” its impossible (let’s remember, for the most part she resisted resisted part she most the for remember, (let’s impossible

Jedda very hard and slow process. hard and slow very

who are part of civilisation (emphasised especially by the the especially by (emphasised are part civilisation of who ‘The Other,’ the raw force, the ‘uncivilised’ (represented ‘uncivilised’ the (represented force, raw the ‘The Other,’ FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 70 - - - there is no narrative as such, no no as narrative is such, no there Night Cries The characters themselves are not stable, but rather rather but stable, are not The themselves characters cuts and montage is employed to represent the black wom black the represent to is employed montage and cuts writing. Whilst we consciousness stream of of equivalent communication. This is a new language which Moffatt This Moffatt language is which a new communication. In characters. dreams nightmares, frustrations. and ories, an’s conflicted self reflections, in effect we see the see we visual effect in reflections, self conflicted an’s a scenario when a disillusioned, middle-aged Aboriginal middle-aged disillusioned, a when a scenario mem have we instead “quasi-documentalism,” at attempt graph; later as lovingly playing with her child on the beach; beach; the on child with her playing as lovingly later graph; her; finally, there is an indoor scene when the mother is mother the when scene is an indoor there finally, her; uses noise, text, song, painting, flashback and images images as and flashback painting, song, text, noise, uses then turning her back on her daughter just when she needs needs she when just daughter her on turning back then her fast of A succession character. ascomplex a mother the nursing her daughter again. These scenes serve to present present to serve again. scenes These daughter her nursing is shown as a young attractive woman on a still on photo woman attractive as a young is shown finds appropriate to express the relationship between the the between relationship the express to appropriate finds mother dying the of them: versions several see we as fluid, Moffatt, which re-works many of the themes presented 35 presented of themes the many re-works which Moffatt, woman cares for her dying (white) mother. Doing away away Doing mother. (white) dying her for cares woman Moffatt as a signifying with speech altogether, system years earlier. Refusing to kill Jedda off, Moffatt presents presents Moffatt kill to off, Refusing Jedda earlier. years - - - - , a 1990 short film by Tracey Tracey film by short 1990 a , and the stolen generations (Jedda’s (Jedda’s generations stolen the and 13 NightCries

Meaghan Morris speculates about the possibility of Joe’s European an European speculates about the possibility of Joe’s Morris Meaghan It is interesting and highly instructive to compare compare to instructive highly and is interesting It

questions of white ownership of the land and the value value the land and the of ownership white of questions of civilisation are naturalised through the character of arenaturalised civilisation of character of the through cued’) are therefore conveniently glossed over, whilst the over, glossed conveniently cued’) are therefore claimed to be the offspring of of an Afghani offspring the be to teamsterclaimed anand

and Marbuk, their elimination from Chauvel’s plot thus thus plot Chauvel’s from Marbuk,and elimination their symbolically “washed off”symbolically“washed claimshe as be land in the the

cestry, in fact she argues for Doug McMann’s paternity. Doug McMann’s for in fact she argues cestry, ginning (in a white voice) and as he waits for and fulfills and for waits as and he voice) ginning a white (in

became inevitable. Chauvel’s film with Chauvel’s

for Jedda and Marbuk will immediately make sense (re Marbukmake and will sense Jedda immediately for member, authenticity), whereas Joe’s “blackface” can “blackface” be Joe’s whereas authenticity), member,

mum dies at childbirth, thus Jedda is not stolen but ‘res but stolen is not childbirth,Jedda thus at dies mum the career option of “head stockman” offered to by him offered “head stockman” of option career the

Aboriginal woman) Aboriginal 13

Joe. In this way, the selection of very dark skinned actors dark very actors skinned of selection the In thisJoe. way, Doug McMann. As there are no “career options” for Jedda Jedda for options” “career no are McMann. As there Doug

white involvement in producing half caste babies (Joe is half caste babies in producing involvement white water can and advice about correct behaviour. Issues like Issues behaviour. correct about can advice and water FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 71

- - - . never to be realised. The de

Jedda The memory of the beach scene emerges from the depth depth the from emerges scene beach the of The memory driven,’ the daughter reads and writes, driven,’ and dreams fara of cries of the mother. Far from being ‘primitive’ cries or from Far of the ‘instinct being mother. ‘primitive’ is It an herself. that cool interesting is she reversal seen as disturbing at the same time. First being swung around swung being around First same time. the at disturbing edly sadistic when we see her crack a whip, destructing the destructingthe whip, a crack her see we when sadistic edly sire for leaving indicated by the Aboriginal woman’s reaction reaction woman’s Aboriginal the by indicated leaving for sire old woman’s quiet time. In this the scene, is mother woman’s in old the and the laughter, which echoes the mad laughter of Marbuk of laughter mad the echoes which laughter, the and of the daughter’s psyche; a memory which is happy and and is happy which memory a psyche; daughter’s the of by the mother, the little girl enters into a slinging match match a slinging into girl enters little the mother, the by before the suicide scene in scene suicide the before to the sound of the train, her reading a travel brochure, and brochure, travel a train,reading the her of sound the to the the mother to the leave extricating toilet, the mother from useless, of series a to life reduces Moffatt net, mosquito the tedious and nuisance routines which are contrasted to the foreground and is shown to be symbolically hurt by the whip whip the by hurt symbolically be to shown is and foreground fantasies of the mind, the latter the mind, the of fantasies with two boys. The scene quickly turns a nightmare quickly into The scene with boys. two waiting waiting for some kind is of change, disrupted by the night uses to she a hose water Frustrated and lonely, places. way ‘savage’ and ‘ferocious’ when doing the washing and decid and washing the doing when ‘ferocious’ and ‘savage’ - - - - - hair

in the

the full moon, , looking outside — Jedda extensively Jedda Jedda ‘quotes’ ‘quotes’ where the lady old spends a lot of screen time. 15 Sarah McMann’s obsession with cleanliness, mani with cleanliness, obsession Sarah McMann’s

14

The old lady has an elaborate metal contraption attached to her her to attached contraption metal elaborate an has lady old The An outdoor toilet. Night Cries Cries Night

composition of the eating scene is like a painting, except the the except painting, a like is scene eating the of composition camera first repeats the angle used in used angle the repeats first camera

old dunny aestethic employed is that of decay. Decay is manifest every manifest is Decay decay. of that is employed aestethic

saw Chauvel’s (over)use of narration to minimise to narration of ambigu (over)use Chauvel’s saw hand.”

brushing, seems to have been wasted on Moffatt’s uncombed uncombed Moffatt’s on wasted been have to seems brushing, the watercolour painting, even Doug McMann’s the light inpainting, watercolour even Doug McMann’s

right hand. to interpretation.

ity, Moffatt does the opposite and leaves everything open everything open leaves and opposite does the Moffatt ity, jury is repeated as Moffatt translates it into a “prosthetic

ing ing the takingmother, the mother to the waiting toilet, for By By including scenes such as eating whilst reading, feed

15 14

from the house, incorporating the view of the landscape. The fested through the use of dresses, washing, soaping, and soaping, washing, dresses, of use the through fested

Jedda who presidesover the wreckage of the household. The where where in the inhouse, the body and of the lady, old FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 72 - - does not guar not does to go on telling telling on go to interesting par exellence one of ‘forcing us to confront confront us to ‘forcing of one not Morris argues that the kind of ‘enabling’ tradition de tradition Morris ‘enabling’ argues that kind of the of the moving picture that there are positions other than other positions are that there picture moving the of or what might constitute true or authentic Aboriginality. Aboriginality. authentic true or constitute might what or against compulsory categorisations of what are perceived areperceived what of categorisations against compulsory an Aboriginal, being of an artist,ways as “correct” the Aboriginal Giving people representation. “correct” antee like any white artist” says Moffatt (qtd. in Morris) – and Morris) – and in (qtd. artist” Moffatt like white any says making it less attractive, less less attractive, making less it justice and truth” (Morris). Morris with agrees Langton truth” and justice (Morris). the dominant colonial ones from the vantage point of of point vantage the from ones colonial dominant the the past’ in a polarising, polemical way, but more subtly subtly more but way, past’ inthe a polarising, polemical than is to it as predecessors our stories same selective the that Aboriginal authorship important issues, and to demonstate through the medium medium the through demonstate to and issues, important remake our national histories in a spirit of inclusiveness, inclusiveness, of ina spirit histories national our remake voice, visibility, agency, presence and individuality are the individuality are the and presence agency, visibility, voice, can Aborigines told. be about stories which who couldn’t agree with agree that? couldn’t who is “ Moffatt by veloped “Yes, I am Aboriginal, but I have the right to be avant-garde avant-garde be to right the I am I have Aboriginal, but “Yes,

- 17 Night Cries Night 16 and jarring noise, mirrors the hysteria experienced experienced hysteria mirrors the jarringand noise,

Morris develops Laleen Jayamenne’s idea in her paper. Jayamenne’s Laleen develops Morris For a more detailed analysis see Katrin Althans’ chapter on see Katrin Althans’ analysis detailed a more For Moffatt’s take on the relationship between the two the two between relationship on takethe Moffatt’s

questions of Aboriginal representation, and rather than rather and Aboriginal of representation, questions colonisation. Meaghan Morris very convincingly argues Meaghan Morris convincingly very colonisation.

as the girl begins to choke from what appears to be sea be to appears what from asgirl beginsthe choke to entitled “Trans-muting cinema: Tracey Moffatt’s films.” Moffatt’s cinema: Tracey “Trans-muting entitled by Jedda at the piano scene and becomes the climax the of becomes and scene piano the at Jedda by birds, further complicate the already quite complex theoretical theoretical complex quite already the further complicate

fear, accompanied by rapid drum sequences, screeching screeching drum sequences, rapid by accompanied fear, that Moffatt’s filmic references to Namatjira and Jimmy and Namatjira to references filmic that Moffatt’s

to Moffatt’s criticism of the (mis)representation of the of the (mis)representation of the criticism Moffatt’s to the short movie. On closer look, the seaweed choking the the choking seaweed the look, On closer movie. short the

restricting possibilities, they can be viewed as “enabling.” can viewed they be possibilities, restricting Aboriginal subject. 17 16 Moffatt’s own artistic output is an example of rallying of is example own an output artistic Moffatt’s

Little, examples of two successfully assimilatedartists, successfully two of examples Little, women goes well beyond the questions of assimilation and assimilation of questions the beyond well goes women

weed that wraps around her neck. Her terror, anguishand terror, Her neck. her that around wraps weed young girl turns out to be film girl be turns to stock, giving a visualyoung out form FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 73 - - 5 (2004): n. (2004): 5 Rouge . Bloomington: In . Sydney: Australian . Sydney: Spectres, Screens, Shadows, Shadows, Screens, Spectres, (2007): 140–156. Print. 140–156. (2007): .” Journalof the Associationthe for Uncle Tom’s Cabin: or, Life Among Life Cabin: or, Uncle Tom’s Jedda Beyond Assimilation: Aboriginality, Aboriginality, Assimilation: Beyond “Well I Heard it on the Radio and I Heard Heard I and Radio the on it I Heard “Well The Scorsese Connection . Boston: John P. Jewett & Co., 1852. Print. 1852. & Co., Jewett P. John . Boston: Spec.issue of about Aboriginal People and Things and People Aboriginal about diana University Press, 1995. Print. Press, diana University the Lowly mission on the Politics and Aesthetics of Filmmaking by and and by Filmmaking of Aesthetics and Politics the on mission it on the Television:” an Essay for the Australian Film Com Film Australian the for Essay an Television:” the on it Study of Australian Literature 2016. 2 Feb. Web. pag. in Charles Chauvel’s Chauvel’s in Charles Mirrors. Media History and Public Memory.” Memory.” Public History and Media Film Commission. 1993. Print. 1993. Film Commission. Stern, Lesley. Lesley. Stern, Harriet Beecher. Stowe, Morris, Meaghan. “ Miller, Benjamin. “The Mirror of Whiteness: Blackface Blackface “TheBenjamin. Whiteness: of Mirror Miller, Langton, Marcia. . - - - - - Pro . Lon Australian Screen. . Göttingen: V&R Un V&R . Göttingen: Eds. Robert Dixon and and Dixon Eds. Robert Impact of the Modern: Ver Modern: the of Impact Volume 33. n. d. Web. 15 Feb. Feb. 15 33. n.d. Web. Volume n. d. Web. 2 Feb. 2016. 2 Feb. n. d.Web. . Cinema Studies: The Key Concepts The Key Studies: Cinema Darkness Subverted: Aboriginal Gothic in in Gothic Aboriginal Subverted: Darkness Aboriginal History .

don: Routledge, 1996. Routledge, Print.don: nacular Modernities in Australia. in Modernities nacular ject Gutenberg Australia Continuum: The Australian Journal of Media and Culture and Media of Journal The Australian Continuum: pulse in Australianpulse Film.” n. d. Web. 26 Jan. 2016. 26 n. d. Web. ipress (Bonn University Press), 2010. Web. 2010. Press), University (Bonn ipress Black Australian Literature and Film Jedda.” Jedda.” Print. 1.1 (1987): n. p. Web. 2 Feb.2016. Web. n. p. (1987): 1.1 2016 Veronica Kelly. Sydney: Sydney University Press. 62–72. 62–72. Press. University Sydney Sydney: Kelly. Veronica

WORKS CITED: WORKS Cunningham, Stuart. “Charles Chauvel: The Last Decade.” The Last Decade.” Cunningham,Stuart.Chauvel: “Charles

Creed, Barbara. „Jedda, Négritude and the Modernist Im Modernist the and Négritude Barbara. „Jedda, Creed, Cook, James. “Captain Cook’s Journal. First Voyage.” Journal. Voyage.” First Cook’s “Captain James. Cook,

Althans, Katrin. Fox, Karen. “Rosalie Kunoth-Monks and the Making the and of Kunoth-Monks Karen. “Rosalie Fox,

Byrnes, Paul. „Curator’s Notes on Jedda.” Jedda.” on Notes „Curator’s Paul. Byrnes, Hayward, Susan. FILM & CULTURE–GALL–REPRESENTATION OF AUSTRALIAN ABORIGINES... 74 - . Dir. King Vidor. Vanguard Productions, Productions, Vanguard King Vidor. . Dir. . Dir. Ralph Smart. Ealing Studios, 1950. Film. Ralph Smart. 1950. . Dir. Ealing Studios, . Dir. Tracey Moffatt. Australian Moffatt. FilmCommis Tracey . Dir. . Dir. Charles Chauvel. Expeditionary Films, Chauvel. Charles . Dir. . Dir. Charles Chauvel. Expeditionary, 1935. Film. 1935. Expeditionary, Chauvel. Charles . Dir.

. Dir. Charles Chauvel. Charles Chauvel Productions, Productions, Chauvel Charles Chauvel. Charles . Dir.

sion, 1990. Film. 1936. Film. 1955. Film. 1946. Film.

FILMOGRAPHY: Night Cries

Bitter Springs Heritage Jedda

Duel in the Sun the in Duel Uncivilised Shakespeare on Film: Romeo & Juliet Revisioned

MARCELL GELLÉRT | Film & Culture ► 75 FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 76 - - - - taking lead the Romeoand Juliet and Hamlet day he wrote his plays for the venue — the public the public the venue — the for plays his he wrote day atre — that afforded the broadest possible audience audience possible the broadest afforded atre — that seem congenial media for their performance today. today. performance their for media congenial seem be writing scripts for these forms, just as in his own just as in his these forms, scripts for be writing One suspects that if he were writing now, he would would he now, writing if he were that suspects One for his work. (273) for Men of letters with an eye always on the bookish qual bookish the on always with an eye letters of Men addressing the incomparably larger audience of the movie movie the of audience larger incomparably the addressing been have his all canon of of All time. plays 37 the author above statement in defence of Shakespeare, the author of of author the Shakespeare, of in defence statement above shareholder of the Globe, a limited company of entrepre of company limited a Globe, the of shareholder filmed frequently Shakespeare far most is the by show, with screened linguistic brilliance of his play-scripts, may object to the the to object may linguistic brilliance his play-scripts, of meas reliable most that the admit if we But works. literary ure of a play’s worth is its popularity — as undoubtedly it it popularity — as is its worth undoubtedly a play’s of ure Shakespeare, the public entertainer, the showman and the and showman the entertainer, public Shakespeare, the theatre, let alone the silver screen. As the foregoing figures As foregoing the screen. silver the alone let theatre, neurs, today may turn his back to the stage in the hope of of turn in hope stage the may the to today hisneurs, back ities of his plays, enchanted by the poetic intensity and and intensity poetic the by enchanted his plays, of ities was in Shakespeare’s time — it is reasonable to suppose that suppose to is reasonable time — it wasin Shakespeare’s - - - - - more than more a — a photographic record record photographic a — King John

motion motion pictures for which Shakespeare has, more

—

dramatic genius. His plays reach out to audiences in a in audiences to out reach plays His genius. dramatic profoundly popular way that makes film and television television and film makes that way popular profoundly There is something expansive about Shakespeare’s is something expansive about Shakespeare’s There

or less, writing credit. The ever-increasing number of films of number ever-increasing The writingcredit. less, or

of H.B. Tree’s stage production of of production stage Tree’s H.B. of ages through his ever-renewing cult on page and stage, yet yet and stage, on page cult through ages his ever-renewing

based on his works (in December 2015 19 films were ac in were films 19 2015 December (in works his on based made tive supposition in his study of Shakespeare’splays on screen: on Shakespeare’splays of study his in supposition tive tive production!) seem to justify Robert Hapgood’s provoca Hapgood’s Robert justify to seem production!) tive thousand films (recordings of theatre performances, feature performances, theatre of (recordings films thousand

tus. Since his first screen adaptation screen first his Since tus. today today it is not his native medium that grants him this sta

films, TV versions, screened musical adaptations) have been have adaptations) musical screened versions, TV films, Shakespeare Shakespeare has been the contemporary of all successive

Seven Seven years after death, Shakespeare’s Ben Jonson, fel ity to the author of the 36 plays enclosed in the volume: “He “He volume: the in enclosed plays 36 the of author the to ity

low playwright, poet laureate, and poet laureate, the the playwright, among one only low Bard’s peers who came close to rivalling him, in his Eulogy Eulogy his in him, rivalling to close came who peers Bard’s

was not of an age, but for all time.” For four hundred years hundred years four For all time.” for but an age, of not was written to grace immortalprophesied First the Folio 1623 FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 77 - - - - - Romeo and Juliet special balanced is the gained the favour of the the of favour the gained Romeo + Juliet, Juliet, + Romeo Romeo and Juliet Despite its enormous popularity, out of a dozen di a dozen of out popularity, enormous its Despite What makes dimensions, even tragic offence, to mention only their most only their mention to tragicoffence, even dimensions, of the four productions were amply honoured with the with the honoured amply were productions four the of Zeffirelli’s them, cal of two only acclaim, ences has been unshakable since 1597, the year of its first its of year the 1597, hasunshakable since been ences most is the It best. their at certain of features composition easily and, thus, timeless, lamentable, cheerful and ously and Luhrmann’s Luhrmann’s and action-based,tightly-plotted, passionate, lovable, youthful, tragedian. the Shakespeare, of piece adaptable stage performance in The Globe Theatre. Already in its au Already in its Theatre. in The Globe performance stage guilt-ridden souls, the pangs of conscience, metaphysical metaphysical conscience, of pangs the souls, guilt-ridden George Cukor’s (1936), Renato Castellani’s (1954), Franco Franco Castellani’s(1954), Renato (1936), Cukor’s George frequently voiced objections. Yet its popularity its with audi Yet objections. voiced frequently most prestigious awards and met with considerable criti with considerable met and awards prestigious most today only four are rated as truly notable achievements: achievements: as truly are rated notable four only today thor’s lifetime it was the favourite of the audience, which which audience, the of was favourite the it lifetime thor’s is testified by the successive printed editions of its text. printed successive by the istestified simultane poetic, viewer-friendly, and reader- innocent, 2013, to 1908 from screen big the for adaptations rect Zeffirelli’s (1968) and Baz Luhrmann’s (1996). Though each each Though (1996). and Baz Luhrmann’s (1968) Zeffirelli’s

- - - - Romeo Hamlet, , synonyms for young young for , synonyms It is devoid of fully-fledged fully-fledged of is devoid It , its greatest rival on screen, the the rival screen, on greatest , its Macbeth. Hamlet Romeo and Juliet Romeo and among Shakespeare’s ‘great’ tragedies: tragedies: ‘great’ Shakespeare’s among

al discord and social hatred from the play that it is im the play from and social hatred al discord love, film-makers can rely on universal recognition: we on universal rely can film-makers love, possible to list all its cinematic reincarnations. (295) reincarnations. to list all its cinematic possible inherit so many of our images of romance, generation of romance, of our images inherit so many As opposed to to As opposed In the case of

and Juliet doubts the possibility of making even a rough estimate: estimate: making a rough of even possibility the doubts

characters, the depth of psychological insight, of evil, of vice, insight, psychological of depth the characters, aptations — feature films, full-length TV-adaptations and and films, full-length TV-adaptations aptations — feature

strikingly disagree. Scholars have never ranked never strikingly have disagree. Scholars gree of relation to Shakespeare’s play-scripts. Tony Howard Howard Tony play-scripts. Shakespeare’s to relation of gree

both in terms of the number of screen adaptations and their and adaptations screen of number the in terms of both Othello, King Lear Lear King Othello,

madness, striking brutality, the unspeakable horrors of of unspeakable the striking horrors madness, brutality, professional and popular estimates of the play’s worth worth play’s the of estimates popular and professional

in his study on Shakespeare’s cinematic metamorphoses metamorphoses cinematic Shakespeare’s on in his study incalculable number of loose adaptations with varying adaptations de loose of number incalculable

ratings. The latter alone has more than has ad direct forty more alone Thelatter ratings. filmed versions of stage performances — in addition to to an addition performances — in stage of versions filmed FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 78 - - is based Romeo and Juliet Shakespeare’s preoccupation with dualities is appar with dualities preoccupation Shakespeare’s

ent even in his choice of the play’s genre, in the balanced inbalanced the genre, play’s the of in his choice even ent combinationof comedy and tragedy.Comic elements, The first play — by half of the opponent. its challenges as indispensable ingredients of stage entertainment in in entertainment stage of ingredients as indispensable achieve his goal: to be as faithful to the play as possible as be to his faithfulas goal: possible play the to achieve as his filmic as all same purpose, much the serve music, and reading In Zeffirelli’s love. and in cosmos, the in all spheres: constituents antagonistic strategies in regard to cuts, additions, rearrangements of of rearrangements additions, cuts, to in regard strategies ac of pace editing, gaze, angle, camera perspective, scenes, genre, theme, plot, narrative, characters, time, spectacle spectacle time, characters, narrative, plot, theme, genre, upon Shakespeare’s central philosophical concern — the concern — the philosophical central Shakespeare’s upon Shakespeare’s ‘double sight,’ Zeffirelli shows everything shows Zeffirelli sight,’ ‘double Shakespeare’s the public playhouses of London, can be found in all can his found be London, of playhouses public the openly agency’ ‘modal of share their here but tragedies tion and shots. The secret of his success is his firm his success of ongrasp The secret shots. and tion war of archetypal main the twin-theme subject, play’s the in the visual representation of its world. His treatment of of His treatment world. its of in visual the representation its of conflict constant the world, the duality of reigning in in nature and man alike. Magnifying his through lens world. play’s the of dualities the reveal to in contrast

- - - -

Zeffirelli’s guiding principle is authenticity. He deploys deploys He authenticity. is principle guiding Zeffirelli’s

dience of a 16th century public playhouse into big screen screen big into playhouse century public a 16th of dience

differences in concept, dramaturgy, cinematic strategies, strategies, cinematic dramaturgy, concept, in differences emphatically poetic verbal composition meant for the au the for meant composition verbal poetic emphatically

compositional elements of the play, discusses the two didiscusses two the play, the of elements compositional or covertly, updated the play though by using different different using by though play the updated covertly, or

cases is the same. Both directors produced a relatively relatively a produced directors cases Both same. isthe all the then available means of cinematic dramaturgy cinematic means of all to available then the

audience. The following section, focusing on the main the on focusing section, The following audience. and the intimacy of their romance. Both of them, overtly overtly them, of Both romance. their intimacy the and of

audience while earning the highest grosses of all of intimes earning grosses while highest the audience strategies to meet the taste and demands of their target their taste of the demands and meet to strategies

setting, dating and design, the secret of success in both in both success of secret the design, dating and setting, faithful, streamlined translation of play-script into screen into faithful, play-script of streamlined translation

play-script into screenplay; transforming the text of an of transforming text the screenplay; into play-script play, exploitingplay, the possibilities of visual representation

the dialogue as needed for the action and the most lyr most the and action the for dialoguethe as needed the history of Shakespeare on screen. Despite the striking the Despite screen. Shakespeare historythe on of

rectors’ strategies of adaptation translating Shakespeare’s translating Shakespeare’s adaptation of strategies rectors’ ical parts that grant the intensity of the lovers’ passion passion lovers’ the ical of parts that intensity grant the

inherent in Shakespeare’s text, keeping only as much of of as much only keeping text, in Shakespeare’s inherent films for spectators of the movie theatre. movie of the spectators filmsfor FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 79 - - -

Shakespeare’s text is devoid of authorial instructions in authorial of is devoid text Shakespeare’s enemy of war. Happiness, however, even here and now is now and here even however, Happiness, war. of enemy two play to same instrument the using chords contrary and restore the peace, the ultimate goal of comedy. He He comedy. of goal ultimate the peace, the restore and mournful the of sonne voice youth — the of decay the and Zeffirelli, meet. to opportunity find an to game and-seek sional indirect hints in the dialogue suggest location for for location hints indialogue the indirect suggest sional screen. It is a great opportunity to regain the lost balance balance lost the regain to opportunity is great a It screen. modes off against each other. off modes mere illusion just like the art that called it to life. With the the With art like life. the just to that called it illusion mere mutability on song interpolated the tune of melancholy to the creative imagination of the audience. Only occa audience. the imagination of creative the to the lovers-to-be in the house of the turncoat Capulet pos Capulet turncoat the of in house the lovers-to-be the and feast the on both casts shadow a threatening teer — he a hide- play in meantime, the who, lovers would-be the hislove — strikes hymn film tune of of a and iconic the respect to location, setting and costumes leaving everything leaving costumes and setting location, to respect invites all the Graces and Muses to promise happiness to to happiness promise to Muses and all Graces invites the the and peace of friend the supplier, asing generous the with this musical addition — the song has since become become has since song with this addition — the musical - - - - -

costumes, the measured sequence of spectacular of dances, sequence measured the costumes,

ends the comic stage and starts the succession of events events of starts and stage comic succession the the ends and portentous in its raging violence. In the ball-scene ball-scene In the raging in violence. its portentous and

authoritative voice-over that sets the tone of gloom and and gloom of tone that the sets voice-over authoritative and Mercutio (3.1) is the compositional crux that abruptly is compositional the (3.1) Mercutio and a tragedy of passion. In terms of action, the duel of Tybalt Tybalt of duel the action, In termsof passion. of a tragedy and manners turned by an accidental sword-thrust into into sword-thrust mannersand an turned by accidental sharpen the contrast between the two stages of the nar the of stages two the between sharpen contrast the

gives full vent to his operatic fantasies to provide delight delight provide to fantasies his to operatic fullgives vent by sensual satisfaction. The decorative scenery, the lavish lavish the scenery, The decorative sensualby satisfaction.

lies is extended into an elongated scene of commotion: a commotion: of scene an elongated into is extended lies leading to the tragic conclusion. Zeffirelli grabs every op Zeffirelligrabs tragic conclusion. the to leading

(1.5) Zeffirelli even evokes the world of festive comedy. He comedy. festive of world the evokes even Zeffirelli (1.5) mock-heroic civil war farcical madness carnivalesque in its mock-heroic

mourning, the opening quarrel of the two feuding fami feuding two the quarrel of opening the mourning, portunity to fatten the comic body of the play and thus thus and play the of body comic the portunity fatten to the artistic consummation of the world of art, of quin the world the of artisticthe consummation Italian the on a vivid called of life to Renaissance, tessence the accorded interplay of sight, sound and movement is movement and sound sight, of interplay accorded the the number of lines longer than the second — would eas than second — would the longer lines of number the

rative. After the ominous chorus in Laurence Olivier’s Olivier’s inLaurence chorus After ominous the rative. ily pass for a romance-sweetened city comedy of humours humours of city comedy a romance-sweetened pass for ily FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 80 ------Zeffirelli shows both his reverence for for andShakespeare bothreverence his shows Zeffirelli change for the painful cuts of the most poetic, thus least least thus painful poetic, the most the for of cuts change and expressions bodies, and faces beauty, and youth of controversial role as the church’s representative in the in the representative as church’s the role controversial pi and all intent his good who — for cast, Friar Laurence, agent the fate, of instrument the practices — becomes ous his protégés. of death the of adaptable parts of the play-script, he provides ample com ample provides he parts play-script, the of adaptable and piety, the sacred space of instruction, confession and and confession instruction, of space sacred the piety, and in his faith play the of world the to an devotion artist’s shrift, seclusion and retreat. In its dignified decay it em it decay dignified In its retreat. and shrift, seclusion gestures, form a purely visual subplot whose repeatedly repeatedly whose visual a purely subplot form gestures, bodies in lime and stone the crumbling authority of the the of crumbling the authority stone in and lime bodies love into pictures, he focuses on the lovers themselves. themselves. lovers the on focuses he pictures, into love Catholic church, helpless in keeping and restoring peace peace restoring and in keeping helpless church, Catholic ful adherence to its plot. Though he retains only 35% of of retains 35% he only Though plot. its to ful adherence pensation. Instead of translating the poetic imagery of imagery of translating poetic the of Instead pensation. the dialogue, all his cuts serve the same purpose: to tell tell dialogue, to allthe same purpose: the his serve cuts In ex in pictures. lovers “star-crossed” the of story the in the world of ‘ancient grudge’ and ever-renewing muti ever-renewing and grudge’ ‘ancient of in world the same visualthe In the plays nies. it film the narrative of His successive gazes on the actors, his devout admiration admiration his devout actors, the gazes on His successive - - - - - of his stage. Zeffirelli, in his Zeffirelli, stage. of 1

Peter Brook elaborates the idea in his ground-breaking work on the elaborates the idea in his ground-breaking Brook Peter

of analogies, he employs places as narrative leitmotifs, as narrative leitmotifs, places employs analogies, he of exchange for the unbounded freedom granted by the play- the by granted freedom unbounded the for exchange

and provides each of his scenes with an elaborate setting setting with an elaborate his scenes of each provides and script, leaves nothing to the imagination of his audience his imagination audience the of to nothing leaves script,

serve as guidelines for film directors as well: “The power of a Shakespeare “The power of a Shakespeare as well: film directors serve as guidelines for breathe in an empty space.” (Jacksonbreathe 22)

his adaptation encompasses not only recognisability — the recognisability — the only not encompasses his adaptation litical reasons, to try to build a frame round a Shakespeare play is an im play to try reasons, litical a Shakespeare to build a frame round

marketplace of the city. Seen from outside it is a decora it outside from Seen city. the of marketplace position which runs the risk of reducing the play: it can only sing, live and it can only the play: runs the risk of reducing which position

play on stage stems from the fact that it happens nowhere. A Shakespeare A Shakespeare that it happens nowhere. the fact on stage stems from play po or supported by aesthetic attempt, whether has no setting. Every play phenomenology of the theatre (5). His views on Shakespeare’s stage may stage may on Shakespeare’s (5). His views of the theatre phenomenology

providing a visual means of connotation and interpreta and visuala connotation providing means of tive setting for scenes of public life, peaceful traffic and traffic and peaceful life, public of scenes for setting tive

tion. The most obvious such location is the church in the church is the location such obvious The most tion. the actors on the‘empty space’ the‘empty on actors the

ing. Shown from inside: the intimate interior of peace peace of interior intimate the inside: from Shown ing. raging violence, merriments and stern rituals stern and mourn merriments of raging violence,

representative arrangement of the setting for the sake of sake the of for setting the of arrangement representative fitted to his vision of the play’s world. Mise-en-scéne in Mise-en-scéne world. play’s of the to his vision fitted

1 verisimilitude, but through a carefully designed pattern FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 81 ------

ers offered by the grief-stricken fathers to each other and and other to each fathers by grief-stricken the offered ers will more” on draw voice “whose screen, and stage both on characters — young and old, the rituals of public and pri and rituals the public old, of and characters — young time of Shots admiration. beauty’s and ecstasylove of lov the of monuments gilded the of Instead consolation. about the timeliness of the tale for the target audience of of target audience the tale the for of timeliness the about at the heart-wrenching dénouement in the crypt. Yet, at at in crypt. the Yet, dénouement heart-wrenching the at sole cause of all cheer and gloom, joy and pain, and happi joy gloom, and all of cause cheer sole bliss and curse are all keenly timed with an ever-changing curse with and are all an timed bliss ever-changing keenly he rounds the frame of his picture with the voice-over of of withvoice-over the his frame the picture of rounds he kept at bay. The plot, the rapid succession of events, the the events, of succession rapid the The plot, bay. at kept even spectators the for healingconsolation gaze offer less Olivier, the iconic figure of Shakespeare representation representation Shakespeareof figure iconic the Olivier, measure depending on the contrary demands of detach of demands contrary the on depending measure of out Time reflection. and action involvement, and ment in the is forgotten it when neglect, temporary of ments joint, by propelling or delaying action, is set right by mo by right is set action, delaying or propelling by joint, posterity, he bids farewell to his beloved Verona with the Verona his to beloved farewell bids he posterity, and are punished,” “All prince: the of sentence prophetic the conclusion Zeffirelli mercilessly cuts out the lines of theout lines cuts mercilessly Zeffirelli conclusion the ness and misfortune in a world where vice and evil and vice are where in a world misfortune and ness vate life, the birth and growth of love, acts and states of of acts states and birth the love, growth and life, of vate

- - - - - , the principal time

dues the moralist, war surrenders to love, facts to fiction, fiction, facts to love, to war moralist, the surrenders dues

ceaseless operation all through the film, itself being the allthe being film,itself the through operation ceaseless crafty actor of the metamorphosis is crafty metamorphosis the of actor

easing the weight of loss through the magic power of of magic the power through loss of easing weight the eval buildings of the city — sights of the fine artist’s fine grand the artist’s of city — sights the of eval buildings

of action. Though the glorified objects of of his visualobjects admi glorified the Though action. of about imposing his own tastes on to Shakespeare’s text” text” his Shakespeare’s to own tastes imposing on about

artistic milieu for action and reflection alike. seek While reflection and action artistic for milieu arrested time stands in sharp contrast with the rapid pace pace time standsarrested in sharp with rapid the contrast

subject of the sonneteer’s philosophicalsubject the reflection, of sonneteer’s and beauty he outdoes even Shakespeare. The aesthete sub Shakespeare. The aesthete even outdoes he beauty

(Cartmell 212). Beauty for him is the aesthetic manifes him is aesthetic the for Beauty 212). (Cartmell tragedy to poetry — the visual illusion of redemption. The poetry — the redemption. visual to of tragedy illusion

tation of youth, innocence, purity, harmony and love. In love. and harmony purity, innocence, youth, of tation tour of the world of Renaissance Italy, providing proper proper providing Italy, Renaissance of world the of tour

the double agent of dramatic action in his tragedies and and in histragedies dramatic action of agent double the romances. We have a keen sense of its presence and its its and presence its of sense a keen have We romances. in many ways, in this respect “Zeffirelli has no in “Zeffirelli no qualms this has in respect many ways, ing authenticity so as to give credit to his period movie movie his to period credit as give so to authenticity ing in the Eden-like garden of Capulet’s palace, in medi the palace, Capulet’s of garden in Eden-like the

ration are the lovers themselves, he finds beauty worthy of worthy beauty finds he themselves, lovers are the ration visual revelation everywhere: in Arcadian the landscape, everywhere: visual revelation FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 82 - - - - - : Signet and his competition was bear-bait and his competition — drunken punters, from the street sweeper to the the street from punters, drunken convey a story. (Luhrmann) a story. convey speare after all was a player. We know about the about know We player. a was all after speare Queen of Eng Shakespeare might make a movie of one of his plays one of his plays of a movie make might Shakespeare tainer and a user of incredible devices and theatrical and theatrical devices tainer and a user of incredible of meaning and something create to ultimately tricks if he was a director. How would he make it? … Shake would he make How if he was a director. enter So he was a relentless ing and prostitution. Elizabethan stage and that he was playing for 3000 for and that he was playing Elizabethan stage Luhrmann’s concept of adaptation is in full accord with is in full adaptation accord of concept Luhrmann’s What I wanted to do was to look at the way in which which in way the at look to was do to wanted I What of his adaptation, Luhrmann his adaptation, of his sums argumentsup in action of cuts and complements, reductions and additions. additions. and reductions complements, and cuts of action an interview given to the the to given an interview screen. For those who have doubts about the legitimacy legitimacy the about doubts have who those For screen. his creed as much as Hapgood’s fore-mentioned funda fore-mentioned as Hapgood’s ashis much creed mental assumption concerning Shakespeare’s topicality. topicality. Shakespeare’s concerning assumption mental popular culture of the 1990s is twofold — a balanced inter balanced is twofold — a 1990s the culturepopular of Luhrmann’s strategy to domesticate Shakespeare in the domesticate strategy to Luhrmann’s - - - - Romeo explainsmuch , a brilliant adapta free is the work of a lover, like lover, a of work is the Romeo + Juliet + Juliet Romeo Shakespeare Love in Romeo and Juliet and Luhrmann’s Luhrmann’s and

Zeffirelli’s Zeffirelli’s The thirty years that elapsed between Zeffirelli’s Zeffirelli’s The thirty between that elapsed years

and Juliet dated, modern-dress adaptation, tuned to the times of its its of times the to tuned adaptation, modern-dress dated,

of the difference between the two adaptations. The “+” re “+” The adaptations. the two between difference the of estranged from their parents by the Vietnam War. War. Vietnam the by parents their from estranged

all his shots and heats up all his scenes. It is precisely is precisely It all up hisall heats and scenes. his shots gets into the focus of his camera, which shines through through shines hiscamera, which of focus the into gets

ble and as such, an authentic, ‘authorized’ adaptation of of adaptation ‘authorized’ anas authentic, and such, ble boldly suggested by Tom Stoppard in the screenplay of of in screenplay the Stoppard Tom by suggested boldly

loves his actors, loves Italy, loves art, loves everything that art, loves loves Italy, loves his actors, loves making and fashioned to the taste of its target audience, target audience, taste its the to of making fashioned and

proof of Shakespeare’s boundless adaptability for the big big the for adaptability boundless Shakespeare’s of proof placing “and” in the title in itself is a significant marker of is a significant marker in itself in title the “and” placing

Shakespeare’s tragedy of love. love. of tragedy Shakespeare’s Shakespeare may have been when writing the play, as is writing play, the when been have Shakespeare may

the MTV-generation of the 1990s, is the most spectacular is most the 1990s, the of MTV-generation the the director’s unorthodox attitude. Luhrmann’s 1996 up

this all-embracing passion that lova makes his movie passion this all-embracing tion of the play. Zeffirelli loves Shakespeare, loves the play, play, the loves Shakespeare, loves Zeffirelli play. the of tion

the movie; the flower-pacifist advocates of peace and love love and peace of advocates flower-pacifist the movie; the John Madden’s FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 83 - - - - is the key of composition; dissonance dissonance composition; of key is the discord Luhrmann’s metacinematic frame, matching con matching frame, metacinematic Luhrmann’s city of “Fair Verona,” and the ongoing mob war simulta mob ongoing the and Verona,” “Fair city of play starts him action “public the the that for before even oddly discordant with the contemporary mise-en-scéne, mise-en-scéne, with contemporary the discordant oddly the of Thedoubling is a masterstroke. vision and voice of the location, the covering shots rapid of top on placed over allusive pastiche of features borrowed from diverse gen diverse from borrowed features of pastiche allusive semi-surrealistic, quasi-dystopian world, a postmodern a postmodern semi-surrealistic, world, quasi-dystopian in opening the fruitfuldisplaying duplicity self-reflective big one — the medium of public involvement and private private and involvement public of medium one — the big house” is the movie theatre. The silver screen within the screen The silver theatre. movie is the house” lends inverted authority to The Bard’s words restoring restoring words The to Bard’s authority inverted lends Chorus on the screen within the screen with the voice- with the within screen the screen the on Chorus mediator between stage and audience — he makes it clear clear makes it audience — he and stage between mediator that is exactly the point? In Luhrmann’s lurid vision of a of vision lurid In Luhrmann’s that point? the is exactly fantasies,to voice and vision. of accord desired the thus neously stands for authentication and modernization. In modernization. and authentication stands for neously framing effective device — an Shakespeare’s of imitation res of popular film, from westerns through action filmsaction westerns through film, popular of from res with respect to characters and milieu alike. But what if what alike. milieu and characters But to with respect The purpose. same the serves invention, and vention

-

evoked: the play’s ‘then’ and the film’s ‘now’? In most of the most In ‘now’? film’s the and ‘then’ play’s the evoked: out of reverence, in the name of authenticity? Or is it a a Or is it authenticity? in name the of reverence, of out

of place, out of tune? Did Luhrmann keep to the play-script Luhrmann Did play-script the to tune? of keep out place, of ence familiar with Shakespeare’s text since it was made was made it since familiar text ence with Shakespeare’s

evoke the illusion of the original setting, and reveal in in original the reveal and of setting, illusion the evoke cuts Shakespeare’s text. He retains less than retains it, He less text. a third of Shakespeare’s cuts

action sequences, with the exception of those love scenes scenes love those of with exception the sequences, action a ‘movie’ of action and visual design would not bear the not visual and would action design of a ‘movie’

set in isolated interiors, Shakespeare’s dialogue sounds dialogue sounds Shakespeare’s interiors, in isolated set because it is a must in direct screen adaptations, merely merely adaptations, in direct screen is a must it because

burden of too many words, the overwhelming weight of of weight overwhelming the many words, too of burden for a generation whose book is the screen. Yet Luhrmann’s Luhrmann’s Yet screen. is the book whose a generation for

means of sharpening the contrast between the two worlds worlds two the between sharpeningmeans contrast of the play. Language-wise, it is a film that renounces allclaims is a film renounces Language-wise, it that play.

poetic detail the inner world of the characters. After characters. the all,of world detail inner the poetic Shakespeare’s lines. More of them would easily turn the would them of More lines. Shakespeare’s

treatment of Shakespeare’s language poses questions. Why questions. language poses Shakespeare’s of treatment to provide an authentic rendering of the play for an audi for play the of rendering an authentic provide to

insist on Shakespeare’s text at all if it is so out of date, out out date, of all at out is so text if it Shakespeare’s insist on removing most of the lines that would delay the action, action, the delay that lines would the of most removing

film into a mock-heroic travesty, a misshapen satire of the of the satire a misshapen travesty, mock-heroic a film into While he keeps the storyline and the cast, the drasticallyand he storyline the While keeps he FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 84 - - - analogy spatial the acceleration of action fallen out of of out fallen action of acceleration the time, time, Despite the striking ingenuity and lurid charm this lurid and of striking the ingenuity Despite duality of Luhrmann’s world, the opposition of the city’s city’s the of opposition the world, Luhrmann’s duality of of the city and the two warringtwo the city and the sea, the the of mob-clans, control. Timing and location are attuned by the pulsing pulsing the by are attuned Timing location and control. in the them of is left what rather 24 scenes — or the cut visual and action variety. rapid by seats their of all vision, this setting, the postmodern is only composite cinematic space that grants him the freedom of visual of that grants him rep space freedom the cinematic disjointed of and guns,and drugs fire and are visual actionalsignifiers and ates the vision of a dystopian nowhereland, a fictitious a fictitious nowhereland, a dystopian of vision the ates symbolic identifiers. As skyscrapers, cars, outfits, knives outfits, cars,knives skyscrapers, As identifiers. symbolic screenplay — into 80 shots to keep his audience on the edge edge the on his audience keep to shots 80 screenplay — into bath tub, the fish tank — containers of water –, a notebook, notebook, –, a water of fish the tank — containers tub, bath (Mexico City, Veracruz, Los Angeles, Miami), he cre he Miami), Los Angeles, Veracruz, City, (Mexico public life and the private sphere of the lovers, is most ap is most lovers, the of sphere private the and life public their and isolation of state their in characters, the parent tempo of succession in action and vision alike. vision Luhrmann and in action succession of tempo The spatial and context. temporal updated milieu, the the the crafty combination of the actual locales of shooting shooting actual the of of locales craftythe combination resentation. In the public sphere of this space everything this of space sphere public In the resentation. size is the of Exaggeration is oversized. - - -

Unlike Zeffirelli, with the predominantly comic mood mood comic predominantly withthe Zeffirelli,Unlike The reigning emblems of the city, the twin towers of of twin the towers city, the of emblems The reigning

doomed to die not by blind fate, “fickle Fortune,” or the or the Fortune,” “fickle fate, blind by not die to doomed

detachment — is on throughout the film. the throughout on detachment — is contrast with Zeffirelli’s concept of historical and of historical artis concept with Zeffirelli’s contrast

caravan campsite planted in the middle of a desert gener a desert of in middle the planted caravan campsite conspiracy of the stars, but by “rude will” — the “rude by stars, ever-rag the of but conspiracy

city, the “Waste Land” of lovelessness, where lovers are are lovers where Land” lovelessness, “Waste the of city, of the first two acts muted — the only exception being the the being exception only muted — the acts first the of two

already fallen without knowing about it. In provocative In provocative it. about knowing without fallen already ate with joint visual force the sense of gloom, of a world world a of gloom, of sense the visual with joint force ate any of his predecessors’. His “Fair Verona” is the sinfulis the Verona” His “Fair his predecessors’. of any a shocking vision of the play’s world, much darker than darker much world, play’s the of vision a shocking streets, the run-down beach with the ghostly ruins with its ghostly the of beach run-down the streets,

Caplets’ custom feast extravaganza — Luhrmann feast custom presents Caplets’ Capulet and Montague, the colossus of the Saviour with Saviour the of colossus the Montague, and Capulet

main gate — an anachronistic backdrop reminiscent of an of reminiscent main backdrop anachronistic gate — an Shakespeare’s ‘empty’ stage-space to his advantage. By By his to advantage. stage-space ‘empty’ Shakespeare’s

tic verisimilitude, Luhrmann turns of the placelessness its hands helplessly spread over the violence-stricken violence-stricken the over spread hands its helplessly

ing hatred of its inhabitants. its of hatred ing Elizabethan playhouse — the barren nowhere land of the the land of nowhere barren Elizabethan playhouse — the

FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 85

- -

ers’ world. What really matters for Luhrmann, What for really matters as just for world. ers’

lovers themselves and the story of their love resist all resist at love their of story the and themselves lovers lit candles, miniature sculptures of angels and the Virgin the and angels miniature of candles, sculptures lit

protected by The Bard’s powerful shield — his words. shield — his powerful The Bard’s by protected tempts at modernization, being time-and place-proof,

the ring of their bond create the visual lov the the of create mosaic bond their ringthe of the monumental church-scene of the denouement — and denouement — and the of church-scene monumental the

Mary in Juliet’s bedroom — a private chapel forecasting forecasting chapel private bedroom — a Mary in Juliet’s Zeffirelli, is the theme, the plot and the the characters. The and plot the theme, the is Zeffirelli, FILM & CULTURE–GELLÉRT– SHAKESPEARE ON FILM:

ROMEO AND JULIET REVISIONED 86 .19 Signet Dir. Franco Zeffirelli. 20th Century Fox, Century 20th Zeffirelli. Franco Dir. . Dir. Baz Luhrmann.. Dir. Pictures, Paramount Dec. 1996. Web. 8 Feb. 2016. Feb. 8 Web. 1996. Dec. 1996. Film. 1968. Film. FILMOGRAPHY: Romeo + Juliet Romeoand Juliet. Luhrmann, with Baz. BazLuhrman.” “Interview - - Ed. The The . Ed. Ed. Rus Ed. Rus London: Macgibbon and The Empty Space. Space. The Empty . London: Methuen, 1988. Print. 1988. Methuen, . London:

The Shifting Point: Forty Years of Theatrical Experience. Experience. Theatrical of Years Forty Point: The Shifting sell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: Jackson. sell sell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: Jackson. sell Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film. Stanley Wells. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: Stanley Wells. 1946–1987 Press, 2000. 212–222. Print.Press, 212–222. 2000. Russell Jackson. Cambridge: Cambridge University Kee, 1968. Print. 1968. Kee, 1989. 273–287. Print. 273–287. 1989. 2000. 15–34. Print. 15–34. 2000. 2000. 295–314. Print. The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare Studies. Studies. Shakespeare to Companion The Cambridge The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare on Film on Shakespeare to Companion The Cambridge

WORKS CITED: WORKS

Cartmell, Deborah. “Franco Zeffirelli and Shakespeare.” and Shakespeare.” Zeffirelli Cartmell, “Franco Deborah. Jackson, Russell. “From play-script to screenplay.” screenplay.” to play-script “From Russell. Jackson,

Brook, Peter. Brook, Peter. Howard, Tony. “Shakespeare’s Cinematic Offshoots.” Offshoots.” Cinematic “Shakespeare’s Tony. Howard,

Hapgood, Robert. “Shakespeare on Film and Television.” Film Television.” “Shakespeare and Robert. on Hapgood, —. Hitchcock’s Macbeth

MÁRTA HARGITAI | FILM & CULTURE ► 87 FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 88 - - - - : (1937), is one is one Macbeth Alfred Hitch Psycho and Conrad’s Conrad’s and — that “ TheMan Who Knew 1 Macbeth Robin Wood, wrote in wrote Wood, Robin

Young and Innocent Young (1940) and and (1940) (1936), (74–84). (74–84). — but the intensity and horror of their their of horror and intensity the — but Sabotage A Casebook (1956), was convinced that it was his theatre was his that it theatre was convinced (1956), : (1936), This editorial comment introduces the reprint of Robin Wood’s orig Wood’s of Robin the reprint introduces This editorial comment The seminal Hitchcock critic, The seminal Hitchcock cock's Psycho cock's discoveries of Freudian psychology and on the other the the other the on and psychology Freudian of discoveries experience that was the basis for his collaboration with his collaboration that was basis the for experience of the key works of our age. Its themes are of course not not course are of themes Its age. our of works key the of acter of Marion, Wood uses another reference to to reference another uses Marion, Wood of acter belong to the age that has witnessed on the one hand the hand the one the on that has age the witnessed to belong helped shape the ‘thriller’ genre” (Bennet). genre” ‘thriller’ the shape helped inal essay in the chapter “The Building of a Reputation” in of a Reputation” in the chapter “The Building inal essay treatment and the fact that they are here grounded in sex in sex grounded are here that fact they the and treatment riousness of Hitchcock’s work” (74) work” Hitchcock’s of riousness new – obvious forerunners include include forerunners new – obvious Agent Foreign Correspondent Heart of Darkness 1 Nazi concentration camps” (83). When discussing char the When (83). camps” Nazi concentration Hitchcock, adding that “ultimately my love of Shakespeare of love my that “ultimately adding Hitchcock, 1965 — probably only using Shakespeare to “prove the se the using “prove Shakespeare to only 1965 — probably Too Much “[s]he has by her actions penetrated the shell of order, and and order, of shell the penetrated actions has her by “[s]he - - - - Secret Macbeth (1935), The 39 Steps . Macbeth

First, let me outline very briefly John Charles Bennett’s Bennett’s Charles John briefly very outline me let First,

doubted the authority of Hitchcock as a serious artist. as a serious Hitchcock of authority the doubted construct ‘his’construct ever, does not wish to join these critics, as she has never has as never she critics, these wish join to not does ever, of their genre. The author of the present writing, how present the of The author genre. their of essays, newspaper articles and blog entries research the the research entries blog and articles newspaper essays,

or any other Shakespearean play for the silver screen, yet yet screen, silver the for Shakespearean play other any or considering that Hitchcock never adapted either either adapted never that Hitchcock considering

seminar might be interested enough to imagine to re and enough interested be seminarmight (1899–1995) ideas in this matter. Bennet, who was ac who Bennet, in this ideas matter. (1899–1995)

provide only a brief list of relevant analyses representative analyses representative relevant list of brief a only provide Shakespeare and the theatre in general, students in a film students in general, theatre Shakespeare the and

tor, playwright, and screenwriter working with Alfred working playwright, screenwriter and tor, that after contemplating Hitchcock’s ideas concerning concerning ideas Hitchcock’s that after contemplating

the literature surveying Shakespearean references in his surveying Shakespearean references literature the rious auteur. In want of space and time, this paper will this time, and paper space of In want auteur. rious field, mostly in an attempt to establish Hitchcock se a as Hitchcock establish to in attempt mostly an field, films is voluminous. Hundreds of film reviews, literary of reviews, film Hundreds filmsvoluminous. is Hitchcock on six of his six films, of on Hitchcock Hitchcock’s oeuvre and also makes the bold suggestion suggestion also and makes oeuvre bold the Hitchcock’s Instead she aims at exploring Shakespeare’s influence in influence Shakespeare’s aims exploring she at Instead The title of this piece may seem somewhat nonsensical, nonsensical, somewhat seem may this of piece The title FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 89

- - ). as the Hitchcock Hitchcock Hitchcock Hamlet Caroline Moorehead that was keen to take role (“Hamlet” the to on was keen 3 T]he watched, as so as to be as faithful will be closely transcription “[ Confirmation of these views can easily be found in in found can easily be of views these Confirmation We know from from know We The Hitchcock Zone, which is “a collection of web sites sites web of collection is “a which Zone, The Hitchcock and blogs relating to the life and career of director Alfred director of career and life the to relating blogs and several Hitchcock interviews. est possible audience. The plot, situations, psychology and characters and characters psychology situations, The plot, audience. est possible and also the origin of what becomes of himself or herself on film.” Cavell becomes of himself or herself on film.” Cavell and also the origin of what (qtd. in “Hamlet”). man with problems. I won’t attempt to portray the role in role the portray to attempt I won’t man with problems. possible to Shakespeare's text, yet modern enough to appeal to the wid modern enough text, yet to Shakespeare's possible then concludes that “Thornhill’s identifying ‘rot’ as his trademark by now as his ‘rot’ identifying that “Thornhill’s then concludes its simultaneous meaning is that the actor is the origin of the character meaning is that the actor is the origin of the character its simultaneous (766). rotten” sense of something suggests to me Hamlet's irresistibly tion company in 1945, and, as she states, it would have been been have would it states, as and, she in 1945, company tion that Cary Grant Associated the by reported Hamlet project, modern the in Hitchcock’s words, a “psychological melodrama” and and melodrama” a “psychological words, in Hitchcock’s first film to be made for his new independent film produc film independent new for his first be to made film 3 Press in August 1945: “Hamlet will be shown as a modern will “Hamlet as a modern shown be in August 1945: Press will be retained, but the action and sets will be modern,” said and sets will will be retained, but the action Hitchcock” (“Welcome”), also quotes Grant talking Grant about also quotes (“Welcome”), Hitchcock” wanted to produce a modernised version of of version a modernised produce to wanted - - - 2 (directed by Hitchcock in 1959), in 1959), Hitchcock by (directed

North by Northwest Northwest by North

What he writes about the initials of the protagonist, ROT (Roger O. O. (Roger ROT protagonist, What he writes about the initials of the Philosopher Stanley Cavell in 1981 wrote an article an article wrote in 1981 Stanley Cavell Philosopher This being stated, he goes on to list other similarities, list other to on goes Thishe stated, being

of the theater and of theatricality, for its obsession with obsession its for theatricality, of and theater the of about about science of the one for whose benefit they are put on” (765). put are they benefit whose for one the of science someone is killed, both being constructed to catch the con the catch to constructed is killed, being both someone suggesting that in the title of the film there might be an filmmight the of there that in title the suggesting

change on the train between Thornhill and Eve about the monogram on and Eve change on the train between Thornhill stands for. ‘Nothing,’ he replies (764). Cavell adds that the “‘nothing,’ or or adds that the “‘nothing,’ (764). Cavell he replies ‘Nothing,’ stands for.

like Macbeth plunged herself into the chaos world, which which world, chaos the into herself plunged like Macbeth his matchbook. ‘Rot,’ he says, ‘it’s my trademark.’ She asks what the ‘O’ ‘O’ the what asks She trademark.’ my ‘it’s says, he ‘Rot,’ matchbook. his

for example that the “film opens with an ageless male male opens with that an ageless “film the example for naught, in the ROT monogram equally appropriately stands for origin, so origin, stands for appropriately monogram equally in the ROT naught, the film contain plays-within-the-play in both of which which of both in plays-within-the-play film contain the the idea of acting; and considering that both the play and and play the that both considering and acting; of idea the the oeuvre of a director pervaded by images and thoughts thoughts and images by pervaded a director of oeuvre the

identifying himself first of all as a son” (765). of himself firstidentifying all son” as a finds here its most terrifying definition” (78). terrifying most its definition” here finds

2 west” (764–5); and that the film is “notable, even within even that and film“notable, the is (764–5); west”

Thornhill played by Cary Grant), is most interesting: he recalls “the ex “the he recalls by Cary is most interesting: Thornhill played Grant), “allusion to Hamlet’s line that he is but mad north north mad north is but that line he Hamlet’s to “allusion FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 90 - - - (1930), But here we we here But . Murder! . Hamlet , a couple of times. of , a couple Hamlet Hitchcock himself helps whoever is not sharp well- is or not whoever himself helps Hitchcock In Chapter 3, discussingIn his Chapter film There is another interesting aspect of this picture, thisaspect of picture, interesting is another There done before. As it was re As talking a hadto it they picture, before. done character in a story,” he “used a stream-of-consciousness a stream-of-consciousness “used he in a story,” character adapted the idea to the techniques of sound” (Truffaut 74). sound” (Truffaut of techniques the to idea the adapted adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays in Hitchcock’s oeuvre, oeuvre, in Hitchcock’s plays Shakespeare’s of adaptations his plays, of one and bols, techniques and methods in Hitchcock’s works are are works in Hitchcock’s methods and techniques bols, legion. The very words of the auteur support this thesis: this thesis: support auteur the of The words very legion. monologue,” which back then “was regarded as an ex “was regarded then back which monologue,” Shakespearean ideas, traits, motifs, characteristics, sym characteristics, traits,Shakespearean motifs, ideas, traordinary novelty, although it had been done for ages ages for done had been it although traordinary novelty, in the theater, beginning with Shakespeare in theater, the namely the several references to in Truffaut’s book, Hitchcock mentions the playwright the mentions Hitchcock book, in Truffaut’s filming because they did many things that had not been been many filmingnot things did that they because had And this is my point here: although we can find no faithful no can find we although here: And this point is my Hitchcock admits he was particularly interested in the in the was particularly admits he interested Hitchcock a useless “introduce to hated have would Hitchcock versed enough to make the discovery herself: “[t]here were were “[t]here herself: make to discovery the enough versed veal the main character’s inner thoughts, and since since and thoughts, inner main the veal character’s . ------to Hamlet Hamlet , with Cary in the Grant , other things may follow” follow” things may other , Hamlet Or we may not, since in 1959 Hitchcock Hitchcock in 1959 since not, may Or we 4 North by Northwest about a group of students who “were given one week to “were who of students about a group here

See e.g. Students specialising in film studies here at ELTE may find a similar may at ELTE here specialising in film studies Students This aborted film project with the fantastic idea to cast the ever dash with the fantastic This aborted film project

eager to undertake. Shakespeare is the best theater in the in the theater best Shakespeare is the undertake. to eager

signment with considerable trepidation, but my faith in my but trepidation, withconsiderable signment cordingly” (“Hitchcock Hamlet Homage”). Hamlet (“Hitchcock cordingly”

en were that they needed to select a scene from Shakespeare’s Shakespeare’s a scene from that they needed to select en were cock’s possible solutions as to filming the tragedy. solutions possible cock’s

Cavell claims to be a reworking of Shakespeare’s Shakespeare’s of claims a reworking be to Cavell

(“Hamlet”). Sadly, however, nothing followed; we may say say may we followed; nothing however, Sadly, (“Hamlet”). many students of Hitchcock and Shakespeare to try Hitch to reconstruct of Hitchcock and Shakespeare students many

main role and, as we have seen above, it is a movie which which is movie a it above, seen have and,as we mainrole made the film the made porating shots, angles, motifs, sound, lighting, shadow and dialogue ac sound, motifs, and dialogue shadow angles, shots, lighting, porating produce, and that they needed to do it as a ‘homage’ to Hitchcock, incor and that they needed to do it as a ‘homage’ produce, plan, film, edit, and present a film to the class. The only instructions giv instructions a film to the class. The only film, edit, and present plan,

project appealing and challenging as well. appealing and challenging project ing and debonair Cary Grant, 42 at the time, to play Hamlet has inspired inspired has Hamlet Carydebonair and ing play to time, the at 42 Grant,

the rest is silence. rest the the traditional Shakespearean manner. I approach the as the approach I Shakespearean traditional the manner.

film formula through filmformula through Mr. Hitchcock is my reassurance in the matter, which I am which in matter, the reassurance is my Hitchcock Mr.

world and if we are successful in devising an acceptable an in devising acceptable are successful if and we world 4 FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 91 ------Ro In other words, “Shakespeare words, In other 6 maywould not but she stories, be the top in love certainly Next he adds that “the world of Shakespeare lovers […] is a very lovers lit world of Shakespeare he adds that “the Next Although fully aware of all these advantages and poten and all fully advantages of Although these aware

cinema took Shakespeare as something new to present to to present to new Shakespeare as something took cinema as livened, popularized humanized and him, suggests he aslivened, works Hitchcock’s screen? big the Shakespeare for adapting spells considerable gloom to the average mind of today.” today.” of mind average the to gloom considerable spells classroom memories to smack of entertainment. To the modern girl To to smack of entertainment. memories classroom meo and Juliet be able to follow the dialogue of the sixteenth century” (“My Most Excit Most century” of the sixteenth the dialogue (“My to follow be able how “[n]ovelty is the essence of a successful film, successful a the and of essence is the “[n]ovelty how 6 (“Much Ado About Nothing”). About Ado (“Much jority of the public anything connected with Shakespeare anything connected public the of jority tle one compared with the world of the cinema enthusiasts.” He, then, ar He, with the world of the cinema enthusiasts.” one compared tle the man with: “[t]o to grapple later – also have we – 80 years what ticulates ing Picture”). in the street Shakespeare is something very with dull and too pregnant Shakespeare in the street So what did the cinema do to Shakespeare, he asks. It asks. Shakespeare, he It to do cinema the did what So tials why did this film-maker never venture into ‘properly’ ‘properly’ into venture never tials this did film-maker why its millions of filmgoers. It was a bold step, for to the to ma the for step, wasIt bold a filmgoers. millions of its is as dull as ditchwater.” “the cinema can do without Shakespeare.” Then he explainsThen he Shakespeare.” can without cinema do “the as well make to Shakespeare palatable,” “condescended

- - - a BBC a BBC , The Listener because we had a play had a play we because . here Hamlet The whole film was about the theater” (77). theater” (77). filmthe was about The whole It is here that Hitchcock makes an obvious – but makes an obvious – but that Hitchcock is here It 5

Hamlet. , Hitchcock concludes that “you have to design design to have that “you concludes , Hitchcock

You can read the full transcript the full transcript can read You Later, in Chapter 13, defending the marketability of of marketability the 13, defending inChapter Later, There was a radio debate entitled “Shakespeare: “Shakespeare: entitled debate wasradio a There

ence” (Truffaut 283). ence” (Truffaut

also several references to to references alsoseveral see whether he would show some sign of guilt, like of sign the just some show would he whether see

scribed the killing, this was a way of tricking him” (75); killing, the scribed (75); tricking this him” of was a way broadcast magazine, under the title “Much Ado about Ado “Much title the magazine,under broadcast

king in 5

to the Shakespeare aficionado a rather startling – remark: rather a Shakespeare the aficionado to tively” (“Shakespeare”). A written version of this debate this of debate A written version (“Shakespeare”). tively”

radio and film adaptations of Shakespeare’s plays respec plays Shakespeare’s of film and adaptations radio read the manuscript of a play, and since the script de script the since and play, a of manuscript the read

Psycho Broadcasting and the Cinema” on BBC Radio in 1937, Radio in 1937, BBC on Cinema” the and Broadcasting

Nothing?” was published a couple of days later in later days of a couple was published

where Hitchcock and Val Gielgud “argued the merits of of merits the “argued Gielgud Val and Hitchcock where within a play. The presumptive murderer was asked to to was asked murderer The presumptive within a play.

your film just as Shakespeare did his plays — for audi an filmjust plays — for Shakespeareas your his did “[t]hey watched the man while he was reading out loud to to loud out was man the reading he while watched “[t]hey FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 92 - . - - Shake And 8 (484–6).

metacinema

into

(1930), however, the however, (1930), Murder! metatheatre 9 is a film about the theatre, but the meta the but theatre, isthe a film about Stage Fright Braunmuller notes that this question has long been debated by crit has long notes that this question Braunmuller The Lady’s advice to her husband is rather telling in this respect: is rather telling in this to her husband advice The Lady’s So May read strange matters. To beguile the time, the beguile strange matters. To read May (1.5.61–4) under’t. be the serpent But Look like the time, bear welcome in your eye, in your the time, bear welcome like Look Your hand, your tongue; look like th’ innocent flower, innocent th’ like hand, tongue; look your Your “Your face, my thane, is as a book where men where thane, is as a book face, my “Your

director — although using a similar method — was more similar a using more method — was director — although John Sir where as in scene the in such this picture device spearean Tragedy: Lectures on Hamlet, Othello, King Lear, Macbeth Lear, Othello, King Lectures on Hamlet, spearean Tragedy: one wonders whether Lady Macbeth does faint in 2.3 or or in 2.3 faint does Macbeth Lady whether wonders one and Fane stand “frozen in silence, script in hand” script then and stand in “frozen silence, Fane and she only feigns fainting. she successful in translating successful be that of the play written by Sir John about the murder murder the about John Sir written by play the thatbe of 8 ics (156). A. C. Bradley also discusses the issue in the second edition edition the second in the issue discusses also Bradley A. C. (156). ics the cinema. In an earlier film, cinema. Inthe an earlier roles and they act out various dreadfulvarious as well. deeds out act they and roles fiction here is not entirely translated into the of languagethe into translated entirely not is here fiction 9 Rothman draws attention to a very specific metacinematic metacinematic specific a very to attention Rothman draws turns it however, scrutiny, On closer has committed. Fane “there is a cut to a page of script.” The script is supposed to to is supposed The script script.” of page a to isa cut “there - - - - as 7 circumstances to play a circumstances play to

(1950), for instance, (1950), is “simply another one

Hitchcock calls himself an idiot for believing reviewers of the book of the book reviewers believing for Hitchcock calls himself an idiot Stage Fright

out a criminal” (Truffaut 189). Likewise, the Macbeth cou Likewise, Macbeth the a criminal”189). out (Truffaut coming an actress will an by actress coming led be

of those little British crime movies in Agatha the Christie crime movies British little those of els (69), which he so freely refashions that they “become “become that they refashions freely so he which (69), els

a film about the theatre (189). What specifically appealed appealed specifically What (189). theatre the a filmabout a Hitchcock creation” (70). Hitchcock, at this point of the the of this at point Hitchcock, (70). creation” Hitchcock a

somebody else’s achievement (70). but most of them are popular or light entertainment nov entertainment light or are popular them of most but

ple are actors in both senses of the word: they play several several play they word: the of senses in both actors are ple that it might make a good Hitchcock picture (Truffaut 189). (Truffaut a good Hitchcock picture make that it might

to Hitchcock “was the idea that the girl who dreams be that girl of the who “was idea the Hitchcock to tradition” adding little or nothing to his to prestige, nothing or little adding tradition”

tors distort literary masterpieces, and that he “will that and he have distort literary masterpieces, tors real-life role by posing as someone else in order to smoke smoke to in order else as someone posing by role real-life no part of that” for the reason that such masterpieces are masterpieces that such reason the part that” for no of interview, answers that he hates the way Hollywood direc Hollywood way the hates that answers he interview, include a great many adaptations, as points out Truffaut, Truffaut, out as points many adaptations, a great include

7 Truffaut writes, yet it has yet an intriguing it is aspect in writes, that Truffaut FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 93

- - - nor feign . Regarding the the . Regarding Macbeth , maybe the opposite is also true: you can is also you true: opposite the , maybe King Lear worn by the character (a norm enforced by society). society). by enforced norm (a character the by worn With respect to clothes and sexual ambiguity, we might might we sexual and ambiguity, clothes to respect With der issues that also issues in surface der costume being more authentic than the men’s wear wear thanmen’s the authentic more being costume mally are you who terms with truth the to concerning come best disguise, a rule learnt the hard way by Edgar as Poor Edgar asdisguise, by Poor best hard a rule way the learnt beginning of the play than her husband, while regard while than husband, play beginning her the of latter, the Lady is generally felt to be more manly the at more be to felt is generally Lady the latter, (Rothman 89), confesses his crime in a letter in which he he inwhich his crimein a letter confesses (Rothman 89), up his face backstage, already wearing his sparkly leotard, wearing his already leotard, sparkly backstage, his face up i.e. part of his transvestite stage costume. If truth is costume. part the stage his transvestite i.e. of gen various of motif aspectsand clothing the upon reflect ing the former, clothing metaphors of the play, we should should we play, the of metaphors clothing former, the ing as a Macbeth describe play the of that characters notice finishes the play started by Sir John, while he is makingwhile John, startedSir by play finishes the Handel Fane, whose last name curiously rhymes with last rhymes name curiously whose Fane, Handel when you are acting, playing a role, wearing a disguise, etc. a role, playing are acting, you when Tom in Tom , - - - Murder! , from which the script was which , from Enter, Sir John Sir Enter, Hitchcock used metatheatrical devices devices metatheatrical used Hitchcock (Truffaut 75). Thus, there we have yet another yet another we have there Thus, 75). (Truffaut 10 Murder!

In Clemence Dane’s novel, Dane’s In Clemence In

cality into the language of film, with Hitchcock switching switching cality language film, the of into Hitchcock with camera are also very successful in translating metatheatri are alsocamera successful very

out to be that of a film, although not the filmthe not film, a that be of to although out about to tell his fiancé all about him, about hisspecial him,his about fiancé tell allto about about

are “at the circus, the murderer is shown as a transves is shown circus, the murderer the are “at and passive modes, especially towards the end of the film the of end the especially towards modes, passive and

a rabbit out of a hat (Rothmann 91): yet another charac another yet (Rothmann a hat of 91): out a rabbit adapted, writes Rothman, Fane’s secret is that he is a homosexual (86). secret adapted, Fane’s writes Rothman,

between objective and subjective points of view, active active view, of points subjective and objective between (c.f. Rothman 105). (c.f. Rothman

metatheatrical element: the circus (i.e. the theatre), where where theatre), the circus the (i.e. element: metatheatrical mores”

more extensively as well. In the final scene of the film we of film the final In the as well. scene extensively more metacinematic device in the film. The movements of the of the in film. the movements device The metacinematic

the roleplay seems more real than transvestite reality; the more seems roleplay the tite as he confesses he killed the victim because she was killedvictim she the he because confesses as he tite

teristic Hitchcockian joke. This, however, is not the only only the is not This, however, joke. Hitchcockian teristic ironic stand-in”— a scene in which a magicianin which is pulling scene stand-in”— a ironic

10 which would be a perfect example of metacinema, but “an “an but metacinema, of example a perfect be would which FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 94 - - - A MidsummerNight’s (1971) as an example as an example (1971) (1944) as an example as an example (1944) the idea of the screen as screen the of idea the Henry V Macbeth , both of which have a ‘play-within-the- have which of , both For one, let’s have a look at Hitchcock’s Hitchcock’s at a look have let’s one, For 12 Hamlet or takes its place alongside the idea of the play as play, as play, play the of idea the alongside takesplace its But surely, this must be the subject of another paper and / or seminar. be the subject of another this must But surely, Although perhaps we can find few proper ‘movie-with proper few can find we perhaps Although Metatheatricality is definitely an important device in device an important is Metatheatricality definitely

screen of the second type. second the of essentially movies-within-movies” (75). To illustrate each each illustrate To (75). movies-within-movies” essentially of the first, and Polanski’s Polanski’s first, the of and so ‘meta-cinema’ inevitably emerges alongside metatheatre. metatheatre. alongside emerges inevitably ‘meta-cinema’ so de ironic through itself to attention draw self-referentially forbears” (75). Like theatre, he continues, “film may “film may also continues, he theatre, Like (75). forbears” mode, i.e. ironic devices, are not only legion but extremely extremely but legion only are not devices, ironic i.e. mode, many Shakespearean plays, including including many Shakespearean plays, Olivier’s to refers he mode, point of view, to indicate the passage of time. of passage the indicate to view, of point “[a]s writes: as and Rothwell play,’ in-movie’ sequences in Hitchcock, examples of the first the of examples in Hitchcock, sequences in-movie’ resentation, film-makers have only mimicked their stage stage their only mimicked have film-makers resentation, Dream 12 In making the means of representation a subject of rep of a subject In making the representation means of varied asvaried well. vices, or, alternatively, it may even have sequences that are sequences have even may it alternatively, or, vices, - - - , etc., or or , etc., Twelfth Night

, This can be noted at the be the This at can noted be 11

As You Like It Like As You

Such as Angus saying in 5.2.20–2: as Angus saying Such Now does he feel his title does he feel Now Upon a dwarfish thief. dwarfish thief. a Upon Hang loose about him, like a giant’s robe a giant’s about him, like Hang loose In borrowed robes? (1.3.106) robes? In borrowed Why do you dress me dress do you Why The emphasis on garments here, as in many other as in many other here, garments on The emphasis

dwarfwearing giant robes.

crossdressing e.g. incrossdressing e.g. or play different roles by wearing different clothes (see (see clothes wearingby different roles different play or

atricality of the plays: characters often disguise themselves disguise often themselves characters plays: atricality the of stained clothes after a murder, or, from a dramaturgical from or, after a murder, stained clothes

ginning of the play when Ross greeted him as greeted Thane Ross of when ginning play the of being, and so on). However, changing one’s outfit can have can have outfit changing one’s However, on). so and being,

his magic robe transforming back into an ordinary into human back transforming hismagic robe Cawdor, he himself objected asking, himself objected he Cawdor,

practical reasons as well, for example, to get rid of blood of rid get to example, for as well, reasons practical Shakespearean plays adds yet another layer to the metathe the to layer another yet adds Shakespearean plays

11 King Lear taking off his lendings, or Prospero’s discarding King Learor Prospero’s takinglendings, his off FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 95 - - - that ; a “streak ; a “streak Macbeth Psycho (1927) that he made his made first per that he (1927) The Lodger TheLodger (2.3) with what Hitchcock says to Truffaut Truffaut to says Hitchcock with what (2.3) As for missed opportunities, such as the such opportunities, missed As for As for the reason why he appeared in the film, he ex in film, the he appeared he why reason the As for Macbeth dark humour as well. Both Shakespeare and Hitchcock Shakespeare Both Hitchcock and as well. dark humour of macabre humor” (84). Just compare the Porter’s speech speech Porter’s the compare Just (84). humor” macabre of careful to show up in the first five minutes so as to let the let so to as minutes in firstfive the up careful show to appearances in his films, of which he is told by Hitchcock by Hitchcock told he is in hiswhich films,of appearances sonal appearance on the screen where he was shown sitting was shown he where screen the on sonal appearance a eventually and a superstition became it on Later screen. gag. But by now it’s a rather troublesome gag, and I’m very very I’m and gag, troublesome rather a it’s now by But gag. humour being an essential and integral part of hispart integral and art. an of essential being humour mockingly. Truffaut is also intrigued by Hitchcock’s own by Hitchcock’s is also intrigued Truffaut mockingly. plains that “[i]t was strictly utilitarian;fill hadplainsto that we “[i]t the further with no dis movie the of rest the at look people to attention that draw devices are ironic they purpose: that it was in that it double a have therefore, Cameos, 49). (Truffaut traction” in in a newsroom. film as film and they also function as instances of humour; film humour; of as theyasfilm and also instances function Hitchcock never made, much has been lost in the ways of of in ways the has lost been much made, never Hitchcock were great masters of a diabolical sense of humour, which, which, humour, of a diabolical sense masters of great were Wood argues, is a distinguishing is feature Wood , - - - - - The Tempest which I argueI can which 13

Truffaut provides a list of Hitchcock’s ritualistic appearances in his ritualistic a list of Hitchcock’s provides Truffaut In comparison you may take Prospero in take may Prospero you In comparison

own appearances in his movies. Many are familiar in his movies. own appearances with all-round interest in their medium and a serious regard regard a serious and medium in their interest all-round

are prominent features of most of the works of the two two the of works the of most of features are prominent actly when he appears in his appears movies, he when actly

be conceived as just another aspect of medium reflexivity. reflexivity. medium aspect of as another just conceived be heatricality, self-reflexivity, and self-irony – all of which which of self-irony – all and self-reflexivity, heatricality,

movies as a footnote on page 158. as a footnote movies for their profession, while taking themselves lightly and and lightly taking while themselves profession, their for

masters. What is underlying this, perhaps, is the pursuit pursuit is the this, perhaps, masters. What is underlying person of the author/auteur that matters here, but metat but here, thatmatters author/auteur the of person

that Shakespeare and Hitchcock have in common, i.e. an i.e. in common, have that Shakespeare Hitchcock and tion to the film the to as tion film.

rogate. I am convinced, however, that it is not so much the much so is not that it however, I am convinced, rogate. interpreted as Shakespeare’s image of himself or his himself sur or of image as Shakespeare’s interpreted

ing himselfing as in his a character own filmjust is another 13

In other words, I suggest that the film director present that film the I suggest director words, In other Hitchcock’s cameos, so famous indeed that we know ex know thatwe indeed famous so cameos, Hitchcock’s

who, especially in biographical readings of the play, is often is often play, the of readings especially in biographical who, way, another “ironic device” (Rothwell 75), to draw atten draw to 75), (Rothwell device” “ironic another way, FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 96 - - - 14 (130–1), Braunmuller’s notes (130–1), Braunmuller’s — used by both Hitchcock Hitchcock both by — used Macbeth (149), and Tromly’s and Hartcourt’s articles. Hart articles. and Hartcourt’s and Tromly’s (149), macabre humour Macbeth Macbeth For more details on the relevance of the three sinners, see Brooke’s see Brooke’s sinners, of the three details on the relevance more For We know that the Macbeth couple are already in hell – for in hell – for already are couple that Macbeth the know We The expression

and Wood above — can justifiably be used to describe the describe the to be used justifiably above — can Wood and hose. a French of out stole who tailor, English the and selves as well” (151). selves expec the himself on hanged who farmer, social the class: court in specific argues that the Porter’s choice of the three sinners is not is sinners three the of choice Porter’s the that argues specific in court gloss in his edition of Shakespeare’s of Shakespeare’s in his edition gloss the play: he steals the royal robes and the crown; pursues his private gain private his pursues crown; the and robes the royal steals he play: the in his edition of in his edition the sins Macbeth commits in or repeat random. Instead, they represent treason: rather than serve and commits the ultimate interest; the public 394). Hartcourt (c.f. regicide the scene is to humanize the murderer by forcing us to us to forcing by humanize is to murderer the scene the speaks about The gatekeeper as well. scene Porter the of tone three imaginary imagines entering be he to whom sinners different a represents whom of each gate, Hell’s through treason; committed who equivocator, the plenty; of tation the since ever a place has mind such of been state their recognize him in the ‘ordinary’ Porter and perhaps in our perhaps and Porter himrecognize in ‘ordinary’ the idea of murdering Duncan occurred to them, while in in while them, Duncanto occurred murdering of idea 14 - - - - (writ , where the ma the , where Macbeth Juno and the Paycock (1956), “the humor is much is much humor “the (1956), (1955) he says it is “an approach to to approach is “an it says he (1955)

After dismissing the traditional interpretation of the the of After interpretation dismissing traditional the

cabre humour of the scene actually heightens the drama – it the actually heightens scene the of humour cabre exactly what is happening in in 2.3 is happening what exactly

accentuates the murder which has taken just place. which murder the accentuates a strictly British genre, the humor of the macabre” (77). (77). macabre” the of humor the genre, a strictly British

about the importance of humour in even serious genres. genres. serious in even humour of importance the about scene works rather by its similarities to the main events, similarities main its the to by events, rather works scene

scene, i.e. the device of comic relief, working by the princi the by working relief, comic of device the i.e. scene, subtler than in the British version. Another advantage is advantage Another than version. in British the subtler

humor actually heightens the drama” (94). I think this is (94). drama” the actually heightens humor Commenting about the play of of play the about Commenting

for Macbeth,” concluding that “[t]he ultimate function of of function ultimate that “[t]he concluding Macbeth,” for mor and tragedy very much” (Truffaut 69). Speaking of 69). (Truffaut much” very tragedy and mor

ple of contrast, Tromly in his 1975 essay “Macbeth and his and “Macbeth essay in his 1975 Tromly contrast, of ple that instead of interrupting the mood of the sequence, the sequence, the of mood the interrupting that of instead the story, the mood, the characters, and the blend of hu of blend the and characters, the mood, the story, the ten by Sean O’Casey in 1924) he confesses that he “liked that he confesses he in 1924) Sean O’Casey by ten Porter” argues convincingly that instead of contrast, the the contrast, that of instead argues convincingly Porter”

where the Porter “shakily stands as a metaphor or figure or stands “shakily as a metaphor Porter the where The Man Who Knew Too Much Much Too Who Knew The Man

The Trouble with Harry with The Trouble Truffaut notes that in the second, American version of of version American second, that in the notes Truffaut FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 97 - - - - 16 , he claims that “[t]he British press British , he claims that “[t]he there was hardly a critic who had any had any who a critic was hardly there Psycho as an example, and consider the the consider and as an example, serious story told with tongue in withtongue told story serious

Psycho; Psycho; — a Macbeth Psycho On the other hand, regarding On the other hand, regarding A right dosage of what to keep and what to cut is like cut to what and keep to what of dosage A right If one takes If one

duration of the action, one has the impression that it can that it has impression the one action, the of duration dle the flux of time properly” (72). properly” of time flux the dle cheek” (200). Then he reiterates that “a tongue-in-cheek tongue-in-cheek that“a reiterates he Then (200). cheek” camera for the written word;” indeed, if one wants to keep keep to wants if one indeed, word;” written the for camera would everything “one in that script, the is written down approach is indispensable” (202) adding that the most dif that most the adding (202) is indispensable” approach sense of humor about the picture” (Truffaut 124). (Truffaut about the picture” sense of humor he admits that his “own approach should have been more more been have should approach admits that hishe “own (202). subject dealing with a serious when humour have to make a six-to ten-hour film,” says Hitchcock in Hitchcock says film,” ten-hour make to a six-to have raised violent objections to objections raised violent not have taken place over more than just a few weeks. If than weeks. a few just more over taken place have not ironic, as in ironic, ficult thing in the world is to “get just the right dosage” of of dosage” just right the “get to is world thing ficult in the 16 wise indispensable in substituting “the language of the language the of “the in substituting wise indispensable you read Freud’s essay entitled “Some Character-Types Met Met Character-Types “Some entitled essay Freud’s read you Truffaut’s book (72). On which Truffaut agrees, saying that Truffaut agrees, which On (72). book Truffaut’s “[i]t takes considerable experience and know-how to han to know-how and experience takes considerable “[i]t - - - - - Vol. 85. Vol. Dance of PMLA , saying it is it , saying Rebecca as a “Memento Mori” poem, see the writings Mori” as a “Memento as well (c.f. Truffaut 200–202), where where 200–202), Truffaut (c.f. aswell 15 New Series, Vol. 12 (1981). Vol. Series, New Hamlet Hamlet I Confess Confess I

pictures and pictures

More on Shakespeare’s history plays influenced by Holbein’s Holbein’s history by influenced plays on Shakespeare’s More And this is Hitchcock’s recurring remark whenever he he recurring whenever remark And this is Hitchcock’s

There is another intriguing aspect of Hitchcock’s own intriguing Hitchcock’s aspect of is another There Renaissance Drama. Drama. Renaissance

disparages one of hishe ownmakessimilar films: of a com one disparages erature at the period, and though I’m not against the it, not I’m though and period, the at erature

ence of humour for him is a distinguishing feature, a merit him is a distinguishing a merit for feature, humour of ence equal at the moment of death, whether masters or serv or masters whether death, of moment the equal at

ants, rich or poor. or ants, rich of Harry Morris (e.g. “Hamlet as a Memento Mori Poem” in Poem” Mori Memento a as “Hamlet Harryof (e.g. Morris

by him as bad. He literally disavows disavows him literally by as He bad. fact is that the story is lacking in humor” (Truffaut 127). is that isfact story in lacking the humor” (Truffaut

ment on on ment plays in “‘Remember Me:’ ‘Memento Mori’ Figures in Shakespeare’s Plays” Plays” in Shakespeare’s Figures Mori’ ‘Memento Me:’ in “‘Remember plays

pect of the macabre is implied, namely that all are namely men is implied, macabre the of pect in

the Porter’s speech, as was suggested above, another as another above, as was speech, suggested Porter’s the is old-fashioned; there was a whole school of feminine lit feminine of school was whole a there isold-fashioned;

indeed, and any film of his that lacks humour is condemned condemned is filmof any humour and his that lacks indeed, Death

1970). Marjorie Garber examines Memento Mori figures in Shakespearean in Shakespearean figures Mori examines Memento Garber Marjorie 1970). 15

view of his works which is closely related to this: the pres this: the to related is closely which his works of view “not a Hitchcock picture; it’s a novelette, really. The story really. a novelette, it’s picture; a Hitchcock “not FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 98 - - - is perhaps too long, “partly because because “partly is perhaps too long, Hamlet at the moment of the explosion. In In explosion. the of moment the at 17 The conclusion is that whenever possible the the possible is that whenever The conclusion surprise surprise Frye wittily writes that wittily Frye Shakespeare was in also the suspense a master of suspense.

entirely different: now the public does know about the the about does know public the now different: entirely of suspense “is the stretching out of an anticipation,” and and an anticipation,” of out “issuspense stretching the seconds of everyone, with the exception of the two women, talks too much” (530). (530). of the two women, talks too much” everyone, with the exception between surprise and suspense using the example of a a of example surprise the using suspense and between has prior had no public If the table. a underneath bomb is situation A suspense exploded. it surprisedbe when im table the over conversation innocuous the and bomb, lic be made perfectly aware of all of the facts involved. all facts the involved. of of aware perfectly made be lic mediately becomes fascinating (73). Hitchcock concludes public must be informed.” In short, in Truffaut’s words, words, in Truffaut’s In short, informed.” be must public tions with Hitchcock, the latter points out the difference difference the out points latter the with Hitchcock, tions fifteen public the given we first the have case that “[i]n with fifteen them minutes provided have we second the islong. fartoo only would they there, being bomb the about information 17 Hitchcock agrees that “it is indispensable that pub the that agrees “it is indispensable Hitchcock Hitchcockian sense of the term. In Truffaut’s conversa In term. Truffaut’s the of sense Hitchcockian

- - - - is , which , which Macbeth Hamlet

deeds; and in these ten years he is shown as a stern ten years deeds; and in these characters in it, the course of its action covers about its action characters in it, the course of one week. (135) en for that plausible motive. Not so in Shakespeare. so in Shakespeare. motive. Not that plausible en for shed that it was his childlessness which urged him which was his childlessness shed that it but just ruler [...] It is not expressly stated in Holin in stated expressly not is It [...] ruler just but haste so that, to judge by the statements made by the statements haste so that, to judge by the to these courses, but enough time and room is giv but enough time and room to these courses, ten years pass between the murder of Duncan, through through of Duncan, the murder pass between ten years My point here isthat Shakespeare himself has “con here point My Events crowd upon us in the tragedy with breathless with breathless upon us in the tragedy crowd Events which Macbeth becomes king, and his further mis king, and his further Macbeth becomes which

of time properly” (c.f. Truffaut above), and as and above), Truffaut (c.f. properly” time of as he found it in Holinshed, where, as Freud writes, as Freud where, in Holinshed, it found as he

siderable experience and know-how to handle the flux flux the handle to know-how and experience siderable be convinced that Shakespeare did something very similar very thatsomething Shakespeare did convinced be

his shortest play, it seems to me to be more suitable to be be to suitable more be to me to seems it play, his shortest translated into the language film the of into thantranslated

to screenwriters when he refashioned the original the story refashioned he when screenwriters to with in Psycho-Analytical Work” (1916), you will probably will you probably (1916), with in Psycho-Analytical Work” FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 99

- - - 19

At the same time, same time, the At

18

see Hargitai Márta: “Prospe The Tempest and Macbeth Macbeth If it were done when ‘tis done, then ‘twere well done, then ‘twere ‘tis done when If it were in On Time Could trammel up the consequence, and catch trammel up the consequence, and Could Might be the be-all and the end-all here, and the end-all be the be-all Might upon this bank and shoal of time, here, But It were done quickly: if the assassination done quickly: were It With his surcease success; that but this blow his surcease With to come. (1–7) jump the life We’ld

quy in 1.7. shows, he wants to pass or leap over his present, his present, over leap pass or wants to he shows, in 1.7. quy equate his ambition to be king with that of “an eager rider, rider, eager king be “an with to that of his ambition equate and jump into the future right away. future right the into jump and living. What fun would it be to go to a baseball game if you a baseball if game you to go to be it Whatliving. fun would that win?” to concludes team And was he going which knew he is clearly aware of the risk he is taking risk the he of as 1.7.25–28 aware lines is clearly he ro’s Island as ‘Bank and Shoal of Time:’ Time, timing and time gaps in timing and time gaps in Time, and Shoal of Time:’ Island as ‘Bank ro’s the outcome of everything, most of the zest would go out of of out go would zest the of everything, of most outcome the (Gottlieb suspense” dull without very be thatthings would As time. a his at solilo day one future come the have to rious [...] So when God keeps the future hidden, He is saying He future hidden, the keeps God when So [...] rious satisfied was he neither oblivion, of grace the granted not 18 19 140–1). Macbeth, in contrast, had no second chance; he was he chance; second had no in contrast, Macbeth, 140–1). who overdoes his vault” (Braunmuller 133). his vault” (Braunmuller overdoes who “[t]he unknown has its appeal precisely because it is myste it because unknown has precisely appeal its “[t]he

Guideposts : the spectators know know spectators the : is in there. We have all have We is in there. body Macbeth (1948), to be discussed later, Mrs Wilson, Mrs Wilson, discussed later, be to (1948), The suspense element is provided by the the by is provided The element suspense Rope in 1959 Hitchcock wrote about the gift the a blind of about wrote Hitchcock in 1959

Hitchcock confesses that there was a time when he he was when a time that there confesses Hitchcock In a short piece originally in appearing piece In a short In his film

spoiler alert castle has indeed just turned into Hell, etc. Hell, turned just into castle has indeed

spectators’ knowledge that the knowledge spectators’ seconds — that is so suspenseful that it keeps you on the edge of edge the on you keeps suspenseful is that so it seconds — that

had been grasping at the real future, wanting it in his own it real wanting the future, grasping at had been realized that in he “life, knew if we however, hand. Later, Otherwise, there is no suspense” (72). is no suspense” Otherwise, there

future recalling “the story of the king who befriended a befriended king the who of story future recalling “the Sisters, and during the Porter scene, they know that the know they scene, Porter during the and Sisters, the perpetrators; they hear all the predictions of the Weird Weird the of all hear they predictions the perpetrators; the this in Shakespeare’s play, play, thisin Shakespeare’s the housekeeper, has such a scene – running for more than 90 more for a scene – running has such housekeeper, the that the future be hidden again” (“Guidepost Classics”). (“Guidepost again” that hidden future be the things ahead, he immediately asked for his second wish: his second for asked immediately things ahead, he the pain, the misery, the death, along with beautiful the along death, the pain,the misery, the

Magazine wizard and was granted two wishes.” The king’s first wish The king’s wizard wishes.” two was and granted

your seat — will she open the chest to put the books in, or not. in, or books the put to chest the open seat — will she your “was to see the future completely. But when the king saw king the saw when But future completely. the see “was to FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 100 ------ice coldblonde, 23 24 Considering this advice, this advice, Considering 22 C.f. Truffaut (224), where Hitchcock speaks about why these north these why Hitchcock speaks about where (224), Truffaut C.f. Interview with Hitchcock on CBS TV 1977). February (20 Polanski did just that in his film version of the play (1971), where both where (1971), play of the did just that in his film version Polanski In both oeuvres there are many instances where the the many are instances where there oeuvres In both

question may arise: is the horror meaningful? Is it not meaningful? not Is arise: it is horror may the question est, is another blonde, it is all it better. the blonde, isest, another cite me let this answer question To own sake? its for only acters as well. As another proof of his diabolical sense of his of diabolical of sense proof As as another well. acters young the perhaps sisters, weird three the of ifand one In foot a here. Hitchcock of insight remarkable another ern ladies including the English are more exciting than the Latin, the Ital the Latin, than exciting more are the English including ern ladies humour, Hitchcock apparently confessed in a television in in a television confessed apparently Hitchcock humour, petrator and victim in the drama, played by a Swedish, a a Swedish, victim by and in drama, the petrator played ian, and the French. terview that “[b]londes make the best victims. They’re like victims. make best the They’re thatterview “[b]londes note to their conversation, Truffaut recalls what Hitchcock recalls Hitchcock what Truffaut conversation, their to note it is rather exciting to imagine Lady Macbeth, both per both imagine to Macbeth, Lady exciting is rather it German, Scandinavian-typenorthern or Lady Macbeth and the youngest witch are blond. witch are Macbeth and the youngest Lady 22 23 24 we might play another game with younger female char female with game younger another play might we in (qtd. footprints” bloody the up virginthat shows snow “Alfred Biography”). Hitchcock

, - 20 . Or, . Or, Macbeth Tomorrow, tomorrow, tomorrow, Tomorrow, The Lady Vanishes website. and the three weird sisters in sisters weird three the and 21 ) soliloquy visit: this soliloquy , the old lady is none other than Norman disguised. is none other than Norman lady , the old Psycho Psycho

,

To see the brilliant Ian McKellen analysing the analysing Ian McKellen see the brilliant To

Besides the above mentioned atmospheric, conceptual How about playing a little mental game, assuming game, mental a a little playing about How His last great soliloquy shows that he has that he finally shows un His last soliloquy great

In

and tomorrow derstood that life is dull knowing all about tomorrow, that is dull all life knowing about derstood

old lady character of Hitchcock’s films ( Hitchcock’s of character lady old endless row signifying nothing, is truly terrible. Hitchcock signifying Hitchcock is row truly nothing, terrible. endless

and stylistic affinities between the two masters, one might might one twothe masters, between stylistic affinities and any man. It belongs to God” (Gottlieb 141). God” to (Gottlieb man. belongs any It

about the future is that it comes one day at a time. And time. a at day one comes future is the that it about and the idea of tomorrows following one another in an another one following tomorrows of idea the and

knew that all along, “if life would be dull knowing about dull about be knowing that “ifknew all would along, life Shakespeare’s Macbeth and The Tempest.” Shakespeare’s

possible (albeit absurd) affinity absurd) occasionalthebetween (albeit possible their works. Let me briefly suggest a couple of ideas here. here. ideas of couple a suggest briefly Let me works. their

tomorrow, it would also be terrible… Yes, the best thing best the Yes, also terrible… be would it tomorrow, findnumerous further minor correspondences between

Birds I thank Heaven daily that tomorrow does not belong to to belong not does dailyI thank that tomorrow Heaven

21 20 FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 101 , - - - , as, The Tempest TheTempest as a stunt,” as an exper as a stunt,” : an Essay on Life-themes in Macbeth.” on Life-themes : an Essay Rope and what Brandon says at the beginningthe at says Brandon what and 25 The Milk of Concord The Milk See Knight: “ See Knight: Hitchcock “undertook This method might work very well with well very work This might method

of the film, a few minutes after the murder further murder illu after the film, the few minutes of a story a of in telling the break with no action, continuous a play unusual in Shakespeare’s oeuvre, for maintaining for oeuvre, unusual in Shakespeare’s a play again. I asked myself whether it was technically possible was possible technically it whether again. myself asked I satisfying as the power to create” (Hitchcock, 1948). (Hitchcock, create” to satisfying as power the got this crazy idea to do it in a single shot” (Truffaut 179). (Truffaut shot” ina single it this do to crazygot idea from the moment the curtain goes up until it comes down down curtain the comes until it up goes moment the from minates this paradox: “the power to kill to can as just be power “the minates this paradox: poral and spatial structure where the whole stage is the is the stage whole the spatial and poral structure where the three unities (time, place and action). action). and place (time, unities three the to film it in the same way. The only way to achieve that, achieve to way only The way. it film same in to the I And nine-fifteen. at ends and that begins seven-thirty at iment, and he describes the process of creation in the in the creation of process the describes he and iment, out drama stage was played “[t]he as follows: interview is continuous in actual action the the story; the of time I write elsewhere, “has an extremely concentrated tem “has concentrated an extremely I write elsewhere, I found, would be to handle the shooting in the same in same the shooting the handle to be would I found, 25 vs. destruction; , . - Rope Macbeth . First, the murder in film the murder the . First, Macbeth

To be more methodological, however, let me take one take me one let however, methodological, more be To

etc. The same contrast of darkness and light pervades the the pervades light darkness and of The same contrast etc. our goose bumps instinctively. The only way to remove remove to way The only instinctively. bumps goose our

and motifs used by the two masters. two film In the the by used motifs and artificial means to bring about the shock. The best way to way best artificialshock. The the bringmeans about to Or (201). a movie” is through me, to seems that, it achieve

ship asks Brandon, the dominant partner, to switch off off switch to partner, dominant the asks Brandon, ship some rather exciting correspondences can be discovered can discovered be correspondences exciting rather some some further possible affinities between the methods methods the between affinities further possible some specific Hitchcock film as a case study to demonstrate demonstrate film to as a case study Hitchcock specific stated during a Hollywood press conference in 1947: “I aim “I in 1947: conference press during a Hollywood stated

light in the room: he opens the curtains, the opens he candles, lights room: in the light has become so protective that we’re no longer able to get get to able longer no that we’re protective so has become

the lights, whereas Brandon repeatedly insists having on repeatedly Brandon whereas lights, the takes place rather early too, in the third minute of the the of in third the minute too, early rather takes place

through a play, you might add, such as for example, example, as for such add, might you play, a through the numbness and revive our moral equilibrium is to use is to equilibrium moral our revive and numbness the

to provide the public with beneficial shocks. Civilization Civilization shocks. with beneficial public the provide to film. Then Philip, the submissive party relation in submissive the the film.Philip, Then

Macbeth universe as well, representing forces of creation creation of forces representing as well, universe Macbeth with Shakespeare’s with Shakespeare’s FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 102 . - - Rope as well, where where as well, ) that it is easy for is easy) that it for 27 Macbeth They assume, or at least one one least at or They assume, is exciting from several other other several from is exciting 26 , . Compare Macbeth’s “Will all great Neptune’s ocean wash this Neptune’s all great “Will Macbeth’s . Compare Philip breaks the glass in his hands; the blood on his hands being a the glass in his hands; the blood breaks Philip As well as form the original play by Patrick Hamilton (1929). Hamilton by Patrick original play the As well as form In the film, the two perpetrators give so many clues clues so many give film,In the perpetrators the two This movie, however Macbeth

deed by inviting guests, including the dead boy’s father. father. boy’s dead the guests, including inviting by deed of them takes it for granted that they will have no re will that no they granted have for takes them it of allows for maintaining the illusion of continuous action, action, continuous maintaining of for illusion the allows strangling a third one in the opening shots of the film. the of shots in opening the strangling a third one of Banquo’s ghost. sion blood / Clean from my hand?” (2.2.63–4), to which the Lady replies, “My “My replies, the Lady to which hand?” (2.2.63–4), my from / Clean blood (including the blood on Philip’s hands Philip’s on blood the (including morse; indeed they are planning to make a show of their their of are planning make they to a show indeed morse; points of view. The action starts with two young men starts men The action with young two view. of points reminder of both his guilt and his guilty conscience, not unlike the case not unlike conscience, and his guilty of both his guilt reminder in itself easily to film adaptations. Furthermore, thisstructure Furthermore, film easily to adaptations. itself Macbeth almost gives himself away by talking by himself his away to vi almost gives Macbeth Likewise, there is a banquet scene in scene is a banquet there Likewise, 26 27 which was also Hitchcock’s main interest in making was also Hitchcock’s which young homosexuals (179). The hint that they might be a couple, can be inferred from from can inferred be a couple, be The might that hint they two he about writes where summary plot of the Truffaut’s - The in this : “[w]hen I “[w]hen : precut Macbeth this film was, in a sense, precut. precut. sense, in a was, film this

In my view, allare Shakespearean plays view, Inmy What Hitchcock expressed next during the interview, interview, during the next expressed What Hitchcock

of cutting and montage for the visual narration of a story. visual the story. a of for narration montage and cutting of

closely followed my usual cutting practice. In other words, words, In other usual my practice. cutting followed closely action of the play coincides very closely with the time we with we time the closely very coincides play the of action

scene. Moreover, the sequences of scenes in early modern modern in early scenes of sequences the Moreover, scene. sode” (Truffaut 180; emphasis emphasis mine). 180; (Truffaut sode”

spend watching it’” (Frye qtd. in Hargitai qtd. (Frye 217). it’” watching spend however, might be more applicable to to applicable more be might however, because nonsensical I realize was quite that back, it look

On the other hand, other On the fashion, with the scene or the sequence being the basic basic the being sequence the or with scene the fashion,

mobility of the camera and the movement of the players players the of movement the and camera the of mobility plays are usually arranged technically in a way that lends are usually that lends arranged inplays technically a way

unity of time and space is kept, as ‘the time covered by the the by covered time as ‘the is kept, space and time unity of unit — not the acts. There is usually a single focus in a scene, is usually acts. in the There a scene, focus a single unit — not

relation to its emotional importance within a given epi within importance a given emotional its to relation island and where the island is the whole world; where the the where world; whole is the island the where and island

I was breaking with my own theories on the importance importance the on ownI was theories with breaking my I maintained varying rule the of inimage the size of the

varied camera setups would not be required within each required be not would setups camera varied which would mean — in case of adaptation for the screen – screen – the for mean — in adaptation case of would which FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 103 . - - - According

28 Übermensch . Rope first in 1940 (rereleased in (rereleased 1940 first in and Gaslight Patrick Hamilton, an English

Gaslight (Superman); in the tragedy, from from in tragedy, the (Superman); (1904–1962), who is mainly who remem (1904–1962),

, towards the end of the play “Brandon “Brandon play the of end the , towards Übermensch by Hitchcock in 1948, and by Hitchcock in 1948, was written in 1929 by was written in 1929 Rope

Both plays were very were into made plays Both were both later and on stage popular Some background information about the play Hitchcock Hitchcock play the about information background Some As for similarities between characters in the play in play the characters similaritiesAs between for vertigotheatre.com

and in the film, it is interesting to realize to Rupert that in film,it and the is interesting in explaining here helpful be might screen the for adapted bered for writing the plays writing plays the for bered grid Bergman and Charles Boyer (britannica.com). grid Bergman and Charles Candell, the former college housemaster of the young young the of housemaster college former the Candell, misinterprets those equivocative prophecies. sisters, like weird the as acting much seen be might men, prompting such behaviour performed by the two perpe two the by performed behaviour such prompting playwright and novelist the United States in 1952); and again, in 1944 by George Cukor starring In George by 1944 in again, and 1952); in States United the films: trators. In other words, both couples put into practice the the practice into put couples both words, In other trators. sisters. superhuman the the sudden emergence of the concept of the to ideas received from above: in the film, from Cadell, the the in film, the Cadell, from above: from received ideas Rope Nietzchean Nietzchean 28 - - -

Later, however, she compulsively washes her hands saying, “Yet who who “Yet saying, hands her washes compulsively she however, Later, There is diabolic or as Robin Wood says — macabre hu says — macabre Wood as Robin or is diabolic There

quence of events to arrive at the full arrive the to at story. events of quence or how easily and — we might assume — readily Macbeth Macbeth assume — readily might easily and — we how or edly focuses on the rope with which they strangled David David strangled they with which rope the on focuses edly example of this special black humour, the camera repeat camera the this humour, of special black example of the candlesticks and the food on top of the chest as if chest the of top on food the and candlesticks the of

and which is now tied up around the books to be taken be to books the around up tied isnow which and stunned Mrs Wilson, which they can heap with the foods with foods the can they heap which Mrsstunned Wilson, based on dramatic irony is to be found in Shakespeare’s in Shakespeare’s found be is to dramatic irony on based by the father of the victim. the of This infernalfather the kindof by humour blood still; all the perfumes of Arabia will not sweeten this little hand.” hand.” will not sweeten this little still; all the perfumes of Arabia blood

hands are of your colour, but I shame / To wear a heart so white.” (2.2.67– wear a heart so white.” but I shame / To colour, of your hands are (5.1.42–43), “Wash your hands, …” (5.1.52). hands, your (5.1.42–43), “Wash

for their “sacrificial feast” (Hitchcock, 1948). As another As another 1948). feast”(Hitchcock, “sacrificial their for mour in the film, such as, for instance, the arrangement instance, arrangement the for infilm, the as, such mour

8); “A little water clears us of this deed” (2.2.70). us of this deed” water clears little “A 8); their former collegeprofessor to piece together the se

tragedy as well: see the porter scene (2.3) discussed above, discussed above, (2.3) scene porter the see as well: tragedy it were a “ceremonial altar,” as Brandon describes it to the the to it describes as Brandon altar,” “ceremonial a were it

would have thought the old man to have had so much blood in him?” (5.1.33– blood had so much man to have the old thought would have 4); “What, will these hands ne’er be clean?” (5.1.37); “Here’s the smell of the “Here’s (5.1.37); be clean?” 4); “What, will these hands ne’er FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 104 - - - - him Hell’s gate is Strangulation Strangulation imagining on Before he is forced to face the consequences of this of consequences the face to is forced he Before done whereas the others only talked about it. It is just as is just It it. talked only about others the whereas done diabolically hilarious Porter as Macbeth’s disgust at his former students’ literal application of ideas ideas of application literal students’ disgusthis at former of superiority and amorality in their murder of their fel of amoralitymurder in and their superiority of application, however, Cadell half-jokingly admits that admits that half-jokingly Cadell however, application, “[that] saying did, they what for also absolution seeking superior individuals.” Upon hearing this, Brandon eagerly eagerly hearing this, Brandon Upon individuals.” superior self to be guarding Hell’s gate, when in fact it it in fact when gate, guarding be to Hell’s self low student” (111). joins him, expecting a kind of confirmation and perhaps perhaps and him, confirmation a kindjoins expecting of that he is guarding.that he ting of it should be reserved for those few who are really who few those for reserved be should it ting of are unimpor lives whose beings victimsthe are inferior Cadell. replies “Obviously,” 1948). tant (Hitchcock, anyway” all round. year murder for season open be should that there Day, when the spectators witnessed that the deed was was deed thatthe witnessed spectators the when Day, No, personally, I would prefer to have [...] ‘Cut a Throat a Throat ‘Cut [...] have to prefer I would personally, No, It is all very ironic, though, as he says it it says as he though, is allIt ironic, very Week’ [...] or, uh, ‘Strangulation Day’” (Hitchcock, 1948). 1948). (Hitchcock, uh, Day’” ‘Strangulation or, [...] Week’ “murder should be an art,” and “the privilege of commit of privilege “the and an be art,” should “murder feel with extremistswho the hold I don’t you, mind “Now, - - mention in their analyses of Hitchcock’s Hitchcock’s analyses of in their mention 29

that Hamilton’s play was most probably based on a on based probably was most play that Hamilton’s

Including David Sterritt, Ammon Kabatchnik, Niemi. Robert Sterritt, David Including Many critics Many

dangerously. We thought we would do so – that’s all […] all […] so – that’s do would we thought We dangerously. case” including their “vulgar Nietzschean philosophy and and philosophy “vulgar their Nietzschean including case”

explains why he and Granillo [Philip in the film] murdered murdered Granillo and in film] [Philip he the explains why boy for no apparent reason at all, just for “thrill all, at killing,” for just reason apparent no for boy

have done it for – for adventure. For adventure and danger. danger. and adventure For adventure. for – for it done have Others have talked. We have done’” (“No Crime is Perfect”). (“No Crime done’” have talked. We have Others

murder” (314). Robertson adds that Cadell clearly emerges emerges clearly that Cadell adds Robertson (314). murder” more respect for human life than you, and tells us – to – live us – to – live human tells than and life for you, respect more

tellectual superiority (Sterritt 314). Sterritt suggests that suggests Sterritt 314). (Sterritt tellectual superiority to pull off the perfect crime, and to demonstrate their in their demonstrate to crime, and perfect pullthe off to

telligent young men kidnapped and murdered a younger a younger murdered and kidnapped men young telligent tells us to live dangerously […] and you know that he’s no no that he’s know you and […] dangerously live us to tells

their classmate, citing Nietzsche as their inspiration. ‘We ‘We as inspiration. their Nietzsche citing classmate, their in the film as a World War II veteran, hence “the horror and horror “the hence veteran, WarII World in film the as a

real life murder case in 1924, where two exceptionally in exceptionally two where case in 1924, murder real life Rope

For danger. You read Nietzsche […] And you know that he that he know And you […] Nietzsche read You danger. For 29

wove them into a chamber play set immediately after the immediately set play chamber a into them wove “Hamiltontook various elements of the Leopold and Loeb FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 105 - - - - - . Would he he . Would Macbeth adaptationof his This solution may make us wonder how Hitchcock Hitchcock how make may us wonder This solution cial blood – as Polanski chose to do in a rather clumsy and and clumsy in a rather do to chose cial Polanski blood – as appeared at the very beginning of the film, which the beginning very film, the the the at which of appeared ironical another Welles — yet actor the i.e. Macbeth, of age shot in the night and one hears the noises gradually rising noises the hears one and in night the shot keeping up the suspense in the scene I discussed earlier I discussed earlier inscene the suspense the up keeping in artifi soaked Macbeth of head plastic a shown have artistic some method, a more employed have would he from the street” (Truffaut 184). Such an ending sugges is ending an Such 184). (Truffaut street” the from pations, like the Porter, about the discovery of the crime. the of discovery the about like Porter, the pations, untold and unshown. tive in its inexplicitness, leaving the tedious aftermath tedious the leaving inexplicitness, in its tive think I assume not so. I do fashion? ridiculous therefore (1948), play the of in his did version Welles thing like Orson in the present essay, where she stretches out our antici our out stretches she where essay, in present the where the camera shows the same voodoo doll, which first which doll, voodoo same the shows camera the where im in spitting the clay from had moulded sisters weird would have ended ended have would The film ends with Cadell opening “the window to fire a to fire “the window opening The film ends Cadell with - - -

Shall harm Macbeth. (4.1.78–80) After Brandon explains that the privileged few — those few — those explains that privileged the After Brandon Be bloody, bold, and resolute; laugh to scorn laugh bold, and resolute; Be bloody, In the figure of Mrs Wilson we seem to have another another to have seem we Wilson of Mrs figure In the The power of man, for none of woman born The power of man, for

dinary morality; Macbeth becomes convinced that he is that he convinced dinary becomes Macbeth morality; college professor does not protest. So, after incorporat

apparition – tells him, apparition – tells admits he does. It is also telling that when he includes includes he is also that when telling It does. admits he

are above the traditional moral concepts — would decide decide concepts — would moral traditional the are above like Macbeth and his Lady, believe that they are above or areabove that they believe his and Lady, like Macbeth himself, Philip and Cadell among the privileged few, the the few, privileged the among Cadell and Philip himself, his theory of the superman, and the young man quickly superman, young the the and his of theory men of such intellectual and cultural superiority that they cultural and intellectual superiority such of men

porter-like character: she ushers in the guests, engages in guests, engages the ushers she character: porter-like ther suspects that Brandon agrees with Nietzsche and and with agrees Nietzsche suspectsther that Brandon

in small in talk also role while with having a key them, invulnerable, trusting what the bloody child – the second second child – the trusting bloody the what invulnerable,

ing these “superhuman” ideas, both Brandon and Philip, Philip, and Brandon both ideas, “superhuman” these ing who is inferior and would be killed by them, David’s fa David’s them, killed be by would and is inferior who FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 106

” - - - - - 30 Macbeth My Most Exciting Picture Exciting Most My , with a cast of only nine people who never never who nine people , with a cast of only Rope would make a good Hitchcock picture. picture. Hitchcock make a good would In a 1948 Hitchcock article, “ Hitchcock article, In a 1948 Rope. Rope. Hamlet

Such as in Such I wish Hitchcock were alive to hear us say that us hear say to alive were I wish Hitchcock

duco’ sign on the side of a miniature building” (“My Most Exciting Picture”). sign on the side of a miniature duco’ or indeed indeed or

aptations by Hitchcock, haunts us. Perhaps, though, our our though, us. haunts Perhaps, Hitchcock, by aptations stead of the protagonist in the final scenes of Welles’s film. Welles’s of in final the scenes protagonist the of stead

self-portrait, a kind of Hitchcockian cameo if you like. if cameo you Hitchcockian kind a of self-portrait, one of my pictures. But But pictures. one of my

solution. The result? The Hitchcock countenance will appear in a neon ‘Re The Hitchcock countenance The result? solution. learn from them and be able to integrate theory and ex and theory integrate to able be and them learn from

logical decision to have us see this doll decapitated in thisdecapitated us see doll have to decision logical leave the apartment, looked like the end of the Hitchcock tradition. There There tradition. Hitchcock the of end the like looked apartment, the leave

multimedia Shakespeare. perience to make their own contributions to the new new the to make own contributions to their perience

note 7). All in all, the idea that we missed out on a whole a whole on All out missed that in we all, idea the note 7). film students both in masters, takingfilmwill students an interest

30 was just no way that I could get into the act. Then someone came up with a that I could get into was just no way

we read: “It’s traditional, with me at least, that I appear fleetingly in every that I appear fleetingly with me at least, traditional, “It’s we read: He surely would not be an “idiot” to believe it (see foot (see it believe an to be “idiot” not would surely He

world by not being able to watch any Shakespeare ad any watch to able being not by world Therefore, I contend it is both an artistic solution and a a and an is both artistic it solution contend I Therefore, FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 107 . - - - n. d. d. n. n. d. n. d. d. n. 14. 8 (1959): 14. 8 (1959): the.hitchcock.zone. the.hitchcock.zone. plato.mercyhurst.edu. HUSSE 11 Proceedings of the n. d. Web. 8 Feb. 2016. 8 Feb. n. d. Web. Guideposts Magazine 12. 4 (1961): 393–402. Jstor. Web. Web. Jstor. 393–402. 12. 4 (1961): . Berkeley and Los Angeles: Univer Los and Angeles: . Berkeley Hitchcock on Hitchcock: Selected Writ the.hitchcock.zone. Eds. Veronika Ruttkay and Bálint Gárdos. Buda Bálint and Gárdos. Ruttkay Eds. Veronika of Time:’ Time, timing and time gaps in Shakespeare’s in timing Shakespeare’s gaps time and Time, Time:’ of sity of California Press, 1997. Print. California 1997. of sity Press, ings and Interviews Greatest Gift of All.” All.” Gift of Greatest pest: L’Harmattan, 2014. 213–223. Also available online Also available 213–223. 2014. L’Harmattan, pest: Shakespeare Quarterly English. 11th Conference of the Hungarian Society for the Study of of Study the for Society Hungarian the of Conference 11th Macbeth and The Tempest.” The and Tempest.” Macbeth 1–4. Web. 20 Dec. 2015. Dec. 20 Web. 1–4. 10 Dec. 2015. Dec. 10 Web. 8 Feb. 2016. Web. 21 Dec. 2015. Dec. 21 Web. 2015. Dec. 21 Web. Gottlieb, Sidney., ed. ed. Sidney., Gottlieb, Harcourt, John B. “I Pray You, Remember the Porter.” Porter.” the Remember You, Pray B. “I Harcourt, John the on Hitch Classics: Alfred. “Guideposts Hitchcock, Hargitai, Márta. “Prospero’s Island as Island ‘Bank Hargitai,Shoal and Márta.“Prospero’s “Hitchcock Hamlet Homage.” “Hamlet.” “Hamlet.” —. “Much Ado About Nothing.” Nothing.” About Ado “Much —. Picture.” Exciting Most “My —. - - - - 7. 4 7. John Laby biogra Ed. Critical Inquiry Casebook.

A : Cambridge: Cambridge . 131–8. Print. . 131–8. Oxford: Oxford Univer Oxford Oxford:

BiographyOnline. 1968

, 3 Dec. 2015. 3 Dec. Macbeth. Some Character-types Met with in in with Met Character-types Some Macbeth. . Eds. Garry Sherbert and Troni Y. Y. . Eds.Garry Troni and Sherbert Macmillan Northrop Frye’s Writings on Shakespeare Shakespeare on Writings Frye’s Northrop

: . “From . “From . n. d. Web. . n. d. Web. Sigmund

,

andthe Renaissance rinth.net.au cock Thriller Excerpted from ‘The Man Who Knew Too ‘The from Thriller Mancock Too Who Knew Excerpted sity Press, 1990. Print. 1990. Press, sity (1981): 761–776. Web. 26 Dec. 2015. Dec. 26 Web. 761–776. (1981): Grande. Toronto: Toronto University Press, 2010. Print. 2010. Press, University Toronto Toronto: Grande. phyonline, n. d. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. 9 Feb. n. d. Web. phyonline, Psycho-analytical Macbeth Work.” Much.’ The Memoirs of Screenwriter-Laureate.” Screenwriter-Laureate.” of The Memoirs Much.’ University Press, 1997. Print. 1997. Press, University Wain. London

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Brooke, Nicholas., ed. Brooke, Nicholas., Braunmuller, Braunmuller, A. R., ed.

Freud Frye, Northrop.

Bennet, Charles. “Shakespeare, Melodrama, & the Hitch & the “Shakespeare, Melodrama, Charles. Bennet, “Alfred Hitchcock Biography.” Biography.” “Alfred Hitchcock FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 108 - - -

A n. vertig ACase : Shakespeare the.hitchcock.zone. . Eds. Thomas Leitch . Eds. ThomasLeitch Ed. Helen G. Scott. New New G. Scott. Ed.Helen AlfredPsycho Hitchcock’s Hitchcock. A Definitive Study of Alfred Alfred of Study A Definitive Hitchcock. n.d. Web. 3 Jan. 2016. Web. n.d. . 26. 2 (1975): 151–156. Jstor. Web. 10 Dec. 2015. Dec. 10 Web. Jstor. 151–156. 2 (1975): 26. Ed. Robert Phillip Kolker. Oxford: Oxford Uni Oxford Oxford: Kolker. Phillip Ed. Robert otheatre.com book. d. Web. 9 Feb. 2016. 9 Feb. d. Web. and Leland Poague. Chichester, United Kingdom: Kingdom: United Chichester, Poague. Leland and Companionto Alfred Hitchcock Quarterly Hitchcock by Francois Truffaut. versity Press, 2004. 74–84. Print. 74–84. 2004. Press, versity Wiley-Blackwell, 309–328. 2011. Print. York: Simon and Schuster, 1985. PDF file. PDF 1985. Schuster, and Simon York: Sterritt, David. “From Transatlantic to Warner Bros.” Bros.” Warner to Transatlantic “From David. Sterritt, Wood, Robin. “Psycho.” “Psycho.” Robin. Wood, Tromly, Frederic B. “Macbeth and His Porter.” His and Porter.” B. “Macbeth Frederic Tromly, Truffaut, Francois. “No Crime is Perfect – Rope by Patrick Hamilton.” Hamilton.” Patrick by is Perfect – Rope Crime “No “Welcome to The Hitchcock Zone.” . - - - - - You Lon . 2nd . 2nd the.hitch Shakespeare Sur : an essay on life- themes themes life- on : an essay Includingthe Roman Plays , , 1984. Print. 1984. London: I.B. Tauris, 2015. Print. 2015. I.B. Tauris, London: Sidney Bernstein: A Biography. Hitchcock, The Murderous Gaze Cinema andCinema the Audovisual Imagination. The Imperial Theme: Further Interpreta The milk of concord . n. d. Web. 10 Feb. 2016. Feb. 10 . n. d. Web.

YouTube, 24 May 2012. Web. 8 Feb. 2016. 8 Feb. Web. 2012. 24 May YouTube, 19 (1987): 75–90. Print. 75–90. (1987): 19

cockzone don: Jonathan Cape, Cape, Jonathan don: tionsof Shakespeare’s Tragedies ed. Albany, New York: State University of New York, York, New of University State York: New Albany, ed. analyzes Macbeth Speech (1979).” Online video clip. clip. Online video (1979).” Speech analyzes Macbeth in Macbeth.” Music, Image, Sound. Sound. Image, Music, vey London: Routledge, 2002. 125–153. Print. From Metatheatre to ‘Metacinema.’” ‘Metacinema.’” to Metatheatre From 2012. Print. Tube.

Moorehead, Caroline.

Joseph, Kris. “Tomorrow, and tomorrow – Ian McKellen McKellen tomorrow – Ian and Kris. “Tomorrow, Joseph, Rothwell, Kenneth S. “Representing King Lear on Screen: King Lear Screen: on S. “Representing Kenneth Rothwell,

Rothman, William. William. Rothman, Robertson, Robert.

Knight, G. W. “ Knight, G. W. “Shakespeare: Broadcasting and the Cinema.” Cinema.” the and Broadcasting “Shakespeare: FILM & CULTURE–HARGIATI–HITCHCOCK’S MACBETH 109 - - Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Par Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Alfred J. Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Metro-Goldwyn- Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Warner Bros., 1950. 1950. Bros., Warner Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Gainsborough Pictures, Pictures, Gainsborough Alfred Hitchcock. Dir.

Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. British International Pic International British Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Paramount Pictures, 1960. 1960. Pictures, Paramount Alfred Hitchcock. Dir. Dir. Alfred Hitchcock. Transatlantic Pictures, 1948. 1948. Pictures, Transatlantic Alfred Hitchcock. Dir.

amount Pictures, 1956. Film. 1956. Pictures, amount tures Inc. and Wardour Films, 1930. Film. Films, 1930. Wardour and tures Inc. Film. Film. Film. Mayer, 1959. Film. 1959. Mayer, Hitchcock Productions, 1955. Film. 1955. Productions, Hitchcock 1927. Film. 1927.

FILMOGRAPHY:

Stage Fright. Murder!

North by Northwest. Rope.

Psycho. The Trouble with Harry. with The Trouble

The Man Who Knew Too Much. Much. Too Who Knew The Man The Lodger. Culture(s) Through Films: Learning Opportunities

DOROTTYA HOLLÓ | Film & Culture ► 110 FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 111 - - - - of using codes, “but it nevertheless does perform many of many of perform does nevertheless “but it codes, using of chapter offers a flexible framework for analysing films. framework flexible a offers chapter mer artistic and aesthetic or message, their for evaluated writingmore of invention the since communication of spite its lack of a specific set of rules or prescribed system system prescribed or of rules set a specific of lack its spite sent culture, then a broad definition of culture is pro of is culture definition a broad then culture, sent 1. FILMS REPRESENTING CULTURE CULTURE REPRESENTING FILMS 1. behind the screen, it is first discussed how repre films how is first discussed it screen, the behind knowledge. It provides the first significant general meansgeneral first the significant provides It knowledge. (72). And he further elaborates: further And he elaborates: (72). making sense of the ‘moving image.’ To begin the journey begin journey the To image.’ making ‘moving the of sense than seven thousand years ago” (71). He goes on to explain to on goes He (71). ago” years thousand than seven de like languagethat thismuch filmveryis because is as language does” communication of same functions the in learning about social practices and values. Finally, the the Finally, values. and socialin practices learning about is also “[f]ilm an it puts Monaco as James However, its. of new areas up that opened hastool scientific important In scholarly analyses, films are most often discussed or or often discussed analyses, films most are In scholarly vided along with elements of culture that are important of with elements along vided ------therefore culture learning in this chapter refers to feature films, real and mock real and mock films, to feature in this chapter refers film with the purpose of getting to know different cul different know to getting of with purpose the 1

The word The word

dependently of their storyline, purpose or main message. main or purpose message. storyline, their of dependently documentaries, advertisements, film clips, advertisements, documentaries, broadcasts. TV and Internet clips of feature films, documentaries, advertisements and filmand advertisements films,documentaries, feature of outs of a culture, one must be immersed in it totally for totally for in it immersed be must one a culture, of outs

and non-verbal clues as well as contextual information for for information as as contextual well clues non-verbal and are advised to use multiple perspectives in their interpre in their perspectives use multiple to are advised

ary source of knowledge about different cultures, societies, societies, cultures, different about knowledge ary of source a (rather long) while. However, one rarely has oppor the rarely one However, while. long) a (rather

social values and practices. To achieve this, film makers achieve To practices. and social values same time though, films are perhaps the richest second filmsrichest the though, same time perhaps are

fects, motion, as well as verbal and non-verbal informa non-verbal and as as verbal well motion, fects, use the power of the very complex visual ef sound and complex very the of power use the

tation. The text provides guidelines for analysing verbal analysing verbal for guidelines provides The text tation. tion conveyed. This chapter looks at how to make the most make most to the how at looks This chapter conveyed. tion

tunity to experience different cultures the Atfirstcultures hand. different tunity experience to tures and understanding their practices and values. Films values. and practices their understanding tures and

1 It is often said that in order to understand the ins the and understand to that insaid order is often It

very often provide valuable cultural information quite in quite cultural information valuable provide often very Those intending to use films for use films to for intending Those FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 112 - - - . YouTube, 26 Jan. 2014. Web. 2014. Web. Jan. 26 . YouTube, You Tube You (directed by Don Featherstone, Featherstone, Don by (directed 2 BabaKiueria ”Babakiueria.” Online video clip. ”Babakiueria.” Online video clip. Decoding the level of realism – from the point of cul of point the realism – from of level the Decoding The steps taken towards understanding the varied ap varied the understanding taken towards Thesteps documentary, one perceives a film, and how one interprets it (Monaco (Monaco it interprets one a film,how and perceives one or metaphorical it is. it or metaphorical a satirical situation of reversing the roles of Aboriginal of roles the reversing of a satirical situation Australians. non-Aboriginal filmsand same time, the At initiated become means to an adequate often are very socialization, age, gender, sociocultural and educational educational sociocultural and gender, age, socialization, background, socioeconomic status, and a number of other other of status, a number and socioeconomic background, factors. The same goes for how and what one notices, how how notices, one what and how for The goes same factors. proaches of films to reality, learning of the to make sense filmsreality, of to proaches ture, it must always be carefully established how realistic how carefully be established always must it ture, process. a film verysubjective is a tural representation – in into the world that they represent. However, if a film is However, represent. that they world the into 1 Febr. 2016. 1 Febr. It is influenced by the viewer’s prior knowledge, experience, experience, knowledge, prior by the viewer’s is influenced It 174). Yet this is a process that can has and this learnt. be to is a process Yet 174). 1986), which shows race relations in Australia through relations race shows which 1986), 2 viewed with the intent of learning about a particular learning about of cul with intent the viewed - - -

description in words (or even in still photographs) of even in still photographs) (or in words description of reality, it can communicate a precise knowledge knowledge a precise it can communicate of reality, of film. There is a substantial difference between a between difference is a substantial of film. There a person or event, and a cinematic record of the same. of the same. record and a cinematic a person or event, may seem a simplistic statement, but the fact should but the fact statement, a simplistic seem may that written or spoken language seldom can. (178) can. (178) language seldom spoken that written or never be underestimated: here lies the great strength strength great the lies here underestimated: never be image or sound has a denotative meaning: it is what what it is meaning: a denotative has or sound image it. This recognize to strive to have we don’t it is and Monaco likens films it is important to language, Monaco and Because film can give us such a close approximation approximation can give us such a close Because film Like written language, but to a greater degree, a film a film degree, to a greater but language, written Like

standing culturally filmsthe for difficult,uninitiated as sent reality by mirroring it but also by using metaphors, also metaphors, using by but mirroring reality it by sent

background of the culture that a film represents in order order in culture that the a filmrepresents of background making use of particular connotations or by relating to to relating by or making particular use of connotations

to understand the connotations, the implied or the inthe or implied the connotations, the understand to mock a short be could example An meaning. hoc ad tended the viewer is required to have some prior knowledge of the of knowledge prior some have to isrequired viewer the

the absurd, the unreal, the ideal, etc. This etc. unreal, the ideal, makes absurd, the the under to note that just like language, films do not only repre only that like language, just not filmsdo note to FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 113 - - - lived cul only fully accessi fully only 3 , of every kind, art to the most from ture of a particular time and place, recorded culture recorded our way of life. (52) (52) life. of our way ble to those living in that time and place. There is the There to those living in that time and place. ble Italics mine. Italics Culture comprises the processes of making sense of of making sense the processes comprises Culture [C]ulture […] is a dynamic process which produces produces which process dynamic is a […] [C]ulture the behaviours, the practices, the institutions, and and institutions, the practices, the behaviours, the existence. our social constitute which the meanings in its most general definition. There is the There in its most general definition. Another view of culture needs to be cited here, which which here, cited be to culture needs of view Another We need to distinguish three levels of culture, even even of culture, levels three need to distinguish We Turner also adds that “[l]anguage is the major mech major is also the that “[l]anguage adds Turner definition particularly pertinent for the study of societies, societies, of study the for particularly pertinent definition anism through which culture produces and reproduces reproduces and culture produces anism which through this makes the languageremark and established, has been social meanings” (52). Once the connection between film between connection the Once (52). socialmeanings” in films. as are rendered they practices and social values throws light on the multifaceted nature of culture: nature of multifaceted the on light throws 3 ------is almost impossible to define precisely. precisely. define to is almostimpossible

culture

cepted as it allows a very broad interpretation of the term: term: the of interpretation broad very a allows as it cepted els for living (Damen 367); collective programming of the the programming of collective 367); living (Damen for els

of the individual, but are also a key in understanding the the in are also understanding a key but individual, the of analysing particular films to intellectual growth or the

shared by a group of people (Spencer-Oatey 4). For the pur the For 4). (Spencer-Oatey people of a group by shared semiotic and representational processes, i.e., the complex i.e., processes, and representational semiotic

gain and express their meaning, contribute not only to to only not contribute meaning, their gain express and 2. THE CULTURES THAT FILMS REPRESENT REPRESENT FILMS THAT CULTURES THE 2.

mind (Hofstede 5); a fuzzy set of attitudes, beliefs, behav beliefs, a fuzzy attitudes, of set 5); (Hofstede mind poses of this study a definition by Graeme Turner is ac Turner is Graeme by this definition a of study poses

to the broad field of cultural studies (Turner 48). 48). of cultural (Turner studies field broad the to ioural norms, and basic assumptions and values that are values and assumptions basic and norms, ioural

nitions are: learned and shared human patterns or mod human or shared patterns and learned are: nitions ities of signs used and the way the signifyingthe way the and signs used structures of ities

films for the way they represent reality also contributes reality contributes also represent they way filmsthe for In social studies some key concepts recurring indefi the concepts key some Insocial studies

world around us. In more academic terms then, analysing terms then, academic us. In more around world The word Theword FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 114

- - - - - the text con text the culturelearning

culturelearning, education, religion, ethnicity, social or economic back economic social or ethnicity, religion, education, differ language learning users about foreign on centrates that though added be must It cultures. ent as they appear in life. These aspects relate to age, gender, gender, age, to aspects These in life. as appear relate they ators of the advertisement? And to what extent does the the does extent what And to advertisement? the of ators canbe itself. process This in a filmlearning process is a stepped up by being aware of what elements of culture to culture to of elements what of aware being by up stepped ground, language use, national or regional identity, etc. etc. identity, regional language or national use, ground, 3. ELEMENTS OF CULTURE OF ELEMENTS 3. FILMS FROM LEARNT BE TO – look for in a film. for look Several aspects of culture are represented in films – just represented are aspects culture of Several the viewer that if a mother is ill, func family the that stops if a mother viewer the as traditionalist characterize target audience the tioning, in captured cultural the features Understanding see? to regarding gender roles, or would this be truer of the cre this the of truer be would or roles, gender regarding want would thinkreality audience the that creators the film record reality, the creators’ perception of realityor of the perception creators’ the reality, filmrecord As this chapter focuses on on focuses Asthis chapter Would an advertisement for cold medication appealing to to appealing medication cold for an advertisement Would ------. (Williams. plays a role in how dif in how role a plays , but they are closest to document to are closest they , but of any period directly or figuratively. figuratively. or directly period any of the culture of the selective tradition selective the of culture the

recorded culture lived culture

culture of the selective tradition selective the of culture

everyday facts: the culture of a period. There is also, is There of a period. everyday culture the facts: as the factor connecting lived culture and period cul period and culture lived connecting factor as the 66) 66) tures, tures, How are these levels connected to films? Films obviously Films films? to obviously connected levels are these How Thinking about the validity of cultural representation Thinking cultural validity the of representation about

of reality the film represents; what context or what situa what or context what reality film the represents; of

embody embody small one (e.g. a particular social group or community). a particular community). or social group small (e.g. one

ferent groups evaluate films as to whether they offer a offer they filmswhether evaluate to as groups ferent munity (e.g. a country or a nation) or may just refer to a to refer just may or a nation) or a country (e.g. munity

tion its allusions or claims are valid for. The impressions The impressions claims or are valid for. allusions its tion tent becomes the canon, the mainstream or the ‘fringe,’ mainstream the canon, ‘fringe,’ the the or becomes tent

reflected in the film may be generalizable to a large com to a large generalizable in be may filmthe reflected in a film, leads the analyst to also consider what segment segment what in a film, leads to consider analystthe also

is widely accepted, or alternative, lesser accepted culture. culture. accepted lesser alternative, or accepted, is widely i.e., academically revered cultural content, culture that cultural content, revered academically i.e.,

ing the the ing It is based on the selective tradition whether cultural con whether tradition selective the on is based It

valid representation of the culture that appears in them. in culture that them. the appears of validrepresentation The FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 115 - - skills , i.e., the structure of texts texts structure the of , i.e., to behave appropriately in skillsand attitudes of learning and verbal expression exchanges just as saliently. The three groups of cultural of The groups three as just saliently. exchanges foreign the of development the to contribute elements and processes of creating discourse in one’s own and the the own and in one’s discourse creating of processes and language. While in a foreign clearly oneself express to and situations. in intercultural performance their of ance language user’s communication skills accept a better and communication language user’s target culture, helps one to decode texts more precisely precisely more texts decode to one helps target culture, in writ obvious more be to seems discourse of study the oralof routines structures and films texts, represent ten necessary various situations (Holló,“Cultural Dimensions” 134–145). This results in more confidence. Finally, awareness of awareness Finally, confidence. This in more results ------civ behaviour — often called language — often functions – and . Acquiring (some of) this knowledge about about of) this knowledge (some Acquiring . as a collection of items of cultural background cultural of background items of as a collection

To enhance the effectiveness of the learning process, it learningprocess, of the effectiveness the enhance To

and speech patterns knowledge

differences in mindsets, cultural dimensions, social in cultural mindsets, and dimensions, differences cultural situation. Being aware of the different different the of aware Being cultural situation. of communication in general but particularly in an but inter in general communication of cepting, accommodating and open minded in the course in course the minded open and accommodating cepting, one’s own culture and the target culture(s) helps foreign foreign helps target culture(s) the own culture and one’s

easily observed in films. easilyobserved listsThis tripartite division overview of elements of culture, many of which can be which many of culture, of elements of overview

own culture that earlier we took for granted. granted. for took we own culture that earlier other culture – be it the target culture of the foreign lan foreign the target cultureof the it culture – be other

about our own culture. It is through comparing and con and comparing is through It own culture. our about ilisation

guage we learn/use or any other culture — we also learn culture — we other any learn/useguage or we being able to perform them, as well as understanding the the as as understanding well them, perform to able being

language users be more socially aware, understanding, ac understanding, socially aware, language more be users larly relevant in studying culture. Figure 1 below offers an offers below 1 Figure culture. in studying relevant larly

personal values and attitudes equip people with the the with the the people equip attitudes and values personal trasting that we become conscious of phenomena in our in our phenomena of conscious trastingbecome that we

is helpful to identify elements of culture that are particu of elements identify to is helpful is often based on comparison. When we learn about an learn about we When comparison. on based is often FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS...

Figure 1. Elements of culture (Based on Holló, Értsünk szót 16) 116

Discourse structures & processes issues Focusing on Researching a topic and audience text to Relating messages Presenting & structuring ideas Developing arguments to & responding Using Linking ideas & connecting Cohesion & coherence Logic, relevance Mediation (translation, interpretation, summary) Performance, etc.

Clarity of expression skills learning of and verbal expression verbal and Expression: Learning and understanding: and Learning

culture

Cultural dimensions, etc. Cultural dimensions, Confidence Complaining, Criticising Complaining, Complimenting (functions) Greeting, Leave taking Starting a conversation Socialising behaviour & speech patterns & speech behaviour Appropriate conduct Ability to adapt Agreeing, Disagreeing Agreeing, Advice, suggestions Requesting, Refusing language Body Pragmatic features Mindsets, Attitudes Inviting / Expressing opinions Interrupting Visiting, Telephoning Better communication skills and better acceptance of a non-native speaker a non-native of skills acceptance and better communication Better

other practicalities

Open-mindedness Cultural connotations of vocab. Customs Geography Social & moral awareness Social awareness & moral Social values Socio-linguistic context, etc. Sciences Acceptance Accumulation of Background knowledge Administrative and Arts civilisation Flexibility Popular Culture Economy Literature Institutions History Tolerance Tolerance Traditions FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 117 - - -

Rainer Schüren establishes that “[f]ilm, just like any like any just that “[f]ilm, establishes Rainer Schüren centrated reality” (197), and explains that the (foreign) explains and (foreign) that the (197), reality” centrated elements reveal about the culture represented in film? the represented culture the about reveal elements particufilms. through same cultures At time — and the con highly (re-)organised, (re-)structured, is fiction other at the representation of culture from the point of view of of view of point the culture from of representation the at significance” (201). But this exotic backdrop can become a canbecome backdrop thisexotic But (201). significance” 4. A FLEXIBLE FRAMEWORK FLEXIBLE A 4. FILMS ANALYSING FOR becomes a mere exotic backdrop without any particular any without backdrop exotic mere a becomes be used for this endeavour. this endeavour. for used be larly if not only individual scenes but longer stretches or or stretches longer but scenes individual only ifnot larly miss meanings and connotations (196–197). He also adds He (196–197). miss connotations meanings and pear in films is one of the major steps in learning about learning in about steps pearof major inthe films one is the film to understand it and it is easy to misunderstand orit is easy to it misunderstand and filmthe to understand detail and culturalbackground film’s the of that “most the main features of film. This section offers concepts to concepts film.offers of mainthe features Thissection Identifying and analysing elements of culture as ap they of analysing and elements Identifying viewer needs to describe, interpret and even to “rewrite” “rewrite” to even and interpret describe, to needs viewer whole films are to be analysed — it is also important to look look films is to be to also important analysed — it are whole - - - - - . 2005–2013. Web. 28 De . 2005–2013. Web. A large number of films were films were of largenumber A 4 Intercultural Film Database Film Intercultural Select a few elements of culture and describe describe culture and of elements a few Select Identify elements of culture in a film of your your in culture a filmof of elements Identify .

Jarman, Francis. Francis. Jarman, All these elements become reallymeaningful in con become All elements these Task 2: Task 1:

choice. cellent online collection, the Intercultural Film Database Film Database Intercultural the collection, online cellent Jarman Francis the of at direction the under compiled elements appear in films, the reader is referred to to ex an referred is in films, reader appear the elements chapter do not allow for analysing examples of how these these how of analysing examples for allow not do chapter or one represented in a film. Since the constraints of thisconstraints inthe a film. Since represented one or crete cases of communication be they in a live situation situation in a live they be communication cases of crete analysed mainly around the concept of cultural of dimen analysed concept mainly the around

sions. (The “find movie” tab offers two very useful features: very features: useful two offers tab movie” (The “find sions. cember 2015

bility to search for particular features.) While this site While this particular site for features.) search to bility how these appear in the film you chose. What do these do these What chose. inyou film the appear these how

the other items as well. items other the targets just one of the elements in the above list, filmsthe above in the elements the of targetsone just

the alphabetical archive of the collection and the possi the and collection the of archive alphabetical the in the collection offer ample opportunity to examineto opportunity all ample offer in collection the

University of Hildesheim. of University 4 FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 118 - - - - - and the the and content of films. Some concepts have furthersub have concepts films. of Some questions are listed in the right column of the figure for for figure the of column in right the are listed questions technical aspectstechnical cultural aspects in the film are represented realistically cultural aspects in film the represented are pur what for and how If so, manipulated. been have or of some aspects related to film production. Referring to Referring filmproduction. to aspects related some of the main two to notions: relate column in italics. are printed and are indented These categories. can used be if concepts the see to ask questions to cable and Graeme Turner (52–74), which all provide details on all which provide (52–74), Turner Graeme and some commonly applied elements of filmstud text of and elements applied commonly some be used as the key constituents of an analytical of frame constituents as key used the be (323–349), Ann Griffin and Vanessa May (441–458), Geoff Geoff (441–458), May Ann Vanessa Griffinand (323–349), for the particular film under investigation. Some possible possible Some particular the for investigation. film under practically in all categories it can be asked whether the the whether can asked be it in allpractically categories the For questions. The list many ‘Yes-No’ contains pose? the methods of analysis – a selection of concepts that can concepts of analysis – a of selection methods the illustration. The sample questions are intended as initial are intended questions The sample illustration. However, can on. that based further be ideas questions ies – and relying particularly on works by James Anderson Anderson James by particularly works on relying ies – and Mayer (5–6), Jane Stokes (51–92), Fran Tonkiss (405–416), (405–416), Tonkiss Fran (51–92), Stokes Jane (5–6), Mayer work are presented in Figure 2. The concepts in the left left in the 2. in The Figure concepts presented are work To operationalise these concepts for analysis, it is practi analysis, it for concepts these operationalise To - - - - - the way in which they are repre . There is a ‘language’ for visual representation, representation, visual for is a ‘language’ . There

sented ence to make sense of what they see. (54) they sense of what ence to make es are culturally charged; the camera angle employed, employed, angle camera charged; the culturally es are are also dealing with are lour, tinting, or processing, would all have the poten would all have or processing, tinting, lour, his position within the frame, the use of lighting to the use of lighting within the frame, his position by co achieved effect certain aspects, any highlight too, sets of codes and conventions used by the audi too, sets of codes and conventions tial for social meaning. When we deal with images social meaning. When tial for it is especially apparent that we are not only dealing dealing not only that we are apparent it is especially image of a man will have a denotative dimension—it dimension—it a denotative a man will have image of In order to understand the cultural connotations and and cultural the connotations understand to In order Images, as well as words, carry as well as words, Images, A filmed connotations. with the object or the concept they represent, but we but represent, they concept the or object the with will refer to the mental concept of ‘man.’ But imag But of ‘man.’ concept mental to the will refer

connotations. Greame Turner gives a particular example: a particular gives example: Turner Greame connotations.

meanings as well as ways of representing (or manipulating) (or representing of as ways asmeanings well meaningful one if it is used consciously to uncover cultural uncover to consciously ismeaningful used if it one

reality, the awareness of the elements of culture and their their and culture of elements the of awareness the reality, way of functioning has to be coupled with the awareness with awareness the has functioning coupled be to of way FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 119 - -

The proposed framework is flexible in that its elements elements its in that is flexible framework The proposed

quires. It is important to remember though that answers though remember to is important It quires. curate interpretation.

can be chosen as the film or the analyst’s perspective re perspective as filmor the analyst’s the can chosen be be followed up by ‘How’ and ‘Why’ questions. ‘Why’ and questions. ‘How’ by up followed be

language and cultural connotations, is necessary for ac is for necessary language cultural and connotations, purpose of analysis and interpretation, they should always always should they analysis of interpretation, purpose and

Substantial research on cultural background, as well as as cultural well on Substantial background, research to the questions that arise do not offer themselves easily. easily. themselves offer that arise not do questions the to FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS...

Figure 2. Concepts for analysing the representation of culture in films 120 5

at or remains unsaid? touch one another while communicating? What greeting and leave taking customs or other behaviour patterns can be seen? be seen? patterns can behaviour other or customs taking leave and What greeting communicating? while another one touch characteristic of the culture or context the film the represents? characteristic context culture the or of in the film? How cared for/clean/organised/etc. is the environment in the film? How are the activities represented in the environment? the in represented activities the are How film? the in environment the is for/clean/organised/etc. cared How film? the in background of the characters? the of background (stereo)typical or individual? How is the characters’ social identity represented? What characters the use? do language variety/ies represented? social is characters’ the individual? identity How or (stereo)typical the film? Does the film reflect a realistic, idealized, stereotypical, outdated or current image of the culture in question? the of culture or in image outdated idealized, a film?the current stereotypical, reflect Does realistic, the film Are the dialogues to the point or evasive? evasive? or point the to dialogues the Are How direct is the eye contact between people? What seems to be the accepted distance between people in different social situations? Do people Do people situations? social different in people between distance accepted be the to What seems people? between contact eye is the direct How focus? thematic reflect relations spatial the do How How do the dialogues reflect behaviour patterns? What hierarchy do the dialogues show between the characters? How are power relations expressed? expressed? relations power are How characters? the between show dialogues the do hierarchy patterns? What behaviour reflect dialogues the do How dialogues? the evaluate or supplement narration Does the chronological? it Is perspective? someone’s represent it does or neutral narration the Is culture? your as in way same the used expression facial Are expressed? emotions are How be? to seem characters the do neutral or emotional How Are there any indirect hints to elements of culture, social issues, or social values? Is the cultural representation fair manipulated? or Is culture, cultural the social social of or issues, values? representation any indirect hints elements Are to there Are there any special effects that reinforce the intended representation of any issues in of issues the film? any representation intended the any specialAre there reinforce effects that Do the sound and music support the topic of the film? Do the sound and music accentuate particular accentuate music issues? film? the and sound of Do the topic the support and music sound the Do Does the film imply what audience it was made for? How? for? wasit made audience what film the Does imply or disharmony? harmony reflect image the is composition Does said? what support images the Do image and the composition Do the characters seem to be a typical, stereotypical or irregular representation of their social their of a typical, be are characters the type? to irregular characters the Do seem ways In or what stereotypical representation Does the story or narrative contain any direct information about the culture featured in the film? What elements of appearculture in in culture the film? the featured narrative elements story the about any direct or contain Does What information How might the author’s, filmmaker’s or producer’s background and intentions have influenced the cultural influenced the ofaspects have film? intentions and background producer’s or filmmaker’s author’s, the might How How do the actions and events reflect behaviour patterns social behaviour and values? reflect and events actions the do How How is the speed of camera movement relevant? Does the camera focus on scenes/objects relevant to a cultural to topic? relevant scenes/objects camera the focus on Does relevant? camera movement of is speed the How editing by the suggested events of organisation? Is speed the a thematic follow it does or the filmIs of the editing chronological What objects or landmarks identify the environment? What does the environment (natural or built) say about the particular society or community community or society particular the about say built) or (natural environment the What does environment? the identify landmarks or What objects film? the in environment the for relevant they Are reflect? schemes colour and lighting the do What atmosphere What cultural patterns or themes are expressed? Are messages communicated directly or indirectly? How much is said and how much is just hinted hinted is just much how and is said much How indirectly? or directly communicated messages Are expressed? are themes patterns or What cultural What behaviour patterns are transmitted through non-verbal channels? Are different patterns shown depending on the socio-cultural on the depending patternsshown Are channels? different patternsWhatare transmitted behaviour non-verbal through

s

This question was inspired by Stempleski and Tomalin (96). and Tomalin Stempleski by was inspired This question

arration Spatial relation Lighting and colour Environment, context Body language, facial expressions, eye contact, proxemics, Discourse Dialogue Content

N

Camera movement Characters Special effects Special Sound, music narrative main or ideas Author, filmmaker, producer Audience Actionsand events Editing, cutting Non-verbal messages Non-verbal Image composition Hidden agendas Technical aspects The story, plot, topic,

5 FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS...

Figure 3. Sample features for the ‘Dockers locker room advertisement’ 121

coloured shirt, ring, large graduation watch); coloured feeling (brand) more openly than openly an actual more (brand) product; feeling realistically; (not fashion models but slightly pot-bellied men); pot-bellied slightly but models fashion realistically;(not - Confined space indicates urgency of action; of urgency indicates space - Confined speaker; the on focus to expects; one than is darker - The lighting colours; - Subdued - Very well-structured speech; well-structured - Very - Direct communication; listeners; the to - Appealing speech; a public for typical - Pace: everyone; at looking round going but contact eye - Direct speech; the of end the at emotions raises and aloof quite seems - The speaker action; for calls this room, small the in crowded close, (too) sit - The listeners energizing; and advice needing sportsmen were dads the if room – as - A locker - To reach aspiring class reach men; middle - To with topic; the - Consistent enthusiasm; the emphasise to end the at except camera movement, - Smooth interesting- Some close-ups; end; the at rises with momentum the - The volume - Fictional but represents middle class Americans middle various ethnicities of represents but - Fictional and achievement; belonging of suggests a sense sports context -The talk room; a pep gives as in if fathers sportsmen a locker to to - A ‘coach’ fatherhood; to related activities and - Values life; in children’s their involvement fathers’ roles: gender to reference - Unsaid - Achievement orientation; him; speaks, and follow listen others the - A leader - Language American class (Northern) English; middle use: (chequered, - Characters typically roles their dressed for orientation; achievement and confidence radiate clues - Non-verbal selling a persuasion, non-obtrusive for opted - The advertiser

Dialogue →Monologue Body language, facial expressions, eye contact, proxemics Environment, context Spatial relations Lighting and colour Discourse echnical aspects Content

Camera movement Characters Sound, music narrative main or ideas Author, filmmaker, producer Audience Actions and events Editing, cutting Non-verbal messages Non-verbal Image composition Hidden agendas T The story, plot, topic, - - 1 You Tube You Ads Commercial 2014. Ads Commercial

6

Available at: Available To conclude and to show show to and conclude To

a very brief example — just a a example — just brief a very how someof these concepts

6 ment.” Online commercial. Online commercial. ment.”

may work, Figure 3 shows 3 shows Figure work, may pants.

uteadvertisement ‘Dockers’ for taster — based on a one-min on taster — based

January 2016. January “Dockers – Locker Room Advertise Room “Dockers – Locker FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 122 . . - - - Researching Researching . Thousand Oaks: . Thousand Oaks: . Milton, Queensland: The Jac Queensland: . Milton, . Reading: Addison Wesley, 1987. 1987. Wesley, Addison Reading: . . Ed. Clive Seale. 3rd ed. Thousand Thousand ed. 3rd Seale. . Ed. Clive MediaResearch Methods: Understand Studies in Honour of Marianne Nikolov Cultures and Organizations: Software of of Software Organizations: and Cultures Culture Learning: The Fifth Dimension in in Dimension The Fifth Learning: Culture Film as Text . London: McGraw-Hill, 1991. Print. 1991. McGraw-Hill, . London: Értsünk szót! – Kultúra, Nyelvtanítás, Nyelvhasználat [Let’s [Let’s Nyelvhasználat Nyelvtanítás, szót! – Kultúra, Értsünk the Language the Classroom the Mind aranda Press, 1991. Print. aranda 1991. Press, ing Metric and Interpretive Methods guage Teaching.” guage Teaching.” Oaks: Sage, 2012. 441–458. Print. 441–458. 2012. Oaks: Sage, Society and Culture and Society See Eye to Eye! Culture, Language Teaching, Language Use] Language Teaching, Language Culture, Eye! to Eye See Sage, 2012. Print. Print. Ed. József Horváth and Péter Medgyes. Pécs: Lingua Pécs: Medgyes. Péter and Horváth Ed. József 2015. November 23 Web. 133–148. 2014. Csoport, Franca Akadémiai Print. 2008. Kiadó, Budapest: Interpretive Phenomenological Analysis.” Griffin, Ann and Vanessa May. “Narrative and Analysis May. Griffin, Vanessa and Ann Anderson, James A. James Anderson, Damen, Louise. Mayer, Geoff. Geoff. Mayer, Hofstede, Geert. Hofstede, Lan in Foreign Dimensions “Cultural Dorottya. Holló, WORKS CITED: CITED: WORKS —. - - Choose a few and interpret them re them interpret and few a Choose 7 HSBC. “Cultural Differences Advertisements.” Online Online Advertisements.” Differences “Cultural HSBC. differences. choice, and add questions to the list in Figure 2.list the in Figure to questions add and choice, and film-related concepts of a not di film is that concepts film-related and Conduct a brief analysis using the concepts listed listed analysis concepts the using a brief Conduct ferring both to elements of culture and concepts concepts culture and of elements to both ferring there. rectly about cultural differences. cultural differences. about rectly in film analysis. ‘Americanness’ and the spirit of advertising. advertising. of spirit the and ‘Americanness’ Try to explain what features above relate to to relate above features explain to what Try Watch a film (feature, documentary, etc.) of your your of etc.) documentary, (feature, filma Watch Do a combined analysis of the elements of culture of analysis elements the of a combined Do Watch the ‘HSBC’ advertisements about cultural about advertisements ‘HSBC’ the Watch

Available at: Available

7 video clips. You Tube. 1 January 2016. 1 January Tube. video clips. You

Task 6: Task 5:

Task 4: Task Task 3: FILM & CULTURE–HOLLÓ–CULTURE(S) THROUGH FILMS... 123 Dir. Don Featherstone. ABC, 1986. Film. ABC, 1986. Featherstone. Don Dir. FILMOGRAPHY: FILMOGRAPHY: BabaKiureia. - - - - 5.2 (1998): .Harmond . Oxford: Ox . Oxford: 3rd ed. London: Film . Thousand Oaks: Researching Society ed. Thousand Oaks: Oaks: Thousand ed. . London: Continuum, rd Culturally Speaking: Managing Rap TheLong Revolution Film as Social Practice. Practice. as Social Film How to Read a Film: Movies, Media, and Be and Media, Movies, a Film: Read to How . Ed. Clive Seale. 3 Seale. . Ed. Clive How to do Media Studies Journal for the Study of British Cultures British of Study the for Journal 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 2009. 2009. Press, University Oxford York: New ed. 4th

and Culture port through Talk across Cultures across Talk through port sworth: Penguin, 1965. Print. Penguin, sworth: ford University Press, 2001. Print. 2001. Press, University ford Sage, 2012. 405–423. Print. 405–423. 2012. Sage, Sage, 2003.Print. yond. Routledge, 1999.Routledge, Print. Film.” Print. 195–214. Print. 2000. Print.2000.

Stokes, Jane. Stempleski, Susan and Tomalin, Barry. Barry. Susan Tomalin, and Stempleski,

Spencer-Oatey, Helen. Schüren, Rainer. “Teaching Different Cultures through Cultures through Different “Teaching Rainer. Schüren,

Monaco, James. Williams,Raymond.

Turner, Graeme. Turner, Tonkiss, Fran. “Discourse Analysis.” Analysis.” “Discourse Fran. Tonkiss, Multiculturalism, History and Identity in Canadian Film: Atom Egoyan’s Ararat

JÁNOS KENYERES | Film & Culture ► 124 FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 125 ------— is one of the great great the of — isone

1 . Ararat (2002). One of the central ques central the of One (2002). Kenyeres “Aspects of Canadian Multicultur “Aspects Kenyeres Ararat For more information on the history, policy, theory and impact of Ca policy, on the history, information more For The following discussion investigates recollection subsequent and 1915 of The Armenian genocide ern part of Turkey, had been conquered and ruled by the the ruled and by conquered had been ern part Turkey, of lost The Ottoman empire in region. the nations other and memory as a way of constructing history iden constructing and of as a way memory and alism: History, Policy, Theory and Impact Policy, alism: History, backgrounds are brought together on an occasion which which an occasion on together are brought backgrounds Ottoman Empire for centuries, just like lands of many like many lands just of centuries, for Ottoman Empire Ottoman Turkish state, it is regarded by some as first the some by is regarded it state, Ottoman Turkish modern genocide. Armenia, located in Anatolia, east Armenia, the located genocide. modern prompts them to investigate their national, familial national, their and investigate to them prompts nadian multiculturalism, see nadian multiculturalism, tion of the multiculturalism policy. multiculturalism the of tion in multiculturalism Atom of tity against backdrop the different of if people happens is what movie the of tions the by Committed century. 20th the of events traumatic individual past. 1 Egoyan’smovie which arose in aftermath the implementa arose official the of which years — the underlying topic of of topic underlying years — the - - - - -

Multiculturalism has played a pivotal role in making role a pivotal hasMulticulturalism played Even though multiculturalism as a policy has sub as multiculturalism a policy been though Even

other cultures in world. cultures the other cent years it has become an integralCanadian part the has of it become years cent

a series of specific programs implemented by the various by the programs implemented specific of a series guishes Canadians from other nations. Canadiansguishes nations. other from

beyond is indisputable. The cultural works created as a The created cultural works is indisputable. beyond had a significant impact on every aspect of life, and in re in of and life, every on aspect had a significant impact

Canada; nevertheless, the difficulties inherent in a mul in a difficulties inherent the Canada; nevertheless, Canadian context. It is a demographic fact, a social ideal, a social a fact, ideal, is demographic a It Canadian context.

Governments of Canada in the past few decades. In addi Canadadecades. of inpast few the Governments minority cultures visible and recognised by mainstream by recognised and visible cultures minority

ject to some severe criticism ever since it was introduced was introduced it since ever criticism severe some to ject political philosophy and a government policy consisting of

ticultural society are demonstrated by exactly the works works the exactly by ticultural are demonstrated society theory and the policy of multiculturalism, have given new new given have multiculturalism, of policy the and theory

tion to arts to in multiculturalism Canadation culture, and has impetus to Canadian culture and fortified its place among among place Canadianits to impetus fortified culture and

result of a multicultural social reality, backed by both the the both by backed social multicultural a reality, of result in 1971, its emancipatory effect on the cultural field and on culturalfield the effect emancipatory its in1971,

national identity, a feature which many believe distin many believe which feature a identity, national The term multiculturalism has multiple meanings in the The has multiculturalism term multiple FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 126 , - - - - Das Märchen vom Das Märchen Ravished Armenia (2007), directed by the by the directed (2007), (1989) and Louis de Ber (1989) (1987) already offered an allegori offered already (1987) (1993) also discussed the topic, in an im an in topic, the also discussed (1993) (1988), Edgar Hilsenrath’s Edgar Hilsenrath’s (1988), (2004). The first film on the Armenian geno The first (2004). Family Viewing Family that simply had to be told. It’s not just just not It’s told. be had to that simply Die vierzig Tage des Musa Dagh [The Forty Days of Dagh [The Forty des Musa Die vierzig Tage Calendar was followed by another filmic adaptation of the of the adaptation by another filmic was followed

Bluebeard Bluebeard Sunshine (1933), which became a bestseller and directed attention to the to attention directed and bestseller a became which (1933), is not the first movie in which Egoyan draws on the theme of on the theme draws Egoyan which in is not the first movie Birds Without Wings Birds La masseria delle allodele [The Lark Farm] Both his professional skills and his interest in the skills his and interest his Both professional (2002), in turn, (2002), 2 Ararat Indeed, Egoyan, one of Canada’s most highly regarded regarded highly most Canada’s of one Egoyan, Indeed, letzten Gedanken [The Story of the Last Thought] contemporary film directors, seemed well suited for the the for suited well seemed film directors, contemporary a movie. It’s not just a story. It is something that really is something It a story. just not It’s a movie. stood on their feet. Even he was probably surprised.” As surprised.” was probably he Even feet. their on stood likestory cide was released in Hollywood in 1919 under the title the title under in 1919 Hollywood in cide was released cal representation and representation cal made of Franz Werfel’s Werfel’s made of Franz plicit way. Among the literary be must of the theme, mention depictions way. plicit theme, the Armenian genocide. the Armenian genocide. in Kurt Vonnegut’s Vonnegut’s in Kurt nières’s Musa Dagh] Musa truly matters and it had to be told by Atom. There really There Atom. by told be had to truly it and matters task. isn’t anyone else who could tell that story...” (Kirkland). (Kirkland). that story...” tell could who else anyone isn’t Ararat Ararat Armenian genocide on an international scale. The topic is also dealt with is also dealt topic The scale. Armenian genocide on an international which was followed by a number of documentary and art films. Egoyan’s of documentary by a number Egoyan’s and art films. was followed which Lantos recalled the same event, “I felt that thisis another felt “I same event, the recalled Lantos 2 Taviani brothers. → → It is interesting to note that Charles Aznavour, who who Aznavour, to note that Charles is interesting → It brothers. → Taviani - - - was raised when, was raised when, Ararat

Atom Egoyan’s treatment of the Armenian genocide Armenian the of genocide treatment Egoyan’s Atom

ducer Robert Lantos virtually upstaged Egoyan to make virtually to a Lantos Robert Egoyan upstaged ducer cide. And the whole audience, in this emotional outburst, outburst, inthis emotional audience, whole And the cide.

on film began in a rather unusual way. Kirkland recounts recounts Kirkland filmunusualway. beganon rather a in crowded refugee camps around the Middle East in and Middle the around camps refugee crowded

community in Anatolia was destroyed and one-half of the of one-half and in Anatolia was destroyed community control over its Christian territories — Greece, Bulgaria Christian its territories — Greece, over control

at an awards ceremony at the Armenian the at Community ceremony anat awards and forced marches. As marches. Siraganian “The states, Armenian forced and a rise in Turkish nationalism, followed by a systematic a systematic by nationalism, followed a rise in Turkish and Serbia — in the late nineteenth century, which led to to led which century, nineteenth late the Serbia — in and speech. As Egoyan recalled, Lantos “sort of one-upped me me one-upped of “sort Lantos recalled, As Egoyan speech.

by standing up in front of this audience and saying that saying and the this of audience standing in front by up Centre in Toronto, Hungarian-born Canadian Hungarian-born filmpro in Toronto, Centre

persecution of its last its remaining large Christian of popula persecution time had come to make a film about the make to the Armeniangeno a film about hadtime come

that the idea of Egoyan’s movie movie Egoyan’s of that idea the the rest of the world” (Siraganian 134). (Siraganian 134). world” the of rest the

the 1890s and it is believed that eventually over a million over that eventually is believed it and 1890s the tion, the Armenians. Thousands of people were killed in were Armenians. the tion, people Thousands of

Armenians were massacred inArmenians massacred mass killings, were deportations world’s Armenian population was annihilated. Armenian Survivors population world’s FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 127

- - - - - (2014) Adoration TheSweet (2005), won him recogni won

, The Captive , The Captive , in 1984. His expanding His expanding in, 1984. (2013) (1991), Next of Kin of Next Where the Truth Lies Wherethe Truth . TheAdjuster , Devil’s Knot Knot , Devil’s (2015) (2002), (2010) (1997) won several awards and brought himinter brought and awards several won (1997) Ararat , Chloe Remember Egoyan’s art-house cinema embraces a wide spectrum wide a embraces cinema art-house Egoyan’s of themes: traumatic loss, mourning, mania, manip mania, mourning, loss, traumatic themes: of of interests and topics, and its relevance is also far-reach relevance its and topics, and interests of as well as a rise in the popularity with movie audiences. asasa rise audiences. well in popularity the with movie and such as the search for identity and truth, and and national identity for as search the such his first feature hisfeature film,first (as Alliance by Communications distributed be to line (2008) family history, reconstruction of the past, the sexuality, of reconstruction family history, from 1998, Alliance Atlantis Communications), a com a Alliance 1998, Atlantis from Communications), pany co-founded by Robert Lantos. His movie His movie Lantos. Robert by co-founded pany ulation, fantasy and sexuality (Wilson ix). Additional fantasy Additional ulation, sexuality and ix). (Wilson themes readily offer themselves to be added to this list, added be to themselves offer readily themes technology and alienation. tion in the United States and it was the first one in a long long in a one was first the it and States in United the tion ing. The complexity of his cinema offers a vast showcase vastshowcase a his offers cinema of The complexity ing. national fame; his more recent films, released after 2000, 2000, after films,released recent his more fame; national include filmography reveals a gradual increase in the film budget, budget, a reveals in gradual film the increase filmography Hereafter His fourth feature, His fourth feature, - , dedicated his song “Ils his song “Ils , dedicated

Ararat

child he was mainly concerned with being accepted as a accepted with being was mainly he child concerned overlooked. His life story reads as typical a reads both story His immigrant life overlooked.

of the topic. It is often mistaken or downright simplistic simplistic mistaken downright is often or It topic. the of and educated. As he explains in several interviews, as a interviews, As explains he in several educated. and

a strong Armenian awareness on the family’s part that or family’s the on Armeniana strong awareness such national awareness was openly tolerated in Egypt at tolerated was openly awareness national such

story and a unique and extraordinary one as extraordinary and far as par one a unique its and story subject matter warranted a conscientious filmic treatment filmic treatment warranted a conscientious matter subject

background only later in life. He went to the University of of University the to went He in life. later only background but in Egoyan’s case his be cannot Armenian background in Egoyan’s but

Canadian and admitted the relevance of his Armenian of Canadian relevance the admitted and family moved to Vancouver, Canada, where he was raised he Canada, where Vancouver, to family moved

plays the film director Edward Saroyan in Saroyan Edward the film director plays Sont Tombés” (1976) to the victims of the Armenian holocaust. of the Armenian holocaust. to the victims (1976) Tombés” Sont parents’ fascination with the establishment of Egypt’s first Egypt’s of with establishment the fascination parents’ parents in Egypt and his first name, Atom, comes from his from comes in Egypt his and parents Atom, first name, the time. Egoyan was about two years old when he and his and he when old years two was about Egoyan time. the

ticular details are concerned. He was born to Armenian was to born He ticulardetails concerned. are to connect an artist’s life with the works produced by him, by produced an with works life the artist’s connect to

nuclear power station. This does not necessarily suggest suggest necessarily This not station. does power nuclear Toronto, and after some experimental projects completed completed projects experimental after and some Toronto, FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 128 - - - - contains numerous subplots, each separate from from separate each subplots, numerous contains Ararat driver in the film, is returning to Canada from Turkey, Turkey, in film, the returningdriver is to Canada from edly background footage for Saroyan’s film, is interrogated film, is interrogated Saroyan’s for footage background edly concentrating on the uprising against the Turks in the inthe against Turks uprising the the on concentrating tes His filmmother’s on partly hisis Van. based city of job asgot a anassistantand Raffi,Ani’s who son, ocide. at the border by a customs officer, David, whose son, Philip, Philip, son, whose David, officer, a customs by border the at a Toronto-based Armenian-Canadian art historian, Ani, a Toronto-based an century 20th important Arshilean Gorky, expert on struggling with the memory of the loss of his father, who who his father, of loss the struggling of with memory the but intertwined with each other in a subtle network of of network in subtle a other intertwined witheach but has a homosexual relationship with the actor who plays plays who with actor the relationship has a homosexual follows: Edward Saroyan, a renowned Armenian film renowned a di Saroyan, Edward follows: Saroyan’s movie. Raffi’s stepsister is strugglingalso stepsister with Raffi’s movie. Saroyan’s the role of a high-ranking Turkish military in commander Turkish a high-ranking of role the timony and the autobiography of an American physician, an American of physician, autobiography the and timony interconnections. The main plot can The summarised be main plot as interconnections. Armenian the is making genocide about a movie rector, Armenian painter, who was a child in Van during the gen during the was in a child Van who Armenian painter, Dr. Clarence Ussher. The screenplay is also assisted by is also by assisted The screenplay Ussher. Clarence Dr. was killed as anRaffi,years Armenian ago. fifteen terrorist is carryingwho filmCanada, cans exposed into of alleg - - - - - : through it ), and thus thus and ), 7 , or reveal the par the reveal , or we do not, so to speak to so not, do we address the question to to question the address Exotica Ararat , but while retaining el while said the , but observes, “since the camera is, is, camera the “since observes, Kállay new way of seeing: of way new , recollections do not merely elicit the cause of of cause the elicit merely not do , recollections Sweet Hereafter

The Ararat

Regarding its perspective and logic, Egoyan’s cinema cinema Egoyan’s logic, and perspective its Regarding In

ements, the flashbacks flashbacks in the ements, can be seen as a perfect example of what postmodernism postmodernism what of example as canperfect a seen be

allel lives emerging from a disaster affecting a whole town, whole disastera affectinga from emerging lives allel a trauma and broken lives, like in lives, a trauma broken and

allow for multiple meanings. multiple for allow like in

multi-layered, offering a complexity which in turnwhich invites complexity a offering multi-layered, it may help us see things hitherto unknown things us, us includ hitherto see to help may it observations. philosophical even and facts, feelings ing it can become a can become it in the default case, a means of mechanical reproduction, mechanical case, reproduction, a means of in default the resented at all. at As resented

ically, by seemingly simple and relatively short dialogues, short relatively and simple seemingly by ically, innumerable interpretations and interpretive strategies.

is all about. His films are open-ended, fragmented and and fragmented Hisis films allopen-ended, about. are film, ( in iscertain a ‘transparent’” sense,

what extent and whether the past can the rep known and be whether and extent what whereas the time shifts, time the fragmentary the and cuts, whereas plots

The density of Egoyan’s cinema is achieved, quite paradox quite is achieved, cinema Egoyan’s of The density ‘watch a film’ but we see, we re-visit the world world the re-visit we see, we but a film’ ‘watch FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 129 - - - speaks not only of personal recol personal of only speaks not are intertwined, just like the plots them are intertwined, like plots the just Ararat Ararat However, It is a peculiar feature of the movie that recol the movie the is a peculiar of It feature

of the most intriguing scenes of the movie is when Raffi Raffi is when movie the of intriguing scenes most the of a transitional state between the two narrative worlds of of worlds narrative two the between a transitional state selves, at times reinforcing, at times negating one another. one negating times at reinforcing, times at selves, great amount of ignorance by the rest of the world. One One world. the of rest the by ignorance of amount great between the collective memory of two nations, that of that of nations, two of memory collective the between lections of a national trauma, but also of the conflict conflict the also of trauma, national a but of lections levels of of levels narrative the between passage a offer presented lections uprising, Van the about scene a first seeing When levels. in Saroyan’s dramatic a scene of shooting the during set live perspective of Clarence Ussher. He is in a strange trance, trance, is in a strange He Ussher. Clarence of perspective Saroyan’s film. In a similar way, when Aniwalkswhen film.the across similarIn a way, Saroyan’s the past makes a strong impact on the present. the on impact past makesthe a strong a by surrounded mostly Armeniansthe Turks, the and the viewer does not suspect it is from a different movie, movie, a different is from it suspect not does viewer the ‘filmwithin theof the film,’ film, the memories with vivid film, ruining the shot, the actor playing Clarence Ussher Ussher playing Clarence film,actor the ruiningshot, the the her from at starts and rage shouting terrible a into flies virtually speaking out of another world, surprising the virtually world, another of speaking out in which symbolizing time same way the the at but viewer,

- - -

As the above outline suggests, Egoyan’s film invokes film invokes Egoyan’s suggests, outline As above the

day life. The genocide is obviously the main issue on the the main the on issue is obviously The genocide life. day

direct relationship with the bloody events, while the char the while events, with bloody the relationship direct connected to it — for different reasons — in their every reasons — in their different it — for to connected

counts, including that of Clarence Ussher” (Egoyan, 2002). 2002). (Egoyan, Ussher” Clarence that of including counts, or perhaps was pushed, off a cliff after his separation from from cliff a off separation his after was pushed, perhaps or

at the end of the movie clearly show this. This reads: show latter clearly movie the of end the at all three large narrative levels of the movie. It emerges on on emerges It movie. the of all large three narrative levels

acters living in present day multicultural Canada multicultural day are only living in present acters and the characters in the ‘film within the film’ who have a have who in ‘film the characters the within and film’ the

holocaust scholars, national archives, and eyewitness ac eyewitness and archives, national scholars, holocaust her own past, the mysterious death of her father who fell, fell, who father her of death own past, mysterious the her

metadiegetic level of Saroyan’s film, (the ‘filmwithin (the the film, Saroyan’s of level metadiegetic trip to Turkey. The recollections used in the narrative in narrative the used The recollections Turkey. trip to

the film, where the characters in present day Toronto are Toronto day present characters in the film,the where the non-diegetic level as the title and the written statement statement written the and as title the level non-diegetic the

indirectly linked to it. The theme of genocide appears on on appears genocide of The theme it. linked to indirectly not only the genocide but the personal stories of Gorky Gorky of stories personal the but genocide the only not

film’), but also in the video footage made by by Raffi on made his footage also but in the video film’), Ani, art the historian.

The genocide is also manifested on the diegetic level of of level diegetic the is alsoon manifested The genocide “the historical events in the film have been substantiated by substantiated been in film the have historical events “the FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 130

- - -

didn’t happen. happen. didn’t something

Something... Yeah. mil his told Hitler Adolf know what you Do : : : Look I’m not saying that that not saying I’m Look Right? you. Look, were So I was born here. the just drop So let’s a new country. This is 2002) does. (Egoyan, did. Nobody And nobody : : : : celebrate. Hmm? celebrate. Collective, familial memories, or their absence, deter absence, their or familial memories, Collective, fucking history and get on with it. No one’s gonna one’s fucking history and get on with it. No the Armenians?” itary his plan them that to convince commanders Raffi Raffi Raffi Ali Ali Ali Ali Hmm? So let’s go inside and uncork this thing… and and this thing… go inside and uncork Hmm? So let’s wreck your home. No one’s gonna destroy you family. family. you gonna destroy one’s home. No your wreck of extermination the remembers would work? “Who different national and personal identity; the conflicting conflicting the identity; personal national and different and the prejudices inherent in the interpretation create a create ininterpretation the inherent prejudices the and mine the way the individual interprets historical events historical events interprets individual the way the mine personal views based on collective memory being often often being memory collective on based views personal irreconcilable. In the beginning In the Raffi both andirreconcilable. Aliare igno film portrays, Saroyan’s which historical the events of rant

- - - - -

Turks. It was World War I. War World was It Turks.

and

Yeah. That you don’t think it happened? think don’t That you But Turkey wasn’t at war with the Armenians. I at war with the Armenians. wasn’t Turkey But Were you serious about what you told him? told you what about serious you Were

: : : : Are you gonna shoot me or something? Look,something? or me shoot gonna I you Are What? What, the genocide? : :

mean, just like Germany wasn’t at war with the Jews. Jews. the with war at wasn’t Germany like just mean, plete extermination of the Armenian population in of the Armenian population extermination plete people died. Armenians died. people tected. That scene you just shot was based on an eye tected. That scene you reason they put him in Van was to carry out the com they put him in Van reason ing up… you know. I did some research for the part. for I did some research know. you ing up… never heard about any of this stuff when I was grow of this stuff about any never heard Raffi Raffi Raffi Raffi Ali Ali Ali: From what I read there were deportations and… lots of and… lots deportations were there I read what From witness account. Your character, Jevdet Bey, the only the only Bey, Jevdet character, Your witness account. They were citizens. They were expecting to be pro citizens. They were They were Van. There were telegrams, there were communiqués. were there telegrams, were There Van.

cerning the film in which he plays the role of the cruel of cruel the role the plays he film the cerning which in

asks Ali, who is half-Turkish, about his sentiments con his sentiments about asks isAli, half-Turkish, who Turkish officer, Jevdet Bey: officer, Turkish FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 131 - - - . As , as we Weltgeschichte Heilsgeschichte and Heilsgeschichte uses the criteria of ordinary history, of ordinaryuses the criteria history, on.’ (Frye 48) (Frye on.’ er, ‘This may not be what you would have seen if you seen if you have would you not be what ‘This may er, and attempts to answer the question, What should answer the question, and attempts to have missed the whole point of what was really going was really of what point missed the whole have have it for instance in the Gospels, may say to us rath say instance in the Gospels, may it for have seen would would have you but what had been there, In his distinction of the above concepts of sacred sacred of concepts above the In his of distinction I have seen if I had been there? I had been there? seen if I have Weltgeschichte Weltgeschichte The statement “it’s true in spirit” evokes Northrop Northrop evokes true in spirit” “it’s The statement of collective memory based on “poetic licence.” “poetic on based memory collective of and ordinary (world) history, Frye accurately maintains accurately Frye history, ordinaryand (world) plies that the view of Ararat is “true in spirit,” but it is clear is clear it but Ararat in spirit,” is of “true view that the plies that the purpose of any investigation into ‘ordinary his ‘ordinary into investigation any of that purpose the actually ‘what establish happened,’ to attempt is the tory’ that historical truth is different from the representation representation the from that historical truth is different is not possible to see the mountain from Van. Saroyan re Saroyan Van. from mountain the see to possible is not Frye asserts: Frye’s distinction of of distinction Frye’s which shows the view of Ararat, of view instantly the that remarks it shows which - - - - is not only only is not ,

Saroyan’s ‘film within the film’ reflects the collective collective the reflects ‘film within film’ the Saroyan’s

different from the Turkish view, represented by Ali, but it by but Ali, represented Turkish view, the from different out, this memory, this recreation of the past the of this recreation this memory, out,

completing his personal quest: understanding his family understanding his quest: personal completing actually happened, Ani, looking at the stage set of Van, Van, of set stage the Ani, at actually looking happened,

account of the director’s mother as well as eye-wit as the well mother director’s the of account and spiritual wounds suffered by the by the Armeniansto key is suffered spiritualand wounds

and their interest is aroused only by participating in the participating by only is aroused interest their and story, his father’s motivation for trying assassinate for a to motivation his father’s story,

shooting of the ‘film within the film.’ It is the representa the It is ‘film the within of film.’ the shooting lice. This drives him on his solitary travel in Turkey to to This in Turkey his himlice. solitary drives on travel

memory of the Armenian people, based on the personal personal the on based Armenian the of people, memory proves to be in conflict with historical facts as well. When well. facts When historical inwith be conflict as to proves

unrelenting accusations, which eventually transform Ali transform eventually which accusations, unrelenting Saroyan explainsSaroyan that his filmeverything it willshow as

tion of the historical events in Saroyan’s movie, coupled coupled movie, in Saroyan’s historical the events of tion ness testimony of Clarence Ussher. However, as it turnsas it However, Ussher. Clarence of testimony ness

record remnants of the past. the of remnants record into the harsh character of the Turkish officer he person he officer Turkish the harsh of the character into physical the of memory For internalizingRaffi, ifies. the

with the director’s indifference to his thoughts and Raffi’s and Raffi’s to his thoughts indifference director’s withthe Turkish diplomat, during which he was po the killed he by during which diplomat, Turkish FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 132

- - - - - 3 in the the in Ararat Ararat intends to is complex, is complex, Ararat Ararat has a role to play in deepening aware in deepening play to has a role , Egoyan is less interested in original the interested is less , Egoyan Ararat Ararat For a detailed analysis of the representation of history of in representation the of analysis detailed a For It is not surprising, therefore, that if surprising, therefore, is not It claim, “more in how the genocide is mediated by the var the by is mediated genocide the in how claim, “more establish an authentic representation of the Armenian the of gen representation anestablish authentic approach. historical simplistic a to resort cannot it ocide, context of the writings of Edward Hallett Carr and Hayden White, see White, see Carr and Hayden Hallett of the writings of Edward context genocide testimony itself and, as Burwell and Tschofen and, as Tschofen and Burwell itself testimony genocide historical accounts are not fully unreliable and subjec and fully unreliable not are historical accounts […] happened. tive; some sense of objectivity is present in all testimonies. is present objectivity of sense some tive; events that fact these the Armeniantruth the of genocide, remain irretrievable. Ricoeur nevertheless believes that remain believes irretrievable. Ricoeur nevertheless Theto filmabsolute assert seeks the contradictory. if not racial and a national trauma. of belatedly, however ness, ious reactions to and interpretations of this testimony by by this of testimony interpretations and to reactions ious nipulation of historical reconstructions” (Wilson 116–117). Parker 1040–1054. Parker 3 As Wilson notes, “Egoyan’s position in position “Egoyan’s notes, As Wilson Egoyan makes us increasingly aware of the falsity ma the and of aware makes us increasingly Egoyan Truth is critical to the film.” Yet, as she adds, in “ adds, Yet, she as is critical film.” the to Truth Thus, in - - - - Memory, and how it is related to myth. to is related it how and

, Ricoeur distinguishes between three three distinguishes between , Ricoeur , there is no doubt that his primary doubt is no inter , there Heilsgeschichte

demonstrated that history is far from being an objective that an history objective is being far from demonstrated

of the past” (Ricoeur xvi). Each of the above three activ three above the of Each xvi). past” (Ricoeur the of on the scriptural level of the historian’s representation representation historian’s the of scriptural the level on

epistemological course embraces the three phases of the the of phases three the embraces course epistemological of ‘ordinary history,’ and theoreticians, such as Edward as Edward such theoreticians, and history,’ ‘ordinary of

est lies in lies est and of the archives, it goes through the usages of ‘because’ of usages the through goes it archives, the of and

account of the past. These theories evidence that ‘ordi evidence past. the These theories of account and although Frye is aware of the subjective nature of of nature subjective the of is aware Frye although and

basic constituents of historiographical activity: “The historiographical of constituents basic historiographical operation; from the stage of witnessing witnessing of stage the from operation; historiographical

however, ishowever, predominantly preoccupied with questions tive; moreover, some facts are forgotten, overlooked, and and overlooked, facts are forgotten, some moreover, tive; is closely linked with probability rather than certainty. than rather certainty. linked with probability is closely ities is involved with interpretative operations and thus thus and operations with interpretative is involved ities in the figures of explanation and understanding; it ends ends it understanding; and explanation of in figures the

nary history,’ too, is based on subjective factors. In factors. subjective on is based too, nary history,’ History, Forgetting

Philosophical thinking concerning the nature of history, history, nature of thinking the Philosophical concerning In this way, historical knowledge cannot be fully be cannot objec historical knowledge In this way,

Hallett Carr, Hayden White or Paul Ricoeur, have clearly clearly have Ricoeur, Paul or White Hallett Hayden Carr, Weltgeschichte FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 133 - - - - - , art does not , art not does Ararat Memory loses ground, and is and ground, loses Memory

in an out-of-competition-slot at the Cannes at the Cannes in an out-of-competition-slot Ararat As Raffi says in his video shot in Turkey: “When I “When Turkey: in Asshot Raffi insays video his 4 Doubt sometimes turns into objection. As a result of protests by “Turk of protests As a result objection. Doubt sometimes turns into

attempt to reconstruct something tangible out of the allu the of out tangible something reconstruct to attempt siveness of symbols and metaphors. In metaphors. symbols and of siveness see these places, I realize how much we’ve lost. Not just just Not lost. we’ve much I realize how places, these see This this explains why forgetting. and erasure to subject an decided to screen an decided to screen be talked about directly; there is a veil of doubt surround doubt of is veil a there directly; talked be about that anything ever prove to here is nothing There it. ber imagination, the the of world the to transferred being language and identity” (Burwell and Tschofen 125–126). 125–126). Tschofen and (Burwell language identity” and happened” (Egoyan, 2002). merely make use of the imagination, but it also attempts also attempts it imagination, make the but use of merely particular event is often treated metaphorically, history metaphorically, treated is often particular event ish groups, complaining that the film was anti-Turkish propaganda,” Egoy propaganda,” that the film was anti-Turkish complaining ish groups, to break away from it in order to recreate a tangible past. a tangible recreate to in order it from away break to the land and the lives, but the loss of any way to remem to way any of loss the but lives, the land and the remoteness of the past, the Armenian holocaust cannot cannot Armenian past, the the of holocaust remoteness ing it. Film Festival in 2002. See Romney 173. in 2002. See Romney Festival Film Due to its denial and controversy, but also because of the the also of because but denial controversy, and its to Due an we witness inversion; strange is a film there Egoyan’s world of art. This is where history and art converge, but in but art. of history art and This converge, is where world 4 - - - - - represents the genocide through the filtering filtering the through genocide the represents

Ararat

In addition to the above questions, what makes dis any what questions, above the to In addition

one could manage this trauma and anchor one’s culture, culture, manage one’s this could trauma anchor and one

cussion of the Armenian holocaust exceptionally difficult exceptionally Armenian the of holocaust cussion clear, definite and tangible past,either. tangible and definite clear,

of mediation, but the film also shows that just like there just like that filmthere the shows but also mediation, of authorities and the reluctance of a number of countries to to countries of a number of reluctance the and authorities

as each individual inevitably incorporates his or her own her his or incorporates inevitably individual aseach selves followed by their erasure from ‘official history,’ and history,’ ‘official from erasure their by followed selves

later generations” (Burwell and Tschofen 126). Moreover, Moreover, 126). Tschofen and (Burwell generations” later fact that it happened. Analysing essays on Egoyan’s treat Egoyan’s on Analysing essays happened. thatfact it

ment of the genocide, Burwell and Tschofen conclude that conclude Tschofen and Burwell genocide, the of ment personal experiences in the act of recollection, there is no is no there recollection, of in act the experiences personal

the absence of a ‘place’ — a home or homeland — from which which homeland — from or home a ‘place’ — a of absence the the trauma produced by the events of the genocide them genocide the of events the by trauma the produced

this date, largely for political reasons, to acknowledge the the acknowledge to reasons, political for this largely date, tion, more specifically its outright denial by the Turkish denial by the outright its specifically more tion,

the film is not only preoccupied with a particular a with histor preoccupied only film the not is is the controversy concerning its basic historical founda basic its concerning controversy is the

is no single way of remembering and recalling and past, the remembering of way single isno ical event, but how it is internalized by later generations. generations. is later internalized by it how but ical event,

Egoyan is “grappling with two core issues: the severity of of severity the issues: with core two is “grappling Egoyan True, FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 134

- - - Why are you showing this to me? [The viewer viewer [The me? to this showing you are Why Arshile Gorky was born in a small village on the Gorky was born in a small Arshile can see the video recording of the Mother and Child of the Mother can see the video recording carving wall.] on the Armenian church shores of Lake Van. From the shores of this village, the of this the shores From Van. of Lake shores Celia: him the detailed carvingshim the detailed on the walls of the church. island of Aghtamar was in plain view. Gorky, as a child, Gorky, view. was in plain island of Aghtamar Ani: would go to this island with his mother, who would show who mother, would go to this island with his on interconnections between artworks but extending to to extending artworks but between interconnections on see film,we the first of Anigivingending a the ontalk Raffi playing his own is stillcommentary heard — shows Child, and explain Mother the wall representing church a typological reading of the movie and establishes links establishes and movie the of a typological reading between the national and personal histories, the commu the histories, personal and national the between old-home the from monument a depicting screen a before land, and then the next scene — beginning while Ani’s Ani’s while scene — beginning next the land, then and personal and national narratives as well, brings into play play into brings as narratives national and well, personal nal and individual threads of the story-line. Close to the the to Close nal story-line. the threads individual and of this of artwork: import the Celia to ing Armenian artist hall, in a lecture Arshile Gorky standing video recording to Celia of a stone carving an a stone Armenian on of Celia to recording video ------is first Ararat is a contemplation on the the on is a contemplation memory and recollections are recollections and memory Ararat is eventually a contemplation on the on a contemplation is eventually Ararat Ararat

As mentioned above, above, As mentioned It is clear that in is clear It

of a terrible past, a past which cannot be accurately de accurately be cannot past, a past which a terrible of

eventually supersedes, or at least supplements, the theo the supplements, least at or supersedes, eventually cinematic world, by virtue of being an art work, the movie movie an the virtue art by being of work, world, cinematic

and how it affects individuals” (Parker 1040). Nevertheless, Nevertheless, 1040). (Parker affects individuals” it how and and foremost a meditation on history — how it is made is made it history — how on a meditation foremost and

suggested interpretive method, expounded by Raffi, by based expounded method, interpretive suggested scribed and represented.

history while still retaining its roots in it. This stillhistory in while it. retaining roots is a for its used to represent a sense of national, collective, famil collective, national, of a sense represent to used

ta-interpretive strategy to its own understanding. This own understanding. its strategy to ta-interpretive tion of history, history, of tion

nature of art and the movie also offers an explicit me explicit an also art offers of nature movie the and nature of art. It demonstrates a reality that supersedes a reality that supersedes art. demonstrates nature of It

retical problems concerning history and historiography. ial and personal history. As Parker claims, As “ Parker ial history. personal and

Albeit less conspicuously than the self-reflexive representa than self-reflexive the conspicuously less Albeit vision which is looming modestly behind the suggestion suggestion the behind modestly is looming which vision where, despite the odds, things are repaired. This things odds, are repaired. the isthe despite where, ward-looking vision realised in the present of the movie, movie, the of realised in present the vision ward-looking while Egoyan’s above preoccupation weighs heavily on his on heavily weighs preoccupation above Egoyan’s while FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 135 - - - - - of Gorky and his mother] Well, she’s given you this given you she’s Well, of Gorky and his mother] so persecuted? We’ve invested you Greeks and Arme Greeks you invested so persecuted? We’ve ful! This your mother? [holding up the photograph [holdingphotograph the up mother? your This ful! nians with power and freedom. You should be thank You nians with power and freedom. An appeal for Christian help. Did your missionary feel missionaryyour Did help. Christian feel appeal for An The Christian motif of Mother and Child, underlying Child, and underlying The Christian Mother of motif diplomat), as well as Celia and her father (who died under under died (who father her as and as Celia well diplomat), cated, half-concealed way in Egoyan’s movie. On the other other On the movie. in Egoyan’s way half-concealed cated, and Child motif — thus extends to the parent-children re parent-children the to extends Child motif — thus and var the from remedy of as past, a sense serves a tangible genocide survivor. The stone carving — through The Mother the stone survivor. genocide lations of the movie and, as the only tangible evidence of of evidence tangible and, as only the movie the of lations Armenian the of (and hand, as Christianity, religion the Greek) people (as well as of the American the as missionary of and well (as people Greek) physician Dr. Clarence Ussher), is expressly referred to in to referred is expressly Ussher), Clarence Dr. physician uncertain circumstances) and Edward Saroyan, director of of director Saroyan, Edward and uncertain circumstances) the ‘film within the film,’ and his own mother, who who was a mother, and his own ‘film the within film,’ the in a sophisti is suggested chain associations, of above the commander Turkish the from ‘film the within film,’ the ious traumas expressed in movie. the traumasious expressed Jevdet Bey’s viewpoint: Bey’s Jevdet -

5 or prefiguration of type is further extended to the to is further extended antitypes and types You felt what? felt You

His ghost. The ghost of my father. ghost of my His ghost. The This is the origin, from the memory from origin, is the This this of

Celia: gonna happen here. That I was prepared to throw my my throw to prepared That I was here. gonna happen Italics mine. Italics (Egoyan, 2002) 2002) (Egoyan, place, right to the photograph, to the sketch, to the to the the sketch, to the photograph, to right place, some to put had I go there. to me told You painting. that… dark room, as I heard him open the can, I felt it. I felt him open the can, as I heard that… dark room, thing in my heart. If that was gonna happen, it was happen, was gonna that If heart. in my thing Raffi: Raffi: whole life away. And last night, as we were sitting in as we were And last night, away. life whole The stone carving and the Biblical story of Jesus and and carving Jesus of story The stone Biblical the and

and eventually the painting itself (see Appendix, Fig. 1–7). 1–7). Fig. Appendix, (see itself painting the eventually and

5 father (who was killed while trying to assassinate a Turkish was killed trying while assassinate (who to a Turkish father

family relationships depicted in the diegetic level of the the of level in diegetic the depicted family relationships movie: those between Raffi and his mother, andRaffi Raffi his mother, between and his those movie:

the photograph of Arshile Gorky and his mother, which which his and mother, Arshile Gorky of photograph the in turn forms the basis of the sketch of Gorky’s painting painting Gorky’s of in turn sketch the basis the of forms

Mary underlying it serve as serve the Mary it underlying Thischain of FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 136

- - - - type Remem

6 can be interpreted as a prefiguration of as a prefiguration can be interpreted represents history metaphorically, by Ararat Ararat In the same way, In the same way, Despite the theoretical questions raised, in fi the questions theoretical the Despite , Egoyan’s 2015 movie about the search of a dementia-stricken World World of a dementia-stricken about the search 2015 movie , Egoyan’s ber demonstrated by the close-ups (see Appendix, Fig. 8 and 8 and Fig. Appendix, (see close-ups the by demonstrated or prefiguration of the Second World War Holocaust, and and Holocaust, War World Second of the prefiguration or history. from has erased been cide historical event. incomprehensible and an intangible on alive, the film suggests that despite its evocative power, art power, itsevocative filmdespite the that suggests alive, as such the two events are essentially the same, with same, the the are essentially events two the as such his painting, which recalls her as vividly as if she were as recalls vividly were as her his if which she painting, 6 members the extermination of the Armenians?” the of (Egoyan, extermination the members transferring it to the world of the imagination. It raises imagination. the It of world the to transferring it to a based trauma remedy art offers whether question the in fact lies. Hands are for touching, for keeping contact, contact, keeping for touching, Hands for are lies. in fact important difference, however, that the Armeniangeno nal analysis, is made by Raffi in his reference to Hitler’s plans: re “Who Hitler’s to Raffi by is made reference in his 9), and when Arshile Gorky erases his mother’s hands from his erases mother’s Arshile Gorky when and 9), Hands play a crucial, typological role in the movie, as movie, in the a crucial,Hands typological play role 2002), implying that the Armenian genocide was the that Armenian the implying genocide 2002), War II Holocaust survivor. II Holocaust War - - in

corruption and ruin. Now you yourselves will be ru yourselves you and ruin. Now corruption commerce and money. My streets overrun with your your with overrun streets My money. and commerce markets and moneylenders. Your greed has led us to has led greed Your and moneylenders. markets much as you talk about your prophet Jesus Christ Jesus prophet about your talk as you much photograph so that you may remember her. Look at Look her. remember may that you so photograph the depths of your souls, you believe in nothing... but believe souls, you the depths of your to happen to your people is your own fault. For as For own fault. is your people to happen to your to feel superior to us. She’s taught you that Turks are are that Turks you taught to us. She’s superior to feel ined. (Egoyan, 2002) ined. (Egoyan, it now. This is the face of a woman who raised you you raised who woman a of face the is This now. it Jevdet Bey’s above statement in the ‘film in ‘film the within the statement above Bey’s Jevdet I’m going to teach you something. What is about something. What to teach you going I’m vengeful and ignorant. That we’re bloodthirsty. Now Now bloodthirsty. we’re That and ignorant. vengeful

objective truth but as it is presumed and understood in understood and is presumed as it truth but objective against Armenians in “believe as who a Christian people

sentially identical with the widely known accusations the the known accusations with widely the identical sentially led to “corruption and ruin” sound familiar; sound ruin” and are es they “corruption to led

nothing... but commerce and money” and whose greed has greed whose and money” and commerce but nothing... film’ reveals the Turkish viewpoint not so much as much an so not Turkish viewpoint reveals the film’

Armeniancollective memory. Jevdet Bey’s accusations Nazis made against the Jews. It is exactly this point which which this is exactly point It againstNazis made Jews. the FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 137 - - - - see Gorky’s mother, mending a coat, sewing a button on on a button sewing a coat, mending mother, Gorky’s see he does not wish to pass judgement, but shows the wounds wounds the shows but wish pass judgement, to not does he fore, shows the world of art where everything is possible. everything is art possible. of where world the shows fore, movie in Van, and reappears in Gorky’s studio in New in New studio in Gorky’s reappears and in Van, movie torical trauma. Egoyan does not claim to know the past, the claim know to not does trauma.torical Egoyan narrative level, which can be called the level of art: we art: of we can called be level the which narrative level, inSaroyan’s coat Gorky’s is missing from Thisit. button This is? ifthere final it what scene, But mended. never of act is the past, the that it commemorating by istence, a his from relief that offer has to a chance remembering to makes and a step memory personal and in collective In this way, the film demonstrates through its veryex its through film the demonstrates In this way, wards healing them. York, hanging on a thread from the wall. was the hanging threada from The on coat York, - - - -

7 . The Adjuster . It represents an altogether different different an altogether represents . It Ararat

The act of touching to establish contact with the past appears as a with the past appears as a contact The act of touching to establish The final scene of the movie, however, offers some re some offers however, movie, of the The finalscene

deletion of past events from history. When Ani touches Ani When touches history. from past events of deletion

of Egoyan’s own bare hands, establishing contact with her, for the the for with her, contact hands,establishing own bare

and with the historical past, even though this attempt is thisthough attempt with historicaland the past, even and Gorky’s dead mother is irrevocably out of touch, ir touch, of out is irrevocably mother dead Gorky’s and

sonal level also reflects another, much larger erasure — the larger much another, also reflects sonal level lief. It appears as if it was a scene from Saroyan’s ‘film ‘film Saroyan’s from was as scene a if appears it It lief.

last time (see Appendix, Fig. 10). The erasure on the per the The on erasure 10). Fig. Appendix, last (see time motif in Egoyan’s other movies as well, such as movies other motif in Egoyan’s

purely metaphorical. Nevertheless it is both an is both intellec it Nevertheless metaphorical. purely painting is the only true way of representing her loss. loss. her representing of trueway only is the painting towards establishing contact with those who were lost. were who with those contact establishing towards tual and emotional reaching out to the past and a move a move past and the to out reaching tual emotional and the hands of Gorky’s mother, Shushan, on the projected projected the on Shushan, mother, Gorky’s handsthe of

image of the photograph after her lecture (see Appendix, Appendix, (see lecture after her photograph the of image reversibly dead, hence the erasure of her hands from the the hands from her of erasure the hence dead, reversibly

7 Fig. 11), this represents a gesture to reconnect with her with her reconnect to a gesture this represents 11), Fig.

Paradoxically, Gorky erases his mother’s hands with his his erases mother’s Gorky Paradoxically, within the film,’ but it is not. Nor is it on the diegetic level level on diegetic the it is Nor not. it is but within film,’ the FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 138

- - - . Trans. Kath Trans. . London:BFI Publishing, . Urbana and Chicago: Uni Chicago: and . Urbana Atom Egoyan. Atom Egoyan Memory,History, Forgetting Image and Territory: Essays on Atom Egoyan. Atom on Essays Territory: and Image loo, Ontario: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2007. 2007. Press, Wilfrid University Laurier Ontario: loo, leen Blamey and David Pellauer. Chicago: University of of University Chicago: Pellauer. David and Blamey leen Chicago Press, 2004. Print. 2004. Press, Chicago to Ararat.” Ararat.” to Eds. Monique Tschofen and Jennifer Burwell. Water Burwell. Jennifer and Tschofen Eds. Monique Representing the Armenian Genocide from Open House House Open from Armenian the Genocide Representing 133–156. Print. versity of Illinois Press, 2009. Print. 2009. Illinois Press, of versity 2003. Print.2003. Siraganian, Lisa. “Telling a Horror Story, Conscientiously: Conscientiously: Story, a Horror Siraganian, Lisa. “Telling Ricoeur, Paul. Paul. Ricoeur, Jonathan. Romney, Wilson, Emma. Wilson, . . - - - Im 76. 4 Eds. Monique . Eds. Dorottya . Eds. Dorottya The Toronto Sun The Toronto Central European Central . 9 (2014): 27–44. Print. Web Print. Web 27–44. . 9 (2014): Film and Culture University of Toronto QuarterlyUniversity of Toronto .” The Great Code: The Bible and Literature and The Bible Code: The Great Ararat

age and Territory: Essays on Atom Egoyan. Atom on Essays Territory: and age edition also available. also available. edition (2007): 1040–1054. Print. frid Laurier University Press, 2007. 125–131. Print. 125–131. 2007. Press, frid University Laurier 8 June 2001. Web. 3 Jan. 2016. Web. 2001. 8 June San Diego: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1982. Print. 1982. Jovanovich, Harcourt Brace San Diego: tivity and Micro-territories: Placing the Diaspora.” Diaspora.” the Placing tivity Micro-territories: and Journal of Canadian Studies Ararat a Personal Take on Genocide.” Genocide.” on Take Ararat a Personal Jászay and Andrea Velich. Budapest: ELTE, 2016. Web. Web. 2016. ELTE, Budapest: Velich. Andrea and Jászay Egoyan’s History, Policy, Theory and Impact.” Theory Impact.” and Policy, History, Tschofen and Jennifer Burwell. Waterloo, Ontario: Wil Ontario: Waterloo, Burwell. Jennifer and Tschofen

WORKS CITED: WORKS

Parker, Mark. “Something to Declare: History in Atom History in Atom Declare: to Mark. “Something Parker, Frye,Northrop.

Burwell, Jennifer and Monique Tschofen. “Mobile Subjec “Mobile Tschofen. Monique and Jennifer Burwell, Kirkland, Bruce. “Egoyan Mounts Testament; New Film New Testament; Mounts Kirkland, “Egoyan Bruce.

Kenyeres, János. “Aspects of Canadian of Multiculturalism: “Aspects János. Kenyeres, Kállay, Géza. “Being Film.” Film.” Géza. “Being Kállay, FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM,

HISTORY AND IDENTITY IN CANADIAN FILM... 139 - - . Alliance Atlantis Communica . Alliance Communications Cor . Alliance Entertainment, 1991. Film. . Alliance 1991. Entertainment, Ararat . Serendipity Point Films, 2015. Film. Films, 2015. Point . Serendipity . Alliance Entertainment, 2004. Film.. Alliance 2004. Entertainment, Exotica Remember The Adjuster The Sweet Hereafter

porations, 1997. Film. tions, 2002. Film. 2002. tions,

FILMOGRAPHY: Egoyan, Atom, dir. dir. Atom, Egoyan, —, dir. dir. —, —, dir. dir. —, dir. —, —, dir. dir. —, FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM...

APPENDIX 140 , in Ararat Ararat The Mother Artist His and Gorky’s studio in Atom Egoyan’s movie movie Egoyan’s in studio Atom Gorky’s on his video recording in Atom Egoyan’s movie movie Egoyan’s in Atom his recording on video with Gorky’s sketches for for sketches with Gorky’s Fig. 4: Photograph of Arshile Gorky and his mother, together together Arshile and his of Gorky mother, Photograph 4: Fig. Fig. 3: Raffi showing Celia the Mother and Child stone carvingandstone Mother RaffiChild Celia 3: the showing Fig. Ararat Ararat on Raffi’s video recording in Atom Egoyan’s movie Atom in recording video Raffi’s on on Raffi’s video recording in Atom Egoyan’s movie Egoyan’s Atom in recording video Raffi’s on Fig. 2: Stone carving Stone walls the Child the 2: on of Armenian the of Fig. Church of the Holy Cross on the Island of Akdamar Island the of on Cross (Aghtamar) Holy the of Church Church of the Holy Cross on the Island of Akdamar Island the of on Cross (Aghtamar) Holy the of Church Fig. 1: Stone carving walls the on Armenian the of Stone Mother the 1: of Fig. FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM...

APPENDIX 141 here here Source: , c. 1926–36. Oil canvas, on 60 × 50 , c. 1926–36. The Mother. Artist His and The Mother Artist His and Fig. 6: Arshile Gorky, sketch for for sketch Arshile 6: Gorky, Fig. in. (152.4 × 127 cm). Whitney Museum of American Art, New York. Source: Source: American of Whitney Museum Art, cm). York. in. New × 127 (152.4 Fig. 7: Arshile 7: Gorky, Fig. here Van, Turkish Armenia, 1912. Source: Turkish Van, Fig. 5: Photograph of Arshile Gorky and his mother, in Arshile and his of Gorky mother, Photograph 5: Fig. FILM & CULTURE–KENYERES– MULTICULTUR ALISM...

APPENDIX 142 AraratEturio Ararat in the ‘film within the film’ in Atom Egoyan’s Egoyan’s in ‘film the Atom within in the film’ volorem lisimiligni consendam essita pero maximil esto totatur? esto maximil pero essita consendam lisimiligni volorem Fig. 11: Ani touching the hand of Arshile Gorky’s mother on the the on mother Arshile Ani hand the of Gorky’s 11: touching Fig. Fig. 10: Arshile Gorky erasing his mother’s hands his from painting Arshile erasing his Gorky mother’s 10: Fig. projected image of the photograph in Atom Egoyan’s movie movie Egoyan’s in Atom photograph the image of projected Ararat Ararat ‘film within the film’ in Atom Egoyan’s Egoyan’s ‘film Atom within in the film’ Fig. 9: Hands of Arshile Gorky’s mother, Shushan, in the mother, Hands Arshile 9: of Gorky’s Fig. Fig. 8: Hands of Arshile Gorky’s mother, Shushan, in Gorky’s Shushan, in Gorky’s mother, Hands Arshile of 8: Gorky’s Fig. painting in the ‘film within the film’ in Atom Egoyan’s Egoyan’s painting in ‘film the Atom within in the film’ The Miraculous Life of Henry Purcell: On the Cultural Historical Contexts of the Film England, my England

ZSOLT KOMÁROMY | Film & Culture ► 143 FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 144 serves to show show to serves England,Englandmy This discussion of Thisof discussion as the film’s reflections on the works and on the on culturaland works the on reflections as film’s the history that it engages with. In order to understand these, these, understand to with. In order engages history that it man, but as someone who has become a representative a representative has become who asman, someone but particular scene, or every instance of the use of literary literary use of the instance of every or particular scene, about say poetry a particular at or moment music of piece put differently, it is about Purcell not as a musician or a musician as a not Purcell it about is differently, put This cultural is not history. to, in, contribution and place texts (of which there are also many, including the title title the including are also many, there which (of texts H. Lawrence) D. by a story of that title is the takenfrom the film also self-reflexively comments on and interrogates interrogates and on comments filmthe self-reflexively also symbols. national creating of process the a of cultural the of historical contexts that mapping the film the other in many interpret not could that we say to impossibility of a historically faithful biopic about Purcell, Purcell, about a historically faithful of biopic impossibility may We that thisis labyrinthine. creates film reflections a at is heard music Purcell’s instance when every regard figure of English culture. But by calling attention to the to the by calling attention But culture. English of figure ownits can and highlight filmits caninterpretation, aid Purcell” (as the subtitle claims), but about England — or, England — or, about but claims), subtitle the Purcell”(as we have to ask questions such as: what does the use of a use of the does what as: such ask questions to have we ways. Indeed, the web of allusions and the complexity of of complexity the and allusions of web the Indeed, ways. ------— itself testifies testifies — itself

England, my England

data for us to have even an approximate idea of his pri of idea an approximate even have us to data for of Purcell-related events and publications, commemorat publications, and events Purcell-related of

of his professional life, but Purcell the man the Purcell remains un but life, his professional of of the great composers of the history of Western mu Western history the of of composers great the of oeuvre is the most widely known of the English musical musical English the known of widely most is the oeuvre one about whose life we know virtually know Purcell’s we life nothing. whose about one sary of Purcell’s death, and was part of a year-long series series was and part a year-long death, sary of Purcell’s of

selves the impossible task of a biopic about Purcell, we we Purcell, about task a biopic of impossible the selves sic, and research has uncovered a fairly detailed picture picture detailed a fairly has uncovered research and sic,

known: there are simply not enough extant records and and extant records enough not are simply there known: may find a clue in the timing of the production. filmThe production. of in timingthe the clue a find may

production of his period, he is acknowledged to be one one be to is acknowledged he his period, of production the film’s main title — film’s the “The Henry of Story about much so is not that this work

travagant, given thatbe to this given historical figure happens travagant, ing one of the iconic figures of English culture. Indeed, Indeed, culture. English of figures iconic the of one ing

riences, details of his daily life, or his personality. If we If we details his his daily of personality. or life, riences, English composer Henry Purcell sounds somewhat ex somewhat sounds Henry Purcell composer English

was released in 1995 (dir. Tony Palmer), the 300th anniver 300th the Palmer), Tony (dir. in 1995 was released wonder why filmmakers should nonetheless set set them nonetheless filmmakersshould why wonder

vate life, his thinking, his opinions, his emotional expe his thinking, life, his emotional vate his opinions, The idea of a biopic about the life of the 17th the century of life the about a biopic of The idea FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 145 - - - -

ern hero’s living room; or, when Queen Mary Queen in the dies when or, livingroom; ern hero’s and his age. There are numerous ways in which the his the in which ways are numerous There hisand age. and the other, a broadly understood contemporaneity. contemporaneity. understood a broadly other, the and film). long this of a half-hour and two midpoint the about about write a play to attempts who in London, an actor latter is set in the England of the 1960s and centres on on centres and 1960s the of England in the is set latter Purcell about meditates ashim he in various situations (To mention just a few: both the modern hero and Charles Charles and hero modern the both few: a just mention (To On the other hand, the storyline is not restricted to the the to restricted is not hand, storyline the other On the focus on here: one, the historical period the film depicts, film the depicts, historical the period one, here: on focus playing Purcell [Michael Ball] appears in jeans mod in Ball] the appears [Michael Purcell playing period in which Purcell lived is more of a protagonist here here a protagonist of is more lived Purcell in which period Simon Callow; or, towards the end of the film, the actor film, the actor of the end the towards or, Callow; Simon torical and the contemporary plotlines are intertwined. intertwined. are plotlines contemporary the and torical that Purcell’s unknown life presents for a biopic by enter by a biopic for unknown presents life that Purcell’s at age of comes only than himself Henry (who Purcell to listen and his play, planned material for collecting tor ing these two contexts. On the one hand,historical the one On the contexts. two these ing Purcell. Parallel to the historical plot, we follow this ac follow we historical the plot, to Parallel Purcell. II of the historical plotline are played by the same actor, same actor, the by are played historical the plotline of II Indeed, the filmmakers tried to overcome the difficultythe filmmakers the overcome to Indeed, tried 17th century; it contains a modern plotline as well. The as well. plotline a modern contains 17th it century;

------

There are two larger terrains of contexts that we can that we terrains contexts larger are two of There

detailed analysis, I will not go into these more minute minute more these analysis, into detailed I will go not

of attempts at historical precision, or of deliberate de deliberate of or historical precision, at attempts of about the exact nature of the film’s relation to the produc to the relation film’s the nature of exact the about

and, at the same time, how does the use of a piece of mu of piece a useof the does how time, same the and,at sic or poetry at a particular moment call on us to see the callthe see uspoetry to a particular on or at sic moment

given scene? What opinions do the depictions of histor of depictions the do What opinions scene? given historical contexts in which the film is steeped. film the filmThe steeped. is in which historical contexts tural historical contexts that helps to understand what the what understand to thattural helps historical contexts to its interpretation. And it is the consideration of the cul the of consideration is the And it interpretation. its to tion of national symbols, I am convinced that this is a key symbols, I am national convinced of tion

the course of cultural history. While cultural I remain uncertain of history. course the the way the filmmakers understand that music or poetry, poetry, or music filmmakers the that way the understand it also addresses the way national symbols are created in symbols national are created way the also addresses it ical and cultural themes, but also because, as mentioned, as also mentioned, because, but ical cultural and themes, is steeped in such contexts not only because of its histor its of because only not contexts in such is steeped

interpretation on questions that pertain cultural the to questions on interpretation issues, and will deal only with some broader contexts; I I contexts; broader will and withissues, some deal only

ical figures and events suggest? significance What is suggest? the events ical figures and film says about its own act of producing national myths. national producing of ownitsact about film says

want to demonstrate how one can build a possible line of of line can a possible build one how demonstrate to want viations from historical knowledge? As I will not offer a a AswillI offer not historical knowledge? from viations FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 146 - - - of his power — he himself was genuinely interested in sci interested himselfwas genuinely his power — he of theatre. the and literature music, of was and a lover ence of Henry Purcell — do have a particular have in the character Henry Purcell — do of cultural the of while revival: was one Restoration the of instance for cultural towards activity, antagonistic often was II an all Charles en of theatres, closing the ordering as the culture of lasciviousness, sensuality immorality and lasciviousness, as of culture the he witnessed in the court of Louis XIV (the Sun King). But But King). Sun Louis XIV (the of court in the witnessed he seen be came to later what tune for the set which lifestyle, his Catholic brother James II, and then, when James was James when then, and II, James brother his Catholic sophistication and pomp luxury, the adopt to sought he put down in the Glorious Revolution of 1688, the reign of of reign the 1688, of Revolution in Glorious the down put with any that described be cannot historical period plex the of decades last the four Yet sketch. in a brief precision this age to the image, imagination. According popular his return upon court, and French the part his at exile of this was for him not just a question of the representation representation the of a question just himthis not was for thusiastic supporter of the arts and the sciences. He spent spent He arts the of sciences. the and thusiastic supporter And he was also a lover of actresses — Charles led a libertine led actresses — Charles of was alsoAnd he a lover Puritans, who were in power in Cromwell’s time, were were time, in Cromwell’s in power Puritans, were who 17th century — almost exactly coinciding with lifespan the 17th coinciding century — almost exactly William of Orange and Queen Mary, is of course a com course is of Mary, William Queen and Orange of - - - - Clockwork [on a possible interpretation of this gesture, see see this of gesture, interpretation a possible [on

Understanding why modern England is approached is approached England modern why Understanding

of King Charles I, came the period of the Commonwealth Commonwealth the of King I, came period the Charles of abandoning Monarchy for a Republic. When this When sys Republic. a for Monarchy abandoning

acquaintance with this acquaintance This historical period. in period sometimes not wholly comprehensible to me in their sig

historical plotline, we hear Purcell’s famous funeral music funeral famous music Purcell’s hear we historical plotline, Orange

Carlos and used as the theme music in Stanley Kubrick’s in Stanley Kubrick’s music as used theme and the Carlos from his exile and was crowned as II. The Charles twen his was and crowned exile from

from the perspective of the late-17th century requires some some century requires late-17th the of perspective the from under Oliver Cromwell’s rule, England’s experiment with experiment rule, England’s Cromwell’s Oliver under

ty-five years of his reign, followed by the brief reign of of reign brief by the followed reign, of yearshis ty-five tem collapsed, the son of the executed king was recalled executed the of son the collapsed, tem the civil war in the mid-17th century that saw the execution execution the that century saw civilthe war in mid-17th the the return to the throne of the Stuart the of After family throne return the the in 1660. to nificance, but it is clear that they serve to present modern modern present to serve clear it that is they but nificance,

ical eras are sometimes forced, sometimes entertaining, entertaining, sometimes forced, ical eras are sometimes in a version that was arranged for a synthesiser by Wendy Wendy by a synthesiser thatwas arranged for in a version

film adaptation of Anthony Burgess’s novel novel Burgess’s of Anthony filmadaptation Jenkins], etc.) Such intersections of plotlines and histor and plotlines of intersections Such etc.) Jenkins],

English history is called the Restoration, beginning with history is called Restoration, English the England in the light of Purcell’s England. Purcell’s of in light the England FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 147 - - - depicts Henry Purcell as a man wholly as Henrymana Purcell wholly depicts

Thefilm also extended to music as well, and Purcell grew up and lived lived and up grew Purcell and as well, music to extended equally plenty were theatres from and court the church, but went, came and monarchs success: undisturbed of a way: Purcell the composer, Dryden the poet, Wren the the Wren poet, the Dryden composer, the Purcell way: a con be list the could (and scientist the Newton architect, lacking wholly that is culturala kind of self-confidence of his value the about his confident and talents of aware gested to have been one in which talent could flourish, flourish, and could talent in which one been have to gested Charles II’s conscious revitalization of English cultural English life of revitalization conscious II’s Charles was His one career so). less wasoften if payment (even Charles II’s England, a kingdom of intellectual and cul and intellectual of kingdom a England, II’s Charles forever” (Palmer, 1995). Charles II’s England is sug thus England II’s Charles 1995). (Palmer, forever” professional life suggests that this suggests life is justifiable. historically professional the free flight of genius, in turn, served the flourishing of flourishing in turn,genius, the served of flight free the or with agree thiswe assessment tural Whether vitality. among be to contemporaries their known by were tinued) this and assurance displays Europe, of spirits leading the in a vibrant musical scene where commissions from the the from commissions where scene musical in a vibrant not, the age does seem to have looked upon itself in such in such itself upon looked have to seem does age the not, this, Pinnock 5). see century (on in 20th the work (on this, see Elley). What we know about Purcell’s Purcell’s about know What we this, Elley). see (on work - - -

For these reasons, the Restoration is is Restoration the reasons, these For 1

No doubt, it was also an age of tragedies, in which plague and confla plague in which doubt, it was also an age of tragedies, No

devastation, and it was also an age of intense political and religious in and religious political and it was also an age of intense devastation, organist, composer … Their lives were drawn together as drawn together were … Their lives organist, composer of England … And the second, the birth of Henry Purcell, Henry birth the Purcell, of second, … Andthe England of often seen as a golden age, one in which power and cul and power in which one age, as a golden seen often

characterising his court. In the popular image of the age, age, the characterising his of image court. popular In the arts, culture. and

amongst its material luxuries also its intellectual and free the amongst gration followed each other in quick succession, causing unprecedented causing unprecedented succession, each other in quick followed gration

power and culture when in the opening shots we hear hear we shots opening in the when culture and power tragedies and joyous indulgence at once. and joyous tragedies

us great hope for the future of this future of the this island, England. for hope usgreat fighting; the Restoration is thus also seen as an age of contradictions, of also seen as an age of contradictions, is thus Restoration the fighting;

the narrator say: .”.. in and around the year of our Lord Lord our of year the in around and .”.. say: narrator the ture mutually supported the vigour of one another. The another. one of vigour the ture supported mutually

this was a time characterised by a love of life, including including life, of this a love was by characterised a time this sensual indulgence only strengthened the idea that idea the strengthened only this sensual indulgence

if by Divine hand. And together they changed our history our changed they hand. Divine And together if by film, in fact, begins by making this connection between film, beginsfact,between in by making thisconnection

flight of the spirit, and the flourishing of entertainment, of flourishing the spirit, and of the flight 1

1660, two things miraculous came about which ... gave gave ... which things came two about miraculous 1660, The first, the Restoration of Charles Stuart of Charles to his throne The first,Restoration the FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 148 - - - -

derfully dramatic the sung English language can be” (qtd. languagederfully (qtd. canEnglish dramatic sung the be” dation of a school of English music,” but unfortunately unfortunately but music,” English of a school of dation century historian of music states, Purcell “was last the Purcell of states, century historian music of cells the of seclusion and in solitude the for sought be only His “genius monasteries.” forgotten long and ancient of a genuinely English musical tradition. As one early-20th early-20th As one tradition. musical English a genuinely foun the proved have might thought of independence and “[w]ith so and incountry,” the supremacy [their] asserted seen as unique for its setting of English texts, again texts, mak English of setting its for as unique seen gen of a flourish as last the still greatest seen and often spoken of Purcell’s influence on his work, amongst others, others, amongst work, on his influence Purcell’s of spoken because, says Britten, “Purcell has shown me how won how me has shown “Purcell Britten, says because, uinely English musical tradition. uinely that original school of English music whose origin […] can origin […] whose music English of that original school that resulted decline long began the Purcell of death the than Britten, Benjamin authority thinkingthe lesser no of has who century, 20th the of composer English great the in Herissone 347). Purcell’s vocal music has indeed been been has indeed music vocal Purcell’s 347). in Herissone himing English artist — Purcell, a specifically fact, in is in the practical decay of English music” (Ford, 10, 61, 97). 97). 61, 10, (Ford, music” English of decay inpractical the But we find opinions pointing similarin a in pointing direction opinions find we But “he had no such successors, and foreign musicians soon soon musicians foreign and successors, “he such had no

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Nonetheless, Purcell and his music were for some time some for were his and music Purcell Nonetheless,

clined partly because of changes in taste: two decades decades in two taste: changes partly of because clined

cess in which he gained the status of a national icon (on (on icon status national a the gained of he in which cess after his death, it was already Händel who dominated dominated who was Händel already after it his death,

after his death relatively forgotten, and it was a long pro was long a it and forgotten, afterrelatively his death amid all the political turmoil, he remained throughout

stance, Händel’s operas written in the Italian manner, in written Italian the operas manner, Händel’s stance, genius was allowed to flourish without any hindrance, and hindrance, any flourish without to was allowed genius

but one of its elements is important for mapping the cul the mapping is for important elements its of one but his life in the employment of the court, occupying the the court, occupying the of his inemployment the life

for the present. most prestigious musical posts, and becoming the most most the becoming and posts, musical prestigious most

prominent composer of music for the theatre as well. His as well. theatre the for music of composer prominent uted to the idea that Purcell was the last representative of of was last thatthe Purcell representative idea the to uted

the English musical scene, and in comparison to, for in for to, in and comparison scene, musical English the tural historical contexts of the film, the of thisturaland is Purcell’s historical contexts

this, see Herissone). This process cannot be detailed here, here, detailed be cannot This process this, Herissone). see this may be seen as another sign of the cultural the of sign self-con asthis another seen be may

filmmakers offer the Restoration and Purcell as examples andexamples as Purcell Restoration the filmmakers offer fidence of the age. It is, I suggest, for reason thisthat for the suggest, It I is, age. of the fidence

Purcell’s secular music sounded out-dated. This contrib out-dated. sounded secular music Purcell’s ‘Englishness.’ The popularity of his music could have de have could The his popularity music of ‘Englishness.’ FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 149 - - of 1956 did did 1956 of Look Back in Anger in Back Look cultural phenomena they represent; thus, his works on on his thus, works represent; they cultural phenomena of one is who Gardiner, Eliot filmJohn Sir Purcell the is of performances. authentic historically of pioneers the of one concert films on for example the rock music of the 1960s, of the music rock the example for filmson concert the especially about more but performers, and composers a world-renowned musicologist and conductor who was who conductor and musicologist a world-renowned an incessant attack on the snobbery, philistinism, mate snobbery, the on attack an incessant (his classical composers asnumerous as films well on stage, but also gave voice to the discontents of an entire an entire of discontents the to voice also gave but stage, generation, and his whole oeuvre can indeed be seen as seen be can indeed oeuvre his and whole generation, kinds, equally including feature films, documentaries films,and documentaries feature kinds, equally including most well-known). Palmer’s films are not only about iconic iconic about only filmsnot are Palmer’s well-known). most tations of English cultural history. The musical director director The musical cultural English history. of tations and music, of early revival of the figures outstanding the not only establish a harsh social criticism on the English harsh a English the establish social on only criticism not society. rialism British nurtured in modern pettiness and English subjects are important documents and interpre and documents are important subjects English English drama. English His play whose vast filmography has to do with music of diverse of diverse music do hasto with vast filmography whose Maria or Frank Zappa, Callas, Cohen, Leonard on works Wagner, Rachmaninoff or Britten films are perhaps the the filmsperhaps Britten Rachmaninoffare or Wagner, The director of the film was Tony Palmer, the majority of majority the Palmer, Tony filmthe was of The director - - - -

However, this conclusion needs to be further be to contextu needs this conclusion However, The script was written by John Osborne (who died died (who Osborne John wasThe written by script The film’s contexts (the historical period, Purcell’s ca Purcell’s period, (the historical contexts Thefilm’s

does not cease to attack. Such an approach would cer would an approach attack. Such to cease not does one of the turning points of the history of 20th century 20th history the turning of the of of points one contemporary dramatist Charles Wood). Osborne was dramatist Osborne contemporary Charles Wood). culturally England. healthy about the makers of this film? For the major artists who major thisthe makers For the of film? about alized: is this view plausible in the light of what we know know we what of in light the alized: is this plausible view before its completion, and left the final touches to the to the final the left and touches completion, its before

for this reason, their oeuvre is itself a context to consider consider to a context is itself oeuvre this their reason, for primarily a playwright, and his work is today regarded as regarded primarilyis today playwright,a his and work

participated in the production of this work are themselves are themselves this of work in production the participated Shakespeare’ (as Purcell came to be called) as an icon of a of as an called) be came to icon Purcell (as Shakespeare’

tainly suit the tercentenary celebrations of the ‘musical ‘musical the of celebrations tainly tercentenary the suit thus suggest that ‘Purcell’ here is the last is the an instance that of ‘Purcell’ here suggest thus

in our interpretation of the film. the of interpretation in our important figures of the of cultural England, the and of figures important history

istic bourgeois England, which the film’s modern plotline plotline modern film’s the which England, bourgeois istic reer, and the history of the reception of his music) may may his music) of reception the historythe and of reer,

figure representing an age very unlike the petty, materialvery unlikepetty, an age the representing figure Englishness that is not distorted by foreign influence, a influence, foreign by distorted thatis not Englishness FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 150 - - - - - , we , we Look Back in Anger in Back Look And with this qual may in mind, we

But if we take a closer look at at look take if we a closer But This perspective may make us attentive to other details other to make may usThis attentive perspective of Purcell as the last representative of a lost and genuine genuine and a lost of as last Purcell the representative of a composition of his to Henry Cooke, the music mas music the his Henry Cooke, to of a composition and we have seen that cultural history may have given that cultural given seen history have may have we and by are really fuelled commitments thatand his political self-pity (Innes 87). him reasons to treat the Purcell-theme in a like manner. in a like manner. Purcell-theme the treat him to reasons he is too blind to understand the England he condemns condemns he England the understand to blind is too he pression of Osborne’s thoughts or social discontent: he he social or discontent: thoughts Osborne’s of pression con in same ironic the read perhaps be tirades political that place the film’s nationalism in an ironic context. Take context. nationalism in an ironic film’s the that place shows The Purcell child as an example. scene following the Cooke, was educated. Purcell where Royal, Chapel at ter ten treats the hero ironically: Osborne also shows us how us how alsoshows Osborne ironically: hero the treats ten idea film that the the treats suppose may we If so, text? influence, for such concerns are ever-present in his work, work, in his ever-present are concerns such for influence, film-script’s the should ask: and ify first our impressions is not simply the writer’s mouthpiece. The play very of very The play mouthpiece. writer’s the simply is not Jimmy is haughty, malicious and downright cruel, that that cruel, downright and malicious is haughty, Jimmy Englishness ironically. will find that the hero Jimmy Porter is not simply the ex the simply not is Porter Jimmy willhero find that the - - -

Let me exemplify this by considering the significance significance the this considering by exemplify Let me

of a genuine English cultural tradition, a tradition of the the of a tradition cultural English tradition, a genuine of call how Osborne’s own politics turned conservative after turned conservative own politics call Osborne’s how

cruel insults, filthy personal attacks, and political agita attacks,political personal and insults, filthy cruel of Osborne’s work for the film. In its modern plotline, the the plotline, modern film.its the In for work Osborne’s of

of artists who themselves are chapters in the books of of books in the chapters are artistsof themselves who conductor, but the historical and cultural self-reflexions historical cultural the and self-reflexions but conductor,

and nationalist sentiments, and we may be tempted to re to tempted be may we and nationalistand sentiments, acteristic: his unabashed mixture his unabashed witticism, learning, acteristic: of

strangled by the tides of modern mediocrity and foreign foreign and mediocrity modern of tides the by strangled give voice to anti-democratic, euro-sceptic, xenophobic xenophobic euro-sceptic, anti-democratic, to voice give

his initial lower-class awareness. It may be thought fitting fitting thought be may It awareness. his initial lower-class freedom of the spirit and the intellect which has been has been which intellect the and spirit the of freedom

for Osborne to present Purcell as the last representative as last Purcell the representative present to Osborne for tion are all there. The tirades of the actor in film the often actor the are The all of tirades tion there.

important context for interpreting the film’s gestures in gestures film’s the interpreting for context important his and age. Purcell invoking English cultural history. Their oeuvre, thus, is itself an is itself thus, Their oeuvre, culturalEnglish history.

London actor’s attacks on contemporary society are the are the society contemporary attacks on actor’s London In other words, when watching this film, we are not only thisnot film,we watching are when words, In other

vintage tirades that have made Osborne’s plays so char so plays Osborne’s made that have vintage tirades watching the work of any one scriptwriter, director and and director scriptwriter, one any of work the watching FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 151 - - - of the age, such as Gardiner is, so we must assume that must we is, as so Gardiner such age, the of of singing in the Italian manner. The “Master Locke” he he singing in Italian The Locke” the “Master of manner. in who Purcell’s, preceding generation the of composer are certainly not unknown to a musicologist and expert and unknownare certainly a musicologist to not an outstanding musician and Purcell’s first teacher, was teacher, first Purcell’s and anmusician outstanding his music, his style was “a synthesis of English, French and French English, of synthesis was his “a style his music, I think, high this to of serves scene, historical confusion “genuinely the of subject the of treatment ironic the light known to have relished the Italian the was and in fact style, relished have known to fact was regarded — at least in his anthems and instrumen in and his least anthems wasfact regarded — at mentions in his tirade is Matthew Locke, a major English English a major in his Locke, is Matthew tirade mentions these historical imprecisions are indeed deliberate. The deliberate. indeed are historical imprecisions these that is its own fever and pain. We may especially may entertain pain. and We that own fever is its that Henry Cooke, also if consider we reading this ironic an in ‘English’ style standard a of bearer tal music — “as (Wainwright influence” foreign increasing ever of face the also may misrep be And Purcell Locke. misrepresent to regarded as the most accomplished English practitioner practitioner English accomplished as most the regarded in traditions English on rely did he although for resented, England, so proud of its ‘original’ and ‘genuine’ Englishness Englishness ‘genuine’ ‘original’ and its of proud so England, Italian elements” (Wainwright 27). Such historical details Such 27). (Wainwright Italian elements” 25). Cooke is not only misrepresented, but he is also he made but misrepresented, only is not Cooke 25). - - - .This

IndianQueen

deliberate mistake, think, I of deliberate with has words the do to of historical imprecision. The song we hear before and af and before hear we The song historical imprecision. of

about the genuine Englishness of the song: “And I shall I “And song: the of Englishness genuine the about sickness to fly in vain, / For I am myself my own fever and and fever ownmy myself I am For vain,in fly to / sickness smiles at his xenophobia. The scene, furthermore, is full furthermore, The scene, his at xenophobia. smiles something of a fool of Cooke, the viewer almost certainly almost viewer the Cooke, of a fool of something smelling as thou dost of popish superstition, thou brat of of brat thou superstition, popish of dost as thou smelling say brought over Frenchmen, which you do, Master Locke, Master Locke, do, you which Frenchmen, over brought say say it which it is, which is why, in face of brought over, I over, brought of in face is why, is, which it which it say hear the love song related to his nationalism: perhaps it is it his perhaps to nationalism: related song love the hear

pain” (Palmer, 1995) — perhaps, in order to sharpen to the in order 1995) — perhaps, (Palmer, pain” posed in the last year of his life, the the his life, last in of the year posed

this context activate further possibilities of interpretation. interpretation. of further activate possibilities this context the song. This is a song about love, but its words may in may words its but love, This about is a song song. the

ter the tirade is not a childhood composition of Purcell’s: Purcell’s: of composition a childhood is not tirade the ter tial, comic nature of this little monologue certainly makes this monologue nature of tial, little comic

ironic representation of Cooke’s words, we are supposed to to supposed are we words, Cooke’s of representation ironic in fact, it comes from the unfinished semi-opera he com he unfinished semi-opera the from comes init fact,

it is English … English” (Palmer, 1995). The circumstan 1995). English” … (Palmer, is English it in his appreciation, soon bursts into xenophobic tirades tirades xenophobic bursts into soon in his appreciation,

Rome, not one bit of it anywise other than what it is, which anywise is, thanwhich it it of other what bit one not Rome, It begins and ends with the lines “I attempt from love’s love’s from attempt “I with lines begins the ends and It FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 152 - - - - - creation of national symbols can hardly lack irony. The symbols can national irony. hardly of lack creation as representing an England which eludes attempts at the the at attempts eludes which an England as representing histor the highlight to in order Purcell of icon a national a script about Purcell to suggest that the desire for the the for that desire the suggest to Purcell about a script sibility of the endeavour, and this itself may be seen as a seen be may this and itself endeavour, the of sibility match would that passion a finding never and seeking but also the yearning for something unreachable — an un unreachable — an something also yearning the for but exist. (Billington, not does yearns for it object the because his own). In a like manner, knowledge about the life of of life the about knowledge In a like manner, his own). Osborne’s work has for its leitmotif not only the lament the only not leitmotif its has for work Osborne’s fulfilled desire that knows that it does not find its object object its find not does it fulfilled that that desire knows in Osborne’s tragedy Porter’s Jimmy instance, sees for modern plotline serves primarily to emphasise the impos the primarily serves emphasise to plotline modern production of national myth. national In this of film case, the em production making to contributed that have all features those ploys to suggest that behind our national symbols we find not not find symbols national we our that behind suggest to non-existent object. If so, we may see Purcell in this Purcell see film may we If so, object. non-existent that is, order, symbol-production — in such of ical content reflection on the production of national symbols. Indeed, of Indeed, symbols. national production on the reflection Englishness, a mystified by embodied values lost of ing Purcell the man does not exist. Perhaps Osborne wrote wrote Osborne exist. Perhaps not man the Purcell does ‘genuine’ England, ‘my England,’ is also a yearning after a England,’ ‘my England, ‘genuine’ - -

Once the mapping of contexts reveals the ironic atti ironic the reveals contexts of mapping the Once And this returns us to the issue of a biopic about about And this a biopic of returns issue the us to

e.g. Jenkins). But I think that the lack of our knowledge I think knowledge our But of that lack the Jenkins). e.g. choice, arguing that the film as a biopic is a failure (see (see failure is a arguing that film the biopic as a choice,

ern plotline says: “What Charles wanted and what Purcell Purcell what and “What wanted Charles says: ern plotline about Purcell’s life is crucial for the kind of cultural icon culturalkind isof the crucial life icon for Purcell’s about

an unknown life. Critics have been annoyed about this about annoyed been have anunknown Critics life. any genuine Englishness.

as more relevant for the kind of national symbol Purcell symbol Purcell national kind of the for relevant asmore such a desire is our own fever and pain. and own fever is our a desire such

he is made into here: if the chosen genre is a biopic and and is a biopic genre if chosen the here: into is made he kindliness” (Palmer, 1995). Tolerance and kindliness — one kindliness — one and Tolerance 1995). (Palmer, kindliness”

lost Englishness, we may recognize other details of the film details the of other recognize may we Englishness, lost Osborne; but it may just be that it is these things is that these that be it just may it but Osborne;

make Purcell and his age an example today, rather than rather today, anmake his and example age Purcell may think that nothing is further from the style of John thinkmay John of is further that style nothing the from

the chosen biography is a lacuna, the film’s relation to the to the relation is a lacuna, film’s the biography chosen the tude towards the idea of Purcell as an icon of an ancient, an ancient, of as Purcell anof icon idea the towards tude

is turned into here. At one point, the hero of the mod the of hero the point, one At here. is turned into English Purcell,” and perhaps even ridicules those viewers viewers those ridicules even perhaps and Purcell,” English

wrote about so gloriously was a country of tolerance, irony, irony, tolerance, was of a country gloriously so about wrote who want to hear of just such a Purcell, suggesting that suggesting Purcell, a such just of hear to want who FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 153

-

of Englishness, this Englishness denotes an intellectual an intellectual denotes this Englishness Englishness, of and to the miraculous life of Henry Purcell, the latter of of latter the Henry Purcell, of life miraculous the to and

and creative independence which also comprises irony, irony, also comprises which independence creative and kindliness and tolerance. Perhaps this is the contribution thisis contribution the Perhaps kindliness tolerance. and

history, but objectless desires, lacunae, void. Inasmuch as Inasmuch lacunae, void. desires, objectless but history, the filmmakers have made to the fiction called England, fiction called to the filmmakersthe made have

ing in the world of imagination. of in world ing the it has come to represent England, it has dwell it taken up England, represent to hasit come

Purcell is presented by this by idea film of the as symbol the is presented Purcell which is all the more miraculous for showing us that while showing miraculous for is allwhich more the FILM & CULTURE–KOMÁROMY–THE MIRACULOUS

LIFE OF HENRY PURCELL... 154 Dir. Tony Dir. Tony . Ed. Michael Burden. London: London: Burden. . Ed. Michael Faber and Faber, 1995. 21–38. Print. 1995. 21–38. Faber, and Faber Film. 2009. Records, Voiceprint Palmer. The PurcellCompanion FILMOGRAPHY: England, my England. The Story of Henry Purcell. Henry The of Story England. my England, Wainwright, Jonathan P. “Purcell and the English Baroque.” Baroque.” English the and “Purcell P. Jonathan Wainwright,

- - - - . 19 . 19 Eng Variety The Purcell TheGuard . New York: York: . New Modern British Drama. The Twentieth The Twentieth Drama. British Modern , dir. Tony Palmer. PopMatters. 18 Sept. Sept. 18 PopMatters. Palmer. Tony , dir. Ed. Michael Burden. London: Faber and and Faber London: Burden. Ed. Michael A Short History of English Music . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002. 2002. Press, University Cambridge . Cambridge: The Ashgate Research Companion to Henry Purcell. Henry to Companion Research TheAshgate

., 24 Dec. 2014. Web. 5 Feb. 2016. 5 Feb. Web. 2014. 24 Dec. .,

land, England my ian gate, 2012. 303–353. Print. 303–353. 2012. gate, Companion. Century tion.” McBride and Nast, 1912. Print. Nast, 1912. and McBride Faber, 1995. 3–21. Print. 1995. 3–21. Faber, Print. Ed. Rebecca Herissone. Farnham — Burlington: Ash Farnham — Burlington: Herissone. Ed. Rebecca Nov. 1995. Web. 12 Jan. 2016. 12 1995. Web. Nov. who Changed the Face of British Theatre.” Theatre.” British of Face the Changed who 2007. Web. 12 Jan. 2016. 12 Web. 2007.

WORKS CITED: WORKS Jenkins, Chadwick. “A Figureless Tapestry.” Rev. of of Rev. Tapestry.” Figureless Jenkins, “A Chadwick.

Ford, Ernest. Ernest. Ford, Elley, Derek. “Review: ‘England, my England.’” England.’” my ‘England, “Review: Derek. Elley,

Billington, Michael. “John Osborne: a Natural Dissenter a Natural Dissenter Osborne: “John Michael. Billington, Pinnock, Andrew. “The Purcell Phenomenon.”

Innes, Christopher. Herissone, Rebecca. “Performance History Recep and “Performance Rebecca. Herissone, The British Documentary Film Movement from the mid-1920s to the mid- 1940s: Its Social, Political, and Aesthetic Context

MIKLÓS LOJKÓ | Film & Culture ► 155 FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 156

- - - leaving no no leaving Public Opinion Republic the den; they have been here here been the den; they have / which has a mouth open towards the light and the light has a mouth open towards which / den, reaching all across all across reaching Behold! human beings living in a sort of underground beings living in a sort of underground human Behold! In the aftermath of the war, many civil aftermathIn the servants war, the re of

doubt as to the contemporary western social implications: western contemporary as the to doubt drawn together in more ways than ever before. Yet, the key key the Yet, before. than ways ever in more drawn together significant that exponents of the new documentary new film of the exponents significant that In similar to had led stances developments. growing circumstantial evidence, substantiated from 1937, 1937, from substantiated circumstantialgrowing evidence, traditional the from alienated felt public British general hierarchies of British power and politics. Therefore, it is it Therefore, politics. and power British of hierarchies (1921), the noted American public intellectual Walter Walter intellectual American public noted the (1921), movement, John Grierson, Basil Wright, Edgar Antsey, Edgar Antsey, Basil Wright, Grierson, John movement, in Britain. mass communication caught wartime way propaganda the by mained impressed the imagination of the British public. The nation had been had been The nation public. British the imaginationthe of ited with introducing a new vocabulary of democracy into into vocabulary democracy of a new with introducing ited similar circum where States cameimpetus via United the Arthur Elton, Albetro Cavalvanti and others, can cred be others, and Cavalvanti Albetro Arthur Elton, Lippmann, poignantly quoted Plato’s Plato’s quoted poignantly Lippmann, when Mass-Observation began its work, to show that the show to work, began its Mass-Observation when

- - -

During the 1920s, partly as a consequence of the intro the of partly as a consequence During 1920s, the

diplomatic events or wars, was, apart from the glamour, wars, glamour, was, the apart or from events diplomatic

duction of universal suffrage and the growing government government suffrage universal growing the and of duction of little real interest to the average cinema goer. The BBC, The BBC, goer. cinema average the to real interest little of

connection has largely been forgotten in our time. The time. in fol our forgotten been has largely connection after the war with a ten-year delay in 1928, focusing on the on focusing in1928, delay afterwar the withten-year a

and wide ranging areas of social policy as well as rangingsocial as areas propa wide and well of policy started to take shape, in addition to total economic and and total economic to started in take addition to shape,

ganda (Buitenhuis). British Pathé Newsreel, relaunched language and very few on-location interviews. There was There interviews. on-location language few very and

lives of celebrities, the royal family and grandiose foreign family foreign grandiose royal and the celebrities, of lives lowing article is intended to revive and underline this link. underline and revive to isintended article lowing

morale. During the Great War, especially from 1917 when when 1917 especially from War, During Great the morale. pay much greater attention to public opinion and public public and opinion public to attention greater much pay

production of socially sensitive documentary films. socially sensitive of This production in its infancy at that time, was also using famously stilted infancyin stilted its that was time, at also using famously

in particular those on the right (Swann 2) felt the need to to need the felt 2) (Swann inparticular right the on those intervention in the lives of everyday people, politicians, politicians, people, everyday of lives in the intervention

financial leverage, the government took control of new new of control took government the financialleverage, David Lloyd George’s ideas of emergency governance had governance emergency of ideas George’s Lloyd David

British filmBritish making linked early with the is inextricably The history of the British film British The the industry history of artthe of and FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 157 ------Grierson was essentially a nineteenth century com a nineteenth was essentially Grierson departed on a journey to the left, stopping short, however, however, short, stopping left, the to a journey on departed ocratic process for which so many had fought but which which but many had so fought which for process ocratic im nearly it made society contemporary of complexities cally at a general audience, instead of the intellectual and and intellectual the of instead audience, cally a general at early Grierson’s 5–6). (Swann a communist becoming of Presbyterian background, Scots the including convictions, in United the experience with his formative combined seemed so remote from the perspective of the post-war post-war the of perspective the from remote so seemed socialthat the fact the partly least on at democracy of sion social elites traditionally targeted in the United Kingdom. in United the targeted traditionally social elites life in Britain and elsewhere began to polarise in the 1930s, polarise began to in 1930s, the in Britainlife elsewhere and for reengaging ordinary men and women with dem the women ordinary and men reengaging for munitarian liberal and believed in social, the communal munitarian believed liberal and possible for the public to participate in processes vital to in processes participate to public the for possible press and the cinema in the US, both aimed unapologeti aimed both in US, the cinema the and press ulist inclinations throughout his life,” who, when political political when who, his life,” throughout ulist inclinations States, resulted in a peculiar, virtually in a peculiar, vision resulted missionary, States, the survival of democratic society. Grierson announced announced Grierson society. survivalthe democratic of the United States. Grierson was impressed by the tabloid tabloid the by was impressed Grierson States. United the responsibility of the individual. He was “an elitist with pop elitist was “an He individual. the of responsibility years. Agreeing with Walter Lippmann, he blamed the ero the blamed he Lippmann, with Walter Agreeing years. - - - see / legs and necks necks and legs /

chained so that they cannot move, and can only only can and move, cannot they that so chained before them. (qtd. in Lippmann vii) in Lippmann (qtd. them. before from their childhood, their their from and have The book became influential in Britain beyond expec Britain in influential beyond became The book

ofChicago, Columbia andWisconsin-Madison, acquir

agencies were among the earliest to utilise modern art utilise modern to earliest the among were agencies and Moral Philosophy at Glasgow University and went on on went and University Glasgow at Philosophy Moral and

ambitious, Scottish-born hopefuls, like John Reith and and Reith like John hopefuls, Scottish-born ambitious, head of the BBC in London. Grierson had read English English had read Grierson in London. BBC the of head

Grierson, the future anchor and energising spirit of the the of spirit energising and future anchor the Grierson, ments were incorporated into commercial advertising in advertising commercial into incorporated were ments

parallels with Crawford than Reith, soon to be the iconic iconic the be to than soon Reith, parallels with Crawford to study the Psychology of Propaganda at the universities universities the at Propaganda of Psychology the study to

the advertising magnate William Crawford, went to the the to went magnate William advertising the Crawford, tations. It was partly in the lure of this book that John this that John of was book partly It in lure the tations.

in their craft. Many of the modernist pictorial art craft.in pictorial their move modernist the Many of ing a propaganda and public relations expertise that he expertise that he relations public and propaganda a ing

British documentary film movement, together withother 3). Significantly, Grierson’s activities in the US showed more more showed US in activities the Grierson’s Significantly, 3).

United States in 1924 on a Rockefeller scholarship (Swann (Swann scholarship Rockefeller a on in 1924 States United would later import to the UK. the to Theimport American advertising later would FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 158

- - - . The vibrant, Drifters (1929). Drifters was first shown in a private film club club film private in a wasshown first Drifters The American roots of British mass audience cinema cinema mass audience British of The American roots dramatic music underlies the theme that these fishermen fishermen that these theme the underlies dramatic music ergy is mounting as the sturdy axles, as shafts sturdy the ergy is mounting pistons and sea.” the of civil servant, who gave Grierson his opportunity first as the Grierson gave civilservant, who work dignity the of heroic-victorious the and worker the of are at the forefront of creation, the vanguard of the bat the vanguard the of creation, of forefront the at are said about the Soviet Russian parallels. The glorification Russian parallels. The glorification Soviet the about said between the political message and the population. Among Among population. the and message political the between have recently been studied with care, but little has little been with but care, studied been recently have (herring drifters with floating nets attached to their boats) boats) to their attached nets (herring drifters with floating propel the boat to the open sea, and reaches its crescendo crescendo its reaches sea, and open the to boat the propel process itself is evident in Grierson’s in Grierson’s is evident itself process the calm undulating fields of a small village, men going small a of going men village, calm fields the undulating en is quickening, The pace inmorning. the early work to earth the harvest the of goes ends the to us “[s]o tells tion the facilitators was Sir Stephen Tallents, a senior British British senior a Tallents, Stephen was Sir facilitators the long fifty-minute the see beginning we film the the At future. of better a for tle in high places for his ambitions to create a modern link modern a create to his ambitions for in places high EMB’s film officer (Swann 12–13). He hisdirected first film, 12–13). (Swann filmofficer EMB’s when the rich catch of fish is hauled in. fish is hauled final of The cap catch rich the when -

] without a sticking point. (Swann 7) (Swann point. ] without a sticking

sic

dramatic […] In the meanwhile, the old folk worlds, folk old the […] In the meanwhile, dramatic a world where dreams come true, where life is more is more life come true, where dreams where a world so distant that the multitude have lost touch with touch lost have multitude the that distant so [ Grierson arrived back in the UK in 1927, imbued with imbued in UK in the 1927, arrived back Grierson free, more powerful, more pungent, more obviously obviously more pungent, more powerful, more free, them and the imagination of the average people are are people of the average imagination them and the the worlds of established heroes […] and so dead and […] and so dead and heroes the worlds of established The modern multitudes … [crave] for participation in participation for … [crave] multitudes The modern

of British Industries (FBI), to promote trade relations within relations trade promote to (FBI), Industries British of

of the Department of Overseas Trade in 1926 by Colonial Colonial by in 1926 Trade Overseas of Department the of economic hardship shared by most throughout the twen the throughout most by shared hardship economic

should be mobilized to deal with the perennial problems of of deal withperennial problems the to mobilized be should morale and consensus. He joined the Empire Marketing Marketing Empire the joined He consensus. and morale

Secretary Leo Amery, on a close analogy to the Federation analogy Federation the a close to on Secretary Leo Amery, this in an vision American film magazinefollows: trade as

the British Empire. Grierson acquired powerful supporters supporters powerful acquired Grierson Empire. British the ties and into the Great Depression and to build national national build to and Depression Great the into and ties

the conviction that a certain type filmand new could of conviction the Board, a government department founded as an offspring founded department a government Board, FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 159

- - - ,10). Coal Face Spare Time Enough to Eat? Land of Promise (Wright, 1937), and and 1937), (Wright, , (Wright and Watt, 1936). 1936). Watt, and , (Wright (Jennings, 1942), (Jennings, 1942), (Elton, 1935), Night Mail (Anstey and Elton, 1935). The last The last 1935). Elton, (Anstey and Children at School Listen toBritain Workers and Jobs Workers Another strand of these films directly addressed the the films these addressed of strand directly Another cluded cluded ema to portray the postal train as a social integrator, its its postal the portray train to ema as a social integrator, a Brazilian-born film maker who was played a pivotal role role pivotal a a Brazilian-bornplayed was film who maker had worked Cavalcanti Previously mid-1940s. the and was and familiar 1920s, duringthe L’Herbier Marcel and and socially across the width and length of the country. the of length and width the sociallyand across such as Basil Wright and Humphrey Jennings, is especially Jennings, Humphrey and as Basilsuch Wright Cavalcanti’s influence as producer, working with directors directors with working producer, as influence Cavalcanti’s (Anstey, 1936), (Cavalcanti, 1935), and especially the towering achieve especially towering and the 1935), (Cavalcanti, (Jennings, 1939), ment of the movement palpable in the experimental use of sound. sound. inexperimental use of the palpable pressing need for social reform in Britain. in These social reform for need pressing to thisto type documentary film of Cavalcanti, Alberto from in the British documentary film movement between 1933 1933 between documentary filmmovement in British the HousingProblems with avant-garde French film makers such as Jean Renoir filmJean Renoir as such makers French with avant-garde film of making forms withmodernist ( working class heroes connecting people both physically both physically class connecting people working heroes The latter unapologetically borrowed from Soviet cin Soviet from borrowed unapologetically The latter - - - (Grierson, 1931) and and 1931) (Grierson, (which was not granted general general granted was not (which Industrial Britain (Basil Wright, 1934). Strong inspiration came inspiration Strong 1934). (Basil Wright,

Somefilms of the documentary movement exper The parallels with contemporary Soviet film Soviet are The parallels with contemporary

documentaries with staged characters and re-enacted re-enacted and characters with staged documentaries cepted, though it does not fit certain in-between certaintype fit in-between not does it though cepted,

as the “creative treatment of actuality” has long been ac actuality” been of has long treatment as “creative the an interpretation of the modern world’s message than fic message world’s modern the of an interpretation

situations. Some of Eisenstein’s films were exactly that. filmswere Eisenstein’s of Some situations. life and that ordinary people — who are the original are the actors that and ordinarylife people — who

licence in the UK until 1954), and received high praise praise high received and in UK until the 1954), licence from both its sponsors and the press (Grierson, 1929). (Grierson, press the and sponsors its both from

Song of Ceylon techniques. Grierson’s definition of the documentary of the film definition Grierson’s techniques.

tion. These views aligned with Soviet film aligned Dziga with Soviet maker views These tion. imented with formal techniques, such as the Empire asEmpire the such with formal techniques, imented

in their original environments are better suited to convey convey to suited better are originalin their environments not superficial. In Grierson’s essay “First Principles of of “First Principles essay Grierson’s In superficial. not

in London in late 1929 on a double-bill with Eisenstein’s with Eisenstein’s a double-bill on 1929 in late in London fiction and with Sergei Eisenstein’s well well known filming Eisenstein’s Sergei and with fiction

Marketing Board’s Board’s Marketing Documentary” (1932), he argued that film should observe observe argued that film he should Documentary” (1932),

The BattleshipPotemkin Vertov’s dismissal of the “bourgeois excess” of dramatic of dismissal excess” “bourgeois the of Vertov’s FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 160 - tells us: “When these houses were erected, erected, were houses “When these us: tells of me with the same predicament as myself. I am not I am as myself. of me with the same predicament the With and rats. got mice bugs, I’ve overrun by only lings a week for, and I haven’t the room to swing a cat the room and I haven’t lings a week for, round. I’ve also got five other neighbours alongside five other neighbours alongside also got I’ve round. washing, my missus has to send out everyout to send has missus my washing, of bit little These two rooms I’m in now I have to pay ten shil to pay have in now I I’m two rooms These The narrator (northern, non-RP pronunciation) in comes from a Mr. Norwood. The fact that the witnesses The that witnesses fact the Norwood. a Mr. from comes anyone could build a factory right outside your front door… door… front your outside right a factory build could anyone is as It authenticity. added account their are named lends sometimes at the end of the street” (Anstey and Elton, (Anstey Elton, and street” the of end the at sometimes manage as well asmanage can as they with And a tapwell in yard. the prompts some distance away: some prompts than one way, all the more surprising that all this more isthe parallel than way, one not made more widely. as evidence exhibits to listening and watching were if we charged, us, emotionally tells in case. a court Norwood Housing Problems Many houses have not got water laid on. People have to to have People laid on. water got not have Many houses 1935). The first testimony from an actual slum dweller actualdweller an from slum The testimony first 1935). yet not looking straight into the camera but possibly at at possibly but camera the into straight looking not yet ------11). (1971) in which life life in which (1971) Landof Promise,

The Classic Slum is both a propaganda piece and a doc and piece a propaganda is both

Housing Problems

eth century is analysed with unsparing sociological rigour. eth century is analysed rigour. with unsparing sociological

children, their daily battles with rodents and other vermin other and daily with their rodents battles children, examining ( length inat this essay

of theselanded with devastating effectiveness among and studied together with Robert Roberts’s ground break ground Roberts’s with Robert together studied and

ally a close-up of some of the creepy insects blighting the the insects blighting creepy the of some of ally a close-up as the camera shows the pitiful dwellings and occasion and pitiful dwellings the shows ascamera the

an immensely innovative technique. The voices and sto and The voices technique. innovative an immensely great British films. One reason for thisfor wasap direct films.reason the British great One

by the movement that made it to the national canon of of canon national the to it that made movement the by lives of the people on screen. The film should be watched watched be The filmshould screen. on people the of lives

proach. Ordinary people talking Ordinary was camera then the to people proach. unknown to most who had not personally seen these places. places. these seen personally had not who unknown most to

umentation project; one of a handful of films produced handful a of filmsproduced of one project; umentation those who had the opportunity to see it and is worth is worth and it see to opportunity had the who those

in the slums of Salford in the first quarter of the inquarter firstof the the twenti Salford of in slums the ing sociological study

ries demonstrated the dreadful conditions of the pre-WW pre-WW the of dreadful the conditions demonstrated ries II slums in Britain the full horror of which must have been been have must which in Britain of full slums II the horror

The book and the film complement each other in more more in other each film the complement and The book The tenants talk ‘matter-of-factly’ about the deaths of their of deaths the about The talk tenants ‘matter-of-factly’ FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 161

- - - - dog, kept running about. So I must have dozed off off dozed have must I So about. running kept dog, down again or not… In fact everything In fact or not… again down is house in the on the crook. There’s not a straight thing in it. What in it. What thing not a straight There’s on the crook. awake all night, I let the children lie. And as the baby And as the baby lie. the children I let all night, awake stairs and you don’t know whether you are coming coming are you whether know don’t and you stairs 1935) fall down. (Anstey and Elton, stairs in case they had a baby very of get bad. In the morning, instead ting up for the children to… for school, they’d been they’d school, to… for the children ting up for the coal cupboard, in fact we’ve got no convenience convenience got no in fact we’ve cupboard, the coal it has been a misery to me… I went to bed early. I it has been a misery to bed early. I went to me… I’ve been here for twenty-four years. And this last one, years. twenty-four for been here I’ve went to sleep for the first time. So I had a little black the first time. So I had a little for to sleep went it was the dog on me head, Thinking with the baby. with the shoring up for the passage and the stairs and and the stairs the passage shoring up for with the up children the let to frightened You’re whatever. The following testimony is, perhaps the most discon most the is,perhaps testimony Thefollowing certing. Mrs. Graves who had clearly been inextricably inextricably been had clearly who Mrs. Graves certing. trapped in poverty and the tenement that is bound up up that is bound tenement the and in poverty trapped ing, unlike the others, directly into the camera: camera: the into directly unlikeing, others, the with her economic situation is talking to the viewer, look is talking situation viewer, the to economic with her - -

dirt out of our mouths, and that’s all. You go up the all. You that’s dirt out of our mouths, and everything’s filthy. Dirty filthy walls and the vermin in Dirty filthy filthy. everything’s every room. There’s the staircase, that you can’t walk can’t that you the staircase, every There’s room. out in the yard for to fetch it in… Coming into these these into Coming it in… to fetch for in the yard out a few seconds.] So I will tell you we’re fed up… What up… fed we’re So I will tell you seconds.] a few ster in one seven weeks after. (Anstey and Elton, 1935) Elton, and (Anstey after. weeks seven one in ster lost one youngster in one. Then I lost another young another Then I lost in one. one youngster lost up it unless you feel seasick. One leg you want longer longer want you leg One seasick. feel you unless up it to manage. We just clear up in the daytime to keep the to keep up in the daytime clear just to manage. We the walls is wicked. [Crawling bugs are shown here for for shown here bugs are [Crawling the walls is wicked. than the other. And it’s upstairs is coming downstairs, is coming upstairs it’s And than the other. nerves on your it gets here But where lovely. they are rooms I’ve had no luck since I’ve been in them. First I First them. in been I’ve since luck no had I’ve rooms Another desperate tenant, Mrs. Hill, lit for the cam the Mrs. Hill, tenant, for lit desperate Another with the hole in the wall, I can’t tell you how we have have how we tell you in the wall, I can’t with the hole where it’s sinking. We went to see the new houses and went sinking. We it’s where washing there is. Every drop of water we have to go to we have water of drop Every is. there washing This house is getting on my nerves. We’re shored up in shored nerves. on my This house is getting We’re

eras by a footlight which lends an eerie atmosphere to the the to atmosphere an eerie lends which a footlight eras by interview, has this say: to interview, FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 162

- - - ed. A local priest spoke to the press of conditions: press to the spoke priest ed. A local a fam where in a room people dying visit to have often ers, carters, miners stood in sullen little knots at a at knots little sullen in stood miners carters, ers, still another household had been forced to hoist the to had been forced household still another 33) separated. (Roberts grey flag of poverty. Doors were painted brown and and brown painted were Doors poverty. of flag grey playing as been damned would have different gaily hundred slum street corners and talked and wait and corners and talked street slum hundred I terrible. are conditions Home poverty… their know

the activities of childhood and maturity were strictly strictly and maturity were of childhood the activities ily of seven or eight lives. I have seen many instances seen I have lives. eight or seven of ily newspaper across the panes showed all too clearly that that clearly all too showed panes the across newspaper use a colour daring to tenants any grained: roughly A pitiless sun went down each day. Seamen, dock down each day. sun went A pitiless Recalling the industrial action by seamen, firemen and firemen seamen, Recalling by industrial the action No one scorned the clean modest half curtain, but a but a curtain, half modest the clean scorned one No These men are not hooligans. I live among them and and them among I live hooligans. are not men These ‘baby house,’ a serious indictment in a world where in a world where indictment a serious ‘baby house,’ dockers in June 1911, Roberts’s tone darkens: tone Roberts’s 1911, in June dockers - - - - -

and ran out and left the baby. (Anstey and Elton, 1935) Elton, and (Anstey the baby. and left ran out and Robert Roberts recalls the same atmosphere from the the from recalls Roberts same atmosphere the Robert Mr. Berner’s family, wife and three children appear in appear wife children three and family, Berner’s Mr. I looked up. Instead of that, it was a big rat. I screamed screamed rat. I was a big that, it of Instead up. I looked The native sociolect used by the interviewees adds adds interviewees the by used sociolect Thenative

den from the official public gaze, the people who speak who in people the gaze, public official the from den

erty is comparable to the regional dialect collections of of dialect regional the collections to erty is comparable certain sense, this record of the language of urban pov language the of of thiscertainrecord sense,

another layer of significance to this documentary. In a In to documentary. this significance of layer another sleep with a degree of cleanliness and decency in one room. room. in one decency and cleanliness of with a degree sleep

mote steppes.mote Salford of his childhood with enhanced literary sensitivity: with enhanced his childhood of Salford

this film live in our midst not in far-flung islands or re or islands far-flung in not thisour in filmmidst live the folklorists of the same period. Except that, hid while Except same period. the of folklorists the

to live in.” (Anstey and Elton, 1935) Elton, (Anstey and in.” live to the next cut. They are struggling to live, cook, eat, and and eat, cook, They are struggling cut. next live, the to

ing facility in the back yard. Like most interviewees, Mr. Mr. interviewees, most Like yard. facilitying in back the Berner also expresses the hope that the council will that council the pro hope the also expresses Berner

No way to keep food overnight, but they have a wash have they but overnight, food keep to way No vide “every working class man” with “hygienic conditions conditions with class “hygienic man” working “every vide FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 163 - - - - - about the world so much as pieces of it. […] Photo as pieces about the world so much graphs furnish evidence. Something we hear about, furnish evidence. graphs but doubt, seems proven when we’re shown a pho we’re when but doubt, seems proven picture. (Sontag 4–5) (Sontag picture. tograph of it […] the camera record incriminates […] incriminates the camera record of it […] tograph dis may picture The […] justifies record camera the that some a presumption is always tort; but there in the what’s is like or did exist, which thing exists, Roland Barthes the French post-structuralist critic critic post-structuralist Barthes French the Roland statements be to seem do not images Photographed of which they are part” (Barthes 15). Also in the context of of Alsoin context the are part” they (Barthes 15). which of func procreational authenticating, the of consideration groups, of defining motives and attitudes, and of of trying and attitudes, and motives defining of groups, linked the visual image with the sociological method. linked visual the method. image with sociological the justified, in their case. in justified, their photography, Susan Sontag (writing well before the age of of age the before well (writing Susan Sontag photography, to link the behaviour of these groups to the social the to totality groups these of linkto behaviour the above the to adds and reiterates digital image) pliable the visual the of tion image: film), Barthes declares: “it is a matter of studying human studying of is a matter “it Barthes declares: film), Writing about photographs (which he appreciated above above appreciated he (which photographs about Writing ------Night Mail shade, dyna shade,

speed, movement, ,

of approaching starvation. One day I watched a man I watched day starvation. One approaching of after a visit inside, give the money to a waiting child. child. a waiting to money the give after inside, a visit (Roberts 96) take off his coat and vest outside a pawn shop and, shop pawn a outside vest takeand coat his off It is these textual vignettes, educational and emo and textual is these educational vignettes, It

documentary. Therefore, many of the images that pass images the many of Therefore, documentary.

energy to help our exposition… We could, by the juxtapo the by could, We exposition… our help to energy of the documentaries, perfectly exemplified in exemplified perfectly documentaries, the of

comes alive in the socially motivated films of the docu films of the in socially the alive motivated comes ate rhythms and tempos, crescendos and diminuendos of of diminuendos and crescendos rhythms tempos, and ate

sition of shots, explode ideas in the heads of our audience” audience” our of in heads the ideas explode shots, of sition (Grierson 22). Fewer visual peculiar the to experiments Fewer 22). (Grierson

(Wright and Watt, 1936) Watt, and (Wright main with us as stills — iconic representations of the given given the of main with representations us as stills — iconic

motion picture genre were deployed in the straight social in straight the deployed were genre picture motion mism, the life-giving essentials of the moving picture, picture, moving the of essentials mism, life-giving the

mentary In movement. the aesthetic-experimental strand played a defining role. In Grierson’s words: “We could cre could “We words: Grierson’s In role. a defining played theme. A photographic analysis approach, is, therefore, through the film frames of the social documentaries re film social the documentaries of through the frames tionally stirring, but ultimately remaining academic, that remaining academic, ultimately stirring,tionally but FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 164 - - - - Life and Labour of the the of Labour and Life (1902–3) examined the lives and occupa and examinedlives the (1902–3) By around 1927, many east-central European and and European many east-central 1927, around By

on a massive state housing development to satisfy to in the development housing state a massive on however, homes, new the of Most urban demand. creased around 1928, Stalin’s regime in the Soviet Union set out out set Union in Soviet the regime Stalin’s 1928, around adopt populist-corporatist methods of government and and government of methods populist-corporatist adopt that, having abandoned Except left. the of those from able and writing about living conditions from a radical leftist radical a leftist from living conditions writingand about showed persistent signs of faulty craftsmanship, which craftsmanship, faulty signs of which persistent showed seventeen volumes) survey entitled survey entitled volumes) seventeen street-by-street basis. ginning of 1933. The solutions to endemic poverty of the the of poverty endemic to The solutions ginning 1933. of led to vocal complaints sustained even by some of the the of some by sustained even complaints vocal to led most dedicated devotees of the Soviet system (Sidney (Sidney system Soviet the of devotees dedicated most perspective. Booth’s massive (the third edition totalling third edition (the massive Booth’s perspective. the New Economic Policy first introduced by Lenin, from first introduced Policy Economic New the tions of the working class people of London often on a a on often London of class people working the of tions interwar years offered by the right were often often indistinguish were by the right offered interwar years Peopleof London At the other end of the spectrum, Sidney and Beatrice Beatrice and spectrum, the of Sidney end other the At Mediterranean countries adopted or were compelled to to compelled were or adopted countries Mediterranean National Socialism triumphed in Germany at the be inthe Germany Socialismat National triumphed Webb and Charles Booth were campaigning, researching campaigning, researching were Booth Charles and Webb

- - -

By Grierson’s time, local government had the author had the local government time, Grierson’s By

chairman (after having been elected to Parliament in 1918), in 1918), Parliament to chairman elected having been (after

cluded the provision of running water and hygienic toilet toilet runninghygienic and of water provision the cluded ards. Other major cities, like Liverpool, adopted similar adopted like Liverpool, cities, major ards. Other

healthy suburban housing development projects, which in which projects, development housing suburban healthy Conservatives were then called) measures and drives. drives. and measures called) then were Conservatives

Committee in his native city, and, as early as 1911 pioneered pioneered and, as as early 1911 city, in his native Committee (of appeasement fame) who, (still as a Liberal Unionist) as Unionist) (still a Liberal who, fame) appeasement (of

for urban reform in Birmingham (Pepper and Richmond). Richmond). and in Birmingham urban (Pepper reform for facilities, especially for newly built dwellings. Significantly, Significantly, dwellings. built newly especially for facilities, future Conservative Prime Minister Neville Chamberlainfuture Conservative far from being an exclusively left-wing agenda. It was the It agenda. left-wing an exclusively being far from programmes, and the Unhealthy Areas Committee of the the of Areas Committee Unhealthy the and programmes,

plan housing estates with modern amenities. This amenities. was with modern estates plan housing the city government was allowed to take over property property take to over was allowed city government the

if the private sector failed to live up to the new stand new the to up live to failed sector if private the ity to pull down unhealthy slums and build new, open open new, build and slums unhealthy pull down to ity Act in 1923. These were Conservative (or Unionist as the Unionist (or Conservative were These in 1923. Act As health minister, Chamberlain introduced the Housing Housing the Chamberlain introduced As minister, health British Parliament (1919–21), of which Chamberlain was which of (1919–21), Parliament British

Birmingham City Councillor, headed the City Planning City the headed BirminghamCouncillor, City was arguably also modelled on his own committee politics politics his own committee on was arguably also modelled FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 165 - - - - The propaganda requirements of the Second World World Second the of requirements Thepropaganda The British Documentary Film movement produced produced DocumentaryThe Film British movement documentary film movement. It may be It argued that may the documentary filmmovement. duit of a number of quasi-government institutions, of of institutions, quasi-government of number a of duit of the inhabitants of the vast,the inhabitants dreary the of of quarters Victorian of re the beyond will towns our suburbs in new take place had suburbia’ to The ‘flight (Sharp 40–41). suburbs” cent something to do with an acquired dislike for town dwell town dislike for with an do acquired to something GPO film united served as the UK’s first film school. The school. first film UK’s served as film the GPO united General Post Office (GPO) Film Unit whose turn it whose it turn was Unit Film (GPO) Office Post General message of the films produced by the unit by had unit the an un films the produced of message film The socialist new edge. radically, if not mistakably, prospect appeared to be that “the much-desired rehousing rehousing much-desired that be “the to appeared prospect unit continued to look for new ways to communicate communicate to ways new for look to continued unit their work across a twenty-year period through the con the through period a twenty-year across work their the of producers and cameramen directors, the host to ing as such. The neither town, nor country suburbia of of suburbia country nor town, Theas neither ing such. Britain was born. thus 1933, Sir Stephen Tallents and Grierson moved to the the to moved Grierson and Tallents Stephen Sir 1933, with the public under the aegis of the General Post Office. Post General the aegis the of under with public the which the Empire Marketing Board Film Unit was one. was one. Film Unit Board Marketing Empire the which When the Empire Marketing Board was wound up in in up was wound Board Marketing Empire the When ------Housing Housing as an exemplary project, the hope of Mr. Norwood, Norwood, Mr. of hope the project, as an exemplary

Elton and Anstey’s witnesses firmly believe in a brighter brighter in a firmlybelieve witnesses Anstey’s and Elton

economic ills in Britain. Neither was there a British New New a British was there ills in Britain. Neither economic cialist or corporatist solutions on offer to the social to the and offer on solutions cialist corporatist or ernment construction of homes for tenants: through the the through tenants: for homes of construction ernment

of dwelling-communes or dwelling beehives (Teige). The (Teige). beehives dwelling or dwelling-communes of and Elton, 1935) was never fully completed, little more was more little fully completed, was never 1935) Elton, and

ated in 1934 as part of Roosevelt’s New Deal, did not fit into into fit Deal, not did New as part Roosevelt’s in of 1934 ated and Beatrice Webb 931–940). These failures of massur of failures These 931–940). Webb Beatrice and

bianisation of urban dwelling. By the end of the 1930s, the the 1930s, the of end the By urban dwelling. of bianisation built there than some basic housing. There were no so no were There housing. basic than there some built

ban construction, led to the idea, peculiar U.S.S.R., idea, the the to to led ban construction, future, symbolised by healthy social tenant housing in in social housing tenant healthy by symbolised future,

the populist models as it did not aim at state or local gov aim or state at not did as it models populist the tre, a shopping centre and all kinds of amenities” (Anstey all and amenities” kinds of centre a shopping tre,

nificantly increased home ownership in the United States. United in the ownership home nificantly increased insurance of mortgage loans, it made possible and/or sig and/or possible made it loans, mortgage insurance of

Problems Deal. The British solution came with ‘natural’ the subur Deal.solution The British

Mrs. Hill, Mrs. Graves and Mr. Berner, “with a welfare cen “with a welfare Berner, Mr. and Mrs. Hill, Mrs. Graves Britain. The reality, however turned out to be different. different. be to turned out however Britain. The reality,

Federal Housing Administration in the United States, cre States, in United Administration the Housing Federal The Quarry Road Estate in Leeds, introduced in The Quarry in Leeds, introduced Estate Road FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 166 - - 7–9). Addressing the Nation Ironically, much as John Grierson and his colleagues his and colleagues Grierson as John much Ironically, documentaries were not the staple of the British cinema cinema British the of staple the not were documentaries ematic genre, in reality these documentary productions documentary in reality productions these genre, ematic public. wider the of attention the conquer to out sitive film making community with whom they could set set could filmthey makingwhom community sitive with going public whose numbers were steadily expanding in expanding steadily were numbers whose public going found the core of a technically mature and socially mature and a technically sen of core the found the maximum public enlightenment and a new art at a new and form enlightenment maximumthe public visual social and experiments exploratory time, same the when Emericthe Pressburger 1930s. Yet, and Alexander filmmovement ( Korda arrived on the British scene from the early to mid- to early the from scene British the arrived on Korda 1930s with the new agenda of popular entertainment, they they entertainment, popular of agenda with new the 1930s were preparing to be the prophets of a new, popular cin popular a new, of prophets the be to preparing were achieve to out While had set they a few. be only seen were - - , Keene, , Charles Downlands Cornish Valley

, Ralph Keene, 1944; 1944; , Ralph Keene, , Ken Annakin, , Ken 1945; Fenlands

de Latour and Humphrey Swingler, 1947) were produced. produced. were 1947) Swingler, Humphrey and Latour de

of Greenpark Productions. Between 1944 and 1947 unique unique 1947 and 1944 Between Productions. Greenpark of ers and directors into life in rural life aegis the into Britain directors and under ers

ethos of its film makers remained unbroken. The new new films The film remained unbroken. its makers of ethos only in charge until 1937 (from 1938 he started working for for started he working 1938 (from in until 1937 charge only others had had imagined for it. Although Grierson was Grierson Although it. had had imagined for others on all the ambitions and expectations that Grierson and and that Grierson expectations and allon ambitions the ages of the films made by the members of the documentary of the members films the by the of made ages

and social propaganda came of age in Britain age during this came of socialand propaganda became part of the new Central Office of Information, the of Information, Office Central new part the became of

Crown Film Unit from 1940, documentary film making 1940, from Film Unit Crown portraits of life in the agricultural regions of Britain (e.g. Britain in agricultural the life (e.g. of portraits of regions

period. Although at the end of the war the Crown Film Unit Film Unit war the Crown the of end the at Although period. the Canadian government) and the unit was renamed the the was unit renamed the and Canadian the government)

the sense that it finally had the opportunity to deliver deliver finallyto thatopportunity it sense the had the included a rare foray by some of the movement’s produc movement’s the of some by foray a rare included

Attlee’s Labour Government is hard to dissociate from the from dissociate is hard to Labour Government Attlee’s Britain’s comprehensive social rebirth after the war under social after war the rebirth under comprehensive Britain’s

1944; vibrant social and economic optimism exuded by the im the by exuded optimism socialvibrant economic and

The Grassy Shires War acted for the film unit almost as a dénouement in in film the dénouement unit as a almost for acted War FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 167 - - - - Town London: . Cambridge (Mass): Soviet Communism: A . Harmondsworth: Pen On Photography. On Photography. . Harmondsworth: Pelican Books, 1973. 1973. Books, Pelican . Harmondsworth: 80. 2. (2009): 143–171. Print. 143–171. 2. (2009): 80. . 2 vols. 2nd ed. London: Victor Gollanz Victor London: ed. 2nd . 2 vols. Town Planning Town The Classic Slum: Salford in the First Quar First the in Salford Slum: The Classic The Minimum Dwelling The British Documentary 1926- Film Movement . Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1989. 1989. Press, University Cambridge Cambridge: . ter of the Century guin Books, 1945. Print.guin 1945. Books, berlain’s Unhealthy Areas Committee, 1919–21.” 1919–21.” Areas Committee, Unhealthy berlain’s roes: The Slum Problem in London and Neville Cham Neville and in London Problem The Slum roes: New Civilisation Planning ReviewPlanning 1946 Allen Lane, 1978. 1–24. Print. 1–24. Allen Lane, 1978. Print. Print. Limited, 1937. Print. 1937. Limited, The MIT Press, 2002. Print. 2002. Press, The MIT Sharp, Thomas. Cave.” Susan. Plato’s “In Sontag, Paul. Swann, Pepper, Simon and Peter Richmond. “Homes Unfit for He for Unfit “Homes Richmond. Peter and Simon Pepper, Roberts, Robert. Webb, Beatrice and Sidney Webb. Webb. Sidney and Beatrice Webb, Teige, Karel. Teige, - - - - - . Ac Sight and and Sight Image, Mu Image, Nonfiction Film The New Brunswick and New . London: B.T. Batsford Batsford B.T. . London: . British Film Institute. n. d. Film Institute. . British The GPO Film Unit Collection Unit The Film GPO : Public Opinion. Ed. Richard Barsam. New York: E. P. E. P. Ed. Barsam. Richard York: New The Great War of Words: Literature as Literature Words: of War The Great Land of Promise: The British Documen The British Promise: of Land . Accompanying Booklet to the DVD col DVD the to Booklet . Accompanying London: Fontana Press, 1977. 15–31. Print. 15–31. 1977. Press, Fontana London: 3.11 (1934): 101–4. Print. 101–4. (1934): 3.11

ory and Criticism. ory and sic, Text. tary 1930–1950 Movement companying Booklet. Vol. 1. British Film Institute. n.d. n.d. Film Institute. British 1. Vol. Booklet. companying lection entitled Sound Propaganda, 1914–1918 and After Propaganda, 1914–1918 7–9. Print. Dutton, 1976. Print. 1976. Dutton, London: Transaction Publishers, 1998. Print. 1998. Publishers, Transaction London: Ltd., 1989. Print. 1989. Ltd., 10–11. Print.

WORKS CITED: WORKS Grierson, John. “Introduction to a New Art.” Art.” a New to “Introduction John. Grierson,

Addressing the Nation Land of Promise

Buitenhuis, Peter. Barthes, Roland. “The Photographic Message.” Barthes, Roland. “The Message.” Photographic

Lippmann, Walter. Walter. Lippmann, —. “First Principles of Documentary.” Documentary.” of Principles “First —. FILM & CULTURE–LOJKÓ–THE BRITISH

DOCUMENTARY FILM MOVEMENT... 168 - - . Dir. Ralph Keene. Greenpark Produc Greenpark RalphKeene. . Dir. Dir. Arthur Elton. L. F. P., 1935. Film. 1935. P., L. Arthur F. Dir. Elton. Dir. Basil Wright. Ceylon Tea Board, Den Board, Tea Ceylon Basil Wright. Dir. Dir. Humphrey Jennings. General Post Office Office Post General Jennings. Humphrey Dir. . Dir. Basil Wright and Harry Watt. General Harry and General Basil Wright . Dir. Watt. tions, 1944. Film. 1944. tions, ning Films Ltd., 1934. Film. 1934. ning Films Ltd., Post Office Film Unit, 1936. Film.1936. Unit, Film Office Post Film. 1939. Film Unit, Song of Ceylon. Spare Time. Night Mail Workers andWorkers Jobs. The Grassy Shires The Grassy - - - Dir. Adgar Anstey and Arthur Elton. Anstey Adgar Arthur and Dir. Elton. Dir. Basil Wright. British Commercial Commercial British Basil Wright. Dir. Dir. Robert J. Flaherty. Empire Market Empire Flaherty. J. Robert Dir. Dir. Humpherey Jennings. Crown Film Crown Jennings. Humpherey Dir. Dir. Edgar Anstey. Gas, Light, and Coke Coke and Gas,Light, EdgarAnstey. Dir. . Dir. Ralph Keene. Greenpark Productions, Productions, Greenpark Ralph Keene. . Dir. . Dir. Charles de Latour and Humphrey Swin Humphrey and Latour de Charles . Dir. . Dir. Alberto Cavalcanti. General Post Office Office Post General Alberto Cavalcanti. . Dir. . Dir. Kenneth Cooper Annakin. Greenpark Pro

Dir. John Grierson. Empire Marketing Board Film Board Marketing Empire Grierson. John Dir.

ductions, 1945. Film. 1945. ductions, gler. Greenpark Productions, 1947. Film. 1947. Productions, Greenpark gler. Company,1936. Film. Gas Company, 1937. Film. 1937. Gas Company, ing Board Film Unit, 1931. Film. 1931. Film Unit, Board ing British Commercial Gas Association, 1935. Film. 1935. Gas Association, Commercial British Film Unit, 1935. Film. 1935. Film Unit, Unit, 1942. Film. 1942. Unit, Unit, 1929. Film. 1929. Unit, 1944. Film.1944.

FILMOGRAPHY:

Cornish Valley Coal Face

Childrenat School. Listen to Britain.

Industrial Britain. Housing Problems.Housing

Fenlands Enoughto Eat?

Drifters. Downlands Romantic Ireland and the Hollywood Film Industry: The Colleen Bawn (1911), The Quiet Man (1952), Leap Year (2010)

EGLANTINA REMPORT & JANINA VESZTERGOM | Film & Culture ► 169 FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 170 - - - The (1874), two (1874), The Bawn, Colleen or the TheShaughraun ’s Myles-na-Coppaleen and and Myles-na-Coppaleen ’s , to house his company for the pe the for his company house , to (1860) and and (1860) ’s Conn are characters who immediately won won immediately who are characters Conn ’s The Shaughraun The Colleen Bawn The Colleen Boucicault had a real talent for creating lovable char lovable creating for had a real talent Boucicault coast of the Unites States (Fawkes 195). (Fawkes States Unites the of coast origin, made his name during the nineteenth century by century by hisorigin, made name nineteenth during the to appealed century, the of plays successful most the of acters. acters. and Irish people. Boucicault’s Boucicault’s Irish and people. Shaughraun population in America (115, 118, 195). These plays made made plays These 195). 118, in (115, America population San Francisco, and Boston, towns with the largest Irish with largest towns the Boston, and San Francisco, the sympathies of audiences on both sides of the Atlantic Atlantic the of sides both on audiences of sympathies the the nostalgic sentiments of Irishmen, home and abroad, abroad, and home Irishmen, of sentiments nostalgic the set picturesque characters, lovable of display a through writes Fawkes Richard melodies. harmonious tings and turned out plays sensationalist, deliberately two, thatthese Philadelphia, York, New in financial great be to successes named Eastern the of cities major the touring were they when riod Brides of Garryowen Garryowen of Brides Boucicault so successful that he even bought a steam yacht, steam yacht, a bought even that he successful so Boucicault Dion Boucicault, born into a family of French Huguenot Huguenot family a French of into born Boucicault, Dion Irish playwright in particular as the example to follow. Irish inplaywright particularfollow. to as example the writing a series of financially successful plays on Ireland on Ireland plays financially of writing a series successful - - - - -

: THE COLLEEN BAWN COLLEEN THE :

Hollywood filmmakers believed that it wasit economi that filmmakersbelieved Hollywood

cally viable to cater for the aesthetic needs and patriotic patriotic and needs aesthetic the for cater cally to viable

agination of the Hollywood film industry. Luke Gibbons Gibbons Luke film industry. Hollywood the of agination sentiments of these millions of Irish migrants. Hollywood Irish millions migrants. of Hollywood these of sentiments (BOUCICAULT, 1860 AND KALEM, 1911) KALEM, AND 1860 (BOUCICAULT, A DRAMATIC OPENING DRAMATIC A ble wealth and quite an influence in society. American an influence quite and wealth ble

more remote parts of the American West and Mid-West. Mid-West. and parts American the West of remote more panding building industry, or by becoming farmers in the becoming by or industry, building panding

pointed out that the American film industry soon realisedAmerican that the film soon industry out pointed States in what were often referred to as ‘coffin ships,’ in ships,’ as to ‘coffin referred often were inwhat States

the Irish population of America had acquired considera had America acquired of Irishthe population the hope of earning their living by working in the ever ex in ever the earning of working living by their hope the

the larger harbours of the Eastern coastline of the United United the Eastern the of coastline harbours of larger the the nation” 206). Millions of Irish Millions migrants of had arrived to 206). nation” the

the economic potential of the millions of Irishmillions migrants the of of potential economic the ing the famine years of the mid-19th century (“Projecting century (“Projecting mid-19th the famine of the ing years

filmmakers considered the extraordinary successes of one one of extraordinary the successes filmmakersconsidered Pictures of Ireland and Irish life have long captured the im the captured long Irish and have life Ireland of Pictures

Hardworking as these people were, it was not long before before long was not it were, people as these Hardworking who had arrived to the United States of America follow America of States United the had arrived to who FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 171 - - - Portraying Ireland in such a positive light paid off for for off paid light positive a in such Ireland Portraying sentiments of Irish migrants, many of whom immigrated to immigrated whom of many migrants, Irish of sentiments that feel to audiences his wanted playwright the as here sue of them had left behind without the hope of ever returning ever of the hope them had behind of without left of Ireland. This was done partly to appeal to the nostalgic available, famous picture postcards of these beautiful partsbeautiful these of postcards picture famous available, each night, enjoying the comforts of mansions decorated decorated mansions of comforts the enjoying night, each relatives. Boucicault enhanced Boucicault the sentiments relatives. nostalgic of or ‘authentic,’ in scenes the of some setting by audiences his turf fire where huts, or cottages Irish ‘authenticated,’ rather pot of broth was always brewing for the welcome stranger. the brewing for pot welcome broth was of always him during the American tours. So much so that he could could that so he him much So American during the tours. earning dollars of lifestyle, thousands society a high live mous paintings of the Irish countryside or, when they became became they when or, countryside Irish the of paintings mous there. For designing the stage, Boucicault preferred to use fa use to preferred Boucicault stage, the designing For there. por to partly and Ireland, of West the from States United the would as a beautiful countrytray Ireland audiences that so they were back home in Ireland,the country of their long-lost Boucicault and for the actors and actresses who worked with worked who actresses and actors the for and Boucicault Irish community in America, the mother land which so many feel proud of their Irish heritage. Authenticity was a key is a was key Authenticity their Irish of heritage. proud feel was burning, where whiskey was being served and where a where and served being was whiskey burning,where was - - - - The took the on audience an imaginary jour

, which served as a basis for Boucicault’s play. play. Boucicault’s as a basis served for , which

Boucicault’s characters in moved picturesque settings. Boucicault’s

of Dunloe, Muckross Head and Castle Chute. These scenes scenes These Chute. Castle and Head Muckross Dunloe, of

only to reveal later on in the play that he had tricked the the had tricked that he in play the on later reveal to only created especially for entertaining audiences (117). Myles Myles (117). entertaining audiences especially for created

at all weddings” (Parkin 268). Conn is both lovable and he and lovable is both Conn (Parkin 268). allat weddings” acter. Boucicault, who played both Myles and Conn in the Conn and Myles both played who Boucicault, acter.

soul of every fair, the life of every funeral, the first fiddler funeral,fiddler first every the of life the fair, every of soul ney through the most beautiful parts of Co. Kerry, West of of West Kerry, beautifulthrough parts ney the most Co. of

helped conjure up images of Éire (Irish for ‘Ireland’) in the inthe ‘Ireland’) (Irish for Éire of images up conjure helped Collegians

Ocean. Fawkes describes Myles-na-Coppaleen’s charac describes Myles-na-Coppaleen’s Ocean. Fawkes friend, Robert Ffolliott.

friend. Conn, the Shaughraun, is Shaughraun, a similar the Conn, friend. type char of ter as witty, cunning, sentimental and utterly charming, utterly and cunning, sentimental as witty, ter

roic; he goes as far as offering his own life for his asfor own friend, far his goes aslife offering he roic; respective productions of the plays, described him as described “the plays, the of productions respective

Ireland. There are scenes on the Lake of Killarney, the Gap Gap the Killarney, of Lake the on scenes are There Ireland. He becomes the heart and soul of Boucicault’s play, one one play, Boucicault’s heart of the soul and becomes He

whole company into believing that he had died for his for had died that he believing into company whole who proves to be a trustworthy companion and a loyal a loyal and a trustworthy be to companion proves who

was a marginal character in Gerald Griffin’s story, story, was a marginal Griffin’s in Gerald character The Bawn Colleen FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 172 - - , for the the , for (1910), another Kalem another (1910), , only the setting was setting the , only The Lad from Old Ireland The Old Lad from (1934), shot on the Aran the on Islands, near shot (1934), The Bawn Colleen The Lad from Old Ireland The Old Ladfrom Man of Aran Gibbons is quick to point out that “there were no orig no were that“there out point to is quick Gibbons circumstances. The roles of the mother, the father and and father the mother, the of circumstances. The roles of the Nation” 72). Characters and incidents were also fic were incidents Characters and 72). Nation” the of are trying Islands in harsh very Atlantic survive the to on acting had neither Dillane, amateurs who Michael and authentically Irishin authentically both characters and incidents are fictitious” (“Narratives (“Narratives are fictitious” incidents and characters both local people to play the roles of the nuclear family who family who nuclear the of roles the play to people local Galway off the Western Coast of Ireland. Flahertyof Ireland. Coast Western hired the off Galway production filmed in Co. Kerry, in the West of Ireland. of Ireland. West in the Kerry, Co. filmed in production was in born Canada and Olcott, Sidney actor, principal the child were played by Maggieby Dirrane, Colman King played were child the titious in in titious in Ireland; poverty escape to in order States United the to States. in United the Gauntier, Gene actress, principal the inals for Danny Mann’s cottage or the rock and cave, as cave, and rock the or cottage Mann’s inals Danny for marry to returns Ireland sweetheart, to country his old, film, Aileen. AsAileen. with More ‘authentic’ in this regard was Robert J. Flaherty’s Flaherty’s J. in was this Robert regard ‘authentic’ More who becomes a famous politician over there; and who who and there; over politician a famous becomes who The movie tells the story of a young man who emigrates emigrates man who a young of story the tells Themovie ------approach: The Colleen

(1911) became one of the first cinematic portrayals of portrayals first the cinematic of one became (1911)

der of the eponymous Colleen Bawn, “the exact loca “the Bawn, Colleen der of the eponymous es — the intertitles continually introduce non-sequi introduce continually es — the intertitles original play.” As the story As the digress progresses — or original play.” cluding interiors, in this Irish production was made in this Irish production interiors, cluding (“Narratives of the Nation” 72) of the Nation” (“Narratives tion including the real Colleen Bawn rock and cave.” and cave.” rock Bawn Colleen the real including tion the original Danny Mann’s cottage, not to mention to mention cottage, not Mann’s the original Danny turs […] assuring us that we are looking at “a real bog real at “a looking turs […] assuring us that we are in the climactic scene depicting the attempted mur scene depicting in the climactic near Killarney’s lake,” and the exact reproduction of and the exact reproduction lake,” near Killarney’s in Ireland, and in the exact location described in the in Ireland, and in the exact location The opening titles assure us that “[e]very scene, in scene, us that “[e]very assure The opening titles

and its financial rewards, it is little wonder that wonder financialit is its little and rewards, filmmakers’ authenticating the about following

thenticated’ portrayal of Ireland. Luke Gibbons writes the Gibbons Luke Ireland. portrayal of thenticated’ in Killarney, Ireland, it was to be an ‘authentic’ and ‘au and an was be to ‘authentic’ it Ireland, in Killarney,

ities (Fawkes 119). Given the popularity of Boucicault’s play play Boucicault’s popularity the of Given 119). (Fawkes ities Bawn

Ireland. A Kalem Company production, filmed on location location on filmed production, Kalem A Company Ireland. with custom-made tiles, oriental carpets and silver amen carpets oriental tiles, silver and with custom-made FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 173

- - became “the This is Korea! The Quiet Man (1950), (1952)

The Quiet Man

(1952). James P. Byrne argues P. James (1952). Rio Grande Rio was “based on America’s new-found new-found was “based America’s on THE QUIET MAN MAN QUIET THE The Quiet Man The Quiet Man of Soviet Socialist Republics and Mao Tse-tung’s People’s People’s Mao Tse-tung’s and Socialist Republics Soviet of movie Ford’s for cumstances had significant implications of was in States United the time, the At (30). civilization” of after the Second World War. John Ford’s Ford’s John War. World after Second the successful decision for a number of Hollywood directors directors Hollywood of a number for decision successful reaches in outer the democracy of standing as champion A CLASSICAL PINNACLE: CLASSICAL A FORD’S JOHN (1952) was one of those post-war movies that celebrated that celebrated movies post-war those of was one (1952) Celebrating romantic Ireland proved to be a financially a be to proved Ireland romantic Celebrating and (1951) that, similar to the other two Republic movies, the story story the movies, that, Republic two similar other the to romantic Ireland. Due to a three-film contract signed signed contract a three-film to Due Ireland. romantic succession: in quick very it was trying to stop the spread of communist ideology in ideology communist of was trying spread the it stop to in that Irish the of landscape Asia (which already spread across Joseph Stalin’s Union Union Stalin’s Joseph across spread already Asia (which Republic of China). Byrne argues historical cir that China). these of Republic with Republic Pictures in 1950, Ford made three movies movies three made Ford in Pictures 1950, withRepublic volved in military action on the Korean peninsula, where peninsula, in military Korean the where on action volved - - Moana (1922) and and (1922) ).

Nanookof the North

(1926), Flaherty chose these people be people Flaherty these chose (1926),

How the Myth Was Made Was How the Myth of the South Seas South the of of the islanders. Flaherty’s method of ‘authentication’ was ‘authentication’ of Flaherty’s method islanders. the of cause his intention was to shoot a documentary of the life life the a documentary of shoot wasto his cause intention credentials nor desire to be in movies. Known for his doc Known for in be movies. to desire nor credentials

survive on the Aransurvive the on Islands. The filmas a was advertised so successful that audiences on both sides of the Atlantic Atlantic the of sides both on that audiences successful so

been practiced on the island for over one hundred years years hundred one over for island the on practiced been big Atlantic waves and, if necessary, kill sharks in order to to kill sharks in order if and, necessary, waves Atlantic big

( Ocean were thrilled to see the courage and strength of of strength and thrilled courage the see to were Ocean

umentaries such as such umentaries that the American filming crew had to teach the local that American the the teach filmingto had crew

those brave Irish islanders who were ready to fight the the fight to ready were who Irish islanders brave those Aran Islands for the ‘old custom’ of killingof sharks hadnot custom’ ‘old the AranIslands for

Irish how to slay the baskingthe sharks swimming slay to the Irish around how ‘documentary.’ Contemporary audiences were not aware aware not were audiences Contemporary ‘documentary.’ FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 174 - - - - She Wore Wore She (1948) and , writes McBride, is McBride, , writes , Michaeleen Oge Flynn. Oge , Michaeleen Fort Apache Apache Fort The Quiet Man shaughraun (1946), (1949). a Yellow RibbonaYellow of romantic Ireland” filled with “claims of family, inher “claimsfamily, of Ireland” filled with romantic of about a man who “search[es] for a fairy-tale homeland of of a fairy-tale homeland for “search[es] a man who about with the his falls return, he in love Following a living. Mary on an is walking eye as Kate she a beauti through beauty of the Irish landscape as he is falling in love with Irish the is as falling landscape he of beauty in love marriage the to agrees of only Will, who Red brother, lieving that the marriage would be financially that be marriage lieving the beneficial would hind when he emigrated to America in the hope of making of in hope the America to emigrated he when hind be into tricked after being Sean and Thornton his sister Gibbons writes that the film is a “classic representation representation “classic that writes film the is a Gibbons for him by the local him the by for ful, green, lush Irish field, tending a flock of woolly sheep. sheep. woolly of flock a tending Irishful, field, lush green, man, Sean Thornton, who returns from the United States States United returns the from who man, Sean Thornton, to American individualism” (“Projecting the nation” 210). 210). nation” the (“Projecting Americanto individualism” transcendent ‘peace and quiet’” (510). The film is about a The film about is (510). quiet’” and ‘peace transcendent be left he house the his parents, of in house the settle to Mary Sean first casts Danaher. Kate villagethe beauty, itance and communal rituals” which are “counterposed “counterposed are rituals” communal and which itance Darling Clementine Indeed, Ireland is represented by Ford as a very traditional as traditional very a Ford by is represented Ireland Indeed, Then they settle, much against will the Mary much of settle, Kate’s they Then - - - - . My This , to play play to , and The Quiet Man Rio Grande Rio Rio Grande Joseph McBride presents a presents McBride Joseph was for the filmmaker a movie about filmmakerabout the movie was a for to play the character of Sean Thornton and and Sean Thornton of character the play to in which the beneficial effects of the civiliztheof effects beneficial the in which

,

Searching for John Ford

The Quiet Man

In

eficial” (31). This would have corresponded to the political political to the corresponded have would Thiseficial” (31). and this new one by casting John Wayne, Kirby Yorke of of Kirby Yorke Wayne, casting by John this one and new

stances in which the film was made. While accepting the the film the was accepting in While which stances made. sion could be played out as benevolent and naturallyand ben as benevolent out played be could sion

is Korea! have had some sympathy at some point in his career for in his for career point some at sympathy had some have

fact that contemporary anti-communist propaganda was, propaganda anti-communist thatfact contemporary more comprehensive evaluation of the historical the circum of evaluation comprehensive more

message of Ford’s two previous films, previous two Ford’s of message unlike Ford’s previous, Western movies, for instance for movies, Western previous, unlike Ford’s

that the Irish-American Republican Senator Joseph Raymond Raymond Joseph Senator Republican Irish-American the

the character of Mary of character the Danaher Kate in returning to one’s roots (510). Due to this, to film the Due was (510). roots returning one’s to

in fact, very important for director John Ford (who would would (who Ford John director for important invery fact, ing mission were projected onto the silver screen. Ford, Ford, screen. silver the onto projected were mission ing works his earlier between a connection drew seems, it

Rio Grande, Grande, Rio McCarthy’s anti-communist ideology), McBride asserts

Maureen O’Hara, Kathleen Yorke of of O’Hara, Yorke Kathleen Maureen western landscape in which the American the civilising in landscape which mis western FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 175 - - - - joie de de joie , not a country where people feel deeply distressed distressed deeply feel people where a country , not Ford’s desire was not necessarily to project an ‘authen project to necessarily was not desire Ford’s an Anglo-Irish demesne in Co. Mayo, known for its beau its known for Mayo, in Co. an demesne Anglo-Irish at home and abroad (Flynn 160–3). abroad and home at get about his troubling experiences in Pittsburgh, where in where Pittsburgh, experiences his troubling about get be appreciated by large audiences in Ireland, Britain in and Ireland, large audiences by appreciated be by Irish audiences on both sides of the Atlantic Ocean, as Ocean, Atlantic the of sides both on Irish audiences by he worked as a professional boxer. The Ireland to which which to The Ireland boxer. as a professional worked he full returns full and he is life lush, a certainof of positive representation of Ireland was much appreciated appreciated was much Ireland of representation positive tiful landscape gardening Landscape (147). gardening troubled man on his return; he goes back to Ireland to for to Ireland to back man his goes return; on he troubled an that image would project to but Ireland of image tic’ ing of the film to help boost the appreciation of Ireland, of Ireland, appreciation the boost help film the to of ing vivre America. He and the producer, Merian C. Cooper, chose chose Merian C. Cooper, producer, the and America. He filmingmovie. for the Castle as main the Ashford location Eamonn Slater points out that Ashford Castle is, in fact, that Ashford out points Slater Eamonn United States to make a living and who now returns to now make to a living who and States United Ireland to rediscover the beauty of his country. Sean isa his country. of beauty the rediscover to Ireland was a pastime of the aristocracy in Ireland, the religion aristocracy the was religion the a pastime of in Ireland, with the legacy of potato famines and poverty. This very famines poverty. and potato of with legacy the mak the backed which Irish as the Government, by well - - - - - in 1933, then in a collection en in a collection then in 1933, in 1935. Byrne writes that Ford bought bought that Byrne writes Ford in 1935.

Green Rushes Saturday Evening Post Post Evening Saturday

The script for the film was adapted from Maurice Maurice film the from was for adapted The script

dependence from the British Crown. This is Crown. storyline British the from dependence

ever, with all the Hollywood accessories of a romantic love love a romantic of accessories with all Hollywood the ever, country, where the bonds of family are local of customs and bonds the where country,

acters. What is kept from the 1933 version is the story of of story is the version 1933 the from What is kept acters. significantly reduced in the film; there are only a a smallonly are in there film;the reduced significantly

story, which significantly contributed to the film’s success success to film’s the contributed significantly which story, stronger than one’s individual desires. This is done, how This desires. individual is done, than one’s stronger

back then, and ever since (“Projecting the nation” 210–1). nation” the (“Projecting since ever and then, back Catholic majority of Ireland was fighting for Ireland’s in Ireland’s for was fighting Ireland of majority Catholic

(30). Ford and the scriptwriter, Frank S. Nugent, admin Frank S. Nugent, scriptwriter, the and Ford (30). Sean, “the lad from old Ireland,” who had emigrated to the to had emigrated who Ireland,” old from lad Sean, “the

titled the script could follow Walsh’s original story, published published original story, Walsh’s follow could script the

the rights to make a film of Walsh’s story as early as 1936 1936 story Walsh’s as early as make to rights a filmthe of the

number of references to the war, uttered by minor char minor by uttered war, the to references of number in 1933, and would lose the very political edge of Walsh’s Walsh’s of edge political very the lose would and in 1933,

istered significant changes to the original to the changes significantso story that istered Irish War of Independence (1919–21), a war in which the the a war in which (1919–21), Independence of Irish War

1935 version. The 1935 version is set in Ireland after the in Ireland is set version The 1935 version. 1935 Walsh’s short story, “The Quiet Man,” first published in published first “The Man,” Quiet story, short Walsh’s FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 176 - - - -

out, the design of the roadside cross in one of the opening opening the of in one cross roadside the of design the out, with sculptural rep decorated often most were crosses well-known the resemble to are made which circles of au was “an cross the whether asks rightly Slater eternity. and customs of the past, allowed the director to weave a weave to director the past, the allowed of customs and an Irish road, is another ‘cultural oddity.’ As Slater points points AsSlater oddity.’ ‘cultural an is another Irish road, special thread into the texture of the film. Throughout film. the of texture the specialThroughout thread into by roadsides, which appear alongside other ancient objects objects ancient other alongside appear which roadsides, by longer than that of the United States from where Sean where from States than United the that of longer Celtic designs of interlocking circles, possible symbols of symbols of possible circles, interlocking of designs Celtic most of them dating from the 9th and the 10th centu 10th the 9th and the dating from them of most that Ireland had had a long and respectable history, much much history, respectable and had had a long that Ireland conflict with the audience his confronting is Ford film,the tion of a ‘typical’ Celtic cross (144). Medieval Celtic crosses, crosses, Celtic Medieval (144). cross ‘typical’ a of Celtic tion like a ruin” look to constructed folly, “a or ruin” thentic images of the film does not follow the original the ornamenta follow not film the does of images the images; with biblical usually ornamented were ries, 15–6, (Stalley life Jesus’s from moments of resentations film has no such decoration; its design is that of a series series of a is design its that decoration; film such no has 33–37). The Celtic cross in the opening sequence of the the of sequence opening in the cross The Celtic 33–37). which was placed by the roadside to emphasise the fact fact the emphasise to roadside the by was placed which Thornton has just returned (144). Placing medieval crosses crosses medieval Placing has (144). returned just Thornton

------

The Celtic cross, randomly positioned by the side of of side the by positioned randomly cross, The Celtic

ence saw was an ‘authenticated’ rather than an ‘authentic’ than rather an ‘authentic’ wasan saw ‘authenticated’ ence

exotic features of the Irish landscape, but to make those make to those but Irish the landscape, of features exotic ods of which had been developed by English landscape landscape English by developed had been which ods of

cording to certain principles” (Slater 147). It is, therefore, is, therefore, It 147). (Slater certain to principles” cording of the Irish countryside. This “countryside,” however, is however, This “countryside,” Irish the countryside. of

cally Irish Catholic’ at the beginning the film. the at of callyThere Irish Catholic’ of whom was historically and predominantly Protestant, Protestant, was predominantly historically and whom of

ate a romantic image of Ireland. of image a romantic ate a work of mathematical precision, the calculating the meth precision, mathematical of a work

all of which suggests to the viewer that s/he sees images images that sees s/he viewer the to suggests all which of are shots of large fields, horse carts,‘typical’horse characters in large fields, of are shots

and suggestions about characters and objects ‘authenti objects and characters about suggestions and gardeners hundreds of years ago, and not a result of nat of result a not and ago, years of hundreds gardeners

little England in Ireland” (147). Therefore, what the audi the what Therefore, in Ireland” (147). England little ural growth and decay. More importantly, Slater argues, Slater importantly, More ural growth decay. and

not Catholic. This of many hintsthe isbecause Catholic. significant not Irish setting, a setting which was artificially which Irish a setting setting, to cre made

Irish costumes and ‘typical’ Celtic crosses at the roadside, roadside, the at crosses ‘typical’ and Irishcostumes Celtic ‘natural’ Irish features look like an English landscape, a a landscape, like an English ‘natural’ look Irish features

“this type of gardening was not an attempt to highlight the highlight to an attempt was“this not type gardening of “pleasure parkland,” “designed by landscape gardeners ac gardeners landscape by “designed parkland,” “pleasure FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 177 - - is further emphasised traditional and modern Speaking in Irish was considered to be traditional and and traditional be to Speaking in Irish was considered of Ireland’s pre-Christian history. In a way, these crosses crosses these In a way, pre-Christian history. Ireland’s of how parties,” “thrashing and “walkingof customs out” bury who couple, young the dismissed by quickly are ever, are modernised versions of ancient objects esteemed by by esteemed objects ancient of versions modernised are the from rest take to a short site medieval the arrive on speaking area. McBride writes that Ford was more than was more that writes Ford speaking area. McBride bride-to-be, she first shies away from the rushed action, action, the rushed from away shies first she bride-to-be, him Feeney (after his father’s family name). In fact, he In fact, he family name). his father’s (after him Feeney long walk through the hedge-divided fields. Sean,While fields. walk hedge-divided the through long of that local customs stand in way of the listing a series proceeding with the action that he desires. The old, local The old, desires. that he with action the proceeding used to call himself jokingly as “Sean Aloysius O’Fienne” call to O’Fienne” asused “Sean himself jokingly Aloysius the old traditions of an ancient country. This confronta country. an ancient of traditions old the tion between a brief, for church the of in graveyard the traditions old the in the short dialogue between Sean Maryand dialogue between who in short Kate, the kiss like to his would manner, in his usual business-like romantic moment. was a mark of ‘authentic Irishness.’ Spiddal in Co. Galway, Galway, in Co. Spiddal Irishness.’ was ‘authentic a mark of his was a Gaelic- Irish roots, rediscover to went Ford where called willing who locals, withthe talk to Gaelic a little - - - - values, represented represented values, modern values and values

traditional traditional

Celtic crosses appear in the courting scene which starts which scene in courting the appear crosses Celtic

connection to the religious ornamentation of the original the of ornamentation religious the to connection

of the medieval church. Again, it is clear that the crosses that crosses the is clear Again, it church. medieval the of church; the ancient nature of the ruin made very explicit ruin the explicit very nature of made ancient the church; course of their journey. At the climax of the courting scene climax the scene courting At the of journey. their of course ers merrily, losing one or two clothing items during the during the items clothing two or one losing merrily, ers cal community of Innisfree on the one hand; on the other, other, the hand; on one Innisfree the cal of on community

are artificial constructions; their decoration suggests no suggests decoration are artificial their constructions; by the crumbling, arched Gothic window and by the many the by and window Gothic crumbling, the arched by

bike and, now unattended, run through fields and riv and run fields through unattended, and, now bike between

home from Pittsburgh. Celtic crosses. Instead, the crosses stand grave in the crosses the Instead, crosses. Celtic ple manages to sneak away from Michaeleen on a stolen a stolen on Michaeleen from managesaway sneak to ple playing the role of the ‘guardian of innocence.’ The cou innocence.’ ‘guardian the of of role the playing Sean Thornton and the ‘American values’ that he brings brings that he values’ ‘American the and SeanThornton

tilted, weather-worn Celtic crosses that decorate the site site the that decorate crosses Celtic weather-worn tilted, the couple find themselves on the site of a ruined Gothic of a Gothic ruined site on the find themselves couple the

respectively by Mary Kate and the ‘Irish values’ of the lo the of Mary by ‘Irish values’ the and Kate respectively Irish countryside, accompanied by Michaeleen Oge Flynn Oge Michaeleen by accompanied Irish countryside,

with Sean and Mary Kate going for a cart-drive through the through a cart-drive withSean Mary for and going Kate yard as mementoes of Ireland’s pagan past, as symbols Ireland’s of asyard mementoes FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 178 - communicated between confessor and the priest is only is only priest the and confessor between communicated local is as tryingthe he a fish from catch to confession of audiences’ romantic sense of Ireland. audiences’ are in nature. Their intimate conversation in beautiful, the conversation inare Their nature. intimate scene earlier in film. the of earlier the instances other This scene and hidden from the majority of film viewers. Confessing in Confessing film of majority the viewers. from hidden words Mary to is listening Lonergan Kate’s heart. Fr. her contemporary heighten helped only Irish countryside lush fession. She finds it easier to talk about such an to intimate such talkit easier about finds She fession. matter in her mother tongue, the one which is closest to to is closest which one the tongue, mother in her matter to be heard by the two of them, no one else. So is the case is So the else. one no them, of two the by heard be to river, the very same river which was seen incourting the was seen which river same very the river, they when act speak to to free free and feel they in nature, film suggest that Fr. Lonergan and Mary Kate feel at home home at Maryand feel Lonergan Fr. Kate film that suggest Irish signifies the very intimate nature of Mary Kate’s con of Maryvery nature Irish intimate signifies the Kate’s with Mary Kate’s confession, the words of which are kept arekept which of words the confession, with Mary Kate’s

- Man of the Irishthe The Quiet Man The Shaughraun means ‘Arrah of of means ‘Arrah The Quiet Man Arrah-na-Pogue

means ‘The Blond Girl,’ Girl,’ means ‘The Blond spoke a little Irish to add a local colour to the movie. movie. the to a local colour Irishadd to a little spoke

confession. As a rule, a confession is made in secret, in the in secret, is made As a rule, a confession confession. information the church; a Catholic of booth confessional

own. Her confession is spoken in Irish the language with is spoken confession own. Her confesses in Irish that she and her husband do not share share not do husband her and inIrish thatshe confesses

and the local parish priest, Fr. Peter Lonergan. Mary Lonergan. Kate Peter Fr. parish local the and priest, secretive nature of the affair and the secretive nature of her of nature affair the secretive of nature the and secretive

but not necessarily to boost contemporary ticket sales, al sales, ticket contemporary boost to necessarily not but language is used in the conversation between Mary between Kate language in conversation is the used

(McBride 510). Dion Boucicault used to use Gaelic words words use Gaelic to used Boucicault Dion 510). (McBride familiar. The Irish used in this scene helps emphasise the the emphasise familiar.The helps Irish in used this scene

market the film as a ‘documentary,’ boosting ticket sales sales ticket boosting film the market as a ‘documentary,’ means ‘The Trickster’ and and means ‘The Trickster’

the marital bed because he sleeps in a sleeping bag, on his on bag, in a sleeping maritalthe sleeps he because bed though no harm if doing so. In harm so. no ifthough doing

the Kiss,’ referring to Arrah Meelish, the title character of of character Arrah title to the referring Meelish, Kiss,’ the in box offices. A little Irish is also spoken in little A isIrish spoken also offices. in box

in the titles of his Irish plays, as marks of authenticity; as marks authenticity; his Irishof of plays, titles inthe Aran

Boucicault’s play. The amateur actors of Flaherty’s Flaherty’s of Theamateuractors play. Boucicault’s Having local people speaking the local language helped to to speaking local language the helped localHaving people

which many of the first audiences would not have been been have not would audiences first the many of which The Bawn Colleen FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 179 - - - , the various types, the land of The Quiet Man Similar to cated’ than ‘authentic.’ First of all, the scenes that are set that are set all, of scenes First the cated’ than ‘authentic.’ actual settings of the scenes are far off the main route that main far are route the off actual scenes the of settings and hustle and bustle of which stand into sharp which contrast of bustle and hustle and scape through which Anna struggles her way from Boston, Boston, from Anna way which struggles through her scape her guide, Declan from Dingle, Co. Kerry the Dublin, to Co. Dingle, from Declan guide, her the audience can catch a glimpse of a lovely Irish village a lovely of a glimpse can catch audience the of the cliff; a high of edge the Aran at the Islands situated the generic B-roll of the American metropolis, the density density the American the metropolis, of B-roll generic the in ruralthe tranquillity Irish the noticeable landscape of part the of greater the for Although that follow. scenes the near Dun Aengus, the most famous prehistoric fort on on fort prehistoric famous most the Dun near Aengus, in a leap year, 29 February. 29 year, in a leap but States in United the in fact, shot not, were in Boston authentic of Castle. The Dublin sense around in Ireland, of urban space the of representation the to withity regard film the audience is invited to follow Anna’s journey journey with Anna’s follow to is invited filmaudience the Massachusetts, to Dublin, Ireland, are more ‘authenti more are Ireland, Dublin, to Massachusetts, by audience to the conveyed is effectively however, Boston, Ireland to propose to her boyfriend on the one extra day extra day one the on boyfriend her to propose to Ireland would connect the two places geographically. Accordingly, Accordingly, geographically. places two the connect would Wicklow Mountains, one of the most-visited tourist sites tourist sites most-visited the of one Mountains, Wicklow - - - - - is about is about

(2010), has a sim (2010), Leap Year . (2010)

Leap Year

TheQuiet Man S LEAP YEAR LEAP S

conference there. So Anna decides to follow an old Irish an old follow to Anna So there. decides conference

cipated young woman of Irish parentage, Anna Brady, Anna Irish Brady, parentage, of woman young cipated els from Boston to Dublin to find love on the Emerald Emerald on the love find to Dublin to Boston from els

a second-generation Irish-American woman, who trav who woman, Irish-American a second-generation special day when a woman was allowed to propose to a to propose to was allowed a woman special when day ANAND TUCKER’ ANAND A ROMANTIC ENDING: ROMANTIC A her cardiologist boyfriend, Dr Jeremy Sloane, are bidding are bidding Sloane, Dr Jeremy boyfriend, cardiologist her

for one of the up-market Davenport Cooperative apart Cooperative Davenport up-market the of one for man. So without hesitation, Anna travels from Boston to to Boston from Anna travels hesitation, man.without So

ment ring and flies off to Dublin to attend a cardiologist a cardiologist attend to Dublin to off ring flies and ment ments and Anna is hopeful that Jeremy will hand Anna and ask her that Jeremy isments hopeful that her grandmother proposed to her grandfather on a on grandfather her to proposed grandmother thather tradition, of which she hears from her father. He tells her her tells He father. her from hears she which of tradition, in marriage. To her greatest disappointment, Jeremy gives gives Jeremy disappointment, greatest her in marriage. To

ilar plotline to that of that of to ilarplotline Anna earrings an diamond a pair engage of of instead

Anand Tucker’s recent movie, movie, recent AnandTucker’s Island. Filmed just after the Celtic Tiger period of the the of period Tiger after just Celtic the Filmed Island.

1990s and 2000s, the film follows the story of of emanan story the filmfollows the 2000s, and 1990s who works as a successful stager in Boston. Anna in Boston. stager and as a successful works who FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 180 - - The Quiet provides the audience with more explicit explicit with more audience the provides Leap Year , used by the American director to reflect on the new new on the reflect to American the director by used , Intertextual references also contribute to the creation creation the to alsocontribute Intertextual references of the image of Ireland as an uncorrupted space: the white white the space: as an Ireland uncorrupted of image the of of images peaceful the in audience knowing the evoke at Coole” (1917). Associations to Innisfree are not acciden Innisfree to are not Associations (1917). Coole” at space. The aerial view of the river Liffey, a river that flows flows that a river Liffey, The river the aerial of view space. might Green swans swimminglakeStephen’s the in St on be comparable to that of Boston, the main scenes set in set main the scenes Boston, that of to comparable be political state of Ireland at the time (‘inis free’ [sic!] mean (‘inis time the [sic!] at free’ Ireland of state political February 29 in a leap on boyfriends their to proposing Stephen’s Green, the city centre public park: these affirm these park: public city centre the Green, Stephen’s through the centre of the city; the long scene set in St in St set scene long the city; the of centre the through in line much Dublin, of character rusticthe peaceful and Ford’s of tal;location Innisfree fictional is the ing ‘free island’ in English). Besides such subtle references, references, subtle such Besides ‘freeing island’ in English). myths. kind, namely, another of narratives to references Man Dublin represent the Irish as the capital rural an essentially represent Dublin Ireland depicted in the poems of W. B. Yeats, including including B. Yeats, W. of in poems the depicted Ireland with Tucker’s representation of Ireland as a peaceful place. Ireland of representation with Tucker’s Tucker’s Tucker’s women of possibility myth the is the surrounding There “The Lake Isle of Innisfree” (1888) and “The and Swans Wild “The (1888) Innisfree” of Lake Isle - - - - - , serves as a romantic, rural as counterpart a romantic, , serves coq au vin au coq

Besides the famous tourist attractions, the idea that idea the attractions, tourist famous the Besides

of Ireland that could be recognised and appreciated by a by appreciated and recognised be that could Ireland of of Ireland located in Co. Wicklow near Dublin; and of of and Dublin; near Wicklow in Co. located Ireland of

grazing cows that block the road to Dublin, thereby hinder thereby Dublin, to road the that block grazingcows licious

known Irish tourist attractions projects a romantic image a romantic projects known Irish tourist attractions maintained even at this point. Instead of offering the pic the offering of Instead this at point. maintainedeven

ture of a busy city, the hustle and bustle of which would would which of bustle and hustle the a busy city, ture of the image of Ireland as essentially rural and romantic is rural as essentially Ireland romantic and of image the

to the chicken Anna knows from the freezer section of of section freezer the Anna from knows chicken the to the free-range chicken, which eventually ends up in a de up ends eventually which chicken, free-range the

ther reinforced by a high number of shots of lavish, green green lavish, of shots of number a high by reinforced ther tic setting that would correspond to the actual route of of actual the to route correspond that setting would tic the Midlands of Ireland. Instead of providing an authen providing of Instead Ireland. Midlandsthe of the Rock of Dunamase, a rock formation in Co. Laois in Laois in Co. Dunamase, of formation Rock the a rock ing Anna and Declan’s arrival to the capital city. Similarly, Similarly, arrival city. capital the to Annaing Declan’s and

fields as well as by the scene of the slow-moving herd of herd slow-moving of the scene by well the as as fields Anna’s journey reaches its end in the urban space of Dublin, of urban in space the end its reaches journey Anna’s

Anna and Declan’s journey, the inclusion of these well- these of inclusion the journey, Anna Declan’s and Boston’s metropolitan supermarkets. Despite the fact that fact the Despite supermarkets. metropolitan Boston’s

Ireland was a place where nature was uncorrupted is fur nature was uncorrupted where was a place Ireland wider, international audience. FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 181 - - - - - . TheQuiet Man The opposition between ‘authenticated’ and ‘authen and ‘authenticated’ between The opposition computer-generated imagery made the insertion of ‘typ of insertion imagery the made computer-generated in Ford’s crosses land, as those did cient re is frequently as she Boston,” from “Anna of character dialect that so Declan’s Ireland of learn West to the order re Goode Dingle.’ ‘authentically sound would character authentically Irish are also perceivable in his character’s in his character’s Irishare also perceivable authentically by both the actor and the voice coach to signify Declan’s signify to Declan’s coach voice the and actor the both by being authentic, these Celtic crosses, randomly emerging emerging randomly crosses, Celtic these authentic, being long hours with the Irish voice coach, Gerry Grenell, in Gerry Grenell, coach, Irish with the voice hours long O’Callaghan, is played by the English actor, Matthew Matthew actor, English the by O’Callaghan, is played Goode. On the insistence of the director, Goode spent spent Goode director, the of insistence On the Goode. from the ground, symbolise the old traditions of an an of traditions symbolise old the ground, the from by actress, the Amy American in film, the to played is ferred members, however, that no one on set could understand a understand could set on one that no however, members, tic’ also presents itself in relation to the actors. While the actors. the to in relation itself also presents tic’ relatively frequent use of the words “bob” and “eejit” (Irish “bob” “eejit” and words the use of frequent relatively ical’ Celtic crosses in the scene also possible. Far from from Far also possible. scene in the crosses ical’ Celtic Adams, the cheeky guy from the Irish countryside, Declan Irish the guy countryside, from Adams, cheeky the Irish background (Movieweb). Goode’s attempts at being being at attempts Goode’s (Movieweb). Irish background word he was saying, so instead of the originally proposed originally the of instead proposed so was saying, he word created was eventually a fake Irish accent accent, western

- - - -

Diarmuid (1901), is recounted in a setting that is of central central that inis setting a of is recounted (1901),

and Grania

of a now ruinous fortress into a breathtakingly beautiful, a breathtakingly into ruinous fortress a now of modern use of the setting, idealised and over-romantic of Dunamase Castle, one of the most important Anglo- important most the Dunamase of of one Castle,

of Ireland. Declan narrates the medieval legend about the the about legend narrates Declan medieval the Ireland. of cals of Dingle. In recounting the myth of Diarmuid myth and the of In recounting cals Dingle. of

a castle with this name does exist in Ireland, in Co. Kerry, Kerry, a castle with in this Co. exist in Ireland, name does a basis for George Moore and W. B. Yeats’s play play B. Yeats’s W. and Moore George a basis for

based on myths, some on superstitions, uttered by the lo the by uttered superstitions, on myths, some on based he and Anna are exploring Ballycarbery Castle. Although Ballycarbery Anna and Castle. Although he are exploring

love triangle between the great warrior Fionn, the beauti the warrior Fionn, great the triangle between love Gráinne, Declan contributes further to the evocation of of further evocation the to contributes Declan Gráinne,

ful princess Gráinne, and her paramour Diarmuid while Diarmuid paramour while her and Gráinne, ful princess jor part of which was computer-generated, was ruins the was computer-generated, part which of jor

the primary shooting location for the castle scene, the ma the castle the scene, for primarythe location shooting tory and cultural traditions. The myth, which served as served cultural Thetory and myth, which traditions.

there are the several controversial remarks, some of them them of some remarks, controversial several the are there importance with regard to projecting a romantic image image a romantic projecting to with regard importance

Norman strongholds on the Rock of Dunamase,of Rock the in Co. on Norman strongholds Laois in the Irish Midlands. Besides the transformation transformation the in Irish the Laois Midlands. Besides

Ireland as an essentially romantic space with age-old his with age-old space as romantic anIreland essentially year, which functions as a frame of the whole movie. Also, Also, movie. as functions whole the frame a which of year, FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 182 - , established in Films 2003. and , established , the Irish Tourist Board, established in established Board, Irish, the Tourist Fáilte Ireland Fáilte

of family connections, Tucker and script writers Debora Debora writers script and Tucker familyof connections, of heard only have would this audience of international and of true values in Tucker’s new work, against which against which work, new in Tucker’s true values of and Indian- of a mixed a director Tucker, defined. are clearly a wider and more international audience. The majority The majority audience. international more and a wider century thought filmmakers and early of twenty-first the globalised more of a financial the benefits reaping about still depicts Ireland as a country where turf fire is asalways where a country Ireland still depicts German-Thai background, who classifies classifies a himself as who background, German-Thai making a film which was to have a ‘universal’ appeal for for ‘universal’appeal a makingwas to film a have which films America; of Irish the migrant community of ments part, desired to speak to the patriotic and nostalgic senti nostalgic and speak patriotic the to to part, desired though, Ireland retains its image as a land of romantic love love retains as romantic image its Ireland a land of though, materialistic world modern, the of values corrupted the the country of Ireland through pop-up advertisements or or advertisements pop-up through Ireland of country the of campaign by intensive the financed touristbrochures interest in Ireland and Irish culture. Curiously enough, enough, Irish and Curiously culture. in Ireland interest filmmakers of the early twentieth century, for the most most the for century, filmmakersearly twentieth of the Bord Éireann Fáilte British filmmaker involved in the Hollywood film industry, industry, filmHollywood in the filmmakerBritish involved Kaplan and Harry Elfont were faced with the challenge of of with challenge the faced Kaplan Harry and were Elfont 1955, and of of and 1955,

- -

Tucker’s film abounds in ‘authenticating’ moments, far moments, ‘authenticating’ film in abounds Tucker’s

constitute the first line of an old Irish prayer, not often often not prayer, Irish old of firstan the line constitute

of the elders of the village as he wishes a safe journey for for village the journey a safe of wishes as he elders the of anything religious, seems to suggest that the words are are that words the suggest to seems anything religious,

are uttered by one of the local men. “Go n-éirí an n-éirí bóthar “Go local men. the of one by are uttered speaking area in Ireland; the only Gaelic words of the film the of words Gaelic only speaking the area in Ireland;

slang for ‘money’ and ‘idiot,’ respectively). Ironically, the au the Ironically, respectively). ‘idiot,’ and ‘money’ for slang by the Irish-born actors playing in the supporting roles of of roles supporting in the playing actors Irish-born the by

leat” (Gaelic for ‘May the road rise to meet you’) says one one says you’) rise meet to road the ‘May for (Gaelic leat” local Irishmen, people with whom the couple meet during meet couple the with whom people local Irishmen,

made films primarily for audiences who were familiar were who filmsmade primarilyaudiences for particular point of the film, with no further reference to film, the particular no of reference furtherwith point

uttered in public but most frequently displayed on tour on displayed frequently most but in public uttered the young couple before they set off together to Dublin to in Dublin together off set they before couple young the

the course of their journey to Dublin. Dingle is a Gaelic- Dingle Dublin. to journey their of course the thenticity of Declan’s Irishness is somewhat undermined undermined is Irishness somewhat Declan’s of thenticity

too many to mention. While Olcott, Flaherty and Ford Flaherty While Ford Olcott, and mention. many to too not ‘authentic’ to the actual setting or to the moment in moment actual the the to to or setting ‘authentic’ not

ist memorabilia. Quoting the words of the prayer at thisat prayer the of words the Quoting ist memorabilia. Declan’s “classic” Renault 4. The words of the wish, the in fact, of 4. The words Renault “classic” Declan’s

with Ireland, their ‘home country,’ through a network network a through country,’ ‘home their with Ireland, which they are recalled. are recalled. they which FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 183

- . Leap Year

of broth is brewing for the welcome stranger. Curiously, Curiously, stranger. welcome the for is brewing broth of

burning, where whiskey is being served and where a pot pot a where and served is being whiskey burning,where Celtic Tiger period of the turn of the twenty-first cen turn the twenty-first the of of period Tiger Celtic

tranquillity in his most recent film, tranquillity recent in his most tury, a period in which Ireland, once rural traditional, and once Ireland, in which a period tury,

this is happening against the historical background of the the of againstthishistorical background the is happening Despite this, Tucker uses once more the well-known and and well-known the more once uses this, Tucker Despite

well-marketed image of Ireland as a land of peace and and peace as a land of Ireland of image well-marketed was becoming increasingly more modern and industrial. and modern more increasingly was becoming FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 184 - - The . Ger . You Tube, Tube, . You . Eds. Seán Cros YouTube . Dublin: Country House, House, Country . Dublin: Selected Plays: Dion Boucicault Irish High Crosses The Quiet Man…and Beyond .” son and Ron Stoneman. Dublin: Liffey Press, 2009. 139– 2009. Press, Liffey Dublin: Stoneman. Ron and son Quiet Man rards Cross: Smythe, 1987. Print. 1987. Smythe, rards Cross: Matthew Goode.” Online video clip. clip. Online video Goode.” Matthew 158. Print. 24 Sept. 2010. Web. 3 Jan. 2016. Web. 2010. 24 Sept. Print.2000. Slater, Eamonn. “The Hidden Landscape Aesthetic of of Aesthetic Landscape “TheEamonn. Hidden Slater, Roger. Stalley, Parkin, Andrew, ed. ed. Parkin, Andrew, Movieweb. “Leap Year — Interview with Amy Adams and Year — Interview “Leap Movieweb. . ------. Eds. . Eds. . Jackson: Univer . London: Quartet Books, . London: . Ed. Claire Connolly. Basing Ed. Claire. Connolly. The Quiet Man… and Beyond TheQuiet Man… and Beyond .” Searching for John Ford John for Searching Dion Boucicault Dion TheorizingIreland The Cambridge Companion to Modern Irish Culture Irish Modern to Companion The Cambridge

The Quiet Man

ema.” and sity Press of Mississippi, 2011. Print. 2011. Mississippi, of Press sity stoke: Palgrave, 2003. 69–75. 2003. Print. Palgrave, stoke: bridge University Press, 2005. Print. Press, 206–224. University bridge Seán Crosson and Ron Stoneman. Dublin: Liffey Press, Press, Liffey Dublin: Stoneman. Ron and Seán Crosson Seán Crosson and Ron Stoneman. Dublin: Liffey Press, Press, Liffey Dublin: Stoneman. Ron and Seán Crosson ture.” the Western Tropes of Twentieth-Century Irish Amer Twentieth-Century of Tropes Western the ican Assimilation.” Eds. Joe Cleary and Claire Connolly. Cambridge: Cam Cambridge: ClearyEds.Joe Claire and Connolly. 2009. 159–177. Print. 159–177. 2009. 2011. Print. 2009. 30–41. Print.2009. 30–41.

WORKS CITED: WORKS

Gibbons, Luke. “Projecting the nation: cinema and cul and cinema nation: the “Projecting Luke. Gibbons, McBride, Joseph.

Flynn, Roddy. “Talking a Little Treason: The Irish State Treason: a Little “Talking Flynn, Roddy. Fawkes, Richard.

Byrne, James P. “Ethnic Revenge: A Structural Analysis of Revenge: “Ethnic P. James Byrne, —. “Narratives of the Nation: Fact, Fiction and Irish and Cin Fiction Fact, Nation: the of “Narratives —. FILM & CULTURE–REMPORT & VESZTERGOM–ROMANTIC

IRELAND AND THE HOLLYWOOD FILM INDUSTRY... 185 - Dir. Sidney Olcott. Kalem Com Olcott. Sidney Dir. . Dir. Sidney Olcott. Kalem Company, Kalem Company, Olcott. Sidney . Dir. Dir. John Ford. Argosy Pictures, 1952. Film. 1952. Argosy Pictures, Ford. John Dir. Dir. Robert J. Flaherty. Gaumont, 1934. Film. 1934. Gaumont, Flaherty. J. Robert Dir. Dir. John Ford. Argosy Pictures, 1950. Film. 1950. Argosy Pictures, Ford. John Dir. Dir. Anand Tucker. Universal Pictures, 2010. 2010. Pictures, Universal Anand Tucker. Dir. . Dir. James B. Brown and George C. Stoney. C. Stoney. George and B. Brown James . Dir.

of Aran George C. Stoney Associates, 1978. Film. 1978. Associates, C. Stoney George pany, 1910. Film. 1910. pany, Film. 1911. Film.

FILMOGRAPHY: Man of Aran.

Rio Grande. Rio Leap Year.

How the Myth Was Made: A Study of Robert Flaherty’s Man Man Flaherty’s Robert of A Study Made: Was Myth the How The Lad from Old Ireland. The Old Lad from

The Bawn Colleen The Quiet Man. John Huston’s Adaptation of James Joyce’s “The Dead”: A Literary Approach

ÉVA PÉTERI | Film & Culture ► 186 FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 187 - - - - Concerning the film’s fidelity to Joyce’s text,usu critics Joyce’s to fidelity film’s the Concerning More interesting, however, is whether the changes mod changes the is whether however, interesting, More essence or the meaning of the story, that is, whether the film the that is, whether story, the meaning the of or essence equally right. In his (210). story” a short of translation a literal of example with astory the details the of ”recreates movie the opinion a part of the journey to the hotel — just to mention a few. mention to hotel — just the to journey a part the of ally regard Huston’s film as a truthful rendition. According filmAccording as a truthfulrendition. Huston’s ally regard the his and recitation; Grace Mr. character, added the as: longer discussion of music at the dinner table; the displace the dinner table; the at music of discussion longer ment of the story of Johnny, the horse; or the omission of of omission the or horse; the Johnny, of story the of ment most of the stories in the collection – “The Dead” tries in collection – “The the stories the of most and definite the of aware not are that they however, mean, this aspect there is no critical consensus. Ann Pederson Ann criticalthis is consensus. Pederson no aspect there to give an insight into the inner life of the main the of life charac inner the into an insight give to be to Ebert seems Conroy, in this case Gabriel that of ter, film feature-length a is “Huston’s example, for Cahir, to not does It filmthe as faithful an “immensely adaptation.” ify — and if they do so, then why and to what extent — the extent — the what to and why then ify — andso, do if they is a truthful in Concerning this as well. sense adaptation important changes Huston has in film, the made such Huston changes important fierce loyalty to the word” (212). Vincent Canby regards also Vincent (212). word” to the loyalty fierce , - - - - Dubliners in general – settings, colours, visual colours, in general – settings,

Dubliners

delity itself will not necessarily make a good film. Fidelity film. makeFidelity will good a necessarily itself not delity of the spirit of the literary work. Literature and film and ob Literature literary work. the of spirit the of

can, of course, be understood in different ways: it can ways: in different understood be can, course, of as it is “highly visual, exceptionally musical, and replete replete and is “highlyas musical, it visual, exceptionally

auditory effects as well, providing, in all probability, a a in probability, allproviding, well, as effects auditory story – as in

but it can also refer to the truthful rendition of the mood, mood, the of truthful the to can also it rendition refer but literary source inevitably entails a curiosity whether the the entails a curiosity whether inevitably literary source

Cahir’s opinion, “The Dead” “is […] suited to the screen” screen” the to suited “The Dead” opinion, “is Cahir’s […] more definite and more clearly outlined impression. The impression. outlined clearly more and definite more

mean fidelity to words, to descriptions and other details, other and descriptions to words, to fidelity mean tracted critical attention ever since. In Constanzo Linda since. ever critical attention tracted

nificance. According to Roger Ebert, however, the story the however, Ebert, Roger to According nificance. impressions, even music, have great, often symbolic sig symbolic often great, have music, even impressions,

relies on words, the latter produces impressive visual and impressive produces latter the words, on relies filmic presentation of the last story of Joyce’s Joyce’s of of laststorythe presentation filmic

film is faithful to the original piece or not, even though fi though even not, film or faithfulis original to the piece with richly suggestive characters” (212). Indeed, in this Indeed, (212). characters” suggestive with richly

viously work with different tools: while the former solely solely former while the tools: with different work viously Watching an adaptation while being well-familiar with its with its well-familiar being while an adaptation Watching

“would seem unfilmable,” and regarding the fact fact that – asregarding the and unfilmable,” seem “would “The Dead,” was made by John Huston in 1987 and has and at in 1987 Huston John by was made “The Dead,” FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 188 - - - - The first added epiphany occurs during Mr. Grace’s Grace’s duringoccurs Mr. epiphany The firstadded experiences epiphany at the end, following the course of of course the following end, the at epiphany experiences of series a upon built is Thefilm, however, end”(658). a few hours’ events: attending the party the the his aunts, of attending events: hours’ a few marital that has kind of the and developed attachment the at epiphany all-embracing the for alistic preparation between them throughout the years” (658). According to to According (658). years” the throughout them between her former lover, the long-dead Michael Furey, evokes em evokes Furey, Michael long-dead the lover, former her Gretta, to spend the night there. Gretta’s revelation about about revelation Gretta’s there. night the spend to Gretta, meaningful continuum in which there are more epipha are more there in which meaningful continuum pathy and a sense of deep humanity in Gabriel. In Singer’s In Singer’s humanity in Gabriel. deep of a sense and pathy us through the accompanying realism and establish[es] a realism establish[es] and accompanying the us through Singer, all the story’s preceding events and details “are re details and “are events preceding all story’s the Singer, translated into English by Lady Gregory as “Broken Vows.” Vows.” as “Broken Gregory Lady by English into translated nies than Joyce employed” (658). employed” thannies Joyce Og,” “Donal Irish poem, eighth-century the of recitation interpretation, a feat of literary criticism […] that guide[s] that guide[s] […] literary criticism of a feat interpretation, filled promises — is in obvious connection with the song song with the connection obvious in promises — is filled Misses Morkan’s, and then going to the hotel with his wife, hotel the to going then and Morkan’s, Misses view, it is also “a new realization about their marriage their about realization new is also “a it view, The poem’s theme — that of lost love, longing and unful and longing love, lost of theme — that Thepoem’s “subsidiary epiphanies,” and in this sense it is “a running is “a in and this it sense epiphanies,” “subsidiary - - that is there, in the that is there, life

The story is very much centred around the idea of of idea the around centred The much is story very

displays and it fails to convey the the fails convey it and to displays detract from but enhance the whole” of the original (qtd. originalthe of (qtd. whole” the enhance but from detract

of the so far insignificant, common impression the ob the impression far so common insignificant, the of epiphany. Joyce means by epiphany “a sudden spiritual sudden “a epiphany means by Joyce epiphany.

of ‘The Dead’” (213). The film, she adds, “hovers on the on the Theadds, film,she “hovers ‘Theof Dead’” (213). convey the mastery of symbolic design that Joyce’s work work that Joyce’s design mastery the symbolic of convey

and not leading to a full to leading epiphany. not and shows how and why the main character, Gabriel Conroy, Conroy, Gabriel main the character, why and how shows

surface of Joyce’s work missing Joyce’s integral depth” (213) integral depth” (213) missing Joyce’s work Joyce’s of surface for failing to show the changes in the character of Gabriel Gabriel of character in the changes the failingshow to for

manifestation” (Tindall 10), an experience that is, according that is, according an experience (Tindall 10), manifestation” ject made on its viewer before. In “The Dead,” epiphany epiphany In “The Dead,” before. viewer its on made ject

praises the changes Huston has made in his film for, in hasin his made filmfor, Huston changes the praises to objects and bring an understanding of the “whatness” “whatness” the of an bring and understanding objects to tal” (658). Very often the Joycean epiphanies are related are related epiphanies Joycean the often Very tal” (658). to Irving Singer, “spiritual without being transcenden being without “spiritual Irvingto Singer, the film reconstructs the details of Joyce’s story, it failsit to story, detailsJoyce’s of film the reconstructs the

is related to an understanding of human relations. It It human relations. of an to understanding is related in Meljac 299). Cahir, on the other hand, that writes “while other the on Cahir, 299). in Meljac

words. The film seems inanimate, lifeless, a dead version version dead a The film inanimate,seems lifeless, words. view, these “add empathy and literary depth which do not not do which literary depth and empathy “add these view, FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 189 ------

” (2260). The power The power ” (2260).

Distant Music

could see the terracotta and salmonpink panels of panels and salmonpink the terracotta could see and dis of laughter the noise save could hear little a woman […] standing near the top of the first flight, flight, first of the the top near standing […] a woman her skirt which the shadow made appear black and and black appear made the shadow which her skirt he But strained his ear to listen also. her stillness and pute on the front steps, a few chords struck on the chords a few steps, pute on the front (2260) singing. voice of a man’s notes piano and a few ters, listening to something. Gabriel was surprised at surprised was Gabriel listening to something. ters, in the shadow […] He could not see her face but he but her face not see could He […] shadow in the In Joyce’s description, neither Gretta’s face nor the col the nor face Gretta’s neither description, In Joyce’s white. It was his wife. She was leaning on the banis the on leaning was She wife. his was It white. of the impression thus strongly originates in unintel the originates strongly thus impression the of ours of her skirt are discernable, as she is standing as in the skirt she discernable, areher of ours impres Visual auditory and in house. the noise the of sions are blurred into mystery, and Gabriel thinks Gabriel and that the mystery, into blurred are sions shadow. Likewise, the song is almost inaudible because because is almost inaudible song Likewise, the shadow. ligibility of the experience, in its suggestive quality, and and quality, suggestive in its experience, the of ligibility plates, he would call “ it would he plates, this as well as the musical reference recalls the late nine recalls late the this reference as musical as the well superiority the about idea twentieth-century early teenth-, image is like a symbol. “[W]ere he a painter,” he contem he a painter,” isimage like a symbol. “[W]ere he - -

different. As the guests are leaving the Misses Morkan’s Morkan’s Misses leaving the As the guests are different.

deep emotional reaction to the song “The Lass song Aughrim” the to of reaction emotional deep count of the death of her young lover in final the part. lover The young her of death the of count about Gretta might serve as prefigurative references to her her to references as serve prefigurative might Gretta about again of Michael Furey and his death. These added scenes scenes added his These and death. Furey Michael again of and with his other responsibilities than with Gretta’s than with Gretta’s responsibilities withand his other

seen after Aunt Kate’s recollection of the memory of her her of memory the of recollection Kate’s after Aunt seen similar, though less emphatic, distraction of hers can be hers of distraction emphatic, less similar,though

suggests that the effect of Mr. Grace’s performance makes performance Grace’s of Mr. that effect the suggests beloved singer, Parkinson, and his “pure sweet mellow […] […] mellow sweet his and Parkinson, “pure singer, beloved

house after the party, Gabriel notices after party, the house Gabriel more nervous about his toast (Cribbs). The film his (Cribbs). toast about nervous more Gabriel

makes Gretta’s emotional distraction a recurring motif. A a recurring distraction motif. emotional makes Gretta’s movie shows how deeply the recitation affectsGretta, and recitation the deeply how shows movie

tenor” (Joyce 2255) voice. The recollection reminds Gretta Gretta reminds The recollection voice. 2255) (Joyce tenor” tion, yet he seems to be more concerned with his speech with his speech concerned more be to seems he yet tion,

in a later scene that has a vital scene story in significance inas the a later Bartell D’Arcy later in the story, as well as with Gretta’s ac as as with Gretta’s well in story, the later Bartell D’Arcy

well as in the film. But the two depictions are strikingly are depictions as in film.the the two well But we also see that Gabriel notices his wife’s strange distrac strange his wife’s notices also that Gabriel see we

“strange mood” (Joyce 2265). Film critic John Cribbs even even Cribbs John Film critic 2265). mood” (Joyce “strange “The Lass of Aughrim” sung by one of the guests, the tenor tenor guests, the the of “The one by sung Lass Aughrim” of FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 190 - - - and the film — support film — support the and Dubliners Almost all these references are missing from the movie. movie. the from missing are Almost all references these

cates — evokes overwhelming emotion in both of them. them. of in both emotion overwhelming cates — evokes brown- generally the from stand out window — that the of coloured world of both ated with Mary. As Nick Laird adds, Gretta’s “image turns Gretta’s Laird adds, As with Mary. Nick ated along his veins” (2262). behind a semi-circularalike. stained-glass window With shining” (2261), whereas Gabriel’s “blood [goes] bounding bounding [goes] “blood Gabriel’s whereas shining” (2261), and all surroundings, and dress, and her face, Gretta’s see but still as in Whistlerian nature, the musical indi but title he would paint Gretta were he a painter, Huston actually Huston a painter, he were Gretta paint would he likewise can clearly hear the song, the tune and the words words the tune and the song, the hear likewise can clearly appears scarfGretta her figure, face with framingher her panels blue and red bright the like Virgin the Even Mary. Gretta has “colour on her cheeks and […] her eyes [are] [are] eyes her […] and cheeks her on hasGretta “colour ments that whereas Gabriel is only thinking about how thinking is only how Gabriel about that whereas ments painting: static for moments in the film. Ebert even com in film. the even Ebert moments for static painting: to La Pietà when she opens her eyes and they are glossy are glossy they and eyes her opens she Lato when Pietà this impression, these being colours traditionally associ traditionally colours being these this impression, First of all, nothing is made vague or distant. We can clearly can clearly distant. all, or vague We is made of First nothing with tears.” Truthful to the story the image is image really the like story a the to Truthful with tears.” “paints her” (Ebert). Yet in style, it is a decisively different different is a decisively it in style, Yet (Ebert). her” “paints

- - - -

Music is of central importance in “The Dead.” The mu in “The importance central Dead.” is of Music

elicits open praise — an honest one from Freddy Malins, Freddy from one praise — an honest open elicits

composition” (295). of music” (140), and, as Meljac claims, Joyce’s “The Dead,” “The Dead,” claims, Joyce’s and, as Meljac (140), music” of

of music among the arts. As Walter Pater famously com famously Pater arts.the among AsWalter music of and a rather ironical one from Mr. Browne. But music is music But Browne. Mr. from one ironical a rather and

aged Julia’s singing of Bellini’s aria “Arrayed for the Bridal” the for aria Bellini’s singing of “Arrayed Julia’s aged an audience. The three musical performances described in described performances The musical three an audience.

so even her perception must have been vague. The ex vague. been have must perception her even so seemed uncertain both of his words and of his voice” (2261), (2261), his voice” of and his uncertain words of both seemed

sicality of the text is, of course, a primary feature. Music a primary Music course, is, of feature. text the sicality of by Bartell D’Arcy, but according to the text “the singer singer “the text the to according but Bartell D’Arcy, by

brilliant academy piece on the piano remains emotionally remains emotionally piano the on piece brilliant academy Gretta could hear the song, “The sung Lass song, Aughrim” the hear of could Gretta

most effective when distant. We do not know how clearly clearly how know not do We distant. when effective most mented: “[a]ll art constantly aspires towards the condition condition the arttowards aspires constantly “[a]ll mented:

perience — Gretta’s auditory and Gabriel’s rather visual, rather Gabriel’s and auditory perience — Gretta’s the story produce different effects. Mary Jane’s technically effects. Mary Jane’s different produce story the

tertainment: it accompanies dances and it is performed to to is performed it and dances accompanies it tertainment: though made up of words, “reveals itself to be a musical a musical be to itself “reveals words, of up made though

ineffective; it has no deep impression on the listeners. The on listeners. the impression deep it no has ineffective; is also a theme of polite conversation and a means of en a means and of conversation polite of is alsoa theme FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 191 - - - of January, when the Magi found the baby Christ baby in the Magi the found when January, of th deeds and worth — as Micheal Furey does, in the abstract in abstract the does, Furey worth — as Micheal and deeds of Gabriel. Both the names of Gabriel and Michael are are Michael and Gabriel names of the Both Gabriel. of innocence of symbol the lily, is the attributes Mary’s of with death. is associated Furey with birth,ciated Michael as a whole: the Misses Morkan’s party the on takes place Morkan’s Misses the as a whole: and virginity, and in traditional Annunciation presenta Annunciation in and traditional virginity, and with is usually He depicted Last the of Judgement. angel sense, with Gabriel at the end. So whereas Gabriel is asso Gabriel whereas So end. the at with Gabriel sense, 6 made clear by Mr. Browne at his at arrival the Browne in film), the Mr. by clear made message of the Immaculate Conception to Mary. One One Mary. to Immaculate the Conception of message usually pointing towards her womb. Michael is the arch is the Michael womb. her towards usually pointing the discussions and thoughts are much more concerned concerned more are much thoughts and discussions the taken from archangels in Christian mythology. Gabriel Gabriel in Christian archangels taken from mythology. stem its Mary, lily to a white out is holding Gabriel tions his face measuring making scales, soul, the the everyone in the story — and in a way he also becomes the saviour saviour the also becomes he in way a story — and inthe divine the delivers he Annunciation: the of angel is the Day of Epiphany (it is not directly claimed in the story but in but story claimed directly the is not (it Epiphany of Day yet birth life, and celebrates thus, The party, Bethlehem. These symbolical references are also related to the story story the to are also related symbolicalThese references ‘someone else’ — “I think he died for me” (2266), says Gretta Gretta says (2266), me” think for died he else’ — “I ‘someone - - - - . She is forever an emblem of of an emblem is forever . She Pietà , the mother/lover bearing a transfigured mother/lover , the

magna mater

Henke’s claim about Michael being a Christ-like fig a Christ-like being Michael claim about Henke’s The association of Gretta with Virgin the Gretta Mary of The association is not

obvious, the film consequently shows Gabriel rather cu rather Gabriel shows film the consequently obvious, of the Virgin the of Mary as

one is rather like a High Renaissance Madonna. like a High is rather one godhead in bereft maternal arms” (45). Henke alsoclaims Henke maternal arms” inbereft (45). godhead

but it is made possible precisely due to Gabriel’s lack of of lack Gabriel’s to due precisely possible is made it but hero whose death makes Gretta into an eternal replica an eternal into makes replica Gretta death whose hero

picture than the one described in the story. The picture The picture in story. the described thanpicture one the ure can be seen in other references as well. He dies for for dies He as well. references in other canure seen be

understanding the text and its connotations, and not be not and connotations, its and text the understanding unparalleled in the literary criticism of the story either. either. story the of criticism literary in the unparalleled

the form of sacrificial tragedy” (45). In a way it is ironic, it is ironic, way In a (45). sacrificial of form the tragedy” that it is ironic in the story that Gabriel feels lust “at the the “at lust feels that instory Gabriel the is ironic thatit

the rious thanrious sexually excited.

ing aware of the pain Gretta feels. Making far too these feels. pain the Gretta of aware ing iniscences of Michael Furey, a lover whose passion took took passion whose a lover Furey, Michael of iniscences

in the text is definitely impressionistic, while the while filmic the impressionistic, is definitely in text the According to Suzette Henke, “[s]ymbolically, the martyred the “[s]ymbolically, Henke, Suzette to According

Furey became a contemporary Christmythic a figure, a contemporary became Furey very moment when Gretta is most fully absorbed in rem fully is most absorbed Gretta when moment very FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 192 ------derstanding of his part in a common humanity his an and part of derstanding in a common empathy. As Singer writes, “[t]hough Gabriel has ex been Gabriel “[t]hough writes, AsSinger empathy. his love being, [his of wife’s] this from segment cluded isindeed Gabriel (212). with others” connection emphatic submis King as his Billy of to a parallel own “enforced anger and jealousy through shame into acceptance and and acceptance into shame through jealousy and anger wise a to un soul paralysis of and isolation of arrogance char the of like most in story, the character a paralysed anecdote Gabriel’s regards Singer Dublin. in Joyce’s acters statue the round and round going horse, the Johnny, about superior to the other Dubliners depicted by Joyce — in in Joyce — in by depicted Dubliners other the to superior sion to civilized restraint” (661), his own paralysed life. In life. his own paralysed civilized to (661), restraint” sion bound by monotonous, daily routines, finding escape only escape finding daily routines, monotonous, by bound for Gretta elucidates for him the mythic plentitude that him mythic plentitude the for elucidates Gretta for tellect, in generosity, in solicitude — he realizes at the end end the realizes at in solicitude — he in generosity, tellect, All throughout passion. lacking that his is still life ‘frozen,’ is mak he impression the about “worries he evening the in illusion or in drink. And though Gabriel is definitely in is drink. definitely or in Gabriel illusion And though women” guests, particularly young the other the on ing is epiphanized through what has erupted in her” (663). (663). in her” has what erupted through is epiphanized According to Cahir, his final “insight moves his Cahir, him to finalan from moves “insight According Joyce’s presentation, Dublin life in general means being means being in general life Dublin presentation, Joyce’s - - -

When the dead Michael Furey finally ‘appears’ in the ‘appears’ finally Furey Michael dead the When

dead Michael Furey is nicely shown in film the shown through is nicely Furey Michael dead of the narrative and is not evidently “hugely unnecessary, unnecessary, “hugely evidently is narrative and not the of

contains a latent reference to death, as he says that Gretta that Gretta says as he death, to reference a latent contains ary scholar William York Tindall points out, even Lily’s Lily’s even out, Tindall points aryWilliam scholar York

and in his speech he also talks about friends who are no also are no he talks inand his who friends speech about story — as Gretta starts talking about him — Joyce’s story story story — asstarts Gretta talking him — Joyce’s about gradually from changes reaction Gabriel’s how shows

gone singers, they mention the monks who are sleeping are sleeping who monks the mention they singers, gone longer with them. Even his first comment at his arrival his comment first Even with them. longer

[or] at best the redundant precursor of the famous Distant famous the of precursor redundant the best at [or] Gretta’s memory already at the time of Mr. Grace’s recita Grace’s Mr. of time the at already memory Gretta’s

mean that the recitation scene could be an be integral part could scene thatmean recitation the mother and contemplates the near death of Aunt Julia, Aunt of death near the contemplates and mother

the proceedings the entire time” (Cribbs). It might also might It (Cribbs). time” entire the proceedings the tion. It also shows how “a dead person has been haunting has haunting been person dead “a how also shows It tion.

name bears a reference to death, as lily is death, the also to a funeral name bears a reference in their coffins, Gabriel recollects the memory of his dead dead of his memory the recollects Gabriel coffins, in their

flower (47). The latent “spectral presence” (Henke 47) of the 47) (Henke “spectralpresence” latent The (47). flower Music scene,” as Cribbs believes. as Cribbs scene,” Music

with death. At the dinner table they are talkingare they by table dinner the At about withdeath. “takes three mortal hours to dress herself” (2241). As liter herself” dress to mortal three “takes (2241). hours FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 193 - - The prefigurative epiphanies of the film, pointed out by out pointed of film,the epiphanies The prefigurative

difficult, and Gretta Gretta gradually only to significance difficult,gainsand on the Joycean text — “the inclusiveness of [Gabriel’s] sor [Gabriel’s] of inclusiveness text — “the Joycean the on seemseveryone, exaggerated, disconnected” even (Denby in the film. full is no there epiphany Gabriel concerning and her haunting memory of Michael Furey, than about than about Furey, Michael of memory haunting her and gazing at Gretta’s sleeping figure in hefilm, the thinks sleeping that Gretta’s gazing at being united with Gretta in sleep, he remains separated remains separated he in with sleep, Gretta united being 60). And given his isolation till the end, it might be said that said be might it till end, the his isolation And given 60). (2667), showing again the lack of empathy in film. the And empathy again of lack the showing (2667), Gabriel. According to the story, the aunts are full aunts the ex of story, the to According Gabriel. from her till the very end. Though musing about being being about musing Though till end. very her the from may suggest that the film is perhaps more about Gretta Gretta about more that film the suggest perhaps is may pectations about the arrival of Gabriel, whom they think they whom arrival the Gabriel, about of pectations united with the dead — his inner monologue relying much much relying monologue inner with dead — his the united Singer, and Gretta’s dramatic revelation in the hotel room room in hotel the dramatic revelation Gretta’s and Singer, they can rely on in issues and circumstances and or important in issues on canthey rely to himself that her face was no longer beautiful” (2667), beautiful” (2667), longer was no face himselfto that her that implies isstill himself she to beautiful. The alteration no “strange, friendly pity for her [could] enter […] his soul” […] enter [could] her for pity friendly “strange, no falling thus in story — and the asleep — as slowly of instead for himself but for only not in his words], [implied row

- - - - -

In the film no such identification is shown. Gabriel re shown.Gabriel is identification filmInsuch the no

are primarily a venting of sincere and compassionate feel compassionate and sincere of are primarily a venting

swallowed up in distant the up past” (662–63). swallowed her passionate experience of love. And even though the the though And even love. of experience passionate her

himself with Gretta’s memory and pain. As Singer writes, writes, pain. and As Singer memory himself with Gretta’s (Denby 60), yet the lack of empathy — all his well-mean empathy — all of lack the yet 60), (Denby

Gretta, after her confession, exhausted by the stir of the the stirthe of by exhausted confession, afterGretta, her mains physically as well as asspiritually his mainswell distanced from physically

man standing under a dripping tree” (2268). He identifies identifies He (2268). tree” man a dripping standing under mately attain epiphany is very nicely shown in the story. in story. the shown nicely is very attainepiphany mately

party and the pain of the recollection of her past passion, past passion, her of partyrecollection the pain the and of thinking of her revelation, of himself, of death in general. in general. death of himself, of thinking revelation, her of

in his eyes. His thoughts are mostly about Gretta and and Gretta about are mostly His thoughts in his eyes. ings about his wife’s devastating loss of vibrant impulses impulses vibrant of loss devastating his wife’s about ings

ing in his eyes and imagines seeing “the form of a young a young of form “the imagines and seeing ining his eyes ing notwithstanding – results in failing to communicate notwithstanding – results ining failing communicate to

flings herself onto the bed and falls asleep. Gabriel starts Gabriel falls bed and the asleep. onto herself flings Joycean text clearly says that “[he] did not like to say even even say like to not did that “[he] says clearly text Joycean

He finally lies “down beside his wife” (2268), tears gather (2268), his finally wife” He beside “down lies wife, remaining standing at the window, with no tears tears with no remainingwife, window, standing the at

with Lily, Miss Ivors, even with ulti Gretta. His to ability even Miss Ivors, withLily, “[h]e weeps for himself as an excluded male, but his tears male, but himself as an for excluded weeps “[h]e FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 194 - considered as an adaptation of the story that — deliberately that — deliberately story the of as an adaptation considered her than rather Gabriel, Gretta unconsciously — places or epiph than rather Gabriel’s love passionate of experience any, into the focus of attention. of focus the into any, ------

According to Denby, Huston’s “movie is lovely — a lyr is lovely — a “movie Huston’s Denby, to According

orable than her husband’s similar taking of than act husband’s his off her orable compels attention from the very beginning: she is“strik beginning: very the she from attention compels

as if she could pick up [Gabriel] and throw him over her her him throw and over [Gabriel] up pick could asif she as Laird writes, “she dwarves everyone in shot,” and though though and in shot,” everyone dwarves asLaird “she writes,

shoulders” (Laird). Even the brief scene at the beginning, the at scene brief the Even (Laird). shoulders” gests his aversion to snow associated in with story the associated snow to hisgests aversion

goloshes at the same time. Gabriel’s “scraping the snow snow the “scraping Gabriel’s same time. the at goloshes be a result of a different emphasis, and the film might be filmthe might emphasis, and a different of a result be band” (Henke 48) in the end. In the film, however, she she film, In the however, in end. the 48) band” (Henke be able to “rejuvenate […] the moribund spirit of her hus her of spirit moribund the […] “rejuvenate to able be from his goloshes” (2241) in the story symbolically in story sug the (2241) his goloshes” from

point to his acceptance of both in the end. Huston does does Huston in end. the both of his to acceptance point to be more focused on Gretta. on more focused be to

the aunts about her children left behind, is more mem is more behind, left children her about aunts the tragic strength” as Joyce’s story (60). But it might simply simply might it But (60). story tragic strength” as Joyce’s

ical work — but it does not have anything like have same the not does it ical work — but not mind the symbolic reference as his attention seems seems as his attention reference symbolic the mind not

it is “Gabriel [who] is overprotective of her [… she] looks looks she] [… her of is overprotective [who] is “Gabriel it ingly handsome” and elegant (Laird). “[W]ith her height,” height,” “[W]ith her (Laird). elegant and handsome” ingly

Michael Furey and the West, and thus giving thus and a counter West, the and Furey Michael when Gretta is changing her shoes, while conversing with conversing while shoes, is changing Gretta her when FILM & CULTURE–PÉTERI–JOHN HUSTON’S

ADAPTATION OF JAMES JOYCE’S “THE DEAD”... 195 - Lit . New The Hudson The Hudson The Renaissance: . London: Macmillan, 135– 1888. . London: 37. 4 (2009): 295–304. Print. 295–304. 4 (2009): 37. A Guide Reader’s to James Joyce 56. 4 (2004): 655–65. Print. 4 (2004): 56. erature/Film Quaterly and John Huston’s Adaptation as Aesthetic Rivals.” Rivals.” as Aesthetic Adaptation Huston’s John and 61. Internet Archive. Web. 22 Jan. 2016. 22 Web. Archive. Internet 61. Studies in Art and Poetry Art and in Studies Review York: Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1969. Print. 1969. Giroux, & Straus Farrar, York: Singer, Irving. “The Dead: Story and Film.” Irving. Film.” “The and Story Dead: Singer, Meljac, Eric Paul. “Dead Silence: James Joyce’s ‘The Dead’ Joyce’s James Silence: “Dead Paul. Eric Meljac, Giorgione.” of “The School Walter. Pater, Tindall, William York. York. William Tindall, - - Litera . 2 Dec. . 2 Dec. 18 Jan. . Jefferson, . Jefferson, James Joyce rogeregbert. ” . n.d. Web. 23 23 Web. . n.d. The Guardian New York MagazineNew York The Norton Anthology of Eng The Pink Smoke . . London: Routledge, 1990. 42– Routledge, . London: . 17 Dec. 1987. Web. 23 Oct. 2015. 23 Web. 1987. Dec. . 17 . Vol. 2. New York, London: W.W. Norton Norton W.W. London: York, 2. New . Vol. . 9 Oct. 2005. Web. 23 Oct. 2015. 23 . 9 Oct. 2005. Web.

and the Politics of Desire of Politics the and com lish Literature ture into Film: Theory and Practical Approaches Practical Theory and Film: into ture Oct. 2015. Oct. & Company, 2002. 2240–68. Print. 2240–68. 2002. & Company, London: McFarland & Company, 2006. 186–234. Print. 186–234. 2006. Company, & McFarland London: 1988: 59–60. Print. 2006. Web. 23 Oct. 2015 23 Web. 2006. 49. Print. The New York Times York The New

WORKS CITED WORKS Cahir, Linda Constanzo. “Short Stories into Film.” Film.” into Stories “Short Constanzo. Linda Cahir, Cribbs, John. “The Dead.” “The John. Dead.” Cribbs, Canby, Vincent. “Movie Review: The Dead, Film by Huston.” Huston.” The Film Dead, by Review: “Movie Vincent. Canby, Joyce, James. “‘The Dead.” “‘The James. Dead.” Joyce,

Ebert, Roger. “Movie Review of The Dead. of Review “Movie Ebert, Roger. Denby, David. “The Living.” “The David. Living.” Denby,

Laird, Nick. “I Think he Died for Me.” Me.” Think “I for Laird, Died Nick. he Henke, A. Suzette. “‘The Dead’ – An Epilogue.” A. “‘The Suzette. Henke, Dead’ – An Epilogue.” Sequential Arts: Moments From the Parallel History of

“TODAY FOR THE FIRST TIME IN MANY DECADES, FILM IS LOOKING TO LEARN Comics and Film FROM COMICS ONCE AGAIN.” (GARDNER 183)

ESZTER SZÉP | Film & Culture ► 196 FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 197 - - plastic Spider-man Spider-man and Sam and Raimi’s (dir. Frank Miller and Robert Frank Robert and Miller (dir. (dir. Frank Miller and Robert FrankRobert and Miller (dir. Sin City Sin City City Sin from early comics in computer-generated filmic in computer-generated comics early from bodies of various quality. While some consider that the earlier that earlier the consider While some quality. various of adventures, such as such adventures, 25), (Rauscher directors their of style individual the and seems to be unstoppable. Naturally, these blockbusters are blockbusters these Naturally, unstoppable. be to seems some possible cultural manifestations and reasons for the cultural for reasons and manifestations possible some COMICS AND FILM IN THE 21ST CENTURY 21ST THE IN FILM AND COMICS (2002), found a balance between blockbuster aesthetics aesthetics blockbuster between a balance found (2002), Sin City: A Dame to Kill For For Kill to A Dame City: Sin present year, 2016, a second film had already been made, filmmade, been had already a second 2016, year, present the first examples of a new and successful genre. By the By the genre. successful new and of a examples firstthe interest of film in comics in in our time: the returnse to the our in in filmtime: comics of in interest of re-emergence the riality inproduction, filmic an by unused strategies similar and images, interpretive comics. of readers and ruly filmaudience film adaptation of filmadaptation Rodriguez, 2014), and the trend of comics-based movies movies comics-based of trend the and 2014), Rodriguez, Rodriguez, 2005) “moving comics” (114), and calls it one of of calls and one it (114), comics” “moving 2005) Rodriguez, Hungarian calls visual Hornyik first the Sándor theorist widespread and popular than popular and film. widespread Afterwards,explore I ------

union of the two mediums is only natural: is only mediums two the of union re

In this article I show some ways in which film in which and ways some In this I show article

comics meet at the dawn of the 21st century. First, the First, century. 21st the dawn the of at meet comics

century, they have found each other once again. once other each found have they century, and early 20th century, a time when comics was a lot more more was a lot comics a time when century, 20th early and

adventures and populate entire universes in the newly in newly the universes entire populate and adventures briefly introduced, then, I reach back to the common or common to the back reach I then, introduced, briefly

book heroes do not only star only ownfilms in their not mi do and heroes book books stereotypically read by adolescent males. Comic males. Comic adolescent by read stereotypically books

Gardner, this Gardner, found medium of film. Some critics see in the union of in see union the critics film. of Some medium found

matic influences of comics on early 21st century 21st filmare on early comics of influences matic ment and visuality manifested throughout the 19th cen 19th the visuality and throughout ment manifested

makers have increasingly looked to comics for inspiration. inspiration. for comics to looked increasingly makers have tury (181) — and now, with the new challenges of the 21st 21st the of challenges with new the now, tury (181) — and

igins of the above two sequential media to the late 19th 19th late the to media sequential two above the igins of ity and originality. For others, like comics historian Jared historian Jared like comics others, For originality. and ity

ni-series, they increasingly make cameos in each other’s other’s make in each cameos increasingly they ni-series, film and comics stem from a common interest in move in interest common a from stem filmcomics and

From the beginning of the 21st century Hollywood film century Hollywood beginning 21st the the of From Hollywood stars and comics characters the end of creativ of end the characters stars comics and Hollywood

various mutants originally serialized mutants various known from comic The silver screen is populated by superheroes in tights and intights superheroes by is populated screen The silver FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 198 - - - - lists eight such such lists eight Newsarama.com I would also like to mention a parallel tendency in our in our tendency a parallel also mention like to I would comics, marketed under the category of the “graphic novel,” novel,” “graphic the of category the under marketed comics, su less be to also tends topics of Their range colorists. only. Long gone are the years when comic books were dis were books comic when years are the gone Long only. their readers. at aimed exclusively are not but books, comic narratives in longer comics, in book-format interest cent about animation movies and TV mini-series — clearly do do TV and mini-series — clearly movies animation about several ways: they are made by one person rather than rather person one by made are they ways: several by teams comprised of writers, pencillers, inkers, and and inkers, pencillers, writers, of teams comprised by movies for 2016, another eight for 2017, and a further a and 17 2017, for eight another 2016, for movies perheroic, more serious, often (semi-) autobiographical. autobiographical. (semi-) often serious, more perheroic, per issue counts as a bestseller and is a privilege of certain of is and a privilege as a bestseller counts issue per is a re there Americanized and culture: Western present usually, though not always, differ from comic books in books in comic differ from always, not though usually, until 2020. With the sales of superhero comic books stead books comic superhero of sales the With until 2020. told with the toolkit of comics; often hardbound. These These hardbound. often comics; of with toolkit the told tributed in the millions: today, in the USA, 200.000 copies copies USA, in 200.000 the today, millions: in the tributed was million-seller a inUSA the in1940s the while titles, ily on the wane, these films – and we should not forget forget not should films – andwe these wane, the on ily readers comics of attention the aim to appealing at not films use Superhero 183). (Gardner example without not Movie Release Schedule” at at Schedule” Release Movie - - - -

dumbed down Broadway song lyrics for a non-ur for song lyrics dumbed down Broadway ban and non-urbane audience. So I’m far from cer from far I’m So audience. non-urbane and ban So, why do we have so many comics-based blockbusters? blockbusters? many comics-based so have we do why So, tain that superhero movies have discovered their real their real discovered have movies tain that superhero that were still appearing, to better effect, in the com the in effect, better to still appearing, were that twenty-first century yielded a glut of nearly identical century identical of nearly a glut twenty-first yielded ics, just as the early musical films out of Hollywood Hollywood films out of musical just as the early ics, films featuring dumbed-down versions of characters versions dumbed-down featuring films voice. (118–119) The superhero film genre in the first decade of the in film genre The superhero

ductive, as everything is predictable: these films “present films“present these as everything is predictable: ductive, and more predictable and less and less imaginative. As the less and less and predictable more and

more order than chaos” (122). At the same time Bukatman time same the At (122). thanchaos” order more movies is meant to impress, but is eventually counterpro is eventually but impress, to is meant movies

the abounding sequels and prequels have become more more become have prequels and sequels abounding the reminds us that the superhero movie is still a new genre, is still genre, a new movie us that superhero the reminds

influential comics theorist Scott Bukatman Scott the writes, theorist comics influential which is bound to change: to is bound which

visually stunning action sequences in recent superhero superhero in recent visually sequences stunning action What is their promise? “The Full Comic Book Superhero Superhero “The Book Full Comic What promise? is their FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 199 ------in a disorderly, non-linear and creative fashion, which which fashion, creative and non-linear in a disorderly, 2 See Hatfield on the layers of juxtaposition in comics. of juxtaposition on the layers See Hatfield The growing popularity of longer graphic narratives narratives graphic longer The popularity growing of endless budgets they not only use the latest CGI technolo CGI latest use the only not they budgets endless acteristic appeal is their visuality: in possession of almost of visuality: is their appeal acteristic in possession and images, panels, sequences, pages, books and book and books pages, sequences, panels, images, and shows the relevance of the comics form today though the the though today form comics the of relevance the shows the approach even not do novels of graphic figures sales gies but the very genre has been made possible by the ex the by possible has made been genre very the but gies THE COMMON ORIGINS OF COMICS AND FILM AND COMICS OF ORIGINS COMMON THE lets) meaning is the result of the reader’s work with frag various work reader’s the of meaningresult is the and, in a book(let), a page, on within a panel, found ments perhaps, in an entire series published over several years. several over published series in an entire perhaps, ise of comics-based blockbusters? Possibly their most char most their Possibly blockbusters? comics-based of ise The images. computer-generate to technologies of istence number of comic books sold. There is something in com is something There sold. books comic of number (words information of layers in interpreting reading, ics culture. of consumers century 21st early the intrigues Let me return to the original question: what is the prom is the what original return the to Let me question: 2

- - - is smooth and is performed unnoticed, performed is and smooth is At the same time we should not not should we sametime the At 1 closure

is the act of imaginatively connecting distinct units connecting imaginatively of act is the

Naturally, in some comics some in Naturally,

quired to perform closure, we also use our “global vision” vision” also “global use our we closure, perform to quired

on the page, for example two consecutive panels, or tex or panels, consecutive two example for page, the on comics is a performance in which our whole body takes body whole our in which is a performance comics

comic books, which can be bought at news agent’s stands agent’s news at can bought be which books, comic apart from the moment-to-moment reading that is re reading moment-to-moment the apartfrom

and graphic novels is different, the reading and reading interpreta and the is different, novels graphic and and specialty shops. Though the target audience of comics comics of audience target the Though specialtyand shops.

liberty the in this, of share also and her his has or do to Closure

Graphic novels are marketed and distributed in a similar distributed and aremarketed novels Graphic forget that comics reading is not a strictly linear activity: is not reading that comics forget

manner as books (Baetens and Frey 7–23.), and not like like not and 7–23.), Frey and manner as (Baetens books job of creating meaning. creating of job

part (Hague 7). It involves all our senses, and many comics many and all comics senses, our involves It part 7). (Hague tual and visual units (McCloud 66). The reader has great The reader tual66). visual and units (McCloud

theorists state that due to the so-called process of “closure” of so-called the process to thattheorists state due tive strategies used by their audience is the same. Reading Reading is same. the audience their by used strategies tive

reading comics is an especially active mode of reception. reception. of is mode an especially active comics reading 1

when we scan and re-scan the page (Groensteen 19). Thus, 19). (Groensteen page the scan re-scan and we when while other authors make the reader’s job deliberately hard. while other authors make the reader’s FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 200 - - - (Gardner 4), zoetrope and the the and thaumatrope fore the audience is less the impending speed of the the impending speed of the is less the audience fore tator is astonished by its transformation through the the through transformation by its astonished is tator that itself the illusion of nature it is the incredible ty, apparatus. (“An of the cinematic force train than the new illusion of projected motion. Far from creduli from Far motion. of projected new illusion be displayed What is speechless. the viewer renders Aesthetic of Astonishment” 740) of Astonishment” Aesthetic Rather than mistaking the image for reality, the spec reality, for image the mistaking than Rather of Gunning calls cinema,which “cinema Early the I am spending more time with early cinema as it started as cinema it with time early more I am spending of the 20th century experienced a rapid development in development a rapid century experienced 20th the of move, images that made toys optical or gadgets owned or attractions, […] envisioned cinema as a series of visual of as cinema a series envisioned […] attractions, turn the at Audiences as same comics. time the early at such as the such shocks” (“An Aesthetic of Astonishment” 738) — just 738) — just Astonishment” of Aesthetic (“An shocks” like today’s blockbusters. practice was relatively widespread, and various visual and and widespread, was relatively practice they read about and visited screenings with Muybridge’s with Muybridge’s screenings visited and about read they image-making technologies. By this time, photographic this By photographic time, image-making technologies. used People popular. very were performances illusionistic ------or 3 Arrival in 1896. The following quote by by quote The following in 1896. these visual adventures have the same ef the have visual these adventures 4

Batman’s dive repeats that of many victims of the attacks against the of the attacks victims that of many dive repeats Batman’s These “three-dimensional sets [are] comparable to the digital ar comparable sets [are] These “three-dimensional

of a Train at the Station Station the at a Train of show and are simultaneously aware that the images are that images the aware are simultaneously and show

chitecture of the navigable worlds presented in comic/film-based in comic/film-based worlds presented of the navigable chitecture gles, while the IMAX screen makes it possible for us to us to for IMAX the while possible gles, makes it screen

memories and fantasies of the American public. For more see Hassler-Forest. see more For public. of the American and fantasies memories fect on us as the first movies had on their first viewers at viewers on firsttheir had us asmovies on first the fect

most unbelievable, and incredibly exciting. We enjoy the the enjoy We exciting. incredibly and unbelievable, most Spiderman fighting his way through the streets of New New of streets the through way his fighting Spiderman

tal spectacles of the present are not accidental. are not present the tal of spectacles the end of the 19th century: the movement we see is al see we movement the century: 19th the of end the

the experience is reminiscent of the camera-handling of of camera-handling the of is reminiscent experience the take part in extreme movements at extreme speeds. While speeds. extreme at take movements part in extreme

thrill in Gotham Batman skyscraper a divingof from ing images were experienced – similarities withdigi the experienced – similarities were images ing

not real – just like the audience watching Lumière’s Lumière’s watching like audience real – just the not film historian Tom Gunning describes how the first mov first the how Gunning describes Tom film historian

3 video games” (Rauscher 23).

video games, 4

World Trade Center on 11 September 2001, and thus visualizes traumatic visualizes traumatic on 11 September 2001, and thus Center Trade World York allows us to look at the world from impossible an impossible from world the at look usto allows York FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 201 - - - - on this. 5 Poetics See Aristotle’s See Aristotle’s In the 21st century, however, we experience a return to experience we however, century, 21st In the dium lacking coherence: the strips were repetitive, often often repetitive, were strips the coherence: lacking dium connections, and people were taught to value continuity continuity value to taught were people and connections, again. once end and clear structures with a beginning, a middle and an structures and with clear a beginning,and a middle seriality and fragmented narratives: open-ended stories, stories, open-ended narratives: serialityfragmented and several formal characteristics of comic strips, showing showing strips, comic formal of characteristics several became national celebrities, and their creators reaped huge huge reaped creators their and celebrities, national became like today (Gardner 19–28). As a result, early film shared early As result, a 19–28). (Gardner liketoday 1910s, the By fragments. over narratives longer and herent 5 from comics greeted the audience on the silver screen, just just screen, silver the on audience the greeted comics from conclusion – fea and closure without action fragmented more inconvenient for Hollywood, and the paths of the the of paths the and Hollywood, for inconvenient more profits” (Walker). At this time comics were an unrulywere me At thiscomics time (Walker). profits” tive threads, and were subversive. Well-known characters characters Well-known subversive. were threads, and tive present in our appreciated more and turesthat more are and more became format narrative Thistime. unorderly co seamless, favored Hollywood separated: mediums two incoherent, contained several loops, lacked longer narra longer lacked loops, several contained incoherent, film audiences were trained to dislike gaps and illogicalto and gaps dislike trained were filmaudiences - - - - . Comics and film and . Comics kinetograph or Edison’s Edison’s or

Early cinema looked at comics for inspiration, and and inspiration, for comics at looked cinema Early

comic heroes: “the Yellow Kid and other comic characters characters comic other and Kid Yellow “the heroes: comic of motion pictures also contributed directly to the devel the to directly also contributed pictures motion of filmcomics, In both and comics. sequential of opment

originate in an age deeply interested in visual the rep interested inoriginate deeply an age as indicated by the name of one of the most famous early early famous most the of one name the of by as indicated

spaces combine to tell the story” (2). story” the tell to combine spaces static images placed in sequence and separated by blank by separated and in sequence placed images static

zoopraxiscope (1863–1951) and Joseph Pulitzer (1847–1911). Naturally, ad Naturally, Pulitzer (1847–1911). Joseph and (1863–1951)

Comic strips were usually published in the Sunday supple in Sunday the usually published were strips Comic (5), read and enjoyed by the newspaper-reading public of of public newspaper-reading the by enjoyed and read (5),

ments of various daily papers, and were integral parts of were and daily various of papers, ments the success of comics. Colour played an important role here, here, an role important played Colour comics. of success the

the rivalling media empires of William Randolph Hearst Hearst William of Randolph rivallingthe empires media the USA. From the last decade of the 19th century comics comics century 19th the of last the decade USA.the From

two different answers to similar questions. As Gardner Gardner similar As to questions. answers different two rightly so — comics were “the first true mass-media form” form” first true mass-media “the were so — comics rightly

resentation of movement, but the two mediums stand for stand for mediums two the but movement, of resentation vancements in printing technologies also contributed to to also contributed technologies in printing vancements

were distributed and read throughout the United States. States. United the throughout read and distributed were writes, “the same experiments that led to the development development the to that led same experiments “the writes, FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 202 - - - - - Returning to previous moments and making and them moments Returning previous to ema flows in a linear succession, thus providing pre-dic providing thus in a linearsuccession, flows ema In environments. screen in less films less and consume per simultaneously panels are film, to comics in contrast They is essential. page the on co-presence their ceived, as well. Moreover, the reader constructs the relationship relationship constructs the reader the Moreover, as well. This action. and time ellip of pieces frozen these among certain as and at part this, elements linger of to author(s), 7). (Chute wishes as (s)he as long are independent images and parts of a larger whole at the the at parts whole and images a larger of independent are special temporality of comics not characteristic of film. of characteristic not comics of special temporality always read being The panel 18). same (Groensteen time future the past and the see we but present, the stands for VISUAL STRATEGIES VISUAL tical formal characteristic of comics gives amazing power amazing gives power comics tical of formal characteristic with the together plot the co-construct to reader: the to tated time for reception. However, as will we shown, be However, reception. for time tated ing comics onto the screen will necessarily fail due to the will the to fail screen the necessarily due onto comics ing All cinematic strategies aimed at imitating or translat imitating or at aimed All strategies cinematic Tom Gunning (“The Art of Succession” 44). Screened cin Screened 44). Gunning (“The Art Succession” of Tom “Comics open up new modes of representing [time]” — writes [time]” — writes representing of modes new up open “Comics - - - , HBO’s Jessica Jones , etc.) bring back the same the back bring etc.) , (183), and is looking for another another for is and looking (183), Sherlock

the BBC’s BBC’s the “starting over”

diagnoses the present as a moment when Hollywood film Hollywood when as a moment present the diagnoses dios over the ages are left behind. This is why Gardner This Gardner behind. is why left are ages the over dios

cinema and comics were beginning their experiments to beginning experiments their were comics and cinema aesthetic principles which were characteristic of early film early of characteristic were which principles aesthetic been have comics how of arecharacteristic which and

serial visual narrative for inspiration: comics. “[F]ilm is comics. serial visual inspiration: for narrative gether. Today for the first time in many decades, film is firstdecades, the in time many for Today gether.

looking to learn from comics once again” (Gardner 183). (Gardner again” once comics learn to from looking loops, and deferred solutions have risen in popularity with have solutions deferred and loops,

for a decent coherent narrative brewed in Hollywood stu in Hollywood brewed narrative coherent a decent for mented series. Seriality appeals to us once again; rules the Seriality us once to series. appeals mented

production is perceived by the public since the very beginning: very the in frag since public the by perceived

technologies and media unimagined a century ago when unimagined media and when a century ago technologies returning to a kind of origins even as it embraces new new embraces as it originsreturning a kind even of to

new serial cinema and new long-form television (Gardner (Gardner television long-form serialnew and new cinema 183). The system of prequels and trilogies in and cinema,as prequels of The system 183).

well as television mini-series (Marvel’s (Marvel’s mini-series as television well True Detective, Detective, True FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 203 - - - , while in film the , while 300 (dir. Zack Snyder, 2006) rec 2006) Snyder, Zack (dir. 300 on the narrative that is already quite slow and languid. and slow that quite narrative isthe already on and speeds up time and time again. At the same time again. time and time same time the At up speeds and comics. reading of features some imitate to attempt and speed of the camera, or rather, the computer-generated computer-generated the rather, camera, or the of speed down slows abruptly and suddenly thereof, simulation comics of aesthetics the reinterpret to filmschoose some letters and lines, as well as the location of the textual the of ele as location as the lines, well and letters ments within the panel and on the page, contribute to the the to contribute page, the on and within panel the ments pages of the comics (Ecke 17). However, in the comics the the in comics the However, 17). (Ecke comics the of pages the medium allows, so much so thatso special a visual much so tech allows, medium the also dynamictext and takes part unique the in creating readerly experience of dynamism of in experience readerly reates certain panels of the original comic as original faithfully the certain of comic as panels reates scan the eyes our way the imitate to was developed nique flow of violent action scenes is always interrupted, the the interrupted, is always scenes action of violent flow version the monotonous narration has a flattening effect haseffect narration a flattening monotonous the version visual world. This visual the visual means the of world. appearance Thus visual the of design - - - - - — non-measurable time, — non-measurable (dir. Zack Snyder, 2009) the the 2009) Snyder, Zack (dir. duration Watchmen Watchmen

In contemporary cinema various strategies are used are used various strategies cinema In contemporary

of any comics page: the varying size and form of panels, varying the panels, of form size and page: comics any of characteristics of comics reading. Comics allows for en for allows Comics reading. comics characteristics of

also introduces the concept of closure, the imaginative the in closure, of concept the also introduces a recognition of the physical and special and characteristics physical the of a recognition

lated example, in example, lated ling and transgressing the space of the page, are definitive are definitive page, the of transgressing space ling and the

joying what Bergson calls Bergson what joying present, establishing connections by imaginatively travel imaginatively by connections establishing present,

to call attention to the act of looking, to denaturalize to our looking, of act the to callto attention the significance of boundaries and of location. The action action The location. of boundaries of and significance the

tion from various angles. This strategy, though it does does it though This angles. various from strategy, tion the simultaneous flow of action at two different settings, at different two action of flow simultaneous the this aspect of comics reading into the language the film. of into reading thiscomics aspect of time as experience (qtd. in “The Art of Succession” 44). 44). in “The Art Succession” (qtd. of astime experience relationship to what is projected to us. To give a comics-re a give us. To to is projected what to relationship

not bring the temporal freedom of reading, brings about about brings reading, of freedom temporal the bring not in two different points of time, or to present a single ac single a present to or of time, points in different two

flows in a divided and hierarchized space. The split page page split The space. hierarchized and in a divided flows Film directors have used several strategies to translate translate to strategies several used have Filmdirectors

vestment of creating a coherent narrative out of elements. of out narrative a coherent creating of vestment The split screen is an obvious solution, as it allows for for allows as it solution, is an obvious screen The split FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 204 - - - Gardner also writes about CGI bodies in comics-based in comics-based bodies CGI also about writes Gardner creatures in front of our eyes. These digital bodies are too too are digital These bodies eyes. our of in front creatures digital scars bears “the no movies: in these crucial roles mix” the (122). Auschwitz into brought even are constantly assaulted. Bodily harm is done to them re them to Bodily harm assaulted. isare constantly done and no history, and perhaps this begins explain perhaps and why to history, no and strip deals with the challenges a person has to face in the has face to a person strip deals with challenges the Hooligan, Irish the immigrant Happy example, for strips, safe — this is why, Bukatman argues, past traumassafe — thisplay is why, guish over the murder of his parents. The X-Men films The X-Men his parents. of murder the guish over body” (184) and a similar fascination with resilient bodies bodies a similar and with resilient fascination (184) body” life, immigration, and class conflict. The heroes of these of these heroes class and conflict. The immigration, life, lel in the present fascination with what he calls he with what a “plastic fascination in present the lel modern city: crowds, fast transport by automobiles, fast fast transport automobiles, by crowds, city: modern petitively, but by the next strip they seem to have forgotten forgotten have to seem strip they next the by but petitively, Spider-Man’s Uncle Ben, […] Batman’s Shakespearean an Batman’s […] Ben, Uncle Spider-Man’s the narratives are so obsessed with trauma: the death of of with trauma: death the obsessed are so narratives the comic early The unruly repetitive and century. 20th the in the early American comics strips at the beginning the at of strips American comics early inthe films, and interprets the phenomenon slightly differently. differently. slightly phenomenon the films, interprets and Keeping an eye on comics history, Gardner sees a paral sees Gardner history, comics on an eye Keeping what has happened to them: they never learn. And this never they them: to haswhat happened

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of superhero movies: civilians transform into superheroes, civilians superheroes, movies: transform into superhero of of the transforming body is also transforming body the visual part the of of appeal

computer generated body: it looks perfect, muscular, and and muscular, perfect, looks it body: generated computer ating characteristic atmospheres, it provides a fantastic provides it atmospheres, characteristic ating

superhero films lies here, in integrating CGI with live ac live CGI with in integrating here, films lies superhero sult, heroes and villains and materiality their heroes in CGI sult, the lose sented. The human body is increasingly substituted by a by substituted The is increasingly human body sented. space in which the superheroes act, and it also has it act, and a rad superheroes the in which space generated, some lose the actual physical body of the ac the of body actual the physical lose some generated,

THE BODY PROBLEM BODY THE his face, the figure on screen literally ceases to be Tobey Tobey be to ceases literally screen on figure the his face,

Computer-generated imagery Computer-generated defines (CGI) generalthe perfect superhero bodies get beaten up (but do not worry, worry, not do (but up beaten get bodies superhero perfect

they do not die), supervillains morph into amorphous supervillains amorphous into morph die), not do they tion: “after Tobey Maguire pulls Spider-Man’s mask over mask over Maguire pulls Spider-Man’s Tobey “after tion:

tor only in the most spectacular action sequences. As a re spectacular sequences. in most the only action tor ical imprint on the way the very superheroes are repre superheroes very the way the on ical imprint

Maguire” (121). Bukatman goes on to argue that the sight argue to that Bukatman sight the on goes Maguire” (121). world. According to Bukatman, the central problem of of Bukatman, to problem central the According world.

weightless. Some characters are almost entirely computer computer are almost entirely characters Some weightless. visual design of comics-based movies. It takes part It in cre movies. visual comics-based of design FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 205 - - - - - ” (183). How do they read? As already mentioned, As mentioned, already read? they do How ” (183). read Interpreting the current popularity of CGI bodies along along bodies CGI popularity current of the Interpreting of its own narrative tradition, which favors closed narra closed favors which own narrative tradition, its of ers a similarity between comics and film that is not based on based film and not a similarity that is comics between se to The filmproduction return of readers. comics and gies of early 21st century viewers of comics-based films comics-based of century viewers 21st early of gies PRACTICES OF READING OF PRACTICES [is] an understanding of the ways in which comics read comics in which ways the of an understanding [is] prequels, trilogies, universes, mini-series) also show that alsoshow mini-series) universes, trilogies, prequels, tive units. In Gardner’s words: “What Hollywood is after… is “What after… Hollywood words: units. In Gardner’s tive thematic, formal, or representational similarities. There representational formal, or thematic, rialized narratives and non-coherent structures (sequels, structures (sequels, rialized non-coherent and narratives nomenon: like a hundred years ago, the fantasy of the fantasy the the of ago, years like hundred a nomenon: is an challenges the body to answer plastic rebounding strate interpretative the between is a vital resemblance Hollywood is looking for new inspiration on the margins the on inspiration new for is looking Hollywood In the final section of this chapter I would like to to turnlike to would I of thisfinal chapter Inthe section with the history of comics helps us understand the phe the us understand helps comics with history the of with responses the experiment to is a way it and face we them. to give might we - - - - in resilience body, one whose whose one body, cartoon

on display digitally sculpted bodies that are tortured, that are sculpted bodies digitally on display ed States […] Repeatedly these superhero movies put movies these superhero Repeatedly […] ed States of traditional cinema – but a cinema – but traditional of the explain partly This helps at least of representation. and again to recover, to return, to be reborn. (184) reborn. be to to return, recover, to again and shot, burned, and even atomized and yet are able time able shot, burned, are and even atomized and yet strength and resilience derives from the iconic powers the iconic derives from and resilience strength rise of the superhero adaptations in a post-9/11 Unit adaptations rise of the superhero But this is not an indexical, realist body – not the body the body body – not realist this is not an indexical, But

early comics “celebrated the modern body’s body’s modern the “celebrated comics early body is reborn. It is worth quoting Gardner at some length: some at Gardner quoting is worth It is reborn. body heroes are the resilient bodies facing the challenges of of challenges the facing bodies resilient the are heroes harmed permanently. The story is secondary: the true true the The is story secondary: harmed permanently. modernity. And, according to Gardner, in the recent su in recent the Gardner, to And, according modernity.

perhero fascination we see that the fantasy of the plastic that fantasy the plastic see the of we fascination perhero the face of the same forces, its ability to bounce back, to to back, bounce to ability its same forces, the of face the

nation with CGI bodies. He argues persuasively that the argues persuasively He bodies. with CGI nation is where Gardner sees a parallel with our present fasci present witha parallel our sees Gardner iswhere

ies that rebound and regenerate, bodies that cannot be that be cannot bodies regenerate, and that rebound ies recover” (9–11). These early strips are about plastic bod plastic are about strips early These (9–11). recover” FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 206 - - - - - This article has addresses the current tendency of of tendency This current the has article addresses dering much, if anything, in the way of meaningful power. meaningful if anything, of in way the much, power. dering In films,animation. the and feature mini-series duction, of this unruliness in both their format and publication thisof publication and unruliness format their in both engagement with comics in contemporary cinematic pro cinematic in contemporary with comics engagement a historical perspective image-making technologies est as unthreatening, safe access to a different kind of story of kind a different to access safe asunthreatening, standardized storytelling format which resulted in more in more resulted standardized which storytelling format has also been maintained: it is important to remember has remember is to important maintained: also it been Comics are sought out in the twenty-first century by global centuryby global in twenty-first the out are sought Comics ments. (American) comics have maintained some aspects maintained some have comics (American) ments. media corporations, […] because they are largely perceived perceived largely are they because […] corporations, media lat the by enabled phenomena contemporary of mapping practices, while (Hollywood) film has moved on to a more more to a on film moved has (Hollywood) while practices, paratexts (Gardner 190). Gardner says: “the increasingly increasingly “the says: Gardner 190). (Gardner paratexts unruly 19th century, a time for visual experi for a time optical and unruly century, 19th that comics and film started out from a very creative and and very creative a film and started from out thatcomics to do with Hollywood seeking out ways of engaging an engaging of ways out seeking with Hollywood do to in demand” that (191). is increasingly telling regulated narratives. Some of the possible reasons for for reasons possible the of Some narratives. regulated intimate reunion between comics and film and haseverything comics between reunion intimate surren ultimately unruly without increasingly spectator - - - - also invites col also invites . The viewer has in The. viewer SinCity zoetropes and

thaumatropes

Technology defines how products are received: with received: are products how defines Technology

continuous visual and textual content. When watching watching When visual textual and content. continuous can also manipulate the film’s time frame by rewinding by time frame can also film’s the manipulate creasing control over his or her consumption of films, of and consumption her his or over control creasing once again, just like at the beginnings of the medium in beginnings again, medium the the like at just of once

comics reading? comics and pausing. The spectator of the 21st century navigates century navigates 21st the of The spectator pausing. and

are increasingly consumed outside the cinema framework. framework. cinema the outside consumed are increasingly apart. Why does Hollywood experiment with comics and and with comics experiment Hollywood apart.does Why

struct a story from elements which, in the case of a comic comic a incase the of which, elements struct from a story book series, could have been published months or years years or months published been have could series, book

lectors to reedit the film and engage imaginatively with imaginatively film the engage and reedit to lectors home video, and now DVDs and film downloads, film filmsdownloads, and DVDs now and video, home the ‘Ultimate Cut’ DVD edition of of edition DVD Cut’ ‘Ultimate the the reader of comics. Film production also adapts to this: also to adapts Film production comics. of reader the the viewer can be just as undisciplined and as and solitary can as as just be undisciplined viewer the

the web on a regular basis, where (s)he is exposed to disto is exposed (s)he regular a on basis, where web the they scan diverse and fragmentary and scan visual con they diverse and input

the time of of time the films, aided by both technology and alternative content, content, and alternative technology both by films, aided

films are being enjoyed in unruly and uncontrollable ways ways in unruly uncontrollable and enjoyed films being are After almost a century of taming the cinema audience, taming Afteraudience, of century a almost cinema the

FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 207

- - - - -

er-generated muscularer-generated bodies of superheroes have been

and plastic nature — they both offer themselves for exper for themselves offer both nature — they plastic and strategy of cultural consumption. Second, the comput the Second, culturalstrategy of consumption.

have been identified in challenges of contemporary cul contemporary of challenges in identified been have pect of comics reading — is recognized as a more general general asa more recognized reading — is comics of pect

ture. First, interpreting scattered information, creating creating information, scattered interpreting ture. First, iments in the search for answers in times of uncertainty. in of answers times for in search the iments

ies look very different, they are common in their resilience resilience in their common are they different, very look ies read parallel to early comic bodies, and though these bod these though and bodies, comic early to parallel read

relationships between bits and pieces — which is a basic as is basic a pieces — which and bits between relationships American mainstream cinema’s reaching back to comics comics to back reaching American mainstream cinema’s FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 208 ------The Com Film Theory and Criti Theory and Film New York: Routledge. Routledge. York: New 40.3 (2014): 36–51. Print. (2014): 40.3 Eds. Braudy, Leo Mar and Eds.Braudy, Eds. Mark Berninger, Jochen Jochen Eds. Mark Berninger, Jefferson: McFarland & Company, Company, & McFarland Jefferson: AlternativeComics. An Emerging Litera Critical Inquiry Comics and the Senses. A Multisensory Approach Approach A Multisensory Senses. the and Comics Jackson: University Press of Missisipi, 2005. Print. Missisipi, of Press University Jackson: cism.Introductory Readings. balization in Film. Film. in balization ture. ture. to Comics and Graphic Novels. Novels. Graphic and Comics to and the (In)credulous Spectator.” Spectator.” (In)credulous the and shall Cohen. 7th ed. New York and Oxford: Oxford Oxford Oxford: and York 7th New ed. shallCohen. ics as a Nexus of Cultures. Cultures. of asNexus a ics Company, 2010. 33–44. Print. 33–44. 2010. Company, ing Comics.” Comics.” ing Redefining Superheroes inPost 9/11Hollywood.” & McFarland Jefferson: Haberkorn. Gideon and Ecke, University Press, 2009. 736–750. Print. 736–750. 2009. Press, University 21st-Century Superhero. Essays on Gender, Genre, and Glo and Genre, Gender, on Essays Superhero. 21st-Century 2014. Print.2014. 2011. Print. Gray, Richard F. II., and Bettyand II., Kaklamanidou F. Richard eds. Gray, Film Early Astonishment: of Aesthetic “An Gunning, Tom. Hatfield, Charles. Hague, Ian.Hague, Terrorist: to Victim Trauma Dan A. “From Hassler-Forest, — “The Art of Succession: Reading, Writing, and Watch and Writing, Reading, — “The Art Succession: of - - - - - Cin Comics as a Nexus of of as a Nexus Comics Jefferson:McFarland, . 8 Oct. 2015. Web. 7 Feb. 7 Feb. Web. . 8 Oct. 2015. Stanford, California: Stan California: Stanford, Newsarama War, Politics, and Superheroes. Ethics and and Ethics Superheroes. and Politics, War, Projections. Comics and the History of Twen of History the and Comics Projections. 50.3 (2011): 118–122. Web. 11. March 2015. 11. Web. 118–122. (2011): 50.3 Eds. Mark Berninger, Jochen Ecke, and Gideon Gideon and Ecke, Jochen Eds. Mark Berninger,

ema Journal ty-first-century Storytelling. streem Cinema Is Catching Up on the Formal Poten Formal the on Up Is Catching Cinema streem Cultures. ford University Press, 2012. Print. 2012. Press, University ford tialities of the Comic Book Page.” Page.” Book Comic the tialities of Propaganda in Comics and Film. Film. and Comics in Propaganda 7–20. Print. Release Schedule.” Release Schedule.” Haberkorn. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2010. 2010. Company, & McFarland Jefferson: Haberkorn. 2011. Print. 2016.

WORKS CITED: WORKS Gardner, Jared. Jared. Gardner,

Ecke, Jochen. “Spatializing the Movie Screen: How Main How Screen: “Spatializing Movie the Jochen. Ecke, DiPaolo, Marc. DiPaolo,

Doran, Michael. “The Full Comic Book Superhero Movie Movie Superhero “The Book Full Michael. Comic Doran, Bukatman, Scott. “Why I Hate Superhero Movies.” Movies.” Bukatman,Superhero “Why Hate I Scott. FILM & CULTURE–SZÉP– SEQUENTIAL ARTS:

MOMENTS FORM THE PARALLEL HISTORY OF COMICS... 209 - - Dir. Frank Miller and Robert Frank Robert and Miller Dir. Dir. Christopher Nolan. Warner Bros, 2005. Bros, Warner Nolan. Christopher Dir. Dir. Sam Corpora Pictures Raimi. Dir. Columbia Dir. Zack Snyder. Warner Bros, 2009. Film. 2009. Bros, Warner Snyder. Zack Dir. Dir. Frank Miller and Robert Rodriguez. Dimen Rodriguez. Frank Robert and Miller Dir. Dir. ZackSnyder. Warner Bros, 2006. Film. 2006. Bros, Warner ZackSnyder. Dir. sion Films, 2005.sion Film. tion, 2002. Film. 2002. tion, Film. AldamisaRodriguez. Film. 2014. Entertainmnet, FILMOGRAPHY: Sin City. City. Sin For. Kill to A Dame City: Sin Spider-Man. 300. 300. Batman Begins. Begins. Batman Watchmen. Watchmen. . - - - Exhibition Comics as a Nexus of of as a Nexus Comics Budapest: L’Harmattan,Budapest: King of the Comics: William Ran William Comics: the of King Idegenek egy bűnös városban. Művészet Understanding Comics – The Invisible art Invisible Comics – The Understanding Eds. Mark Berninger, Jochen Ecke, and Gideon Gideon and Ecke, Jochen Eds. Mark Berninger,

dolph Hearst and 100 Years of King Features. Features. King of Years 100 and Hearst dolph történetek és vizuális kultúrák. catalogue. Columbus: The Ohio State University Li University State The Ohio catalogue. Columbus: braries. 2014. Cultures. 32. Print. New Wave of Superhero Movies?” Movies?” Superhero of Wave New New York: Harper Perennial, 1994. Print. Harper 1994. Perennial, York: New Haberkorn. Jefferson: McFarland & Company, 2010. 21– 2010. Company, & McFarland Jefferson: Haberkorn. 2011. Print.

Rauscher, Andreas. “The Marvel Universe on Screen. A A Screen. on Andreas. “The Marvel Universe Rauscher, McCloud, Scott.

Hornyik, Sándor. Walker, Brian (curator). Brian (curator). Walker, The English ‘Monarchy Film’ Revisited: From The Private Life of Henry VIII (1933) to Elizabeth (1998) &

“WHEN THE REAL IS NO LONGER WHAT IT USED TO BE, NOSTALGIA ASSUMES The Queen (2006) ITS FULL MEANING.” (BAUDRILLARD 171)

ANDREA VELICH | Film & Culture ► 210 FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 211 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... ------and , from , from ,from literary ad war film The Private Life , the (77). According(77). to historical films costumedrama or to history , to name just a few of the most most the of few a name just to , monarchy film monarchy monarchy , the heritage , from from , biopic (Alexander Korda, 1933), until 2006, when when until 2006, 1933), Korda, (Alexander (2006) (on Queen Elizabeth II) by Stephen Frears Frears Stephen by Elizabeth II) Queen (on (2006) the biopic historyto to representation ofthe 20th century In the following I intend to show that the British — or that British — or the show to I intend following In the There are many partly synonymous, partly are many partly overlap There synonymous, quality aptations, of Henry VIII VIII Henry of despite the ever-present problems of marketing, profit-re period cerned with actual costume whilecerned the historical figures, only succeeded and survived, but are still trading well are still survived, and trading well but succeeded only lution attempts) and the monarchy film itself have not not filmitself have monarchy the and attempts) lution (although not a blueprint for historical accuracy) is con historical accuracy) for a blueprint not (although (overlapping) categories in British period films: period in British categories (overlapping) frequently used ones. Leggott distinguishes Leggott further ones. five used frequently ping terms for describing describing terms for ping the turn, and so-called historical accuracy or ‘authenticity;’ turn, ‘authenticity;’ so-called and historical or accuracy firstthe screen 1933, since an issue being latter the rather the English — monarchy (because of recent devo recent of (because English — monarchy the rather quality first history film, Korda’s of ing Kara McKechnie’s 2002 definition (217), the history the film (217), definition 2002 Kara McKechnie’s was symbolically ‘crowned’ by the American the Oscars Prize. by was symbolically ‘crowned’ The Queen ------

experiences of agricul

However, I would argue that Britain, despite (or sim (or argue that Britain, despite I would However,

or British) history, a genre meant to succeed worldwide worldwide succeed to meant a genre history, British) or

cluding the US. The founding father of ‘the monarchy monarchy ‘the of father The US. the founding cluding erns and gangster movies) from the from movies) erns gangster and

and survive in the long run. surviveand in long the achieved by Hollywood, which created iconic genres (west genres iconic created which Hollywood, by achieved

a particular genre (e.g. Merchant Ivory in history, Ken Loach Ken in history, Ivory Merchant particulara (e.g. genre been poor at mythologising the worlds around us, a feat us, a feat around worlds the mythologising at poor been

her ‘glorious past,’ the monarchy, and the Empire, like Empire, the and monarchy, the past,’ ‘glorious her like Michael Winterbottom, Danny Boyle and Stephen Stephen and Boyle Danny Winterbottom, likeMichael

may have a prestigious tradition of realist drama, of “it tradition has prestigious a have may ply because of) her 20th century decline, obsessed with obsessed decline, century 20th of) because her ply

tory’ films (to literally outshine low-budget quota films), films), quota low-budget outshine literally (to filmstory’ the 1930s, something marketable all over the world, in world, the allover marketable something 1930s, the

tural (53). century” immigrants 20th and early labourers of in socialist-realist films), or are considered ‘genre-hoppers’ ‘genre-hoppers’ considered or are films), insocialist-realist

film’ Hungarian-born Alexander Korda (born Sándor (born Sándor Korda Alexander film’ Hungarian-born Frears. In James Leggott’s opinion, while British cinema cinema British while opinion, Leggott’s In James Frears.

British filmmakers are either renowned for working withinworking for renowned filmmakersBritish either are László Kellner), sought to create high budget quality‘his budget high create to sought Kellner), László

which was international while based on national (English (English national on based while was international which wise created a new iconic genre, ‘the monarchy film’ of of film’ monarchy ‘the genre, iconic a new wise created FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 212 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - The Private Life of of Life The Private argued that “films

. Reneé Pigeon claims, that Pigeon . Reneé as early as 1926, advocated advocated asas 1926, early The Queen. also insisted that priority should should also thatinsisted priority

The Queen and The Times, The Times, , and , and Elizabeth , Elizabeth Since the late 1920s British cinema debates have fo have debates cinema British 1920s late the Since I would also argue that the success of ‘the monarchy monarchy ‘the of also argue that success the I would depicting its life history and high morality for which it it which for history morality high life and its depicting of the monarchy and traditional national pride. I also wish pride. national traditional and monarchy the of films: monarchy three following the of or lying teachers.” They teachers.” lying or cused both on economic issues and on the significance of significance the on and issues economic on cusedboth archy films always speak to the present” with case studies casestudies with present” speak films to the archy always and for the British Empire, produced within the Empire, within Empire, the produced Empire, British the for and stands” (qtd. in Harper 9). (qtd. stands” setting up a national film a national and studio up setting be given to cultural quality and that “films should be of cultural to be quality given be thatshould and “films lies in its fine duality: representing both a both witty criticism duality:representing fine in its lies public imagination, as such they had the effect of drugs effect had the they imagination, as such public these films even tend to ‘humanise’ British monarchs (15). (15). monarchs to British ‘humanise’ tend filmsthese even mon “that (79), statement Leggott’s validity the of prove to his national of in presentation the function cinema’s the culture. tory and in both in both film,’ irrespective of the era it is set or created in, always in, always or created set it is era of the irrespective film,’ Henry VIII without national identity were dangerous corrupters of the of corrupters dangerous were identity national without - - - Fire (Herbert The Private Life Victoria the Great (Robert Stevenson, 1936) and and 1936) Stevenson, (Robert

endures to the present day after some pe after day some present the to endures (William K. Howard, 1937), the so-called so-called the (William 1937), K. Howard, Tudor Rose Tudor (A. Korda, 1933), 1933), (A. Korda,

The monarchy film comprises a small but significantsmall a but film comprises The monarchy

of Henry VIII

on periods of national greatness such as Elizabethan,the such greatness national of periods on of celebrities: royalty, political or rgious figures and figures artists.and rgious or political royalty, celebrities: of

monarchy film called the monarchy films. Although these films. of films these are called monarchy the Although and contemporary ‘periodic revivals,’ re-modelling kings re-modelling revivals,’ ‘periodic contemporary and shall as we age see the of need the to acccording queens and area of British film production, having undergone postwar having undergone filmproduction, British area of and Englishness in a devolved nation, now that England’s that England’s now nation, in a devolved Englishness and

and costume films are predominantly based on the lives on lives the based filmspredominantly costume and are a small but disctinctive number of films about monarchs, monarchs, films of about number a small disctinctive but

Over England myths have been degraded by revisionism” (McKechnie 218). (McKechnie revisionism” by degraded been myths have

ten associated with the 1930s, for example, example, for with 1930s, the associated ten tional characters. Within the history film category there is history the filmthere Within characters. tional category

revisit history “in the wake of new definitions of Britishness Britishness of history definitions “inrevisit new wake of the riodic revivals. One reason for this could be that be historical this could for reason revivals. One riodic

film is set in a recognisable historical period, but with fic with but period, historical filmrecognisable a in set is Jacobean and Victorian eras, reflecting a British desire to desire British a reflecting eras, Victorian and Jacobean

Moreover, British historical cinema is somewhat ‘fixated’ is historical somewhat cinema British Moreover, Wilcox, 1937), Wilcox, 1937), FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 213 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - was first screened was firstscreened The Private Life of Henry VIII Henry of Life The Private Korda’s history films, which conquered both British British both conquered history films,which Korda’s When of Nations, yet the British National government under under government National British the yet Nations, of wise encourages armaments. Thomason When Cromwell and 1930s favoring history and monarchy films: “They history monarchy and favoring 1930s and populist a romantic, combine Americanand audiences, ‘the to responding and entertainment, for both as a genre successful of Korda’s films were focused on specificallyon focused filmswere Korda’s of successful burning questions of the day’ at the same time. The most The same time. the most at day’ the of burning questions from the consumption of Hollywood cinema” (Vidal 25). cinema” Hollywood of consumption the from pressures, institutional constraints, economic determi economic constraints, institutional pressures, the Geneva Disarmament Conference and the League the and Disarmament Conference Geneva the the rise of the so-called ‘middlebrow’ cinema in the 1920s 1920s in the cinema so-called ‘middlebrow’ the rise the of in October 1933 Germany had withdrawn from both both Germany had from withdrawn 1933 in October nants, market demand, ideological conditions, as well as as well conditions, ideological demand, nants, market flex the cinema. They also British demonstrate for rare well, film history the monarchy film, as of ibility the and British topics (Chapman 44). (Chapman topics British spending increase to was relunctant Ramsay McDonald were supported by the suburban middle classes as classes distinct middle suburban the by supported were visual of history that with is of a degree view spectacle Their success occurred amidst combination of official official of amidst occurred combination Theirsuccess . - - - - - royal biopics (Paul Czinner, 1934) was fac 1934) Czinner, (Paul Catherine the Great

Susan Harper also quotes participants in the 1927 in 1927 the participants Susan Harper also quotes From 1933 to 1939 BBFC expressed anintol increasing expressed BBFC 1939 to 1933 From However, historical films have played a significant historical films played have However,

early peaks of popularity and high profit: in 1934/1935 with 1934/1935 in peaksearly popularity high profit: and of

consistently criticising bad language, ‘coarseness,’ and the and language, ‘coarseness,’ bad criticising consistently erance towards historical inaccuracy and sensationalism, historical inaccuracy sensationalism, and towards erance

bade “lampoons on the institution of monarchy, and and monarchy, of “lampoonsinstitution the on bade large number of bedroom scenes” (12). scenes” bedroom of large number

historical accuracy was desirable, modern audiences also audiences modern historical was accuracy desirable, libellious reflections on royal persons or families, whether families,whether or persons royal on reflections libellious

Censors (BBFC) in their 1931 list of ‘forbidden topics’ for topics’ ‘forbidden list of 1931 in their (BBFC) Censors proposed proposed

tually acceptable but “demanded a cut in the unpalatably in unpalatably the a cut “demanded but tually acceptable tory.’ They found, according to Susan Harper, that the that the Susan Harper, to according They found, tory.’

tions of the national interest.” The British Board of Film of Board The British interest.” national the of tions role in British film profit since the 1930s. There were two were There 1930s. the since film profit in British role

needed moral protection from the excesses of ‘real his ‘real of excesses the from protection moral needed impugning of royal reputations past or present. While present. past or reputations royal of impugning

Act advocating for “marshallingno historical film for into advocating Act British or not” (9). not” or British

Korda’s films and in 1937/1938 with Wilcox’s Wilcox’s with films1937/1938 in and Korda’s House of Commons debate of the Cinematograph Films Cinematograph the of debate Commons of House FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 214 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - Andrew Higson states that ‘the staginess’ of British British of staginess’ that ‘the states Higson Andrew Henry VIII and his subjects are united by a set of of set a by united are Henry VIII his and subjects distrust all foreigners in the film. When Holbein is sent sent is Holbein in film. the distrust When all foreigners employ for the execution of Anne Boleyn, when half of when Anne Boleyn, of execution the for employ in Britain (Constantine 3). workforce insured the of common values. Henry is responsive to the needs and and needs the to Henry is responsive values. common The barbers. as royal the such his subjects, of opinions in the recurring the themes of One politics. consensus of gins only in 1536 with the execution of Anne Boleyn” (260). Anne Boleyn” of with execution the gins in 1536 only lower classes are also represented by the kitchen servants, kitchen the by are also classes represented lower marry again to produce another heir. The English also The English heir. another marry again produce to ple is the French executioner from Calais, “a shame to to shame Calais, from “a executioner French is the ple the English executioners are out of work” (Korda, 1933). 1933). (Korda, work” of are out executioners English the there is no mention of the break with Rome, the film the be with Rome, break the of mention is no there Henry VIII insists Cleves, Anne of of a portrait paint to exam Another Holbein.” watch “to is sent that Peynell idates the institution of the monarchy, a central element element a central monarchy, the of institution the idates film has also been an intentional strategy to differentiate to strategy film differentiate has an been intentional also film is the question of whether or not the king should should the king not or whether of filmquestion is the 3 million unemployed in England, representing 22% 22% representing in England, million3 unemployed who share the king’s desire for a male heir. The filmval a male heir. for desire king’s the share who When the film was screened in 1933, there were nearly nearly were 1933, there in film the wasWhen screened

------Cinema QuarterlyCinema

Greg Walker suggests the film was a “strident call for callfor “strident film the suggests was a Walker Greg

qualities of the film, as it presents the past as a site of of past site a as the presents film, the it of as qualities diplomacy in the film, Henry VIII responds in the follow in in film, the Henrythe responds VIII diplomacy

ema-goers responded more to the historical visual the and to more responded ema-goers agrees that “the film avoids concentration on realsocial,on concentration filmavoids that “the agrees

attracted to the ‘private life formula’ because of its com its of because formula’ life ‘private the to attracted sion of the wider historical context, nevertheless it judged judged it nevertheless historical context, wider the of sion

however, doubts that contemporaries were aware of these these of aware were that contemporaries doubts however, mercial potential and because of the BBFC. Jeffrey Richards Jeffrey BBFC. the of because and potential mercial

ment” and was even ahead of its time. James Chapman, James time. its of ahead was and even ment” money,” to which Henry VIII retorts: “To leave it undone undone it leave “To Henry VIII retorts: which to money,” more ships.” Cromwell replies: “To do that will do us cost “To replies: Cromwell ships.” more mean another. What I can do is build ships, ships then then ships What ships, I can is build do another. mean political, economic, religious problems to avoid contro

pleasure and bawdy humour (33). The (33). humour bawdy and pleasure possible meanings in film, meanings the thinksand possible cin that the

it successful (qtd. in Chapman 29). Korda must have been been have must Korda in Chapman 29). (qtd. successful it regretted that ‘the private life formula’ meant the omis the meant formula’ life private that ‘the regretted

rearmament in a political climate dominated by appease by dominated climate in a political rearmament ing: “I am an Englishman and I can’t say one thing and one say am “I aning: Englishman I can’t and

versy, censorial intervention or to risk low profit. Thus profit. risk low to or censorial intervention versy, will 1933). us England” (Korda, cost FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 215 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - Lady (1941) was Korda’s (and Churchill’s) most sig most Churchill’s) (and was Korda’s (1941) that art cinema shifted the focus of criticism in the of criticism that art cinema shifted the focus Korda even contracted Winston Churchill to write a to Churchill Winston contracted even Korda 1950s from craft and realism to the uniqueness of craft and realism from 1950s vision of the individual artist. In the 1960s quality 1960s In the artist. individual of the vision of Churchill’s famous ‘finest hour’ speech of 18 June 1940 1940 June 18 of speech hour’ ‘finest famous Churchill’s of surprise is no that Chapman it adds, dialogue the (41). of anyone else to establish the cultural and commercial via cultural the establish to commercial and else anyone series of short films, which were sadly never made. made. never sadly were films, which short of series bility of the British historical film (44). Belén Vidal argues Belén (44). historical film British the of bility brand new studio complex, Denham Studios, by 1936, as 1936, by Denham Studios, complex, studio new brand lose the war). Churchill himself may have written this part have himself Churchill may war). the lose (Hitler knows that he will have to break us in break this will to that he or island knows have (Hitler the Foreign Office behind the scenes. Chapman claimsChapman scenes. the behind Office Foreign the part directly infilm the echo spoken words thatNelson’s in be to knighted wasproducer first the thatfilm Korda reward, there can be no question that Korda did more than more did that Korda question can no be there reward, nificant contribution to the propaganda war. It was a wasIt war. propaganda to the contribution nificant Hamilton London Films had hitherto been a ‘tenant’ at Elstree (37). (37). Elstree at ‘tenant’ a been Films had hitherto London Hollywood British film made in California supported by film in British California made supported Hollywood 1942, and while cynics may suggest that it was Churchill’s was Churchill’s that cynics it while suggest and may 1942, - - - can be (25). The best example example The best (25). (montage) The Private Life of Henry VIII Henry of Life The Private

Korda was acclaimed as “the man who made the world world the made man as who “the was acclaimed Korda

door, with Laughton standing in the centre, resplendent resplendent standing in centre, the with Laughton door, qualities. Many scenes are filmed as frontal tableaux, and filmed are and as tableaux, frontal Many scenes qualities.

conscious of British (history) films” (Vidal 35). In hindsight, In hindsight, films” (history) (Vidal British 35). of conscious of this is Henry VIII’s (Charles Laughton’s) first appear first Laughton’s) (Charles thisof is Henry VIII’s

of movement in the frame. The formal composition of of in frame. the The formal composition movement of as if had just stepped out of Holbein’s 1536/1537 protrait. 1536/1537 Holbein’s of out as if stepped had just

ance. It is a perfectly symmetrical shot, framed by the the symmetrical framed by is a perfectly shot, It ance. ary camera, are all intended to enhance a film’s pictorial a film’s enhance to ary camera, are all intended

seen as an important early step in Korda’s calculated bid calculated bid in Korda’s as step anseen early important had already secured a deal to make a deal to quality secured had already filmsdis for

Chapman the writes frontal staging, long takes and a predominantly station takes a predominantly and staging,frontal long

tribution by the American United Artists before the film the Artists American the United before by tribution to establish himself as a major independent producer. He He producer. independent himself as establish to a major

than a sequence of shots shots of than a sequence the film, therefore, privileges the individual shot, rather rather shot, individual the privileges film,the therefore,

in his royal robes, his legs apart and his hands on his sides apart his and his his hands sides legs on in robes, his royal British films from Hollywood. Aspects of forms, such as forms,such of Hollywood. Aspects films British from

was released. Following the success of the film, Korda film, the Korda of success the Following was released. a of building financial the for secure to backing wasable while the camera is mobile, there is a relative absence absence is a relative there is mobile, camera the while FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 216 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - - and

(JamesIvory, (Hugh Hudson, 1981), a pe 1981), Hudson, (Hugh was first used by Charles Barr by Charles was first used (James The 1992). Ivory, herit A Room with a View View a with Room A Chariots of Fire heritage film film heritage that came to prominance in the 1980s, typ in 1980s, the that prominance came to Howards End The film marking the recovery of British cinema in British cinema the of The film recovery marking the The term double the output of 1981, partly due to heritage films (114). films heritage to partly due 1981, of output the double period drama early 1980s was 1980s early each year had been falling steadily since 1972, to an to all- 1972, falling had since been year steadily each thanyearmore was each filmsproduced of number erage age text was commonly understood as a film that drew understood was commonly text age be repeated 30 years later, in the 2000s, or the ‘Noughties.’ ‘Noughties.’ the or 2000s, in the later, years 30 repeated be properties of the upper classes, and was set roughly in in roughly was and classes, set upper the of properties upon a work of classic literature, dwelt upon the lives the upon dwelt literature, classic of work a upon the period between 1860 and World War II (Leggott 82). 82). (Leggott II War World and 1860 between period the time low of just 24 films made in 1981, they picked up again picked they 1981, 24 films just of in made time low with a certain associated became type quickly term of riod film based on the true story of the of the rivalryon storytrue film riod the based between in the mid 1980s, when, according to Sarah Street, the av the Sarah to Street, according when, 1980s, in mid the to the filmsdedicated 1940s the to in relation in 1986 by such films as ified financed by successful television historical series, a trend to a trend series, historical television successful by financed Although the number of feature films produced in Britain in filmsproduced feature of number the Although 1985) and and 1985) “rich British heritage” (qtd. in Leggott 81). However, the the However, in 81). Leggott (qtd. heritage” British “rich - - - - - Henry Henry –

Mary, Queen of (Guy Green, 1976) etc. – all 1976) Green, (Guy made in 1970s the made Luther (Waris Hussein, 1972), 1972), (Waris Hussein, monarchy filmsmonarchy and

(Charles Jarrott, 1972), Jarrott,1972), (Charles

charged agenda of oppositional cinema. (23) of oppositional charged agenda es. From the 1960s Free Cinema to Black British cin British to Black Cinema Free the 1960s es. From films of of nation’ state and ‘the the 1970s, emas in changing taste of younger and more diverse audienc diverse and more taste of younger changing cinema started to be displaced by the politicised aes the politicised by be displaced to started cinema sual connotations, taking on instead the politically instead the politically taking on sual connotations, the 1980s, realism has progressively lost its consen lost has progressively realism the 1980s, thetic of art cinema and the avant-garde, and the and avant-garde, the and cinema art of thetic History At the same time, according to John Hill, “the versions versions Hill, “the John to according same time, the At

contributed to the rivival of the genre in part provoked and in part provoked rivival genre the the to of contributed community together” (33). of national character’ that were regarded as binding the the as binding regarded that were character’ national of expense of other national (Scottish, Welsh, and Irish) and and Irish) and Welsh, (Scottish, national other of expense

of nation on display in the critically valued quality in critically films the valued display on nation of Scots

privileged ‘Englishness’ or more specifically a distinctive specifically a distinctive more or ‘Englishness’ privileged Southern take on white, middle-class Englishness, at the the at Englishness, middle-class take white, on Southern itly ‘consensus-seeking’ as they highlighted the ‘elements ‘elements the as highlighted they ‘consensus-seeking’ itly regional identities within the UK; these films were explic within filmswere UK; these the identities regional VIII and his Six Wives his and VIII FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 217 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - According to Claire Monk, in the 1980s the notion of of notion the Claire in to 1980s Monk, the According Heritage film, however, represents just one aspect of of aspect one just represents film,however, Heritage Ironically, as Sarah Street states, the Thatcher years years Thatcher the as states, Sarah Street Ironically, cinema as it had been in the 1930s (184). Charlotte Brunsdon Brunsdon Charlotte (184). in 1930s the had been ascinema it of British cinema in the 1980s. While Thatcher’s com While Thatcher’s 1980s. inthe cinema British of extinction. Since the Thatcher government left the film appeal”’ (qtd. in Vidal 24). appeal”’ (qtd. speaks about four markers of quality present in these in these quality of present markers four speaks about success of heritage costume films saved the industry the filmsfrom costume saved heritage of success mitment to the market economy offered little assistance little offered economy market the to mitment productions: “a ‘literary source,’ ’the best British acting,’ acting,’ British best ’the ‘literary source,’ “a productions: provided the Cultural-political background to the revival the to background Cultural-political the provided the heritage industry as a whole, and it is not confined to confined is not it and industry as whole, a heritage the their umbilical link with the heritage industries, and and umbilical their industries, link with heritage the their genericdelineation and coherence (Leggott 81). temporary of combination fortunate a filmproducers, to international the and boom, multiplex the tax incentives, industry dependent on television, particularly Channel 4, television, on industry dependent filmsfund found that that many lower-budget meant it (115). Thatcherism critical of were ing ‘money’ (in lieu of an expensive look) and ‘heritage export export ‘heritage and look) an expensive of lieu (in ‘money’ ‘quality’ became the basis for the exportability of British British exportability the of basis the for became ‘quality’ - - - - - (James heralded

(James Ivory, Maurice (James Ivory, 1993) etc. etc. 1993) (James Ivory, Heat and Dust (David Lean, 1985), Lean, 1985), (David The Remains of the Day the of The Remains

A Passage to India to A Passage

The so-called heritage debate that ensued amongst amongst that ensued debate The so-called heritage

ogy. But further analysis, prompted by gay and feminist feminist and gay by further analysis, But prompted ogy. continuing the profitable export of films which offered offered of exportfilms which profitable the continuing

cise and loving photography of sites of national heritage (in (in heritage national of sites of photography loving cise and a particular construction of Englishness (Street 115–116). (Street a particular Englishness of construction

and bonding, and a nostalgic view of the past. the It of view a nostalgic and bonding, and scholars of British film culture initially called attention film British culture initially of attention called scholars

garding their gender politics, their appeal to audiences, audiences, to appeal their politics, gender their garding hallmarks which typified subsequent heritage films: pre films: heritage hallmarks typifiedsubsequent which

ferred to as heritage), including including as to heritage), ferred following decade: quality re (often also historical films decade: following

tors deeming them to be nostalgic and conservative conservative and nostalgic be to them deeming tors to their political implications, with some commenta with some implications, political their to

the ascendency of the most dominant British genre for the for genre British dominant most the of ascendency the this case, Cambridge University), a focus on male rivalry on a focus this University), case, Cambridge team for the 1924 Olympics. The film of the had many Olympics. 1924 the team for two runners, who eventually won places on the British British the on places won eventually runners,two who readings, led to more nuanced and varied positions re varied positions and nuanced more to led readings,

Ivory, 1987), 1987),

within the context of reactionary Thatcherite ideol reactionary Thatcherite of within context the These were box office hits in both both hitsBritain in and America, office box were These FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 218 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - - The Love (Mike Nichols, 2005), 2005), (Mike Nichols, Closer (Richard Eyre, 2006) etc., all exam etc., 2006) Eyre, (Richard (Chris and Paul Weitz, 2002), 2002), Weitz, Paul and (Chris About a Boy a Boy About (Richard Curtis, 2003), Curtis,(Richard 2003), (Stephen Frears, 2006) also tackles some of these these of also some tackles 2006) Frears, (Stephen Notes on a Scandal a on Notes The election of New Labour in 1997 with its modern with its Labour in 1997 New of Theelection each film as was the case with earlier heritage filmfilms,heritage is each was as case the earlier with changing metropolis by focusing on class, cultural on focusing differ by changing metropolis family structures reconstituted and sexual deceit ence, and such as such be considered a modern monarchy film. As Fitzgerald re film. Fitzgerald As monarchy a modern considered be by primarily locating films in present-day London. Films London. primarilyby filmspresent-day locating in late 1990s and early ‘Noughties’ saw a significant shift a significant saw in ‘Noughties’ early and 1990s late Queen marks, the use of a leading British star (Hugh Grant, Jude Jude Grant, star British (Hugh leading a marks,of use the modernity of urbanisation or industrialisation (Higson 92). (Higson 92). industrialisation or urbanisation of modernity pastoral landscape of southern England untainted by the the by untainted England southern of landscape pastoral themes in the recent past of 1997 but can, at the same time, can, time, same the at but 1997 past of in recent the themes 47). (Fitzgerald narrative the as on mise-en-scéne the the heritage film: a widening of the heritage appellation appellation heritage of the film: a widening heritage the important, but there is also as much concentration on on concentration is also as there much but important, ist agenda and the continuing economic upturn of the the upturn of economic continuing the and ist agenda of the elements exploring ways, in different City the ine Actually Law, Judy Dench, Helen Mirren, and Keira Knightly) for for Knightly) Keira Mirren, and Helen Dench, Judy Law, within a middle- or upper-middle-class framework. framework. upper-middle-class or within a middle------

In Higson’s opinion, “the past is displayed as visually past is displayed “the opinion, In Higson’s

dour and narrative meaning narrative in films and the makes which dour emerge in these films not only as aristocratic, but also but only as as filmsaristocratic, innot these emerge ema. They transform the heritage of the upper classes into into classes upper the of ema. heritage They the transform effects dominated aesthetics of mainstream popular cinaesthetics dominated effects offer is an image, a spectacle, something to be ‘gazed at.’ at.’ ‘gazed be to something is spectacle, a an image, offer

as public interest. Still, these are films for a relatively priv relatively a filmsare Still, for these interest. aspublic a national heritage: private interest become naturalised become interest private heritage: national a

spectacular pastiche, inviting a nostalgic gaze a nostalgic that spectacular resists inviting pastiche, by these films” (91). It is the tension between visualbetween splen tension It is the (91). films” these by

male-centred, while the nation itself is reduced to the soft soft the to is reduced itself nation the while male-centred, modernity toward a traditional conservative pastoral pastoral conservative a traditional toward modernity

modern culture. The heritage industry may transform the transform industry may Theculture. heritage modern past into a series of commodities for the leisure and en and leisure the for commodities of a series past into

them fascinating. As much as films the As fascinating. much them from turnaway the ironies and social critiques often suggested narratively narratively suggested often social and critiques ironies the

tertainment market, but in most cases the commodity on on cases commodity the in most but market, tertainment ileged audience. The national past and national identity identity The national past and national audience. ileged

Englishness, they also turn away from the hi-tech, special hi-tech, also the they from turnEnglishness, away History, the past, becomes in Fredric Jameson’s phrase, “a “a phrase, Jameson’s in Fredric past, the becomes History,

vast collection of images” (66). (66). images” of vast collection Thatcherite Britain, but is a characteristic feature of post of is feature a characteristic Britain, but Thatcherite FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 219 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED...

- - Elizabeth’s The Queen (Elizabeth II) is also (Elizabeth II) The Queen Diana, just like young Elizabeth, Diana, was like young just of the Church of England, too. As empha too. England, of Church the of The Queen, the governor) of the film proves the strength and necessity of the long- of the necessity strength and the filmproves the of sized in sized socialist-realist director (and genre-hopper), contributed contributed genre-hopper), (and director socialist-realist but (though often forgotten in our globalised and secular and globalised in our forgotten often (though but but still has enough humility to seek consensus and enable enable and consensus still humility seek to hasbut enough (19). Elizabeth’s survival Elizabeth’s in history within and narrative the (19). for her personal and institutional survival,institutional and personal her transfor the for mation and renewal of of renewal and mation more to the survival and renewal of the monarchy through through monarchy survival the the to of renewal and more term survival of the English monarchy, where the monarch monarch the where survivalterm monarchy, English the of And as tradition. through and by monarchy the both was Virgin inevitable the Queen into transformation the film’s positive reception rather than its explicit citicism. citicism. thanitsexplicit rather reception positive film’s the is not only the head of state and of the Commonwealth, Commonwealth, the of and state of head the only is not rules heart Elizabeth unlike who II, her ruled by Queen renewal and survival. However, more sceptical critics, like critics, sceptical more survival. and renewal However, necessary for survival. Paradoxically, however, survival. for necessary Paradoxically, a well-known Frears, Stephen by directed although itself, Using Korda’s traditional recipe of monarchy films, the monarchy of recipe traditional Korda’s Using world) is still the ‘head’ (more precisely by title since 1559, 1559, since title by precisely is still ‘head’ the (more world) viewer is reminded that the Queen might be old-fashioned, old-fashioned, be might that Queen the is reminded viewer ------(Shekhar Shakespeare has both “the vul has “the both Elizabeth narrates a ‘new his narrates a ‘new Elizabeth Elizabeth

, John Madden, 1998) employ the lexicon of corpo of lexicon the employ 1998) Madden, , John

According to Renée Pigeon Pigeon Renée to According Moya Luckett agrees that agrees Luckett Moya Let us now examine two new heritage films il heritage to examine new two Let us now

duce national renown, even in the face of very real domestic real very domestic of in face the even renown, national duce

distinction, these Elizabethan films (including Elizabethan these (including distinction, films and can be popular both with left- and right-wing audiences audiences right-wing and with can left- and both popular be

in Love genre. In Julianna Pidduck’s opinion opinion In Juliannagenre. Pidduck’s

by demonstrating how the image of a monarch might pro might a monarch of image the how demonstrating by knowledge, and thereby legitimises a similar legitimises strategy for thereby and knowledge,

lustrate the simultaneous change and continuity in the in the continuity and change simultaneous the lustrate more contemporary narratives. The film might be seen in The narratives. seen be film might contemporary more

problems and their potential threat to nationhood (91). (91). nationhood to threat potential their and problems pastoral mis-en-scéne and subtle dramas of love and class and dramas love subtle and of mis-en-scéne pastoral

to overtake the realist mode. Furthermore, contrary to a to contrary Furthermore, realist the mode. overtake to the light of Tony Blair’s attempts to update the monarchy monarchy the update to attempts Blair’s Tony of light the

tory,’ one that reinforces the power of images over archival over images of power the that reinforces one tory,’ nerability of Lady Diana and the ruthlessness of Thatcher,” Thatcher,” of Diana Lady ruthlessness the of and nerability

reality and sensuality (172). reality sensuality and (172). riod drama, allowing a playful, performative sensibility sensibility drama,riod allowing playful, a performative

British heritage tradition premised on precise dialogue, dialogue, precise on premised tradition heritage British Kapur, 1998) marks a postmodern turn marks pe a postmodern in British the 1998) Kapur, FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 220 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - - - A history film tells us more about the time in which it which in time the about A history filmmore tells us For the non-professional historian, knowledge — par of famous period portraits. McKechnie argues that audi portraits. McKechnie period famous of looks if he Henry VIII as will ‘authentic’ accept only ences carriages or horseback (modes of transport of that accen (modes carriages horseback or ritualised as tea around afternoon acts such orchestrated be that could social the ball,or typical became set-pieces as he does in the portrait by Hans Holbein the Younger. Younger. the Hans by in portrait the Holbein does as he always that it will represent history ‘as it really happened,’ really happened,’ it history ‘as will that it always represent particular’and stasis of nostalgia and sense that is inter school textbooks, previous media texts and the viewing the and texts media previous textbooks, school shots, the use of wide-angle lenses, deep focus and high- and focus deep lenses, wide-angle use of the shots, structured directed, ‘a aspects These set. also accentuate but the key to convincing audiences that historicaltruth is audiences convincing to key the but re to ability in film’s the lie to appears represented being key lighting schemes stress the grandeur of each expensive expensive each of grandeur the stress schemes lighting key produce the look of the period accurately (McKechnie 218). accurately period the of look the produce ticularly in the case of monarchs — is generally based on on based generally monarchs — is ticularly in case the of tuate the ‘pastness’ of the landscape) and interior scenes scenes interior and landscape) the of ‘pastness’ the tuate re-adapted and extended to other period serials period (Vidal other 30). to extended and re-adapted nal to the text. Countryside travelling sequences shot from from shot sequences travelling nal Countryside text. the to was made than about the time in which it was set. Long Long was set. it in time the which thanwas made about

- - - - (Danny Boyle, 1996).” , Shekhar Kapur, a veteran a veteran , Shekhar Kapur, (Francis Ford Coppola, 1982) and and 1982) Coppola, Ford (Francis Trainspotting Elizabeth The Godfather

As success is defined mostly by profit and US reception, reception, US and profit by mostly is defined As success While there is concensus among filmmakers on the among is concensus Whilethere

quality heritage film risks falling between two stools, nei film quality heritage stools, risks falling two between of Bollywood, also wanted “to use some finesse, some some finesse, some use “to also wanted Bollywood, of

and its parameters has always been met with a more am with more a met been has always parameters its and serve American audiences, as well. This as well. is particularly no Americanserve audiences,

bivalent response from critics and audiences. Whatever Whatever audiences. and critics from response bivalent melodramatic and chaotic tone, something like in the something tone, chaotic and melodramatic

ther genuine art nor genuinely popular” (qtd. in Vidal 27). inVidal 27). (qtd. popular” genuinely artnor genuine ther the current fashion in monarchy films, the expectation films,is expectation the in monarchy fashion current the

the shooting style of of style shooting the trigue of

that the director of of that director the ticable in the use of tableaux (99). Gibson remarks (122) remarks (122) Gibson (99). tableaux in use of the ticable

their educational background entitles them. Heritage Heritage them. entitles background educational their that heritage audiences in America are composed of those those of in are composed America audiences that heritage

in search of ‘the cultural capital’ to which they believe cultural believe they ‘the capital’ which of to in search it is equally important, according to Martin A. Hipsky, Martin to A. is equally Hipsky, according important, it

role of ‘the historical truth’ within the film’s historical truth’narrative ‘the within of film’s the role necessity and marketability of visual period accuracy, the the visual marketability of and accuracy, period necessity

films made in the 1990s thus became more ‘painterly’ to ‘painterly’ more became 1990s filmsthus in the made Higson, claim that “by aiming for the middle ground, the the claimground, that “by middle Higson, the aiming for FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 221 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... ------) (193). (RogerMichael, Jude the Obscure the Jude (Shekhar Kapur, 2007). Notting Hill (Sharon Maguire, 2001) could could Maguire, 2001) (Sharon Elizabeth, the Golden Age Age Golden the Elizabeth, (based on Thomas Hardy’s Thomas (based Hardy’s on films etc), films like filmsetc), Bridget DiaryJones’s and

Jude Television, in the 1970s, 1990s, and the 2000s, also 2000s, the and 1990s, in 1970s, the Television, contribution of Derek Jarman and Peter Greenaway to the to Greenaway Jarman Peter and Derek of contribution ex of the films,parody the anti-heritage speaks about even audience used to more lyrical adaptations, and the open the and lyrical adaptations, more to used audience and the settings are carefully chosen to avoid the pic the avoid to carefully are settings chosen the and be labelled as ‘contemporary’ heritage films” (82). Monk Monk (82). films” heritage as ‘contemporary’ labelled be Carry on paved the way for the continuing success of heritage films. heritage of success continuing the for way the paved pectation of a period film e.g. Michael Winterbottom’s 1996 Winterbottom’s Michael filme.g. a period of pectation turesque. It is not surprising that the film shocked an surprising that film the shocked is not It turesque. ture has long known a strain of iconoclastic or deliberately deliberately or known a strain iconoclastic ture has of long make-up, no wears Winslet Kate heroes. heritage tional ing sequence is even shot in black and white (Gibson 119). (Gibson white and inblack shot iseven sequence ing as such filmcompanies independent with top nerships film, Furthermore, according to Leggott, “as British film British cul Leggott, “as to according Furthermore, conven of features soft the replaces face gaunt Eccleston’s UK broadcasters, BBC and Channel 4, have forged part forged Channel and 4, have BBC UK broadcasters, 1999) or or 1999) 2005) The characters wear clothes, not costumes. Christopher Christopher costumes. not clothes, wear The characters ‘inauthentic’ approaches to history (from the avantgarde avantgarde the history to (from approaches ‘inauthentic’ - - - - - (Joe Wright, Wright, (Joe Pride andPrejudice , starring Helen Mirren, remind starring, Helen starring Cate Blanchett, who resem starring who Blanchett, Cate TheQueen Elizabeth,

In the ‘Noughties’ according to Harper (12) “a period period “a Harper to (12) according ‘Noughties’ In the We can also support this statement with the success with success the can this also statement support We

original definition, such as such original definition, of tremendous global shifts, tremors and surprises,” there there surprises,” and shifts, global tremors tremendous of

clothes. I would go one step further, and ask whether ask whether and further, step one go I would clothes. costume itself withinfet films the “the itself examines costume and

of both both of age film with only a few examples that might match the the match that might examples few filmonly a age with

appearance can demonstrate the necessary level of authen of level necessary the can demonstrate appearance bles Elizabeth I on her coronation portrait from school school from portrait coronation her Elizabeth on I bles

has been a slight moving away from the traditional herit traditional the from away moving has a slight been her media appearances. Stella Bruzzi explores the role of of role the Bruzzi explores Stella appearances. media her

public image of a monarch’ as well (37; emphasis mine). emphasis (37; a monarch’ as image of well public production design is necessary. This obligatory accuracy of of accuracy Thisobligatory isnecessary. design production

textbooks, or textbooks,or ticity so that greater narrative freedom can be taken (219). can taken be (219). freedom narrative that so greater ticity

raises the issue of whether one looks at or through the the through or at looks one whether of raises issue the ishistic value of history and historical clothes” (36). She She (36). history historical and clothes” of value ishistic

ing us of the aging Queen Elizabeth II well-known from from Elizabeth well-known II aging the Queen using of recognise that the conscious evocation of a period through through period a of evocation that conscious the recognise

Makers of recent successful films with historical content filmscontent successful historical with recent Makersof we look at or through ‘the text-book or media credited credited media or text-book ‘the through or at look we FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 222 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... , . - - - - - it The The Queen The Queen The Queen (Tom Hooper, (Tom , Cate Blanchett is is Blanchett , Cate and in and Elizabeth The Private Life of Henry Henry of Life The Private Elizabeth and Elizabeth (Kevin McDonald, 2006), 2006), McDonald, (Kevin The Queen (Justin Chadwick, 2008), and and (Justin 2008), Chadwick, the tableau (or portrait shot) is introduced at the be the at is introduced shot) portrait (or tableau the The monarchy film and biopic of the 1990s has become 1990s hasbecome of the filmbiopic and The monarchy self-reflective about the narratives of history and nation, of history nation, and narratives the about self-reflective gestures in both ginning of the film to seek out the private man behind manprivate behind the out ginning film the seek to of both Elizabeth I and II) quiet dignity small and quiet Elizabethboth contained II) I and humiliation and inevitable consensus-seeking transfor consensus-seeking inevitable and humiliation Other Boleyn Girl Boleyn Other fulfilling a myth-making (and myth-breaking) function fulfilling myth-breaking) function (and myth-making a mations to keep up the monarchy, kept her dignity, and and dignity, her kept monarchy, the up keep to mations princess in the early 1980s to suffering soap-opera hero soap-opera suffering to 1980s inearly the princess political drama and the heritage genre, in films as such genre, drama heritage political the and transformed into a ‘walking tableau’ with make-up, cos with make-up, a ‘walking into tableau’ transformed Likewise, in tuming (Vidal lighting 42). and 38, that is difficult to dissociate from the evolving media nar evolving the from that to is difficult dissociate this public image, both in both image, this public is the other way round. In round. way other is the ratives (e.g. around Diana’s transformation from fairytale from transformation Diana’s around (e.g. ratives (as Mirren’s ThisHelen to is in contrast in 1990s). the ine Helen Mirren’s character, Elizabeth II, despite some public public some Elizabeth despite II, character, Mirren’s Helen 2005 BBC miniseries). While in miniseries). BBC 2005 VIII The LastKing of Scotland ------(BBC, 2007–10) updates the updates 2007–10) (BBC, The Tudors and the the and

Elizabeth Vidal labels this new genre a new ‘syncretic’ heritage heritage ‘syncretic’ new a this genre Vidal labels new

duction sector in crucial ways resulting in a move towards towards in a move in crucial resulting sector ways duction

consistent and effortless example of the crossover between between of crossover the example effortless and consistent and violence. Finally, Morgan’s work offers perhaps the most the perhaps offers work Morgan’s Finally, violence. and

and television has helped to define the British film pro British film the define to has helped television and strong reputation for ‘sexing up’ classical serials up while up’ ‘sexing for reputation strong

such as Andrew Davies, Michael Hirst, and Peter Morgan, Morgan, Hirst, Peter and Michael asDavies, Andrew such holding 19th century emotional repression. Hirst’s script script Hirst’s repression. century emotional 19th holding

heritage audiences (33). The genre has defined the star the has The defined genre (33). audiences heritage Garai, Carey Mulligan, and James McAvoy. Just as im Just McAvoy. Garai, Mulligan, James Carey and

for portant is the distinctive work of star television writers writers star of television work distinctive portantis the

personas of Colin Firth and Keira Knightly and keeps pro keeps Firth and Knightly Colin Keira and of personas product, which is created to attract wider soap/costume/ attract wider to is created which product,

prived of state support, the interdependence between film between interdependence the support, state of prived tablished generic frameworks. Davies has established a a has established Davies frameworks. generic tablished

the serial, a more sustainable and marketable format (29). format sustainable marketable and serial,the a more film industry is notorious for its instability. Largely de Largely its instability. for film notorious industry is

Elizabethan monarchy drama with abundant doses of sex sex of drama doses Elizabethan with abundant monarchy which has introduced distinctive auteristic styles into es into styles auteristic distinctive has introduced which

viding platforms for young British actors such as Romola as Romola such actors British young for viding platforms Working Titles and Miramax. and Titles Vidal claims that British the Working FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 223 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - monarchy monarchy

and thus the British (or rather English) Monarchy is Monarchy English) rather (or British the thus and

film, a new Oscars coronation in 2007. In sum, the in 2007. Oscars coronation a new

at the end of the film, in the final garden scene she, the she, film, the scene of in finalthe end the at garden still alive, seems safe, sound, spectacular sound, glorious. safe, and still seems alive,

Queen, is depicted literally and symbolically and as a ‘walk literally is depicted Queen, ing tableau,’ dignified and also metaphorically worthy of of worthy dignified metaphorically and also tableau,’ ing FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 224 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED...

- - - - Fires were Oxford: Clarendon, Clarendon, Oxford: London: Wallflower,

British Historical Cinema. British Historical Cinema. Journal of Popular Film and Tv and Film Popular of Journal London: Verso, 1991. Print. 1991. Verso, London: Contemporary Costume Film: Space, Place Place Space, Film: Costume Contemporary Postmodernism and the Cultural Logic of of Logic Cultural the and Postmodernism London: Wallflower, 2007. Print. 2007. Wallflower, London: Contemporary British Cinema, from Herit Print. Print. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2007. Print. Macmillan, Palgrave 2007. York: New . . British in Cinema the 1980s. Ed. Lester. D. Friedman. D. Ed.Lester. age to Horror. and the Past. started. ledge, 2002 ledge, ledge, 2002 ledge, talgia and Pastiche in the Heritage Film.” Film.” talgia in Heritage the Pastiche and Late Capitalism. Merchant-Ivory movies?” Rout London: AmyEds. Sergeant. and Claire Monk Eds. Claire Monk and Amy Sergeant. London: Rout London: AmyEds. Sergeant. and Claire Monk 1999. Print. 1999. 2006. Print. 2006. Print. 98–107. (1994): 22.3 The royal bio-pic in the 1990s.” in 1990s.” the bio-pic The royal Jameson, Fredric. Monk, Claire. “Heritage film.” film.” Claire.Monk, “Heritage McKechnie, Kara. “Taking liberties with the monarch. Kara. with monarch. the liberties “Taking McKechnie, Pidduck, Julianna. Leggott, James. Higson, Andrew. “Re-presenting the national past: Nos past: national the “Re-presenting Andrew. Higson, Hill, John. watch America does Why Martin.“Anglophil(m)a: Hipsky,

- - - The British Cin The British Ed. James Chapman. Lon Ed. James . London: Routledge, 1994. Routledge, . London: “Fewer Weddings and More Fu More and Weddings “Fewer . Cambridge: Polity Press, 1988. 1988. Press, Polity . Cambridge:

. Unemployment in Britain between Pastand Present. National Identity Studying British Cinema 1999-2009. Essays Undressing Cinema: Clothing and Identity in London: Routledge, 1997. Print. 1997. Routledge, London: Picturing the Past the Picturing Ed. Robert Murphy. London: BFI, 2001. Print. 2001. BFI, London: Murphy. Ed. Robert . London: Harlow, 1980. Print. 1980. Harlow, . London:

and the British Historical Film. Historical British the and ema Book. ema don: I.B. Tauris, 2005. 13–44. Print. 2005. 13–44. I.B. Tauris, don: the Wars the Movies. nerals: Changes in the Heritage Film.” Film.” in Heritage the Changes nerals: Print. Print. Leighton Buzzard: Auteur, 2010. Print. 2010. Auteur, Buzzard: Leighton Henry VIII (1933).” HenryVIII (1933).”

WORKS CITED: WORKS Constantine,Stephen

Chapman, James. “Merrie England: The private Life of of Life The private England: “Merrie Chapman,James. Gibson,Pamela Church.

Fitzgerald, John. Bruzzi, Stella. Bruzzi, Stella.

Baudrillard, Jean. Harper, Sue. Sue. Harper, FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 225 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - Dir. Waris Hussein. BBC, 1972. 1972. BBC, Hussein. Waris Dir. Dir. Shekhar Kapur. Universal Universal Shekhar Kapur. Dir. Dir. Sharon Maguire. Sharon Miramax, Dir. 2001. Dir. James Ivory. Merchant Ivory Pro Ivory Merchant Ivory. James Dir. Dir. William K. Howard. London Film William London Dir. K. Howard. Dir. David Lean.Film. 1985. ThornDavid EMI, Dir. Dir. Hugh Hudson. Warner Bros, 1981. 1981. Bros, Warner Hudson. Hugh Dir. Dir. James Ivory. Merchant Ivory Produc Ivory Merchant Ivory. James Dir. . Dir. Chris and Paul Weitz. Universal Pictures, Pictures, Universal Chris Weitz. Paul and . Dir. Dir. Shekhar Kapur. PolyGram Filmed Enter Filmed PolyGram Shekhar Kapur. Dir. Dir. Mike Nichols. Columbia Pictures, 2005. Pictures, Film. Columbia Mike Nichols. Dir. ductions, 1986. Film. 1986. ductions, tions, 1987. Film. 1987. tions, tainment, 1998. Film. 1998. tainment, Pictures, 2007. Film. Pictures, 2007. Film. 1937. Productions, Film. Film. Film. 2002. Film. FILMOGRAPHY: Chariots of Fire. of Chariots Closer. About a Boy About India. to Passage A a View. with A Room Bridget Jones’ s Diary. Jones’ Bridget Fire Over England. Heat and Dust. Six Wives. his and VIII Henry Elizabeth. Elizabeth,the Golden Age. - - History To Cinema and Cinema : : . London: Routledge, Routledge, . London: London: I. B. Tauris, 2009. Print. 2009. I. B. Tauris, London: Retrovision: Reinventing the Past in in Past the Reinventing Retrovision: Eds. Deborah Cartmell, I.Q. Hunter, Hunter, Cartmell,Eds. I.Q. Deborah The Age of the Dream Palace Dream the of TheAge British National Cinema Heritage Film. Nation, genre and Representa and genre Nation, Film. Heritage

. London: Wallflower, 2012. Print. 2012. Wallflower, . London: 51.9. (2001): n. p. Web. 11 Feb. 2016. 2016. Feb. 11 Web. n. p. (2001): 51.9.

day tion and Imelda Whelehan. London: Pluto Press, 2001. 8–24. 8–24. 2001. Press, Pluto London: Whelehan. Imelda and Society in the 1930s. the in Society in Recent Films.” Films.” in Recent Film and Fiction. Fiction. and Film Print. 2009. Print.

Street, Sarah. Street,

Richards, Jeffrey. Jeffrey. Richards, Pigeon, Reneé. “No Man’s Elizabeth: The Virgin Queen Man’s “No Reneé. Pigeon,

Walker, Greg. “The Private Life of Henry VIII.” Henry “The VIII.” of Life Private Greg. Walker, Vidal, Belén. Vidal, Belén. FILM & CULTURE–VELICH–THE ENGLISH 226 ‘MONARCHY FILM’ REVISITED... - - - - Dir. Alexander Korda. Lon . Dir. Paul Czinner. London London Czinner. Paul . Dir. Dir. Kevin McDonald. Fox Search Fox Kevin McDonald. Dir. Dir. James Ivory. Merchant Ivory Ivory Merchant Ivory. James Dir. Dir. Alexander Korda. Alexander Dir. Justin Chadwick. Columbia Pic Columbia Justin Chadwick. Dir. Dir. Herbert Wilcox. RKO Radio Pic RKO Wilcox. Herbert Dir. Dir. Danny Boyle. Channel Four Films, 1996. Films, 1996. Channel Four Boyle. Danny Dir. Dir. Stephen Frears. Canal+, 2006. Film. Film. 2006. Canal+, Frears. Stephen Dir. Dir. Robert Stevenson. Gaumont British, 1936. 1936. British, Gaumont Stevenson. Robert Dir. don Film Productions, 1933. Film. 1933. Film Productions, don light Pictures, 2006. Film. 2006. Pictures, light tures, Film. 1937. tures, 2008. Film. 2008. tures, Film. Productions, 1993. Film. 1993. Productions, Film. 1934. Film Productions, Film. Korda Films, 1941. Film. Films, 1941. Korda Victoriathe Great. Tudor Rose. Tudor Trainspotting. TheHamilton Woman. The Last King of Scotland. The Other Boleyn Girl. The Queen. VIII. Henry of Life The Private Day. the of The Remains The Rise of Catherine the Great ------Dir. Charles Jarrott. Universal Pic Universal Jarrott. Charles Dir. Dir. Joe Wright. Focus Features, 2005. Features, Focus Wright. Joe Dir. Dir. John Madden. Universal Pictures, Pictures, Universal Madden. John Dir. Dir. Richard Eyre. Fox Searchlight Pic Searchlight Fox Eyre. Richard Dir. Dir. Francis Ford Coppola. Paramount Pic Paramount Coppola. Ford Francis Dir. Dir. James Ivory. Merchant Ivory Produc Ivory Merchant Ivory. James Dir. Dir. Richard Curtis. Universal Pictures, 2003. 2003. Pictures, Universal Curtis. Richard Dir. Dir. Roger Michael. PolyGram Filmed Enter Filmed PolyGram Michael. Roger Dir. Dir. James Ivory. Merchant Ivory Productions, Productions, Ivory Merchant Ivory. James Dir. Dir. Guy Green. AFT Distributing, 1976. Film. Film. AFT 1976. Distributing, Green. Guy Dir.

Dir. Michael Winterbottom. PolyGram Filmed En Filmed PolyGram Winterbottom. Michael Dir.

tainment, 1999. Film. 1999. tainment, tures, 2006. Film. tures, 1972. Film. 1972. tures, tertainment, 1996. Film. 1996. tertainment, tions, 1992. Film. 1992. tions, tures, 1982. Film. 1982. tures, Film. Film. 1998. Film. 1998. 1987. Film.

Shakespeare in Love. Shakespearein Maurice.

Mary, Queen of Scots. Notting Hill.

Notes on a Scandal. Scandal. a on Notes Pride and Prejudice. Luther. LoveActually. Jude.

Howards End. The Godfather. Film & Culture: Glossary

DOROTTYA JÁSZAY | Film & Culture ► 227 FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 228 ------theory, the director auteur A film created by the process of pho of process by the A film created The placement of the camera in relation in relation camera the of The placement Low budget films made by hobbyists us hobbyists filmsby made budget Low According to Revision of a piece of art or literature into into art literature of or a piece of Revision A type of film with serious artistic intentions as A type film artistic of serious intentions with distinct from the commercial filmsHollywood. in commercial distinct the made from down narrative structure. The action film is strongly film structure. narrative The down strongly is action associated with the adventure film, swashbuck with with adventure the associated all 1910s. the from popular gressive change in subject. the change gressive held together by fast-paced, goal-oriented, and pared- and goal-oriented, fast-paced, by together held films,films,and epic safari pirate historical lers, films fuses the entire work with his or her personality and and personality with her his or work fuses entire the photography, with each frame recording a minute-pro frame with recording each photography, physical performance a central attraction) areusually attraction) central a performance physical to the subject of the image. the of subject the to inantographing or drawings, silhouettes, puppets, is the controlling force of a film; of an artistin who force controlling is the ing simple cameras and cheap raw material. raw cameras cheap and simple ing frame frame stop-motion by through objects imate film. Adaptation vs. vs. Inspiration. film.Adaptation art film | film | auteur adaptation | adaptation film | amateur film | animation (camera) angle | angle (camera)

- - - - - . Examples: Mechanical Ballet.Mechanical , Viking Eggeling: An extremely suc An avant-garde film Anavant-garde

|

synesthesia principle , Fernand Léger: Léger: , Fernand Coloured Rhythm

display of human actions or narration. They also refer They narration. also refer or human actions of display cessful and influential mode of popular cinema popular of that cinema mode influential cessful and of painting, rhythm, and movement. These films These are rhythm, movement. and painting, of hicles and weapons, and state-of-the-art special ef state-of-the-art and weapons, and hicles fects. These highly dynamic elements (with the actor’s actor’s the (with These highly dynamicfects. elements foregrounds spectacular movements of bodies, ve bodies, of spectacular movements foregrounds usually stripped to the pure graphic form, rejecting the rejecting form, graphic pure the usually to stripped to Wassily Kandinsky’s Wassily to then less stricter then). These artists experimented tives are primarily are tives fine Viking artists,Eggeling, as: such trend in the 1910s and 1920s, whose main representa whose 1920s, and in1910s the trend new composition principles discovered at the begin the at discovered principles composition new them combine to tried they and century, the ningof Diagonal Symphony Ruttmann, etc. These directors experimented with with experimented directors These Ruttmann, etc. Léopold Survage: Hans Richter, Fernand Léger, Marcel Duchamp, Walter Walter Duchamp, Marcel Léger, Fernand Hans Richter, with the creation of “visual music:” the composition composition the “visual of music:” with creation the with the possibilities of the film medium (which were were (which film the medium of with possibilities the

action film (action-adventure film) | film) (action-adventure film action abstract film / experimental film filmexperimental / abstract FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 229 - - - - - Elements of a film A medium shot of one or more more or one of shot A medium A film genre or mode of considerable vari considerable of mode or A filmgenre A vertical movement of the camera when lifted when camera the of movement A vertical characters from the knees up. knees the from characters of the early 20th century (Hugo Münsterberg, Jean Jean Münsterberg, century(Hugo 20th early the of psycho seek not forbearers – does its to opposition are: linguistics. main Its representatives ethology, ogy, in that appears success commercial and range, ety, by the of type is and defined cinema national every governed by harmony, reconciliation, and happiness. by a crane. by a logical, but natural scientific answers. It is characIt is answers. natural scientific but logical, produced with the aid of computer technology. computer of with aid the produced philosophy, biology, Artificial Intelligence, psychol teristically interdisciplinary, containing elements of of elements containing interdisciplinary, teristically a resolution and tone of a lightness by is marked It ter. response it elicits from the audience, namely, laugh namely, audience, the from elicits it response Anderson, and Richard Allen. Richard and Anderson, James J. Gibson, David Bordwell, Joseph and Barbara and Joseph Bordwell, David Gibson, J. James Mitry, Rudolf Arnheim), however, cognitive theory – in cognitive however, Arnheim), Rudolf Mitry, This question had already been posed by theoreticians theoreticians by posed been had already This question cowboy shot / knee shot | shot / knee shot cowboy computer generated image (CGI) | (CGI) image generated computer | crane comedy | comedy - - - - - A biographical motion picture. Naturally available light in a set light Naturally available A theory which examines how the the examines how which A theory Any motion of the camera that makes camera the of Any motion A shot in which the camera seems to to seems camera the in which A shot The setting, characters, and the gen the and The characters, setting, A characteristically silent film genre; tra filmgenre; A characteristically silent

dia dell’arte, vaudeville, pantomime, variety cir show, cus. Following an beginning the initial the at of cus. boom Following eral spatial area to the rear of the image, behind behind image, the of rear eral the spatial to area a small object, or part of an object fills part screen. an small a or object of the object, gi-comic figures, common men, with a fast-paced plot, plot, fast-paced a men, with common figures, gi-comic be very close to the subject. The head of a person, a person, of The head subject. the to close very be human brain behaves when the viewer watches a film. watches viewer the when human brain behaves point of view and all of whose films can be related films allrelated and can view whose be of of point the foreground where the major action takes place. action major the where foreground the ting; the natural light that seems to surround a character. to natural that the seems ting; light the image seem to move, shift, or change perspective. shift, change or move, to seem image the it startsit decline. to its humour often wild and absurd. Origins: comme wildabsurd. and often humour its in terms of similar techniques, style, and themes. and style, similarinterms of techniques, 20th century in Europe (France, Italy), from the 1930s 1930s the from Italy), (France, century in Europe 20th

cognitive film | theory cognitive close-up (CU) | (CU) close-up

camera movement | available / ambient light | light / ambient available burlesque | burlesque biopic (biographic picture) | background| FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 230 ------A filmdeals that factual directly with A technique frequently used to switch from one one from switch to used frequently technique A of the reality that actually exists even if some filmmak reality the thatif actually some of existseven achieve to techniques cinematic use obvious might ers of the scene; the colours of the images; the choice of of choice the images; the of colours the scene; the of set the stock; camera film and filters, cameras,lenses, be the on is copied a shot of end the transition of end with it.concerned films fictionalizing These are of actual people, places, events, or activities. However, However, activities. or events, places, actual people, se be must matter subject the degree; ality some to ginning of the other shot. ginning other the of be discussed in terms of the degree of control that the control of degree the in discussed termsbe of lected and given form and shape. Documentaries can Documentaries shape. and form given and lected to give the audience a feeling, a sense, or a perspective a perspective or a sense, a feeling, audience the give to lines. narrative and scenes preconceived this even or tegration of any special any effects. of tegration re film reality changes that on putting of act very the tings; the cameras setups and movements; and the in the and movements; and cameras the setups tings; image to another, while it refines the switch. At the At the switch. the refines it while another, to image that realityis instead as it convey triesto and reality, filmmaker imposes upon the reality he or she records. records. she or reality he the upon filmmaker imposes What is true of all these films, however, is that they tryis that they Whatall isfilms, true however, of these dissolve | dissolve film| documentary - - - Parallel display of two or or two of display Parallel The individual in charge of put The in of charge individual Light illuminating the subject illuminating subject the Light A filter that softens subjects, generates generates subjects, softens that A filter The area of acceptable focus that extends that extends focus acceptable Theof area An extremely wide-ranging group of fiction Those motifs of film narrative which appear appear as filmwhich of narrative motifs Those

The list of those responsible for the making the of for responsible The those list of

The instantaneous change from one shot to an to shot one The from instantaneous change

cus in a film image. other by means of splicing the two shots together. shots two the splicing means of by other of different actions that take place simultaneously. that actions place take different of a dreamy haze.a dreamy a film. both in front of and behind the primary the fo behind and of of plane in front both for the set or location lighting; the general composition composition general the lighting; location or set the for from both sides, generally in an area perpendicular to generally sides, both from more scenes. Characteristically it is the presentation Characteristically presentation is the it scenes. more part of the world of actions in film. the actions of world part the of the lens axis. lens the ting the scenes on film; hence, the person responsible responsible person the hence, film; on scenes tingthe films that have crime as a central element of their plots. of their element films crime central as a that have

director of photography | photography of director

diffusion filter | filter diffusion diegetic |

depth of field | field of depth cut | cut

cross-cut / intercutting | | / intercutting cross-cut cross light / side light | light / side light cross

crime film | credits | credits FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 231 - - - A shot very close to the subject subject the to close very A shot Usually a short film which tries to to tries filmwhich Usually a short A shot taken at a great distance from distance taken a great from at A shot A gradual transition / dissolution from from / dissolution A gradual transition Films which step over the border of real of border the over step Films which The introductory, opening part a film of opening narra The introductory, elements appear as reality. There are 3 types: There as appear reality. elements Scenes shot at exterior locations. exterior at shot Scenes irreal one scene to another. Fade out: from light to dark; fade dark; to fade light from out: Fade another. to scene one entirety of a small of object. entirety so that only a small portion or detail is shown or the the or detail a small is or shown thatso only portion guage or technical procedure. French, German, and French, procedure. technical guage or medium in the 1910s and 1920s. Its great era is the is the era great Its 1920s. and in 1910s the medium the subject, frequently offering a wide view of a location. of a a view wide offering frequently subject, the tion in which we are acquainted with basic information. information. with basic are acquainted we in which tion in: from dark light. to from in: ity, new means of expression offered by the then new new film by then the offered expression means of new Russian avant-garde artists explored the nature of the the of nature the artists explored Russianavant-garde If there is no exposition, we talk ‘in medias res.’ we about exposition, is no If there 1.) those that use the results of scientific-technical scientific-technical of that results use the those 1.) 1960s and the 1970s. the and 1960s work out a narrative idea, a new kind of visual kindof new a lana narrative idea, out work experimental film | experimental | exposition | exterior | (ECU) close-up extreme | shot long extreme fade in – fade out | out in – fade fade film | fantastic - - - - - The The names of allThe names of per the The opening shot of a sequence, which which a sequence, of shot The opening In film, the term ‘epic’ generally applies to a applies generally ‘epic’ In film,term the

A film that is much shorter than a classic fiction fiction than classic a shorter A filmmuch that is

eral situation. eral establishes location but can also establish mood or give give can or also mood but establish location establishes cordings that appear at the conclusion of a film. of conclusion the at that appear cordings cal and production personnel, the acknowledgement acknowledgement the personnel, cal production and and an intense lover. anand intense ble fromble experimental film. both heroic action and heroic virtue. The hero, like his virtue. The hero, heroic and action heroic both literary prototypes, is a great figure, a noble warrior, warrior, noble a figure, is a great literary prototypes, for various services, and the list of music and re and music list of the and services, various for formers and their roles, the complete list of techni list of complete the roles, their and formers personal content and is often barely be distinguisha be barely is often and content personal the viewer information considering the time and gen and time the considering information viewer the their integration into the filmshot. the it has into been after integration their narrative sense. Frequently serves as the framework for for as framework the serves Frequently narrative sense. recording of dialogue and various sounds, and and dialogue various sounds, and of recording film, and both freer and more liberal in a formal liberal in a and more film, and both freer and work of great scope, spectacle, and action that features that features action and spectacle, scope, great of work

dubbing / post-dubbing / mixing / re-recording | | mixing / re-recording / post-dubbing / dubbing

étude | étude establishing shot | shot establishing

epic film | epic end titles / closing credits | credits / closing titles end FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 232 - - - - 1.) The individualphotographs on motion-pic Films characteristic of 1940s and 1950s America. 1950s and 1940s Films of characteristic A soft light, frequently placed near the camera camera the near placed frequently light, A soft different from documentary films, which deal documentarywith films, which from different on the side opposite to the key light, which fills which in light, ar key the to opposite side the on key the by made shadows the softens unliteas or left style, it focuses on the destructive content under the the under content destructive the on focuses it style, subject matter and employ techniques whose main whose techniques employ and matter subject theatre. the outside factual world the aspectsome of glamourous surface. One of its most important nar important most its of One surface. glamourous light, thus reducing contrast. reducing thus light, from the exposition. It exhibits a complicated, twisty complicated, a exhibits It exposition. the from plot, evil, rain-soaked streets, claustrophobic spaces, spaces, claustrophobic streets, evil, rain-soaked plot, purpose is to increase the viewers understanding of of understanding viewers the increase is to purpose ture film. 2.) The borders of the image on the screen screen on the of image the ture film. borders The 2.) like a painting. a frame on picture the that enclose rative techniques is the flashback which starts which flashback is the right techniques rative film should be taken into consideration. Fictional films,Fictional consideration. be taken into filmshould America in the 1930s, and disappointment after WW II. disappointment and in 1930s, America the Rejecting the naive faith in the beatific faith in beatific life the American naive the Rejecting Its origins go back to the depression atmosphere of of atmosphere depression the to back origins go Its which are made primarily for entertainment, are very very are primarily entertainment, made are for which fill light | fill light film | frame | noir film - - - ). Conan the Barbarian, Flash A film imaginarywith characters The term applies to any full-length fictional fictional full-length any to The applies term

development (e. g. Blade Runner); 2.) those that have that have those 2.) Runner); Blade g. (e. development of the work. Purists would argue that even documen Purists argue that even work. the would of or have mythic heroes (e. g. (e. mythic heroes have or and the editing of the work present a world that ex a world present work the of editing the and and commercial films. filmsfiction use commercial actual and Many and events. The term generally applies to most feature feature most to applies The generally term events. and anywhere from ninety minutes to two hours, though though hours, two to ninety minutes from anywhere supernatural elements in them (e. g. Dracula,g. The (e. in them supernaturalelements longer films are not uncommon. Gordon, Star Wars, Jurassic Park, Independence Day Independence Park, Jurassic Wars, Star Gordon, places; some may incorporate real people and events events and real people incorporate may some places; tional. Some fiction films attempt to create an aura of aura an create to films attempt fiction Some tional. a documentary employing by truth verisimilitude and taries are fictional, since the very act of selecting what what selecting of veryact the tariessince are fictional, film, of to itself, filming the unnaturalthe situation ists only on the screen. Nevertheless, the intention of a of intention the Nevertheless, screen. the on ists only into the story, though their rendition is largely fic is largely rendition their though story, the into film style, but this does not alter the fictionalnature the not alter does thisbut filmstyle, film that plays at a commercial theatre. Such filmsSuch run theatre. commercial at a filmplays that Exorcist); 3.) those that take place in that imaginary take those place 3.) worlds Exorcist);

fiction / narrative film | / narrative fiction feature film | feature FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 233 ------Jean La coquille et et La coquille A long shot that takes shot A long An Andalusian Dog, ). 1920s French film whose mainrep film whose French 1920s French film movement from the end of end the from filmmovement French Luis Bunuel: Luis Le sang d’un pocte d’un Le sang le clergyman, ema verité. Its main representatives: Jean-Luc Godard, Jean-Luc main Its representatives: verité. ema on a duplicate copy of the filmpro the so of image that the copy a duplicate on of time. subjectivity and an auteur film attitude. It includes cin It includes filmattitude. an and auteur subjectivity spired by surrealism (Germaine Deluc: surrealism by Deluc: (Germaine spired Cocteau: fore the appearance of sound film. It is characterised by characterised film.It is sound of appearance the fore jected on the screen seems frozen for a desired length length a desired for frozen seems screen the on jected pendence which had been lost around 1924, shortly be shortly 1924, around lost had been which pendence pecially literature, painting and music. Regarded as Regarded music. and painting pecially literature, significant films in Includes pur.’ film – ‘cinema pure the 1950s. Their aim inde film allow to was that to find 1950s. the in the entire figure of a character, with the head near head with the character, of a figure in entire the resentatives are Louis Delluc, Jean Epstein, Germaine Epstein, Jean are Louis Delluc, resentatives Addresses the important aesthetic question: in what in what question: aesthetic important the Addresses Francois Truffaut, Claude Chabrol, and and Alain Resnais. Chabrol, Claude Truffaut, Francois Dulac, René Clair, Luis Bunuel, and Fernand Léger. Léger. Fernand and Luis Bunuel, Clair, Dulac, René way can film be separated from other forms of formsart, es other canfrom filmway separated be full shot / full figure shot (FS) | (FS) / fullshot full figure shot French avant-garde | avant-garde French | wave new French - - - - A single frame that is repeatedly printed printed frame that isA single repeatedly An extreme wide-angle lens that takes lens in wide-angle An extreme The front area of a scene closest to the au the to closest a scene area of The front The version of a film that is deemed com a filmdeemed of that is The version A sequence of pictures recounting some past some recounting pictures of sequence A

A transparent sheet of coloured glass or gelatin glass gelatin or coloured of sheet A transparent 1.) The point behind the lens where the light rays rays light the where lens the behind The point 1.)

dience, where the major action generally takes place. generally action major the where dience, of sharpness and definition of the image. 4.) The loca The of image. 4.) the definition and sharpness of events inserted in inserted scene. a events control the transmission of the various light waves of of waves light various the of transmission the control and almost exclusively black and white raw material. raw white and black almost exclusively and from a point being photographed converge to form and form to converge photographed being a point from plete and ready for the final the post-production. of stages for ready and plete placed in front of or behind the lens of a camera to to a camera of lens the behind or of in front placed tion from which a subject will record sharply on film. will subject a record which from tion the colour spectrum. nition to create a clear image on the film.degree the on image The a clear 3.) create to nition image. 2.) The degree of acceptable sharpness and defi and sharpness acceptable of Thedegree 2.) image. nearly a 180-degree field of view. field a 180-degree nearly new-wave and modern gangster film draw from it. film from gangster draw modern and new-wave Light-shade effects are extremely important. French French important. extremely are effects Light-shade

foreground |

focus | focus flashback | flashback

fisheye lens | lens fisheye final | cut

freeze (frame) | (frame) freeze filter | filter FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 234 - - - Signs of of Signs , Werner Herzog: ,Werner The interlinking of pictures or or pictures of interlinking The An unmounted, portable camera. portable An unmounted, A shot taken with an unmounted, port taken with an unmounted, A shot A filmpurportingdeal to a histori with Thetechnique of photographing or filming A genre of film to cause of and fright seeks that A genre second wave: Wim Wenders, Werner Schroeter. Werner Wim wave: second Wenders, distant attitude, and a strict approach to film to making, a strict and approach distant attitude, with material from backdrop the replacing and drop, cal period and the actual events of that period, though though that period, of actual the cal and period events contemporary Germany. Examples: Fleischmann: Peter and great liberties might be taken with the events taken be with events the might liberties great and an actor or object against a green monochrome back against monochrome a green object or an actor filter. colour a image using a different with cameraman, the by sometimes held camera able scenes; editing them after one another. the treatment of characters may be highly fictional highly fictional be may characters of treatment the themselves. the help of a body brace, while he or she moves about. moves she or he while brace, a body of help the rebirth of German film. Characterised by a cool, precise, precise, German of rebirth film.cool, by a Characterised in literature of works prestigious most the adapted it HuntingScenes from Bavaria Life; green screen | horizontal montage | horror film | hand-held shot | | camera handheld film | historical ------Metropolis. Dr Caligari, Paul Wegener Paul Wegener Fritz Lang: Fritz Nosferatu, Golem, A German film movement from from A German filmmovement A German film movement from the the from A German filmmovement A distinct genre in American filmsA distinct genre that The chief electrician in a film production respon in a film electrician production The chief

A comic motion picture idea, and a characteristic el a characteristic and idea, picture motion A comic

or based on some well-known person. well-known some on based or ement of burlesque and silent film. silent and burlesque of ement and Henrik Galeen: Henrikand Galeen: ated stylisation. Examples: Robert Wiene: Wiene: Robert Examples: stylisation. ated sity, visionary tones, unusual solutions, and exagger and unusual visionary solutions, tones, sity, sible for supplying, placing, operating, and maintain and operating, placing, supplying, for sible for illumination both in the studio and on location. on and in studio the both illumination for the 1910s and 1920s which had as its inspiration the the had as inspiration its which 1920s and 1910s the traces the rise and fall of a gangster, either fictitious fictitious either risethe fall and gangster, a traces of the top of the frame and the feet near the bottom. the near frame feet the the and of top the tively display internal mental processes on film. It film.It on internal processes mental display tively rejected realism naturalism inten and on focused rejected and ing the required lights as well as the power source source as power as the lights well required the ing fine arts, literature, and theatre (Oskar Kokoschka, (OskarKokoschka, theatre and fine arts, literature, Friedrich Wilhelm Murnau: Murnau: Wilhelm Friedrich Egon Schiele, Bertolt Brecht). It sought to sugges to sought It Brecht). Bertolt Schiele, Egon 1960s which propagated the spiritual and economic spiritual the economic and propagated which 1960s

gangster film | gag | gag gaffer | gaffer

German new wave | wave German new German expressionism | German expressionism FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 235 - - The credits that appear at the the at thatThe appear credits A shot that shows the subject at a dis at subject the that shows A shot Those few minutes at sunrise or sunset when sunrise when sunset at or minutes few Those A lengthy shot. A lengthy The major source of illumination for a subject subject a for illumination of source Themajor Any place other than a studio where a film is in than where other a studio Any place The illumination of performers, action, and set and action, performers, of Theillumination A support upon which a camera is mounted. a camera which upon A support A piece of glass or other transparent material transparent with glass other of or A piece orange glare to the shot in early shooting, and a clear a clear and shooting, in early shot glare the to orange out – the result is a break of continuity. of is a break result out – the or scene. rays. light dispersing or concentrating for curved sides area above and below them also visible. The shot takes The shot also them visible. below and area above shoot night pictures while some light still light appears. some while pictures night shoot blue in late shooting. During this can crew the time shooting. in late blue beginning a film. of light change quickly and dramatically, providing an providing dramatically, and quickly change light part or completely shot. part completely or ting in the making of motion pictures. ting in making the motion of with some entirety in their Characters are seen tance. in some of the surrounding environment as well. environment surrounding the of in some key light | light key | legs | lens | lighting location | | / full shot long take | long magic hour | hour magic | credits / front main titles - - Cut in one scene or a or scene in one Cut The sight cannot be identified with one one with identified be cannot The sight A sudden cut IN a scene – NOT between scenes. scenes. between a scene – NOT IN cut A sudden Scenes shot at interior locations or at a studio. at or locations interior at shot Scenes

A short close-up or extreme close-up which is is which close-up extreme or close-up A short

A circle-shaped broadening or narrowing picture narrowing or picture broadening A circle-shaped

caused by something shocking. The horror film Theallows horror shocking. something by caused clipping, mostly characteristic of the silent filmera. silent the characteristic of mostly clipping, emphasise, and provide metaphoric association. even terror in the viewer. The term ‘horror,’ which is which The ‘horror,’ term in viewer. the terror even applied to all works of this genre, means an extreme means anthis extreme of all genre, to works applied sequence of scenes in which temporal-spatial or nar or temporal-spatial in which scenes of sequence same fear and terror as the characters on the screen, yet yet screen, the on as characters the terror and fear same feeling, almost to the point of revulsion and disgust, and revulsion of point the almost to feeling, particular character’s point of view. of point particular character’s us to see all kinds of frightening events, to sense the the sense to all events, see usto frightening kinds of the audience, that ultimately no harm no us. to can that ultimately happen audience, the to enjoy these feelings because we know, sitting safely in safely sitting know, we because feelings these enjoy to ter-sequence cutting.ter-sequence inserted in an ongoing scene in order to highlight, highlight, to in order scene ininserted an ongoing rative factors remain unchanged – in opposition to in to opposition remain unchanged – in factors rative The middle part of the shot is not filmed or it is cut it is cut or filmed is not shot part the The of middle

jump cut | | cut jump iris | interior | interior insert|

inner cut / intra-sequence cutting | cutting / intra-sequence cut inner impersonal shot | FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 236 - - ,‘to monter A type film of A shot made from over over from made A shot Not focused, blurry. Film elements which comment on, explain on, comment which Film elements A previously defined number of episodes in episodes of number defined A previously A term taken from the French word, word, French the takenterm A from A specific genre of film that focuses on song song on of focuses film genre that A specific character. pre are events fictional in which show television or or colour the plot through narration, subtitles, and and subtitles, narration, through plot the colour or other accompaniments. character past the frame. the The focuses camera of a series usually dealing with a continuous narrative. usuallya series dealing with a continuous a filmof assem editing of and The process assemble.’ and dance. shot and a close-up that generally shows a character a character shows that generally close-up a and shot parody. of purpose the in for a documentary style sented bling all the shots, scenes, and sequences into a final into sequences and scenes, allbling shots, the from the knees or waist up or the full figure of a seated full the seated or a of waist up figure or knees the from motion picture. the shoulder of a character, with the back of the head, head, the of with back the a character, of shoulder the side the at seen generally shoulder the and neck, the out-of-focus | | (OSS) shot shoulder the over mini-series | | documentary / mock mockumentary montage | musical | non-diegetic | ------A film cut in which ob A filmwhich in cut medium close shot (MCS) | shot close medium A shot somewhere between a between somewhere A shot / An intermediate shot between a long long a between shot Anintermediate 1.) The individual photographs on motion-pic

close-up that includes the area from the chest to the the to chest the area from the that includes close-up subject terrain. or shots are matched in action or subject by 1.) a conti a 1.) by subject or in action matched are shots by the same character at different times moving moving in times different at character same the by long and medium shot that does not give the same ex the give not that does shot medium and long lish a strong continuity of action and/or a metaphorical a metaphorical and/or action of continuity a strong lish two the in which another to shot link. one from A cut jects in two shots graphically match, helping to estab to helping match, graphically in jects shots two panse as a long shot, but still shows the total area of a total the area of still shows but shot, panse as a long the same direction in the same part of the image, or or in image, same part the the of same direction the ture film. 2.) The borders of the image on the screen screen on the of image the ture film. borders The 2.) like a painting. a frame on picture the that enclose top of the head. the of top ity in action by two different characters or perhaps perhaps or characters different two by inity action nuity of action by the same subject, or 2.) a similar a 2.) or subject, same the by action of nuity A shot of a character between a medium shot and a and shot a medium between a character of A shot 3.) a similarity in the two subjects’ shape and form. and a similarity shape 3.) subjects’ in two the

medium shot (MS) | (MS) shot medium

medium long shot (MLS) | (MLS) shot long medium medium close-up (MCU) (MCU) close-up medium

match cut / match-image cut | cut / match-image cut match master shot | shot master FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 237 - - - The relationship itself

A funny movie, play, or tel or play, A funny movie, Sound recorded from its original its from recorded Sound The individual in charge of the the The in of charge individual A shot which cuts away from the main the from away cuts which A shot The first stage of offline editing. offline of The first stage Afilm that emphasizesrelationship love a at the Any moveable object used on a set or in a scene. or a set on used object Any moveable A larger structuralA larger ends film of unit the narrative, daily business arrangements for shooting. cumstances lead to ultimate sacrifice or unhappiness. ultimate to cumstances lead that ends happily. story a love about programme evision and in space jumps larger by marked are which of costed, and coordinated. expense of other story elements. cir and environment when even human existence, of acter for the other and heralds love as the saving grace as grace saving the love heralds and other the for acter source as opposed to sound derived from recordings. from derived sound to as opposed source it. to character a of reaction the show to in order scene positive manner that glorifies the feelings of each char of each feelings mannerthe that glorifies positive time. Usually consists of one or more shots. Scenes Scenes shots. more or one of Usuallytime. consists the elements required for shooting a filmplanned, are shooting for required elements the is presented in an emotional, sentimental, and generally generally and sentimental, in an emotional, is presented scene | scene romantic comedy / “romcom” | | cut rough reaction shot | shot reaction romance | production / live sound | | sound live / production | manager production | props ------That part filmmaking of comes that A French lyrical film move or style A French Every source of light that is visible in a that is visible light of source Every The time period before filming when filmingallwhen before The period time The term, in relation to narrative form, nor form, narrative to The in term, relation The horizontal axial movement of the camera camera the of axialThe horizontal movement

dustry (some of its main representatives: René René main its of representatives: dustry (some cludes editing, the addition of special effects and op special and of effects addition the editing, cludes on some object or person that he or she is seeing. she or that he person or object some on scene. however, sound film gives a new rise to the to new filmthe rise a filmin sound gives however, Clair, Jean Renoir, Marcel Carné, Vigo). Jean and Marcel Renoir, Jean Clair, from this perspective to those of various characters. various of those to thisfrom perspective from one part of the picture / scene to the other, which which other, the to scene / picture part the of one from may follow the movement of a character or an object. or a character of movement the follow may mally applies to the eyes through which we view the ac the view we which through eyes the to mally applies ment from the 1930s lasting to the outbreak of WW of lasting outbreak the to 1930s the from ment tical transitions, and the mixing the and tracks. alltical transitions, of sound tion. In film, the dominant perspective belongs to the to the belongs Inperspective film,dominant tion. the immediately after the shooting is completed and in and is completed after shooting the immediately neutral camera, although there are frequent divergences divergences are frequent there camera, although neutral II. At the beginning of the 1930s avant-garde ends, ends, avant-garde beginning the II. 1930s the At of

pre-production| practical lights | practical lights

post-production | point of view | view of point

poetic realism | | realism poetic panning | FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 238 ------A comic film depend A comic A term originally from radio and also now also and originally term A now radio from A filmstructural cut one lasting unit from A subgenre of comedy film prevalent in early cin in early filmprevalent comedy of A subgenre chases, escapades, and so on. so and chases, escapades, corded from behind the back of a character, composing composing a character, of back the behind from corded corded by the camera. charac a small of of group interaction the on ent and physical that cinema foregrounds silent and ema and tend to consist of a relatively attenuated narra attenuated a relatively of consist to tend and serials afternoon that fea television to applicable same shot but from opposing directions alternately. It It alternately. directions opposing from but same shot is always shot (Reverse shot. with reverse synonymous to plastic the viewer.) more film, the situation of the space broad comedy. Slapstick films are performance-driven filmsperformance-driven Slapstick are comedy. broad his/her half profile into the picture. The term is NOT term is picture. The the into his/her half profile tive used to string together a series of gags, pratfalls, gags, of a series string to used together tive the counter side pair of a shot, and it serves to make to the serves it and a shot, pair of side counter the re space and time of piece a continuous other, the to same family. the of members the including often ters, ture sentimental, romantic, melodramatic, and and melodramatic, romantic, ture sentimental, is a characteristic type of shot in which a situation is re situation a in which is type a characteristic shot of soap opera | opera soap shot / take | shot | comedy / situational sitcom | slapstick - - - - - A basic tool of films of tool A basic A fiction tech filmthe uses A fiction that Sci-fi films can be considered a sub- a filmsconsidered Sci-fi be can Any film of three reels or less less that no runsor reels Any film of three A unit including multiple scenes. It is con It scenes. multiple including unit A A project plan for each day’s shooting for a film for shooting day’s each plan for A project

A progression or sequence of episodes, of no pre no of episodes, of sequence or A progression

characterised by stories involving conflicts between between conflicts involving stories by characterised extends the possible and gives an aura of scientific scientific an of aura gives and possible the extends authenticity to its events and created reality. It is is It reality. created and events its to authenticity science and technology, human social and nature, or technology, and science ganisation in futuristic fantasticalganisation or environments. group of fantasy films even though this subgroup fantasythis of subgroup filmsthough group even based on narration. It shows two spatial positions in the spatial two positions shows narration. It on based more than thirtymore minutes. production. usually also have exposition, unfolding, and ending. and unfolding, usually exposition, also have nected by the identity of space-time relations or nar or relations space-time of identity the by nected continuity. rative niques of the documentary to create authenticity for for authenticity create documentary the to of niques its subject. vious defined number, relating to a narrative to a narrative theme. relating number, defined vious

shot – countershot (reverse shot) | shot) (reverse shot – countershot

short film | short series | series

sequence | semi-documentary |

science fiction film| fiction science schedule | schedule FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 239 - - - - - An indi The sight which can which The sight A method of filming some filmingsome of A method A feature-length motion pic Any film that creates excitement and suspense, es suspense, and excitement Any film that creates The vertical movement of the camera. der to perform some difficult or dangerous action. or difficult dangerous some perform to der employed on occasion for spy or adventure productions. or spy for occasion on employed at predetermined intervals. film the pro When is predetermined at as if we saw it ‘with his/her eyes.’ it saw asif we speed up and can be viewed during a brief period. a brief during can and viewed be up speed be identified with a character’s subjective point of view, of view, point subjective character’s a with identified be theatrical to incontrast network, a television to, or by lengthy duration by shooting one frame at a time frame a time at one shooting by duration lengthy movie theatres. jected at normal speed, the process will seem to will to seem process the normal speed, at jected process, frequently unnoticeable to the eye, over a a over eye, the to unnoticeable frequently process, pecially a mystery or crime film, though the term is crime film,alsothe or pecially though mystery a ture that is produced for, and originally and distributed for, ture that is produced individual scenes to allow us different views of the action. of the views us allow different to scenes individual films, which are made explicitly for initial showing in initialshowing for explicitly films,made are which vidual who substitutes for an actor or actress in or actress or an actor for substitutes vidual who stunt double / stunt man / stunt woman | double stunt woman man / stunt / stunt | / photography camera subjective tilt | tilt | lapse / time jump time telefilm / television film | television / telefilm | thriller - - - - Standard shots ofactions, An immediate change from one shot to to shot one from An change immediate An illustrated outline of a screenplay; in in a screenplay; of An outline illustrated Unexposed film, also referred to as raw stock. to raw as film, referred also Unexposed A camera stabilizer mount for film cameras for stabilizer mount A camera An open-faced lamp that creates a diffuse a lamp that creates and An open-faced

The audio accompaniment for a film or scene. a filmor for accompaniment The audio

A televised advertisement.

events, or settings previously photographed for news for photographed previously settings or events, escapist events among a group of related individuals. related of a group among events escapist another without an optical transition. This transition. an type optical without of another soft illumination with subtle shadows from a dis from shadows with subtle illumination soft movement. presently stored in a stock footage library labo or footage in a stock stored presently tance and no shadows when placed close to the subject. the to close placed when shadows no tance and immediate change is the staple cut of most film most nar of cut staple is the change immediate within normally and imperceptibly occurs ratives ratory from which they can be purchased or rented. or can they purchased be which from ratory reels, documentaries, or even for feature films feature and for even or documentaries, reels, which particularly characteristic shots are drawn the particularly shots characteristic which screen. the on them see to wants director the way which allow for smooth filming despite the operators operators the filmingdespite smooth for allow which

straight cut | cut straight

storyboard | stock shot / stock footage | footage / stock shot stock

spot | spot | steadicam sound | sound

soft light | light soft (film) stock | stock (film) FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 240 - - - - - To decrease the focal length of a of focal length the decrease To A film genre popular since the earliest earliest the since popular A filmgenre A complex, plot-driven variety of the detec variety the of plot-driven A complex, To increase the focal length of a zoom lens lens a zoom of length focal the increase To The movement of the camera either toward or or toward either camera the of Themovement days of motion pictures that derives from the his the from that derives pictures motion of days ously decreased in size. decreased ously away from a subject or such apparent movement due due movement apparent such or a subject from away situations that are directly and indirectly related to war. to related indirectly that and directly are situations is continu as it subject the from away move to seems move in to the subject as it is continuously magnified. is continuously as it subject the in to move pecially during the last half of the nineteenth century. pecially last during the half nineteenth the of a crime. of investigation the throughout protagonist zoom lens in the process of a shot so that the camera that camera so the a shot of in process the lens zoom to the use of zoom lens. zoom use of the to tory and legends of the western part America, es of western the of legends tory and opportu the is given audience the in story which tive nity to engage in the same process of deduction as the deduction of in same process the engage nity to to seems that camera so the shot a of in process the zooming | zoom in | zoom | back zoom / out zoom western film| western “whodunit” | ------The sound composition that com composition Thesound Special effects achieved in cinematogra achieved Special effects Any technique used for changing from one one changing from for used Any technique A motion picture dealing with war either dealing with war either picture A motion The voice of an off screen narrator or a voice voice or a narrator screen an off of The voice A horizontal movement of the camera straight straight camera the of movement A horizontal

conflict, the genre also includes other types of types other of conflict, alsoincludes genre the on location; usually running rails. location; on on ally thought of as combat filmsprimarfocus that as combat of ally thought as the major action of the film or the background background filmor the the of action as major the as distinct from those achieved before the camera camera the before achieved as those distinct from scene to another, generally indicating a movement in movement a indicating generally another, to scene time. and space heard but not belonging to any character actually character any to talk belonging not but heard mechanical effects. phy through photographic techniques or processes, pearance, synthesis, and editing of picture and sound. and picture of editing and synthesis, pearance, pletes a picture (speech, noise, music): parallel ap parallel music): noise, (speech, a picture pletes to the film’s action. Although war gener filmsare action. Although film’s the to ily on preparations for fighting and actual and fighting armed for preparations on ily ing on screen. on ing with normal shooting, which are sometimes called are sometimes which with normal shooting,

travelling | travelling transition | transition

war filmwar | voice over | over voice

visual effect | visual effect vertical montage | montage vertical FILM & CULTURE–JÁSZAY–GLOSSARY 241 - - Buda New York: New York: New York: Harper York: New Dictionary of Film Stud Film of Dictionary Web. 11 Feb. 2016. Web. 11 Feb. 2016. Web. 11 Feb. 2016. Film és médiafoglamak kisszótára. The Complete Film Dictionary. The Film Encyclopedia. Web. 11 Feb. 2016.

Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2012. Print. 2012. Press, University Oxford Oxford:

ies. pest: Korona Kiadó, 2002. Print. 2002. Kiadó, Korona pest: Perennial, 2005. New American Library, 1987. Print. 1987. American Library, New

WORKS CITED WORKS Macmillan Dictionary.

Film.hu. Muhi, Klára, al. et Kuhn, Anette and Guy Westwell. Westwell. Kuhn, Guy and Anette Königsberg, Ira. Katz, Ephraim.

Wikipedia the Free Encyclopedia. The Free Dictionary. The Free