‘Skewed intimacies and subcultural identities: Anne Boleyn and the expression of fealty in a social media forum’ Mickey Mayhew A Thesis submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Sociology at London South Bank University Supervisors: Doctor Shaminder Takhar (Director of Studies) and Doctor Jenny Owen Faculty of Arts and Human Sciences, Department of Social Sciences & Department of Media and Cultural Studies, London South Bank University 1 Abstract The aim of this research project was the investigation of a subculture surrounding the famous Tudor queen Anne Boleyn; what that possible subculture means for those involved, and if it constituted part of a new phenomenon of female orientated online subcultures; cybersubcultures. Through the analysis of film, TV, historical literature and fiction, the research illustrates how subcultures are perpetuated through generations cyclically. The research then documents the transition from the traditional or ‘classic’ subcultural model of the 60s to the 21st century cybersubculture and fandom, suggesting a new way of thinking about subcultures in a post-subcultural age. The research suggests that the positioning of Anne Boleyn as a feminist icon/role model, based mainly on a media-mediated image, has formed a subculture which thrives on disjointed imagery and discourse in order to form a subculture of peculiarly subtle resistance. This new cybersubculture reflects the ways in which women are now able to use social media to form communities and to communicate, sharing concerns over men and marriage, all whilst percolating around the media-mediated image of Anne Boleyn as their starting point. These interactions – and the similarities they shared with the ‘classic’ subcultural style - form the data for this research project. The behaviours are analysed by using a symbolic interactionism approach which best develops the relationship of the fans against this media- mediated image; it show the ways in which the fans gain meaning through the various media depictions of Anne Boleyn and then integrate them into their own lives, exploring issues of masquerade and commodification in the process. Symbolic interactionism also shows how fans engage with Anne Boleyn’s myriad representations as a wronged woman, tragic figure, temptress and traitor. These images are then interpreted through a contemporary ‘pseudo-feminist’ lens. One of the underlying questions posed by the research is: do the fans sufficiently understand the complexities and contradictions in moulding such a divisive figure into a feminist icon? If so, then this can be seen as a ‘flawed project of persuasion’ on the part of Anne Boleyn’s partisans, and part of modern fandom’s usurpation of the conventional reading of texts as a whole. Regarding the question of the ‘flawed project of persuasion’, the research hypothesises that these fans gravitate toward Anne Boleyn partly because she is a contentious figure; feeling disenfranchised themselves, they covet an icon that also projects that persona. As proto-feminists they have chosen a high-achiever, someone who was challenging and remains challenging because of what they represent; this further cements the fact that the fans are subcultural, because they are rebelling against the norm in the choice of their icon – the fact Anne Boleyn herself rebelled against societal norms only closes the case as far as they are concerned. 2 Acknowledgments Firstly, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisors, Dr Shaminder Takhar and Dr Jenny Owen, for the continuous support of my PhD study and related research, for their patience, motivation, and immense knowledge. Their guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having better advisors and mentors for my PhD study. I would also like to thank Claire Ridgway, creator of The Anne Boleyn Files website for all her support and for granting me the permission to use the forum of that website as the basis of this research project. It is thanks to her that I am also able to extend my warmest gratitude to all of the participants who answered my initial query on that forum and took their time in responding to the research questionnaire. I would also wish to extend my gratitude to the organisers and participants of the 2012 ‘The Anne Boleyn Literary Festival’ which took place at Anne Boleyn’s birthplace of Blickling Hall in Norfolk. For the ‘compare and contrast’ aspect of my research I am indebted to Margaret Lumsdaine, now former president of The Marie Stuart Society, for making the members of that organisation aware of the research I was undertaking. This PhD is dedicated - in part – to all those adults with autism who fell foul of an unsympathetic education system in their youth but still managed to ‘make it’ in the long run. 3 TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction – p. 6 1.2 The research problem – p. 13 1.3 The research question – p. 15 1.4 The aims of the research – p. 18 1.5 The organisation of the thesis – p. 18 1.6 Original contribution to knowledge – p. 21 Chapter 2: Anne Boleyn and the Tudors in Cultural Forms 2.1 Introduction and background – p. 23 2.2 Anne Boleyn: a historical contextualisation – p. 24 2.3 Anne Boleyn: how the national curriculum covers the Tudors – p. 31 2.4 Anne Boleyn in historical works – p. 33 2.5 Anne Boleyn in literature and on stage – p. 45 2.6 Anne Boleyn in film and TV – p. 48 2.7 Mary Queen of Scots: comparing the queens – p. 59 2.8 Conclusion – p. 60 Chapter 3: Literature review: Subculture and Subcultural Theory 3.1 Introduction – p. 62 3.2 The origins of subculture – p. 62 3.3 Subcultures, Cybersubcultures and Fandom – p. 71 3.4 The Anne Boleyn Files – p. 83 3.5 Historical celebrities – p. 88 3.6 Gender and subculture – p. 90 3.7 Symbolic Interactionism – p. 97 3.8 Conclusion – p. 102 Chapter 4: Methodology 4.1 Introduction – p. 103 4.2 Methodological design: Piloting the questionnaire and using Survey Monkey – p. 104 4.3 The questionnaire – p. 109 4.4 Data analysis – p. 110 4.5 Participants: mapping the journey – p. 113 4.6 Ethical concerns – p. 114 4.7 The interviewees – p. 115 4.8 Conclusion – p. 115 Chapter 5: The beatification of Anne Boleyn 5.1 Introduction – p. 117 5.2 The Anne Boleyn Files - using the findings from the forum – p. 117 5.3 ‘Spirit and bravery’ - the development of a feminist icon – p. 123 5.4 ‘A subculture for whores who wreck marriages!’ - Subculture & fandom discussion – p. 128 4 5.5 Conclusion – p. 134 Chapter 6: The mediation of Anne Boleyn 6.1 Introduction – p. 135 6.2 ‘Entertaining but historically suspect’ - TV, film & books – p. 135 6.3 ‘The object, person or process in question either is authentic or is not, period’ - authenticity & the real – p. 139 6.4 Conclusion – p. 142 Chapter 7: The commodification of Anne Boleyn 7.1 Introduction – p. 145 7.2 ‘Check out my ring; it’s got Anne Boleyn’s spirit in it’ - merchandise, cosplay & the commodification of Anne Boleyn – p. 145 7.3 ‘Women have no identity or substance beyond the masquerade as such’ – when Butler met Boleyn – p. 157 7.4 Conclusion – p. 162 Chapter 8: Conclusion 8.1 Introduction – p. 163 8.2 Key findings - p. 163 8.3 Achievements of the research – p. 164 8.4 Position statement regarding the research – p. 164 8.5 Areas for further research – p. 165 8.6 Conclusion – p. 166 Appendices Appendix 1: The questionnaire – p. 169 Bibliography – p. 176 Filmography – p. 186 5 Chapter 1: Introduction 1.1 Introduction ‘…a generation ago, if a student enjoyed a Tudor novel or film and became curious about the real story, his or her exploration might begin with an in-person library trip. Today, exploration often begins with an online search engine.’ (Matthews 2015, p. 5) Anne Boleyn, second wife of Henry VIII, king of England, was executed on the morning of May 19th 1536 on charges of treason, adultery, and incest. Current thought has settled on the idea that the charges laid against her were fabricated, although several prominent historians have raised their heads above the parapets and stated that they believe that there was in fact a kernel of truth to them; G. W Bernard, for one, who made a convincing case for Anne’s guilt in his controversial book Fatal Attractions (2011). In recent years the various issues regarding Anne Boleyn’s purported innocence have also been championed by an ardent online fandom, comprised largely by women. The main arena for this debate is the forum – or chatroom – of the website known as The Anne Boleyn Files. On this website the fans of Anne Boleyn engage with a mainly media-mediated image of the infamous Tudor queen. This image is comprised of a composite of fan-favourite films, novels and TV series, alongside a smattering of historical ‘fact’ to form an idealised version of Anne Boleyn. On the forum of the website, Anne Boleyn is portrayed as a woman who aimed high, and who was laid low purely by the relentless patriarchy of the Tudor machine. Her husband Henry VIII becomes the epitome of this form of all-encompassing patriarchy within the confines of the forum, cited in some quarters as a woman-hater and a serial killer. This is despite the fact that the number of men executed during his reign outweighs the women considerably. Patriarchy, as defined by the Oxford Dictionary of Sociology, is, for the purposes of this research, almost in tandem with the general rule of order seen in England during the late 15th and early 16th century ‘…literally ‘rule of the father’; the term was originally used to describe social systems based on the authority of male heads of the household.