PONT~CALFACULTYOFTHEOLOGY "MARIANUM" INTERNATIONAL MARIAN RESEARCH INSTITUTE (UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON)

MARY IN FILM

AN ANALYSIS OF CINEMATIC PRESENTATIONS OF THE VIRGIN MARY FROM 1897- 1999: A THEOLOGICAL APPRAISAL OF A SOCIO-CULTURAL REALITY

A thesis submitted to The International Marian Research Institute

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the degree Licentiate of Sacred Theology (with Specialization in Mariology)

By: Michael P. Durley Director: Rev. Johann G. Roten, S.M.

IMRI Dayton, Ohio (USA) 45469-1390 2000 Table of Contents

I) Purpose and Method 4-7 ll) Review of Literature on 'Mary in Film'- Stlltus Quaestionis 8-25 lli) Catholic Teaching on the Instruments of Social Communication Overview 26-28 Vigilanti Cura (1936) 29-32 Miranda Prorsus (1957) 33-35 Inter Miri.fica (1963) 36-40 Communio et Progressio (1971) 41-48 Aetatis Novae (1992) 49-52 Summary 53-54

IV) General Review of Trends in Film History and Mary's Place Therein Introduction 55-56 Actuality Films (1895-1915) 57 Early 'Life of Christ' films (1898-1929) 58-61 Melodramas (1910-1930) 62-64 Fantasy Epics and the Golden Age ofHollywood (1930-1950) 65-67 Realistic Movements (1946-1959) 68-70 Various 'New Waves' (1959-1990) 71-75 Religious and Marian Revival (1985-Present) 76-78

V) Thematic Survey of Mary in Films Classification Criteria 79-84 Lectures 85-92 Filmographies of Marian Lectures Catechetical 93-94 Apparitions 95 Miscellaneous 96 Documentaries 97-106 Filmographies of Marian Documentaries Marian Art 107-108 Apparitions 109-112 Miscellaneous 113-115 Dramas Introduction 116 'Life ofMary' Films 117-124 Filmography of 'Life of Mary' Films 125

2 Dramas (cont.) 'Life of Christ' Films 126-144 Filmography of 'Life of Christ' Films 145-146 Films about Marian Apparitions 147-152 Filmography of Dramas on Marian Apparitions 153 Symbolic Marian Films Classification Criteria 154-158 Conventional Uses of Marian Symbols Dea ex machina 159-161 Indicator of death or the danger of death 162-163 Comparative standard of virtue 163-166 Opponent of demons 166-168 Analogue of the female romantic lead 168-170 Catholic or Ethnic artifact 170-173 List of Dramas in which Marian symbols appear 174-177 Dramas with Explicit Marian Figures 178-189 Filmography of Dramas in which 'Marian Figures' appear 190 Films with Implicit Marian Figures/lllustrations 191-207 Filmography of Dramas with 'Marian illustrations' 208

VI) Theological Appraisal Insights based on official Catholic documents on film 209-215 Theological issues related to Marian lectures 215-217 Theological issues related to Marian documentaries 217-218 Theological issues related to Marian dramas Overview 218-219 Specific doctrinal matters 219-220 Suggesting the Supernatural Visually? 220-222 Pastoral implications of films presenting Mary 222-227

Bibliography 228-234

3 Chapter 1: Purpose and Method

The Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute holds a large and comprehensive collection of films, most of which include presentations of the Vrrgin Mary in some aspect. Additionally, the Institute has done considerable academic research on Mary in

Cinema. The most prominent fruit of this research, to date, was a speech given in German at the

1992 International Mariological Congress in Huelva by Fr. Johann Roten.

Based on the research already done, and with a strong personal interest in film, I have continued the Institute's research on the Mary in Film topic. The main results of this research, at present, include: creating detailed reviews of 138 films for Marian content (in addition to the 44 used to prepare the Huelva talk)~ accumulating a list of over 1,000 films with probable Marian content from secondary sources (and doing partial reviews on a large number of them)~ establishing contacts with a number of Catholic experts on religion in film~ and presenting mini- courses on the topic through the International Marian Research Institute (IMRI).

For these reasons, IMRI was ideally suited to support theological research on the Vrrgin

Mary in Film. Also, a number of reasons make the present time ideal for a thorough review of the topic. Cinema celebrated the 100111 anniversary of its first public display in December 1895. The

Vatican saw fit to mark this occasion by releasing a list of 45 outstanding films.1 The first Marian dramas occurred around 1899~ and this dissertation parallels the Vatican's Centennial homage to films as a whole in regard to IMRI's area of specialization.

The Catholic Church also commemorates the Year 2000 as a special Christian Jubilee. A

1 Cf Copp, Jay, ''Vatican Gives Two Thumbs Up to 45 Films on 100111 Anniversary of the Cinema," Columbia (July 1996): p. 12.

4 number of projects are being carried out to present and re-present aspects of the Gospel to the people of today. The significant role of the Virgin Mary within the content of the full Christian message should be among these projects. An analysis of the Marian character within Cinema examines that significant role within a context most relevant to modem society.

By happy coincidence, the University of Dayton, within which IMRI is located, celebrates its Sesquicentennial during the Jubilee year. A number of projects were sponsored to commemorate this anniversary, including a Film Festival and Lecture series to examine the image of Mary presented in films during the past century. This provided an opportunity to organize and present the research which had been done to date to general audiences.

Finally, the past two decades show some signs of a revival in popular interest in the Virgin

Mary. This is certainly true of film over the past ten years. Several documentaries and dramas related to her were shown on television in various countries in 1999 alone, with several more scheduled for 2000.

Such research has not been done to date. Most of the theological articles on the topic are already dated. Further, materials in English on this particular subject are almost non-existent.

The time for this particular paper has come. In general, the objective of this study is to update and expand upon the limited published body of existing knowledge on the topic of Mary in film through a comprehensive study of relevant titles in the Marian Library's video collection and database.

The general methodology is as follows. This study opens with a review of the academic literature on the subject, something of an annotated bibliography. Next comes a listing of relevant documents from the Catholic Church on the means of social communications with a

5 summary of their content, noting insights relevant to dealing with Marian films. Next we find a general review of important artistic and technical movements within film history, noting their effect on representative contemporaneous Marian films. These three chapters form the background for the study proper. The next section examines the corpus of films referring to the

Virgin Mary divided by relevant classes and themes. Finally, the concluding chapter reviews and expands upon theological issues and insights mentioned in the earlier sections of the study. The details of this plan of study now follow.

Chapter one examines relevant literature on 'Mary in Film' with a view to discerning the present 'state of the question'. While general references on film are not studied, several titles on the general topic of religion in film are. The bulk of the chapter is devoted to examining the contents of articles on the particular topic of Mary in Film. Most of the titles are taken from

Besutti's Marian bibliographies. 2

Chapter two examines documents from the Catholic Church on various aspects of the mass media. In particular, we shall focus on the following five documents: Vigilanti Cura (1936);

Miranda Prorsus (1957); Inter Mirifica (1963); Communio et Progressio (1971); andAetatis

Novae (1992). The topic of Mary in Film is not dealt with directly in any of these documents.

However, they do provide a number of principles for appraising films from a Catholic perspective.

2 Giuseppe Besutti, ed., BibliografiaMariana 1948-51 (Roma:EdizioniMarianum, 1950); Giuseppe Besutti, ed. Bibliografia Mariana. TI. 1950-1951 (Roma: Edizioni Marianum, 1952); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., Bibliografia Mariana 1952-1957 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 1959); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., BibliografiaMariana 1958-1966 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 1968); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., BibliografiaMariana 1967-1972 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 1973); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., BibliografiaMariana 1973-1977 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 1980); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., Bibliografia Mariana 1978-1984 (Roma: Edizioni Marianum, 1988); Giuseppe Besutti, ed., Bibliografia Mariana 1985-1989 (Roma: Edizioni Marianum, 1993); Ermanno Toniolo, ed.,BibliografiaMariana 1990-1993 (Roma: EdizioniMarianum, 1998).

6 Chapter three opens with a brief history of the technical developments behind cinema and then proceeds to an overview of prominent stylistic movements throughout film history. Some

Marian films are discussed briefly in order to show the influence of these various styles at particular times. In general, these styles include: actuality films; early 'Life of Christ' films; melodramas; fantasy epics; realistic films; various 'new waves'; and a recent Marian and religious revival in cinema.

Chapter four, by far the largest, is a comprehensive survey of films based on data from the

Marian Library's comprehensive film database. The contents of this database are discussed in the introduction to that chapter. This introduction also includes a discussion of the criteria used to categorize the films for further analysis. Generally, the films are divided into the categories of

Lectures, Documentaries and Dramas, with each having further subdivisions. The subsections of chapter four are based on these categories. More details can be seen in the table of contents.

The concluding section includes theological reflections touched upon in each of the preceding chapters. Using interpretive guidelines from official documents, a number of films mentioned earlier will be appraised from a Catholic theological perspective. Next, certain doctrinal issues will be examined. These include matters specifically relevant to Mary, like the reality of the virgin birth or the authenticity of reported apparitions, and also more general theological concerns, such as the relation between the transcendent and the perceivably representational. This section ends with a discussion of the pastoral implications of symbolic

Marian films of various types. Finally, a bibliography with about 80 titles concludes the work.

7 Chapter ll: Review of Literature on 'Mary in Film'- Status Quaestionis

At the outset, it is important for this study to review important publications on the topic of

Mary in Film in order to appraise the state of the question. Innumerable texts about cinema in general have been published, running the thematic gamut through Criticism, History, Particular

Genres, Reviews, Technical Aspects, etc. 3 For the narrower topic, Religion in Film, 4 the list drops substantially. Some of the more important works are listed below:

Campbell's The Bible on Film5 is a thorough survey "which has attempted to chronicle all

16 7 the films [and 'tele-movies ] based on the Bible". Using a simple chronological listing, the text offers no categorization beyond divisions into Old Testament films, New Testament films and tele-movies. The plot descriptions are also limited;8 but the accompanying 'vital statistics' are quite detailed. 9 Going from the earliest public films up to its 1981 publication, and using a broad selection criteria for 'Biblical films', this text is the most comprehensive available in English.

3 I could not do justice to a topic so broad and advise readers to consult one of the numerous electronic indices available on the web or CD-Rom.

4 Or alternately phrased: Religious Films; Religious Aspects in Films; Religious Appraisals of Film Content.

s Richard H. Campbell and Michael R. Pitts, The Bible on Film: A Checklist, 1897-1980 (Metuchen: Scarecrow Press, 1981).

6 I.e. Movies made for television. These become an important staple in American entertainment in the 1950s. Campbell lists A Child is Born (1949) as "perhaps the first religious/seasonal TV production.", p. 189.

7 Campbell, p. viii.

8 On average, about I printed page each

9 When available: Title; Year; Studio; Length; Producer(s); Director(s); Screenwriter(s); Cinematographer(s); Costumer(s); Special Effects crew; Sound crew; and Cast

8 However, it does limit itself by consciously omitting "movies that may contain some Biblical aspects but are certainly not religious in content~ e.g. OH GOD!" 10

Filling a similar niche in German is: Spuren des Religiosen im Film. Meilensteine aus 100

Jahren Filmgeschichte. 11 Like Campbell's, this work is basically a quantitative study which offers a comprehensive list of titles. A less comprehensive example is Butler's Religion in the Cinema.12

This English text tends toward musings from the author, but includes many little-known anecdotes about the films discussed.

There are also publications which deal with the religious film issue in greater depth. John

R. May edited two quality collections of essays on this topic: Religion in Film~ 13 and New Image ofReligious Film. 14 The former text sees "an expanding universe of [subjective interpretive]

1 16 17 approaches" ' and presents "refinement ofmethod" and "synthesis of critical insight" as stabilizing correctives. The latter text resulted from a 1993 international communication symposium jointly sponsored by the Center for the Interdisciplinary Study of Social

10 c amp b ell , p. Vlll....

11 P. W. Hasenberg et al., eds., Spuren des Religiosen im Film. Meilensteine aus 100 Jahren Filmgeschichte (Mainz: Matthias-Grunewald-Verlag, 1995).

12 Ivan Butler, Religion in the Cinema (NY: A.S. Barnes & Co, 1969).

13 John R. May and Michael Bird, eds., Religion in Film (Knoxville: University of Tennessee Press, 1982).

14 John R. May, ed., New Image ofReligious Film (Kansas City, MO: Sheed and Ward, 1997).

1 ' May, 1982, p. viii.

16 May, 1982, p. viii.

17 May, 1982, p. viii.

9 Communication (CICS), the International Catholic Organization for Cinema and Audiovisuals

(OCIC), the Center for the Study of Communications and Culture (CSCC) and Italy's National

Council on Research.

The "new image of religious film" text discusses attempts "to discern the theological or religious implications of films that do not deal explicitly with religious issues, events, or even symbols" .18 The best among very recent texts on religious film in English seems to be

Explorations in Theology and Film. 19 Another collection of essays, it opens with three general chapters introducing film theory, religious theory, and theory for relating film and religion. The latter calls for a constructive dialectic based on a casual appropriation of principles from Niebuhr.

An English translation of a collection of French essays20 by Christian Metz, Film

Language,21 is quite worthy of note. Though now dated, it offers a rigorous attempt to lay the foundation for a semiotic analysis of motion pictures. Metz's approach uses semiotic principles accepted for analyzing the root structures of written and spoken language22 to propose analogous insights into the filmic communication medium. For example, he sees similitude with text in that

18 May, 1997, p. viii.

19 Clive Marsh and Gaye Ortiz, eds., Explorations in Theology and Film (Malden, MA: Blackwell, 1998).

2°Christian Metz, Essais sur Ia Signification au Cinema, Tome I (Editions Klincksieck, 1971).

21 Christian Metz and Michael Taylor, trans., Film Language: a Semiotics of the Cinema, (NY: Oxford University Press, 1974).

22 Based largely on de Saussure

10 film is also a concrete medium used to effect communication between a sender and a recipient. 23

However, he sees dissimilitude in that films present real objects rather than symbols. Hence, there is no 'second articulation' with films. 24 The work is very complex, though cautiously limited; and is well worth reading.

Michael Medved's Hollywood vs Americd-5 examines the religious aspects of mainstream films from a sociological perspective. It seems more concerned with the ethical aspects of films than with their aesthetics. Building a case with extensive factual evidence, Medved concludes that

Hollywood routinely wove anti-religious themes into films 26 to its economic detriment. 27

Before moving on, let me mention another recent German text, Evangelienrezeption im

Jesusfilm .28 The author published an important study on Mary in Film the same year, which we shall discuss below.

There are also copious amounts of published reviews on individual films with Marian content, as is the case with practically any film. Once the title is know, one may consult a standard reference. 29 Those wishing reviews from a Catholic perspective may consult The Family

23 Cf Metz, 1974, pp. 37, 75.

24 Cf Metz, 1974, pp. 114-115.

25 Michael Medved, Hollywood vs America: popular culture and the war on traditional values (NY: Harper Collins Publishing, 1992).

26 Passim in Medved, cf pp. 37-49.

27 Passim in Medved, cf pp. 5-8.

28 Reinhold Zwick, Evangelienrezeption im Jesusfilm. Ein Beitrag zur intermedialen Wirkungsgeschichte t:ks Neuen Testaments (WOrzburg, 1997).

29 E.g. The New York Times Film Reviews [1913-present]; Film Review Annual published by Jerome S. Ozer [1981-present]; Variety Film Reviews [1907-present]; and Magill's Survey of

11 Guide to Movies and Videos. 30 This work from the United States Conference of Catholic Bishops contains "descriptions and evaluations of virtually all motion pictures [over 7,500] in national release to American theaters from 1966 through the fall of 1993". 31 For older films [with correspondingly dated reviews] consult Motion Pictures Classified by National Legion of

Decency. 32 Besides the Legion's ratings, a good deal of other film criticism by Catholics was published in the 1940s and 1950s, including several good articles by Harold Gardiner and William

Lynch. Much of this older criticism may be found in back issues ofAmerica magazine.

The number of academic treatments on the topic ofMary in Film, per se, are very modest.

Besutti's multi-volume Bibliogra.fia Mariana lists less than a score of titles up to 1989, none in

English. The following chronological list includes all these titles with a summation of contents for the more comprehensive works: 33

Films [by category, e.g. English Language Films, Silent Films, etc.].

30 Henry Herx, The Family Guide to Movies and Videos (Washington, DC: USCC, 1995).

31 Herx, p. 1.

32 National Legion of Decency, Motion Pictures Classified by National Legion of Decency, Feb 1936-0ct 1959 (NY: National Legion of Decency, 1959).

33 Other short works listed in Besutti are:

Anon, "Pour vos projections du mois de Marie: films fixes et parlants," Cahiers Marials (3) 1959: pp. 220-222.; Anon. "Selection de films et disques marials," CahiersMarials (5) 1961 : pp. 256-258.; Anon. "Presidente proibe filme de Godard," Revista Eclesiastica Brasileira (Petropolis, RJ) 46 (1986): pp. 172-177.; F. Desmond, "Filmstrips and Slides on Our Lady," Clergy Review (48) 1963 : p. 326.; Dorothy Fothergill, "Mary dis-covered," The Month (London) #247 (1985): p. 364.; Andre Godin, "Rome et Godard," Recherches et documents du Centre Thomas More #41 (1985) : pp. 53-76.; Andre Godin, "Une Madone en danger d'idealisation," Lumiere et Vie 37 #189 (1985): pp. 77-

12 J. Roger, "Le Cinema et Ia diffusion de Ia doctrine mariale," Nouvelle Revue Theo/ogique (75)

1953 : pp. 182-185.

This short French text briefly touches on about 20 well-known films with Marian content.

It begins by noting the tremendous mass appeal of films at the time, and opens its

34 comments on religious films by noting several which were financially successful . Its

author was Director ofC.E.D.O.C. at the time. It is both older and considerable briefer

than Ayfre's work below.

Amadee Ayfre, "La Vierge Marie et le Cinema," in Hubert du Manoir's, ed., Maria, volume 5

(Paris: Beauchesnes et ses fils, 1958), pp. 791-810.

Though dated, this text seems to be the most thorough academic treatment on the topic

available in French. It is organized into five sections: Mary in historical Films; Mary in

films about Art; Mary in Films related to pilgrimages or within people's daily lives; a

filmography of Marian films; and a concluding bibliography. Section one discusses a

number of films from the earliest French and American Passion of Christ films through the

Italian Mater Dei in 1951, with a sentence or two describing each. Section two reviews

93.; J. Gritti, "Presence mariale au cinema," CahiersMaria/s (3), 1959, pp. 284-292.; Guido Guarda, "La Madonna nel cinema," Ragguaglio mariano, 1949, pp. 105-108.; Herve Jegou, "Marie, au risque du cinema," Nouveaux CahiersMarials (Lyons) #9 (1988): pp. 32-34.; Herve Jegou, et al., "Chroniques cinematographiques et musicales," Nouveaux Cahiers Maria/s (Lyons) #11 (1988): pp. 31-39.; and Leslaw Jezowski, "Obenose Maryi w sztuce filmowej," Homo Dei (26) 1957, pp. 932-938. [This work appears to be the only noteworthy academic study on our topic published in Polish to date].

34 Song ofBernadette; Monsieur Vincent, Le Sorcier du Ciel; Joan ofArc; Diary ofa Country Priest; Dieu a besoin des Hommes and Le Ciel sur /es Marais

13 cinema dealing with the place of Mary in Christian art, again offering only brief comments

on each. The third section opens with films related to Apparitions and associated

Pilgrimages and Shrines. It lists films about Lourdes, Fatirna3s and Loreto,36 and continues

by listing films about Mary within people's daily lives37 which include brief explicit Marian

content within the context of a broader story, which sometimes parallels Mary's own. The

filmography in section 4 lists, without comment, 26 films dramatizing Mary's Life on

Earth, 34 documentaries on Mary in the various arts, 47 films related to various Marian

shrines around the world and 9 portraying Mary within people's daily lives.

Piero Regnoli, "La Madonna nel Cinema. n cinema come mezzo di espresione di realta

ultratererrene," pp. 717-723. ~

and Roberto Chiti, "Saggio di Filmografia," in Raimondo Spiazzi's, ed., Encic/opedia mariana

<> (Milano: Editrice Massimo, 1954), pp. 724-735. 38

This two-part article offers a thorough academic treatment of Mary in Film up to 1950

for Italian readers. Regnoli opens with an examination of film's possibilities and limits to

portray supernatural reality, discussing, almost in passing: Cloche's Monsieur Vincent~

3s Rafael Gil's La Senora de Fatima (1951), but not Warner Brothers The Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima (1952)

36 De Sica's La Porta del Cielo (1944)

37 Fellini's II Bidone (1955); Sjoberg's Le Chemin du ciel (1943)~ Rossellini's II Miracolo (1948); Paulin1s Nuit Merveilleuse (1940); and Bresson's Le Journal d'un Cure de Campagne (1951)

38 These articles were reprinted on pp. 786-810 of the revised second edition of <> in 1958. The main difference appears to be the addition of several [then] recent films to Chiti's filmography.

14 Fleming's Joan ofArc; Dreyer's The Passion ofJoan ofArc; the 1897 filming of the

Oberammergau Passion Play; King's Song ofBernadette; De Sica's Gate ofHeaven;

Cordero's Mater Dei; and Gil's The Secret ofFatima. Part IT contains Chiti's filmography

which lists 62 films in chronological order from 1897 to 1950 including some details and a

very short description with each, but with no breakdown into categories.

The Spanish translation of Enciclopedia Mariana < > included a revised

version of this two-part article. 39 The content ofRegnoli's introduction is virtually

unchanged [ending, as before, with Gil's 1951 Secret ofFatima]. Chiti's updated

filmography adds 21 titles from 1951-1957 for a total of83. The article is quite close to

the Italian original and offers Spanish readers a thorough, but now dated, academic

resource.

Rosario Esposito, "Cinema," in Stefano de Fiores and Salvatore Meo's, eds., Nuovo Dizionario

Di Mariologia (Milano: Edizioni Paoline, 1985), pp. 368-379.

This treatment opens with brief summaries of some important studies on Mary in Film.

Esposito then lists seven classes (each with sub-classes) and goes on to categorize 96

Marian films within them. Esposito's filmography is not the most exhaustive. However, it

lists a number of entries overlooked by others.40 One paragraph descriptions of several

39 Piero Regnoli, "La Virgen en el Cine," in Francisco Aparicio's, trans., Enciclopedia mariana <> (Madrid: Ediciones Studium, 1960), pp. 763-768; and Roberto Chiti, "Ensayo de Filmologia Mariana" in Francisco Aparicio's, trans., Enciclopedia mariana <> (Madrid: Ediciones Studium, 1960), pp. 768-784.

40 For example, Esposito mentions the opera, II Tritico [meaning Suor Angelica in particular]. This insight led to the discovery of an entire class of operas with Marian content (e.g. La Gioconda, La Forza del Destino, Otello, etc.) Similarly, while others listed Fellini's Le Notti di Cabiria and II Bidone, Esposito correctly added La Strada.

15 notable Marian filrns41 follow. There are then some short comments about aesthetic

guidelines for films in general as well as on the religious use of film before the conclusion.

This work is the best single study of our topic available in Italian.42

The Spanish translation, Nuevo Diccionario De Mariologia, follows the Italian original

for this article43very closely. For example, the filmography in section m lists the same 96

titles in the same seven categories in both languages. This work is the best single study of

Mary in Film available in Spanish.

A. Sandner, "Film." in Remigius Baumer and Leo Scheffczyk, eds., Marienlexikon Volume 2

(Erzabtei St. Ottilien: EOS Verlag, 1989), pp. 470-471 .

This very brief, but quite good, study begins by listing several Marian slide shows from

different countries which preceded motion pictures, followed by listing, without comment,

a few documentary films on Marian topics. The greatest part of the article discusses

dramas with extended explicit Marian content, ranging from Kutter's Unsere Liebe Frau

(1949) to three of the controversial films released after 1977.44 Sandner found the explicit

41 Olmi's Cammina cammina (1983); Puchalski's La Madonna Nera (1932); Campogalliani's Montevergine (1939); Rouquier's Lourdes et ses miracles (1956); De Sica's La porta del cielo (1944); Pasolini's II Vangelo secondo Matteo (1964); Lefefs Marie de Nazareth; Buiiuel's La via lattea; and Godard's Je vous salue Marie (1984).

42 It is largely based on an earlier version: Rosario Esposito, Maria SS.ma e il Cinema (Roma: Pontificia Facolta Teologica Marianum, 1976). The earlier work concludes with an extensive review ofCampogalliani'sMontevergine: Like Esposito's review ofBuiiuel's The Milky Way, this text is a rare and useful qualitative review of a Marian film by an academic theologian.

43 Rosario F. Esposito, "Cine," in Alfonso Ortiz Garcia et al., trans., Nuevo Diccionario De Mariologia. (Madrid: Ediciones Paulinas, 1988), pp. 432-444.

44 Gilliam's Monty Python's Life ofBrian (1978); Schroeter'sDas Liebeskonzil (1981); and Godard's Je vous salue Marie (1984)

16 Marian figures of drama unrealistic and unimpressive, and hence, viewed the more recent

satirical treatments as justified critiques of these Hollywood stereotypes. 45

Peter Malone, "Mary on the Screen," Compass Theology Review 26 #4 (1992), pp 25-31.

At the time of publication, Peter Malone was President of the Oceania chapter ofOCIC.

Though more concise than the best foreign studies, Malone's article is the best treatment

on our topic published in English. Malone offers a continuous history of Marian

presentations in feature films and tele-movies from1897 through 1992. Among the many

'Life of Christ' films commonly listed from cinema's earliest years, Malone mentions a

multi-media presentation (i.e. slides, film clips and lecture) by the Australian Salvation

Army from 1899, Soldiers of Christ, as well as a hand-colored Life of Christ from Pathe

(1909). He considers Sidney' Olcott's From the Manger to the Cross (1913) to be "the

most significant of early portraits of Jesus". 46 Gene Gauntier, who wrote the screen play

also portrayed Mary. From the same time period, he notes D.W. Griffith's Intolerance

(1916) with scenes from Cana and from Christ's Crucifixion. From the 20s, Malone

mentions Robert Wiene's l.N.Rl. (1923),47 Cecil B. De Mille's devotional King ofKings

(1927) and Fred Niblo's Ben Hur (1925) with a Marian episode48 within the broader story.

45 Sandner's general point is sound, as is his application of it to Life ofBrian. However, listing three controversial films with imaginary Marian figures as somewhat representative of Marian films in the 1980s lends credence to Medved's theory that films of that period manifest a general hostility to organized religion (cf Hollywood vs America).

46 Malone, 1992, p. 25.

47 Resissued with an English soundtrack as The Crown of Thorns in 193 5

48 I.e. Christ's Nativity

17 Malone largely dismisses biblical epics until the 1960s as overly restrained by Hollywood's

Motion Picture Code, with Patrick Peyton's Rosary films providing some rare exceptions.

From the "more open 60s",49 Malone examines Ray's King ofKings~ Stevens' The Greatest

Story Ever Told and Pasolini's Gospel According to St. Matthew. From the 70s, he

mentions Rossellini's Messiah and Zeffirelli's Jesus ofNazareth, which, he notes with

approval: "used the resources of scholarship and moved away from a literal interpretation

..." .so This time frame also brought American offerings from the innovative Godspe/1 and

Jesus Christ Superstar1 to the "pedestrian .. . depiction"s2 in Mary and Joseph: A Story of

Faith (1979). From the 1980s, Malone mentions the tele-movie, The Day Christ Died

(1980), and Scorsese's Last Temptation of Christ (1988), which he appraises leniently.

Malone then explores a few films dealing with Marian apparitions and shrines,s3 and

symbolic Marian figuresS4 before concluding with some Marian parodies. ss

Reinhold Zwick, "Maria im Film," in Wolfgang Beinert and Heinrich Petri's, eds., Handbuch der

Marienkunde Volume 2 (Regensburg: Verlag Friedrich Pustet, 1997) : pp. 270-317.

49 Malone, 1992, p. 26.

so Malone, 1992, p. 27.

st Malone writes: "The strong female presence in each is that of Mary Magdalene - perhaps also a sign of the times.", p. 28.

s2 Malone, 1992, p. 28.

s3 E.g. Song ofBernadette (1943), Gate ofHeaven (1944), etc.

S4 E.g. II Miraco/o (1948), Je vous sa/ue Marie (1984)

ss I.e. Life ofBrian (1979) and The Milky Way (1969)

18 Zwick's study is not only the best available on Mary in Film in German, but is probably

also the best available on the topic anywhere to date. Generally speaking, reference works

on Mary in Film published in German tend to be more recent. Zwick's is the most recent

text on the topic per se. 56

He begins by examining some feature films on the Life of Mary. Like the Marien/exikon,

he starts in the 1940s, but with Reina de Reinas (1945) from Mexico, to which he sees an

affinity in De Mille's King ofKings ( 1927).

Zwick includes considerable analysis on Delannoy's Marie de Nazareth ( 1995), 57 to which

he is unenthusiastic. The next section lists a few documentary films reflecting on the

Marian image in art. Zwick next covers Mary within the context of films about Jesus. He

correctly notes that Mary's character is subordinate to that of Jesus in these films and the

style with which actresses portray Mary is correspondingly shaped by the way Jesus is

imaged. As for particular titles, in this section Zwick largely matches those given in

Malone's text. The next few pages discuss dramatic and documentary films regarding

Marian apparitions and shrines. The final section offers some critical comments on several

satirical Marian films, including: Bufiuel's La Voie Lactee; Schroeter's Das Liebeskonzil;

56 The as-yet-unpublished, Proceedings from the 1992 International Mariological Congress in Huelva will include a German presentation on 'Mary in Film' from Fr. Johann G. Roten, SM. Similarly, French readers may look forward to publication of a doctoral dissertation on 'Life of Christ' films from Nastia Korbon at the Sorbonne. Also, English readers may hope for a book on religion in film, tentatively entitled Summa Cinematica, presenting interviews with actresses who have played Mary on the screen from Fr. Michael Morris, OP.

57 Though Zwick downplays, incorrectly in my opinion, the resistance of Joseph to her amazing pregnancy before his own Annunciation.

19 8 Greenaway's The Baby ofMacon and Madonna's music-video Like a Prayer. 5 The

article also includes a nice photo-insert with stills from several Marian films. 59

Moving from the general to the particular, we shall now list and describe a few texts which review significant Marian films in some depth:

Jean Delannoy, and Erick Bonnier (Photographer), Marie De Nazareth: Textes DeL 'Evangile

[d'apres le film mis en scene par Jean De/annoy] (Anatole-France: Editions Filipacchi,

1995).

This filmbook reproduces hundreds of glossy color still photographs from Delannoy's

motion picture, each with a brief description. The film is broken down into 8 segments

with a short description [in French] of each, followed by the accompanying stills. The text

concludes with a list of the cast and technical crew for the film.

Rosario Epsosito, "Cineforum su <> di Luis Bufiuel: Religiosita popolare e spunti

mariani," Madonna (25) n. 1-2 (1977), pp. 52-55.

This article by a professor from the Antonianum and the Gregorianum is rare as a

qualitative review by an academic theologian of an important film with substantial Marian

content. 60

ss Available in the Marian Library research-only video collection

59 Delannoy's Marie de Nazareth~ Wiene's lN.Rl ~ Ray's King ofKings~ Pasolini's Gospel According to St. Matthew~ Scorcese's Last Temptation of Christ~ Rossellini's II Messiah~ King's Song ofBernadette~ Brahm's Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima~ Rouquier's Lourdes and its Miracles~ Kautner's In jenen Tagen~ Godard's Hail Mary~ Tarkowskij's Sacrifice [but not Andrei Rublev?!]~ Bufiuel's Milky Way~ and Greenaway's The Baby ofMacon

60 Compare this text to his review of the same Bufiuel film in "D Rosario nella <>" in Omelie- Temi di predicazione Napoli. Nov. 1987. January 1988 (# 279). pp. 1%- 199.

20 Maryel Locke and Charles Warren, eds., Jean Luc Godard's Hail Mary: Women and the Sacred

in Film (Carbondale: Southern lllinois Press, 1993).

As noted earlier, substantive academic reviews of films with Marian content are so rare as

to be noteworthy whenever found. The twelve essays printed in this text fall into that

category, though Harvey Cox was the only contributor with an established reputation on

religious topics per se. The book concludes with a complete 'shot breakdown' and

dialogue transcript (in French) from Godard's film.

Michael Morris, "Of God and Man: A Theological and artistic scrutiny of Martin Scorsese's

The Last Temptation of Christ," American Film vol. XIV #1 (October 1988}, pp. 44-49.

This short article (in English) opens with an excellent theological review of Scorsese's

controversial film. 61 The subsequent aesthetic appraisal is also very cogent. Morris lauds

the director for breaking "the traditional mold of Christ as portrayed in the cinema". 62 For

example, he states: "The film culminates in a historically correct crucifixion scene that is

the most graphic ever produced on screen ... [which] enables one to understand why

crucifixion .. . was considered the most painful and demeaning form of execution in the

entire Roman world. "63 His final appraisal is qualified approval. There is minimal Marian

content in Scorsese's film; and she is not discussed in Morris' article.64 American Film

61 For example, Morris notes weakness in the film not for emphasizing Jesus' humanity, but for "underscoring the weakness rather than the strengths of what it means to be human." (p. 44).

62 Morris, p. 44.

63 Morris, p. 46

64 About the same time, Morris published a short article on the controversy surrounding Scorsese's film, "Fundamentalists fight 'Last Temptation'," National Catholic Reporter (July 29,

21 followed Fr. Morris' text with an article on Willem Dafoe,6s the actor portraying Jesus.

Cristobal Sarrias, "Maria en el arte literario y cinematografico," Ephemerides Mariologicae 45

(1995), pp. 225-234.

Sarrias discusses presentations of Mary within a few selected literary works (e.g. Robert

Graves' Rey Jesus (1992)) and in three films: Pasolini's Gospel According to St. Matthew

(1964); Scorcese's Last Temptation of Christ (1989); and especially, Godard's Je vous

salue Marie (1984). The work offers limited, but valuable insights from a theologian on

our topic. His appraisal of Godard's film has been especially useful:

It is worthy of a special mention the Jean Luc Godard's picture [sic], Je vous salue, Marie, within which the chief role ofMary has no religious connotations, but it is [sic] the appropriation of the fact ofMary's pregnancy in order to make an anthropological-social denunciation by the French film director. 66

Based on this, Godard's film may be judged as an allegory rather than a stylized historical

representation. Those having an initial negative reaction to the film might reconsider their

opinion in light of this fact.

Werner Schroeter, Das Liebeskonzil, Filmbuch (Miinchen: Schirmer/Mosel, 1982).

This text contains copious stills from Schroeter's film of the same title, many in color.

There is also a limited amount of descriptive commentary [in German]. The treatment is

similar to that given Jean Delannoy's Marie de Nazareth in the work above.

1988), p. 17.

6s Lori J. Smith, "Willem Dafoe: Center Stage," American Film, vol. XIV #I. pp. 50-54.

66 Sarrias, p. 234.

22 We now conclude this section with an overall assessment of the literature presented.

There is a sea of material on various motion picture topics, but substantially less on sub-topics related to religion. Of these, many are quite subjective. As noted earlier, John May noted this problem and called for more structured methodologies in his 1982 text. However, the problem is broader than analysis of religion in film. It is endemic among professional film critics. Metz's attempt to lay rigorous foundations for analyzing film as a communications medium seems to be the only such work in print~ and it is a quarter-century old.

There is an even more limited amount of material on the topic of Mary in Film, per se, especially in English. The best and most recent academic treatments are in German. Reviews are copious on various titles~ but most are written from a non-academic, secular point of view. Those rare exceptions listed in this chapter deal primarily with controversial films. 67 Here the fault seems to lie with Christian leaders who, to date, have shown relatively little interest in audio-visual media for religious material, per se. 68 In general, monographs reviewing individual Marian films from a Christian academic perspective would go far towards filling an obvious lacuna.

Conversely, thorough quantitative treatments on the topic of Marian films are available in

English, French, Italian, Spanish and German, coming from a sound academic and Christian perspective and fairly recent. 69 Generally, these works primarily provide indices of film titles with brief accompanying descriptions. An ideal reference would be both more exhaustive in

67 illustrating, perhaps, the adage that: "The squeaky wheel gets the grease."

68 Catholic documents examined in the following chapter will mention this!

69 Except for the French which dates to the 1950s.

23 the listing oftitles,70 and more qualitatively thorough in descriptive commentary. This paper is intended to address the latter limitation.

Similarly, the qualitative studies to date have been rather loose in their method of categorization. Chiti's list is purely chronological with no breakdown into categories. 71 Esposito's filmography uses categories; but often lists films in more than one. A methodology which is both consistent with the observed data and well-suited to consistent evaluative application is needed.72

For both religious films, in general, and for Marian films, in particular, the authors listed above have generally used the broadest reasonable criterion. The standard defining 'Marian films' does not seem to have evolved much over time, based on a review of the above literature. Nor does it seem to vary much between countries.73

In general, all the surveys are aware of the class of film's containing extended explicit

Marian content. Though there are no standardized naming conventions for subdivisions, authors have filled these categories with dramas and documentaries, usually further divided into 1) Life of

Christ or 2) Apparition stories and Marian Art or Shrine/Pilgrimage/Apparition studies. Also, all the surveys included films with symbolic Marian characters74 (e.g. Rossellini's II Miracolo).

70 The Marian Library hopes to publicly release a database of Marian film titles in the near future. Our tentative working list already includes over 1,000 titles [compared to about 100 in the best printed indices to date].

71 As does Malone's more narrative-style text.

72 A proposal for such a system appears later in this dissertation.

73 Except for the fact that film's in one's region are more likely to be known, and hence, to be listed in surveys done by local author's (e.g. the German films listed by Zwick alone).

74 Sometimes under the heading of Parody or Satire, or even as offensive!

24 However, the criterion used to identify a Marian symbolic character is stated briefly, if at all. This genre certainly exists, However, the norms used for identification need to be more explicitly stated to avoid the danger of excessively subjective interpretations.

Only Ayfre and Epsosito explicitly noted a category of films showing Mary within people's daily lives. These brief, but explicit, Marian episodes can be highly significant, and often connote precise conventional meanings. These will be discussed in a later chapter.

Finally, many films have been listed under general headings which can only be properly evaluated within their specific genre. Zwick makes a step in this direction by treating Marian parody and satire as an independent class, rather than within the Marian symbol group. This is important since Comedy, as Aristotle pointed out, works from certain presuppositions (e.g. the intelligibility of normal forms). Malone does likewise, allocating a special category for Rock

Operas. 75 Similarly, Esposito placed the opera, Suor Angelica, and Disney's Fantasia into a separate music/art category. This categorical distinction is critical for the proper evaluation of

Marian films within certain esoteric genres.

The above insights seem fairly common across time and geography. They have been incorporated into the organizational methodology of this paper, with some additional criteria for improved consistency and clarity in categorization. These will be set forth in detail in a later chapter. However, before proceeding to that point, we shall now see a review of official documents from the Catholic Church on cinema to supplement this review of academic literature.

75 Like Jesus Christ Superstar and Godspe/1

25 Chapter ffi: Catholic Teaching on the Instruments of Social Communication

Having examined relevant academic publications on the Virgin Mary in Cinema as an introduction to the topic, it now becomes important to establish a theological foundation from official catholic teaching. To date, there appear to be no such documents dealing directly with presentations about Mary in film. However, there are a number of documents which offer insights regarding the mass media in general, and on motion pictures in particular. Many of these insights offer norms for interpreting works from a Catholic religious perspective, including a few norms concerning works with specific religious themes.

In 1992, Libreria Editrice Vaticana published, A New Era: Aetatis Novae, 16 an English translation of some important documents on this topic. The Pontifical Council for Social

Communication's (PCSC) 1992 Pastoral Instruction, Aetatis Novae (AN),77 was included along with Elements ofa Pastoral Plan for Social Communications from PCSC President John P. Foley as an appendix. Two additional appendices reproduce the PCSC's 1971 Pastoral Instruction:

Communio et Progressio (CP),78 with a very short introduction by John Cardinal Dearden; and

Vatican TI's 1963 Decree, Inter Mirifica (IM),79 with a short Commentary written by Bishop John

L. May in 1972. The Introduction to Aetatis Novae notes a desire to address the contemporary

76 Pontifical Council for Social Communications (PCSC), A New Era: Aetatis Novae Pastoral Instruction [Also Included: Communio et Progressio and Inter Mirifica] (Roma: Libreria Editrice Vaticana, 1992).

77 PCSC, Aetatis Novae (AN), 1992. pp. 1-6 in the PCSC's 1992 A New Era.

78 PCSC, Communio et Progressio (CP), 1971. pp. 11-27 in the PCSC's 1992 A New Era.

79 Vatican Council TI, Inter Mirifica (IM), 1963. pp. 28-31 in the PCSC's 1992 A New Era.

26 pastoral situation, but also an awareness of dependence on Inter Mirifica and Communio et

Progressio. 80 The publication of the most recent official Catholic document to date on the mass media together with the two ecclesiastical documents on which it most depends is a useful reference for English readers. However, other than the three additions noted above, there is no

supplementary explanatory material beyond the texts of the documents themselves.

In 1993, a more comprehensive English text was published: Church and Social

Communication: Basic Documents by Franz-Josef Eilers (Ed). This book presents a number of

Catholic documents which "have a certain normative character and must be considered as the basic teaching of the Church in Social Communication. "81 Eilers provides useful commentary on the documents throughout.

In addition to the three related documents linked in the 1992 Vatican publication, Eilers groups Pius :xrs 1936 Encyclical: Vigilanti Cura (VC)82 and Pius XII's 1957 Encyclical: Miranda

Prorsus (MP).83 Together these five Catholic documents "consider communications in a more general way" 84 while other documents in his collection "refer to areas of special concern like for example, pornography, ecumenism, priestly training or church norms for writing and

80 Cf AN#2

81 Franz-Josef Eilers, ed., Church and Social Communications: Basic Documents (Manila: Logos Publications,1993), p. 5.

82 Pope Pius XI, Vigilanti Cura (VC), 1936. pp. 10-20 in Eilers' 1993 Church and Social Communication.

83 Pope Pius XII, Miranda Prorsus (MP), 1957. pp. 24-60 in Eilers' 1993 Church and Social Communication.

84 Eilers, p. 5.

27 publishing. nss Since none of these texts addresses our thesis topic directly to any great extent, this study will limit itself to the five documents most general and basic: Vigilanti Cura; Miranda

Prorsus; Inter Mirifica; Communio et Progressio; and Aetatis Novae. Each of these documents will be reviewed in chronological order, noting key elements as well as their relation to each other and to our topic. Of course, all the documents in Eilers' compendium are worth studying by

"anybody involved or interested in the church's apostolate and involved in Social

Communications. "86 For this purpose, Church and Social Communication is the best single reference on the Catholic church's thoughts about mass media.

ss Eilers, p. 5

86 Eilers, p. 5

28 Vigilanti Cura (1936)

Of our five documents, the earliest is Pius XI's 1936 Vigilanti Cura. Eilers states that it is also "the first pontifical encyclical on means of communication in the 20th century and the first one to deal with film as one of the modern electronic media." 87 The contents can be adequately summarized in three points: 1) The Catholic Church recognizes the extensive scope and powerful influence of motion pictures;88 2) Pius XI alternates between praising the potential of motion pictures to enoble human persons and castigating abuses which invite moral harm;89 and 3) in light of the above, the Catholic Church needs practical action to evaluate films based on the natural moral law and Christian norms and encourage the Faithful to support good films and avoid bad ones aided by these evaluations. 90 The vast majority of the document's 57 sections address, often redundantly, one of the above three areas.

While the document follows a complementary structure alternatively praising the proper use of the media and warning against the dangers of abuse, it seems to be strongly slanted to pessimism, a tone not atypical of Catholic comments on the secular world since the French

87 Eilers, p. 8

88 VC # 4: "We pointed out the very great importance which the motion picture has acquired in our days and its vast influence ..."

89 Compare Eilers, p. 8: "It is the first document with a more positive approach and which not only warns about dangers."

90 Similar to the approach of the American Legion of Decency, started around 1930. (Cf Eilers, p. 8)

29 Revolution. 91 The title alone92 suggests this. This trend is also emphasized by the opening stress of mentioning a "holy crusade against the abuses of the motion pictures"93 in the first paragraph.

Another indication occurs when Pius advises other nations to imitate the Legion of Decency in requesting promises "to stay away from motion picture plays which are offensive to truth and to

Christian morality",94 without mentioning a complementary commitment to patronize good films.

Similarly, individual bishops are empowered to use "severer criterions [sic]"95 than those used by the national review board, without allowing discretion to relax them where appropriate.

Still the positive potential of :films is mentioned frequently, including the most profound statement in the Encyclical: "The essential purpose of art, its raison d'etre, is to assist in the perfection of the moral personality, which is man, and for this reason it must itself be moral. "96 A comparably profound and optimistic statement came later: "The problem of the production of moral films would be solved radically if it were possible for us to have production wholly inspired by the principles of Christian morality. "97

Pius XI offered a good practical approach based on the experience of the Legion of

Decency. He encouraged the faithful to commit within an ecclesiastical context to support

91 In contrast to most Vatican II documents which use the same bipolar structure but favor an optimistic perspective

92 Which may be rendered into English as ''with watchful care ... "

93 vc #1 94 vc #44

9S VC #49

96 VC#4

97 vc #35

30 wholesome films and avoid harmful ones. To aid in discernment before the fact, he insists on the formation of national review boards evaluating films between these poles, allowing for qualified recommendations as a tertium quid. 98 If authoritarian extremes are avoided, such an approach should be workable and helpful in our own times. This encyclical invites responsible discretion as circumstance demands. For example, Pius repeatedly insisted on special care in exposing youth to motion pictures.99 He also explicitly recognized socio-cultural aspects in evaluating the suitability of films for the general populace:

Were it possible, it would in itself be desirable to establish a single list for the entire world because all live under the same moral law. Since, however, there is here question of pictures which interest all classes of society, the great and the humble, the learned and the unlettered, the judgement passed upon a film cannot be the same in each case and in all resp ects .. .100

101 The encyclical (in anticipation of Vatican II ) encourages non-Catholics, and all 'high- minded' people to similar efforts102 of healthy discrimination:

We warmly exhorted103 all men of good will, in the name not only of religion, but also of the true moral and civil welfare of the people, to use every means in their power, such as the Press, to make of the cinema a valuable auxiliary of instruction and education rather than of destruction and ruin of souls. 104

98 Cf VC #45

99 Cf VC#28

100 Cf VC #46-47

101 Vatican Council II, Gaudium et Spes (GS), in St. Paul Editions' The Sixteen Documents of Vatican II (Boston: Daughters of St. Paul), pp. 515-624. (Cf especially #21-22)

102 Cf. VC #12

103 In an April, 1936 audience to delegates of the International Congress of the Motion Pictures Press in Rome (Cf VC #5)

104 vc # 5

31 The encyclical also went farther toward a solution which deals with the problem at its roots, the very existence of harmful films which must be avoided. Pius XI reminds leaders in the motion picture industry, especially Catholics, of their responsibility to the public. Further, he praises governments which have "set up reviewing commissions and have constituted other agencies which have to do with motion picture production in an effort to direct the cinema for inspiration to the national works of great poets and writers. "10s An explicit affirmation of the government's right to censor films for the common good will appear in each of the four subsequent magisterial documents as we will see.

There are no explicit references to religious films in the encyclical. The only norm to be taken for evaluating Marian films is the document's single-minded focus on cinema as a formative moral agent:

Everyone knows what damage is done to the soul by bad motion pictures. They are occasions of sin; they seduce young people along the ways of evil by glorifying the passions; they show life under a false light; they cloud ideals; they destroy pure love, respect for marriage, affection for the family. They are capable also of creating prejudices among individuals and misunderstandings among nations, among social classes, among entire races.

On the other hand, good motion pictures are capable of exercising a profoundly moral influence upon those who see them. In addition to affording recreation, they are able to arouse noble ideals of life, to communicate valuable conceptions to impart a better knowledge of the Fatherland and of other countries, to present truth and virtue among nations, social classes and races, to champion the cause ofjustice, to give new life to the claims of virtue and to contribute positively to the genesis of a just social order. 106

lOS VC #3}

106 vc #24-25

32 Miranda Prorsus (1957)

This marks a good point to move forward two decades from Vigilanti Cura to our next document, Miranda Prorsus (1957), an encyclical from Pius XII. The document is strongly indebted to Pius XI's encyclical, and even mentions it explicitly several times. 107 "Miranda

Prorsus must be considered as a continuation and extension of the teachings of Vigilanti Cura." 108

The latter encyclical certainly reiterates Pius XI's earlier themes of warnings against abuse paired with praise for healthy use, emphasis on cinema as a widespread and powerful mass media influence, the call for national committees to review films and an awareness of some 'subjective' factors which effect these evaluations. 109

Yet the encyclical is about three times VC in length, owing to a wider scope rather than to greater detail. This probably derives from Pius XII's strong interest in the mass media. "More than 60 speeches and texts on different areas and questions of communications characterize the openness for and interest of Pope Pius XII in this field." 110 This broad interest resulted in two major extensions in the later document. First, while both documents affirm the need for the entertainment genre to support the moral order, Pius XII adds a call for media which provide informative or educational material to serve truth, 111 especially the divinely revealed truths of the

107 Cf MP #9, 20, 68, etc.

108 Eilers, p. 22

109 Especially the need for special caution with regard to younger viewers

110 Including two 1955 addresses on the 'ideal film' under various aspects (Cf Eilers, p. 22)

111 MP #44: "this should be the first aim of the arts of the motion pictures, radio and television: to serve truth and virtue."

33 Christian religion. 112 This attention to explicitly religious material is entirely lacking in the earlier encyclical. However, it is most relevant to our topic. Next, while both documents address the media of film, Pius XII extends his treatment to include radio and television. 113 This material is not generally relevant to the topic at hand .. However, Pius XII notes one point of special significance. Unlike cinema, radio and television are admitted indiscriminately into homes where the full spectrum of viewers are present. Hence, an excellent film like Disney's Hunchback of

Notre Dame (1996), presenting a powerful humanitarian social message within a healthy Christian religious context, still causes concern when broadcast into homes. Its violent content and the portrayal of a variety of evil attitudes and acts probably make it unsuitable for the very young viewers who would comprise much of the viewing audience for a home broadcast. As a remedy to the problems caused by films with qualified recommendations, Pius XII encourages media (and religious) education to enable the public to properly make such judgement calls. 114

Miranda Prorsus also adds some elements of depth to Vigi/anti Cura along with its greater scope. A Thomistic theory of knowledge is explicitly acknowledged as background for understanding the mechanisms by which motion pictures affect viewers:

Among the various technical arts which transmit the ideas of men, those occupy a special place today, as We said, which communicate as widely as possible news of all kinds to ears and eyes by means of sounds and pictures. This manner of spreading pictures and sounds, so far as the spirit is concerned, is supremely adapted to the nature of men, as Aquinas says: "But it is natural to man to come to things of the understanding through

112 MP #47: "Above all let the truths handed down by God's revelation be held sacred and inviolable. Rather, why should not these noble arts strive particularly to this end- that they spread the teaching of God and His Son, Jesus Christ ... "

113 MP #107-158

114 MP #56-61 102 ' 34 things of sense; for all our knowledge has its origin in a sense." Indeed, the sense of sight, as being more noble and honorable than other sense, more easily leads to a knowledge of spiritual things.ns

In fact, Pius XII' s document has a Thomistic spirit in many respects: emphasis on the common good as the fundamental concern _of governments and their citizens; affirmation of ecclesiastical rights superior to any secular political concerns; and an affirmation of the basic good of creation, qualified by concern over the actual uses made by free human persons. Regarding the latter, Miranda Prorsus, as may be inferred from its title116 and opening paragraph alone, is considerably more positive than Vigilanti Cura. Even the clear critiques of potentially harmful abuses are delivered less intensely. This marks a good point to move on to the relevant Vatican IT

Decree, Inter Mirifica as the Council was generally characterized by such a tone.

us MP #41

116 Which may be rendered into English as "Simply remarkable ... "

35 Inter Mirifica (1963)

Eilers tells us that the document was something of an afterthought in preparing for the

Council, 117 and that it has a checkered history afterward. The original schema included 114 sections and was criticized repeatedly for its length. The final draft was reduced to 24 sections

"and the status changed from a constitution to a council decree"m focusing on "essential doctrinal principles ... [and leaving] pastoral directions to a pastoral instruction to be worked out by the respective Vatican communications commission at a later stage. "119 This streamlining partly resulted from the fact that the decree was discussed after the intense discussions about the liturgy document. As Eilers notes:

Before this, the council had for long and intensively discussed the liturgy, and some observers felt that these discussions on social communications were, by quite a number of fathers, considered more as a relaxing enterprise in comparison to the foregoing deliberations. 120

The shortened document now received the opposite criticism "as not being up to the standard of a council and the professionality of communications. This eventually resulted in ... the highest number of No-votes for any document at the whole Second Vatican Council. "121

Inter Miri.fica (1963) repeats many of the central themes of its predecessors: hope for the media balanced by concerns over abuse; the need to educate the viewing public; calls for national

117 Cf Eilers, p. 56

m Eilers, p. 57

119 Eilers, p. 57

120 Eilers, p. 57

121 Eilers, p. 57

36 review organizations to evaluate films~ concern over both truthfulness and moral appropriateness~ affirmation of socio-cultural factors in evaluation, especially concern for young viewers~ special concern for film, radio and television as distinct media, etc.

The document does offer a few noteworthy innovations. It established the conventional reference to 'instruments of social communications' "as the communication of and in human society, ... [including] beyond the mere (modern) technical means, all other forms of human communication as expressed in societies and cultures", 122 thus broadening the topic into an integrated whole. It also introduced a 'world day of communications'123 not unlike the American

Legion of Decency's Pledge Day, but adding a call to pray for and to financially support these media. Also, in addition to the national review commissions, the Council called for creation of an international commission advising on radio, television and film under papal supervision, 124 and explicitly directed it to "publish a pastoral instruction ... to ensure that all principles and rules of the Council on the means of social communications be put into effect. "m

The decree extended its call for government intervention in the industry to not only provide defense oflegitimate free expression and support for good but unprofitable works, 126 but also with coercive enforcement (i.e. censorship) as needed:

the civil authorities, which rightly regard the well-being of the citizens as their concern, are

122 Eilers, p. 58

123 Cf 1M #18

124 Cf 1M #19-22

12S IM#23

126 Cf 1M #12

37 also bound to ensure, equitably and vigilantly, that public morality and social progress are not gravely endangered through the misuse of these media. This they can achieve by promulgating laws and tirelessly enforcing them. The liberty of individuals and groups is not in the least compromised by such vigilance, especially where serious guarantees cannot be given by those who use the media professionally.127

For our topic, there are two relevant elaborations. This first occurs early in the document and extends thoughts from Miranda Prorsus. Inter Mirifica claims as "the Church's birthright"128 the mission and authority to use any of the means of social communications 'lo announce the good news of salvation, and to teach men how to use them properly ... in a way that will ensure their own salvation and perfection and that of all mankind." 129 Hence, we may infer that treatments of evangelical themes and events as well as ethical pedagogy are suitable within the context of mass media diffusion. The former was seriously debated in the early 20th century. 130

The latter conflicts with the objective neutrality ofjudgement progressively lionized by the contemporary American news profession and entertainment industry. Beyond this, the decree offers little specific direction for religious features other than that they "are entrusted to serious and competent persons and are handled with proper respect. "131 The next point sjmilarly affirms the theoretical suitability of depicting moral evil:

127 1M #12

128 1M #3

129 1M #3

130 Passim in Roland Cosandey et al (Eds). An Invention of the Devil? Religion and Early Cinema. Sante-Foy:Les Presses de l'Universite Laval. 1992. For example, a Vatican decree from 1912 placed a papal ban on the projection of movies inside churches, underscoring the separateness of film from the acceptable fine arts allowed inside a sanctuary.

131 1M #11

38 Lastly, the chronicling, the description or the representation of moral evil can, with the help of the means of social communication and with suitable dramatization, lead to a deeper knowledge and analysis of man and to a manifestation of the true and the good in all their splendor. If, however, this is to be more profitable than harmful to souls, the moral law must be rigorously observed, especially when dealing with matters deserving of respect or with matters that lead all too easily to base desires in man wounded by original sin. 132

Finally, we have some clear principles from the Catholic magisterium directly applicable to our topic. Not only may presenting themes dealing critically with moral evil produce wholesome results, but proper integration within a dramatic genre may communicate meaningful insights with even greater power. This is vital for us, since many films associate Marian content with evil circumstances133 (as do some Gospel texts). However, I find this is usually done to show Mary's active opposition to this evil and her solidarity with a good protagonist or to create an implicit contrast which evokes a greater aversion to the evil shown. Both cases are appropriate in that they implicitly accept "the absolute primacy of the objective moral order."134

An example of the latter occurs in Roland Joffe's: The Mission (1986). This award- winning film includes brief explicit Marian content twice. In the first case, a simple picture of the

Madonna and Child elicits happy acceptance from the natives evangelized by Jesuit missionaries.

By contrast, a large, ornate statue of Mary is ignored by an enraged colonist who stabs his brother to death before it. In fact, the entire film repeats this theme of Christian ideals as a standard against which to measure good in the world (as it should be) and evil which is regrettably also present. The Mission was listed among the fifty outstanding films of cinema's first century by the

132 IM#7

133 E.g. Michael Corleone shooting his brother as he recites the Hail Mary in Godfather TI

t34 IM#6

39 Pontifical Council for Social Communication (PCSC) in 1995.

40 Communio et Progressio (1971)

We now move from our review of the Vatican II conciliar decree onto our next document:

Communio et Progressio (1971), which was explicitly called for in the Council Decree. However, the new document significantly expanded the scope of Inter Mirifica and, apparently, altered the tone and general emphasis of the Council's Decree. Hence, some critics see the approach of this pastoral instruction to be more closely related to Miranda Prorsus which similarly extended the scope and softened the tone of Vigi/anti Cura.135

In addition to explicitly calling for the creation of this document in section 23, Inter

Miri.fica also called for the creation of a pontifical Commission to oversee all the instruments of social communications. This organization, the Pontifical Commission For Social Communication

(PCSC), created in 1964, produced the requested document in 1971 .136

135 Cf Eilers, p. 22

136 A 10/1/1996letter (# 4082/96) from Hans-Peter Rothlin, Undersecretary of the Pontifical Council For Social Communication, summarized the history and mission of the organization:

The history of the Council begins on January 20, 1948 with the establishment by Pope Pius XII, on a [sic] experimental basis, of the "Pontifical Commission for Educational and Religious Films". The Commission was required to evaluate those films which were intended to illustrate Christian doctrine.

On January 1, 1952 the name was changed to "Pontifical Commission for the Cinema", and the scope of the body was enlarged to include matters of faith and morals in films. In 1952 the Commission began publication of its Information Bulletin.

In 1954 new Statutes (approved by Pius XII on December 16, 1954) enlarged the functions of the Commission to include the fields of radio and television. Further areas of competence were given to the Commission by Pope John XXIII with the Motu Proprio Boni Pastores of February 22, 1959, by the Decree Inter Miri.fica of the Second Vatican Council, and by the Motu Proprio Infructibus muftis (April2, 1964) of Pope Paul VI which also changed the name to "Pontifical Commission for Social Communications".

41 In contrast to the conciliar decree, Inter Mirifica, which was strongly criticized for its conciseness, Communio et Progressio is considerably longer (i.e. 187 sections) than the draft of the Council Decree which was criticized for its length at 114 sections. 137 In its introduction, the pastoral instruction explains its purpose and its relation to Vatican IT, admitting the influence of several Vatican IT documents besides the Decree on the Instruments of Social Communications.138

This extended scope partially explains the increased length. However, the Instruction also goes into considerably more detail than any of its predecessors regarding technical matters of concern to media professionals, probably as result of the aforementioned complaints about insufficient

The structure and competence of the Commission was confirmed by the Apostolic ConstitutionRegimini Ecclesiae Universae (art. 133) of August 15, 1967.

The Apostolic Constitution Pastor Bonus of Pope John Paul IT (of June 28, 1988) as well as changing the name to "Pontifical Council for Social Communications", declared that the scope of the Council was concerned with "questions about the media of social communication, in order that, through these media, the message of salvation and human progress may be able to bring about an improvement in culture and conduct". The Apostolic Constitution indicated that, in close association with the Secretariat of State, "the Council will undertake as its principal function to promote and support in a timely and adequate manner the work of the Church and of the faithful in the many forms of social communications; to ensure that this work -- in newspapers and in other written periodicals, in the cinema, and in radio and television broadcasts -- may be ever more permeated by a human and Christian spirit". The Pontifical Council would also give attention to the Catholic communications media "so that they may truly conform to their proper character and function" and also "foster relations with the Catholic associations working in the communications field".

The direction and administration of the Vatican Film Library are entrusted to the care of the Pontifical Council.

The Council is responsible for the evaluation of requests and the authorization of audio­ visual coverage of ceremonies and of places directly dependent on the Holy See.

137 Cf. Eilers, p. 57

131 Cf CP #2

42 depth in the Council's document.

Communio et Progressio opens with a brief treatment of the theological basis for communication in general. It then shifts into the elaborate detail mentioned above from sections

19 to 100 on "the contribution of the communications media to human progress. These considerations cover almost half of the total text."139 As a result of this extensive scope and detail, sections on the explicitly Catholic perspectives on the mass media are deferred and reduced so far as to produce the impression that they have been downgraded in significance. Apart from these general observations, the document, by its scope and detail, warrants the more thorough analysis which follows.

The document is optimistic in tone, at times almost hyperbolically so.140 This exaggerated optimism pervades the document, in contrast to balanced praise and caution of the two preceding documents. For example:

139 Eilers, p. 71.

140 Note the parallels between mystical communion from divine revelation in Christ and human communication through technical inventions in CP #11-12: Communication is more than the expression of ideas and the indication of emotion. At its most profound level, it is the giving of self in love. Christ's communication was, in fact, spirit and life. In the institution of the Holy Eucharist, Christ gave us the most perfect, most intimate form of communion between God and man possible in this life, and out of this, the deepest possible unity between men. Further, Christ communicated to us his life­ giving Spirit, who brings all men together in unity . .. . So "among the wonderful technical inventions" which foster communication among human beings, Christians find means that have been devised in God's Providence for the encouragement of social relations during their pilgrimage on earth. These means, in fact, serve to build new relationships and to fashion a new language which permits men to know themselves better and to understand one another more easily. By this, men are led to a mutual understanding and shared ambition. And this, in turn, inclines them to justice and peace, to good will and active charity, to mutual help, to love and, in the end, to commumon.

43 it is only right that both communicators and recipients should seek to acquire a truly catholic taste, one that includes both the traditional and the latest forms of artistic expression, one that appreciates and understands the art forms of all nations, of all cultures and of all sub-cultures within the same areas of civilization. 141

Such a statement would benefit from an explicit comment to the effect that not all common cultural traditions are healthy. of course, approval of cultural diversity in general, is not directly an endorsement of any abuses within sub-cultures. In any case, the instruction can certainly not be faulted for excessive optimism to a greater degree than Vigilanti Cura could be faulted for its pessimistic tone. Eilers gave a more balanced appraisal of the document's cheery tone:

"Communio et Progressio" has been regarded as one of the most positive church documents on social communication. A look in the list of contents shows that the document does not start with the rights or obligations of the church but, after a theological foundation, with the contribution of the communications media to human progress. These considerations cover almost half of the total text (nos. 19 to 100)! Whereas former documents tended to give orders and to refer to the rights and obligations of the church, the Pastoral Instruction builds more on personal responsibility. 142

This emphasis on shared personal responsibility is certainly no detriment in itself One result was some of the finest comments published in an official document from the Catholic

Church on the topic of dialogue within that institution:

Catholics should be fully aware of the reai freedom to speak their minds which stems from a 'feeling for the faith" and from love.

It stems from that feeling for the faith which is aroused and nourished by the spirit of truth in order that, under the guidance of the teaching Church which they accept with reverence, the People of God may cling unswervingly to the faith given to the early Church, with true

141 CP #54: As written, this unqualified inclusive statement might imply approval for common, but unhealthy, cultural manifestations, like the 'black face minstrel shows' which were once common American entertainment, but manifested an unwholesome racism.

142 Eilers, p. 71

44 judgement penetrate its meaning more deeply, and apply it more fully in their lives.

This freedom also stems from love. For it is with love that the liberty of the People of God is raised to an intimate sharing in the freedom of Christ himself, who cleansed us from our sins, in order that we might be able freely to make judgements in accordance with the will of God.

Those who exercise authority in the Church will take care to ensure that there is responsible exchange of freely held and expressed opinion among the People of God. More than this, they will set up norms and conditions for this to take place.

There is an enormous area where members of the Church can express their views on domestic issues. It must be taken that the truths of the faith express the very essence of the Church and therefore do not leave room for arbitrary interpretations. Nonetheless, the Church moves with the movement of man. She therefore has to adapt herself to the special circumstances that arise out of time and place. She has to consider how the truths of the Faith may be explained in different times and cultures. She has to reach a multitude of decisions while adjusting her actions to the changes around her. While the individual Catholic follows the Magisterium, he can and should engage in free research so that he may better understand revealed truths or explain them to a society subject to incessant change.

This free dialogue within the Church does no injury to her unity and solidarity. It nurtures concord and the meeting of minds by permitting the free play of the variations of public opinion. But in order that this dialogue may go in the right direction it is essential that charity is in command even where there are differing views. Everyone in this dialogue should be animated by the desire to serve and to consolidate unity and co-operation. There should be a deep love for the Church and a compelling desire for its unity. Christ made love the sign by which men can recognize his true Church and therefore his true followers. . .. 143

To nuance earlier comments, one should note that Communio et Progressio, while primarily positive, is not without balance. Consider the following section, which concludes by affirming the right and responsibility, mentioned in all three preceding documents, to censor some presentations for the public good:

The role of the civil authorities in this matter is essentially a positive one. Their chief task is not to create difficulties or to suppress, though at times corrective measures may

143 CP #115-118

45 \ become necessary. The Second Vatican Council explained that man's freedom is to be respected as far as possible, and curtailed only when and in "SO far as necessary. Censorship therefore should only be used in the very last extremity. Moreover the civil authorities should respect the principle of subsidiarity which has often been affirmed in the official teaching of the Church -- the gist of which is: ''Let them not undertake to do themselves what can be done just as well, or even better, by individuals or private groups. "144

In addition to the more positive tone, the newer instruction also seems to have departed from the general direction of the Council's Decree in the sense Eilers noted of minimizing treatment of''the rights and obligations of the Church". 145 Inter Mirifica addressed the Church's duty ''to preach the news of redemption with the aid of the instruments of social communication

146 147 ... " at the outset of Chapter One. Communio et Progressio largely deferred treatment of this topic until section 101. While the section on Catholics in the media (CP #101-180) is quite good, the document's general perspective on Christian mission seems mainly limited to fostering

"common brotherhood under the One Eternal God, the Father of All. "148 However, the aforementioned explicitly Christian sections found in the latter part of the instruction properly include ''the dual aspect ofhelping men and of announcing the Good News"149 within the responsibilities of the Church. The reservations noted above seem to have been largely addressed

144 CP #86

145 Eilers, p. 71

146 1M #3

147 Connoting a degree of emphasis described by literary critics as 'opening stress'.

148 CP #98: similar to Von Harnack's reductive answer to the question: ''What is Christianity?"

149 CP #101

46 in the subsequent PCSC's pastoral instruction, Aetatis Novae, without losing the sound content within Communio et Progressio.

Despite the above concerns, Communio et Progressio offers many interpretive insights of great value to our topic. Offering insights on artistic expression, the instruction affirms the profound value of exploring the human condition. The mysterious goodness of Divine Providence may be revealed whether in mundane aspects "however lowly or sad", 150 or in ''flight from the tangible and solid world ... [into] creative fancies", 1s1 and that without playing "the part of moralists" .1s2 The value of these treatments may remain even in the portrayal of evil circumstances:

Pope Pius XII taught that human life "certainly cannot be understood, at least when considering violent and serious conflicts, if one deliberately turns one's eyes from the crimes and evils from which they often have their origin. How then can ideal films take this as their subject? The greatest poets and writers of all times have occupied themselves with this difficult and rough matter, and they will continue to do so in the future .. . When the conflict with evil, not excluding cases when evil prevails for a while is treated, within the context of a work as a whole, in an effort to understand life better, to see how it should be ordered, or to show how man should conduct himself, how he should think and act with more consistency, then, in such cases, such matter can be chosen as an integral part of the development of the whole film." Such a work would contribute to moral progress. Even though they are quite distinct, genuine artistic values do not clash with moral standards. Each, in fact, confirms the validity of the other.153

An interesting insight may be illustrated with comments on the printed word:

"Comics" and illustrated stories are not to be despised. They can be used to illustrate the

150 CP #55: as in a Neo-realist film like Le notti di Cabiria

1s1 CP #55: as in a fantasy/science fiction picture like The Stand

lS2 CP #55

153 CP #57 47 Sacred Scriptures and the lives of the saints. 154

This affinnation is most important to a study of Mary in Film. A large category of films with Marian content is animated children's stories, usually related to Jesus' Nativity. Of course, the broader question of the appropriateness of mass media presentations of sacred material is also implicitly affinned.ISS

There are also some administrative directives worthy of note. The instruction states that

''the proper pastoral structures, with all the necessary funding, rights and resources, should also be set up"156 to allow for the development of''trained and experienced"1s7 Christians to work as experts in social communications. Further, it calls for general training in the field as part of the ordinary religious training for priests and religious, Iss and even of the general audience of the

Faithful. lS9

Finally, the document states that "Catholic universities and educational institutions should be more assiduous in the promotion of scientific studies and research on social communications." 160

154 CP #136

Iss And also explicitly affinned in CP # 144

lS6 CP #162

1 lS CP #162

m Cf CP #111

1s9 Cf CP # 107 In this light, the recent addition of a mini-course on film is a fully justified extension of the International Marian Research Institute's Marian educational program, and comparable offerings should similarly be added to other institutions of Catholic education.

160 CP # 162 It is to be hoped that The Marian Library's considerable academic research on Marian films, including this dissertation, will help answer this call from the PCSC, in an area

48 Aetatis Novae (1992)

We are now ready to conclude our study of official Catholic documents on the mass media with the most recent general statement, a pastoral instruction produced by the PCSC in 1992,

Aetatis Novae. Eilers notes that "the text is not as elaborate as the first pastoral instruction. In fact, many things seem to be repetitions or are quotations from already existing documents. "161

Such comments are valid, but may be seen in a more positive light. For a general audience, the relative brevity of Aetatis Novae is an improvement over the thoroughness of Communio et

Progressio which examines many issues of technical concern to media professionals, perhaps better relegated to an appendix.162 Also, the repetitions of earlier teaching present a good summary of the earlier media instructions, in contrast to its lengthy predecessor which also sought to integrate insights from many other Vatican IT documents. 163 As a result, Aetatis Novae, which has been very modestly studied to date.

161 Eilers, p. 120

162 Consider CP #38 as a sample of the document's detailed treatment of an issue of primary concern to media specialists:

Communicators must give news that is quick, complete and comprehensible. So more and more they have to seek out competent men for comments, background briefing and discussion. Often these comments are required immediately, sometimes even before the expected event has happened. Trustworthy men are rightly reluctant to make hasty or unprepared comments until they have had a chance to study a situation in its context, and especially when they are in a position of responsibility or authority. And so because the media are impelled to demand quick comment, the initiative often passes to men who are less responsible and less well-informed but who are more willing to oblige. Those acquainted with a given situation should try to prevent this from happening. As far as they can, they should keep themselves up-to-date so that they can reply and ensure that the public is properly informed.

163 CP #2: notably, the Constitution on ''The Church in the Modern World", the Decree on "Ecumenism", the Declaration on ''Religious Freedom", the Decree on ''The Missionary Activity

49 corrects many of the aforementioned problems in the language of Communio et Progressio which were probably caused by unstated implicit assumptions.

In particular, the second Instruction prefers balance to enthusiasm in general tone. 164 This emphasis on balance extends to both the humanistic and transcendental spiritual benefits which the mass media can potentially yield. 165

Besides the improved clarity of the more nuanced language, there are few new insights except a greater awareness of the considerable role of the mass media in personal formation through communications. 166 As a result of this insight, Aetatis Novae has notes of urgency more pronounced than any of its predecessors:

This need may be even greater now than previously, precisely because, to some degree at least, the great contemporary "Areopagus" of mass media has more or less been neglected by the Church up to this time. As the Holy Father remarks: "Generally, preference has been given to other means of preaching the Gospel and of Christian education, while the mass media are left to the initiative of individuals or small groups and enter into pastoral planning only in a secondary way." This situation needs correcting.167

of the Church", and the Decree on "The Bishops' Pastoral Office in the Church".

164 Cf AN #2: The use of new media ... has given birth to new possibilities for the mission of the Church as well as to new pastoral problems.

165 Compare, for example, AN #8: "it becomes possible to offer meaningful proposals for removing obstacles to human progress and the proclamation of the Gospel" with CP #96: "The means of social communication are not likely to achieve their purpose - which is actively to further human progress ... "

166 Cf AN #I: It becomes equally evident that "the first Areopagus of the modem age is the world of communications which is unifying humanity and turning it into what is known as 'a global village'. The means of social communications have become so important as to be for many the chief means of information and education, of guidance and inspiration in their behavior as individuals, families and within society at large.

167 AN#S

50 Beyond strong language, the document has a host of concrete suggestions, many coalesced into an Appendix on "Elements of a Pastoral Plan for Social Communications". This appendix includes a call for media education and related spiritual formation for Catholics of all classes, and insists that ''realistic provision is made for financing". 168 The document proper goes even farther on this latter point:

Recognizing the validity, and indeed the urgency, of the claims advanced by communications work, bishops and others responsible for decisions about allocating the Church's limited human and material resources should assign it an appropriate, high priority, taking into account the circumstances of their particular nations, regions, and dioceses.169

In addition to these general principles, the document offers one notable innovation in the area of interpretative norms:

it will also be of great importance in the Church's approach to media and the culture they do so much to shape always to bear in mind that: ''It is not enough to use the media simply to spread the Christian message and the Church's authentic teaching. It is also necessary to integrate that message into the 'new culture' created by modem communications ... with new languages, new techniques and a new psychology." Today's evangelization ought to well up from the Church's active, sympathetic presence within the world of communications. 170

This single comment is loaded with meaning. It permits the consideration of vast classes of new approaches, styles and technical invention. For example, there are some experimental films with Marian content, 171 the study of which might produce effective approaches which could

168 AN#23

169 AN#20

17o AN#ll

171 E.g. Animation for Fallen Catholics, and Our Lady of the Spheres in the Marian Library Research Video Collection

51 be useful and salutary as broad general conventions. By contrast, the Genesis project's Jesus films, though broadly circulated, were criticized by some media professionals for offering little more than a bare presentation of authentic teaching on the Christian message, something like an illustrated Bible.

52 Summary

Having looked at the five relevant ecclesiastical documents, a summary is in order, first regarding general issues, next with regard to norms applicable to the interpretation of Marian films. In general, all the documents recognized the increasingly powerful influence of the mass media on the people of today. They recognize that it is both necessary and appropriate for the

Catholic Church to use these instruments for the promotion of human progress. Further, the later documents affirm the suitability of these media for treatment of sacred religious subjects. All the documents affirm some right of government censorship in the public interest. There has been some ambivalence over time in the general tenor of appraising the effects of the media; but the overall message is one of cautious optimism, or broad, but limited, approval.

A progressive note of urgency regarding the Catholic Church's use of the media can be detected, including a call for concrete pastoral plans and priority funding in the most recent document. We may also see the progressive establishment of professional institutes to administer various media for the Catholic Church. 172 In addition to these professionals, the more recent documents have called for Catholic leaders at all levels and the Faithful in general to receive appropriate media education routinely. Finally, the more recent documents encourage ongoing academic research in the field.

There are no explicit directives dealing with presentations of the Vrrgin Mary in Film.

However, there are a few statements offering norms for religious films and for evaluating other films from a religious perspective. These may be applied to Marian films. They include:

172 I.e. The Pontifical Council for Social Communication (PCSC) and its composite organs for the Press (UCIP), Cinema (OCIC) and for Radio and Television (UNDA) as well as the corresponding national offices. (Cf CP #178)

53 1) Films must be moral and aid in the perfecting of the human moral personality.173 2) Media must serve truth, especially divinely revealed Christian truth.174 3) More accessible presentations should be more generally suitable. 175 4) Evangelical themes and events as well as ethical teaching are suitable within the context of mass media diffusion.176 5) Religious features should be handled respectfully by serious, competent persons. 177 6) Acceptance of cultural diversity in presentations is to be encouraged.178 7) Moral and Providential themes may be handled subtly and indirectly. 179 8) Fantasy environments may be legitimate themes. 180 9) The problem of evil may be usefully treated when properly integrated into a broader context.181 10) Animated features are acceptable, even on religious topics. 182 11) New approaches to ev~gelization are not only accepted, but encouraged. 183

In this chapter, we have already seen a few examples of how these interpretive norms are applicable to some films with Marian content. As we continue now with our detailed overview, the general and specific ecclesiastical184 insights listed above will guide our interpretations.

173 Cf VC #4

174 Cf MP #44 & 47

175 Cf MP 55-61

176 Cf IM#3

178 Cf CP #54

179 Cf CP #55

18°Cf CP #55

181 Cf CP #57

182 Cf CP #136

184 Care has been taken to be precise in using the term 'magisterial'. The Catholic Church recognizes distinctions between the 'level of assent' owed to official statements of various kinds.

54 Chapter IV: General Review of Trends in Film History and Mary's Place Therein

Before starting a comprehensive survey of Marian films, a brief diachronic study of film history in general, and of representative Marian films in p'articular, is in order. The development of motion pictures is initially a story of technical advancement and, only recently, the story of stylistic art. Some authors18s place the origins in the 1Jh century with the camera obscurd86 investigated by Leonardo da Vmci (d. 1519). This allowed the focusing of external images inward onto a surface. In the next century, Athanasius Kircher (d. 1680) described a device for projecting miniature forms outward, the so-called 'magic lantern'. By this early date, the basic mechanisms for focusing images inward and projecting them outward already existed. In 1826,

Joseph Nicephore Niepce (d. 1833) took the first still photographs using a kind of camera obscura. However, Louis-Jacques-Mande Daguerre (d. 1851) is better known for inventing a system to fix images on silver-covered copper plate.

At this point, still images could be recorded and projected. The last technical hurdle to be

The aforementioned encyclicals ofPius XI and Pius XII and the decree of Vatican TI are to be considered as more reflective of the mind of the Catholic Church and hence, more binding on the conscience of the faithful than the more recent instructions given through a pontifical commission. For more information on this issue, consult the following texts: Sullivan, Francis A. Creative Fidelity: Weighing and Interpreting Documents of the Magisterium. NY:Paulist Press. 1996. and Sullivan, Francis A. Magisterium: teaching authority in the Catholic Church. NY:Paulist Press. 1993.

m This chronology derives from pp. 164-167 ofEmmanuelle Toulet's Birth of the Motion Picture. (NY:Harry N. Abrams, Inc. 1988). Another excellent chronology is available on the Internet web site for the George Eastman House at URL: http://www.eastman.org/

186 Described in Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English Language Unabridged (1969) as "a darkened box or boxlike enclosure having an aperture usually provided with a lens through which light from external objects enters to form an image of the objects on the opposite surface used especially for making exact drawings".

55 overcome was the illusion of motion. Inventors were aided by biologicallimitations117 which allowed rapid, discrete visual changes to be perceived as continuous. Joseph Plateau (d. 1883) was the first to write about the phenomenon of'persistence ofvision' in 1829. Hence, a sequence of rapidly taken discrete photos, projected.at comparable speed give the illusion of continuous motion. Many inventions arose to allow either the exposure of sequential film segments and/or their projection, culminating in Edison's Kinetoscope and Lumiere's Cinematographe, both around 1895. The era of motion pictures is generally held to have begun on December 28, 1895 with the first public showing of Worker's Leaving the Lumiere Factory using Lumiere's

Cinematographe in Paris. Already, the study of film history changes from an emphasis on technical to artistic developments. 111 This first film ever shown established a trend for most of the films of cinema's first twenty years, creating a genre called 'actuality films'. 119 The usual productions were largely unedited documentary or newsreel footage, much like to~ay's 'home movies'.

117 Both in the human retina and in the visual cortex of the brain

111 For this overview of general stylistic movements in cinema, we are generally following David Parkinson's History ofFilm {NY: Thames and Hudson, 1996). Two other excellent texts summarizing the history of film include: "In and Out ofSynch" (1991) and ''Life to those shadows" (1990) by Noel Burch. The most detailed study of films until 1930 remains Georges Sadoul' s (d. 1967) Dictionary ofFilm translated and updated by Peter Morris through the University of California Press at Berkeley in 1972. Another thorough list detailing films until 1950 is Jean Mitry's 5 volume Histoire du cinema: art et industrie (Paris::Editions universitaires. 1967). Though limited to films from the United States, the multi-volume American Film Institute Catalog, now available as a searchable database, provides summaries of virtually all American films through the 1960s. As valuable as these comprehensive detailed summaries are, Parkinson seems to provide the most accurate and succinct overview of the overall topic.

119 Clips for many of these are available in digitized form at the Library of Congress' "American Memories" web site at URL: http://lcweb2.loc.gov/ammem/ammemhome.html

56 Actuality Films (1895-1915)

Documentaries from the period 1895-1915 include footage from a few famous Marian slu-ines. For example, Alice Guy Blache, the first women to direct films, filmed Le Monastere de

Montse"at while working for Gaumont in_1906.190 Gaumont also produced Pe/erinage National aLourdes in 1903 .191 Apparently, Lumiere also explored this topic in La Procession de Notre

Dame de Lourdes at around the same time.192 However in 1899, this site had already been filmed by E. Thevenon in La sortie de I 'Eglise du Rosaire aLourdes avec /e transport des malades et des Processions so/enne//es a Notre Dame de Lourdes. 193 Also, Butler mentions a documentary film of Notre Dame de Paris made by Capellani in 1911 .194

Along different lines, the famous Passion Play at Oberammergau was filmed by Charles H.

Hurd for Lumiere in 1897, while W. W. Freeman directed the filming of a folk procession showing Jesus' Passion in Horitz, Bohemia. This summarizes most of the Marian films from the

'actuality film' genre.

190 Cf. Anthony Slide, ed., The Memoirs ofAlice Guy Blache (London: The Scarecrow Press, 1986).

191 Ayfre, p. 807.

192 Guido Convents, ''Les Catholiques et le Cinema en Belgique (1895-1914)," Roland Cosandey, et al., eds., Une Invention du Diab/e? Cinema des Premiers Temps et Religion (Sainte-Foy: Presses de l'Universite Laval,1992) : pp. 23-34.

193 Convents, p. 25.

194 Cf. Ivan Butler, Religion in the Cinema (NY: A.S. Barnes & Co, 1969).

57 Early 'Life of Christ' Films (1898-1929)

However, after these recordings of Passion Plays there quickly developed a distinct and popular genre, the 'Life of Christ' drama. In 1898, L. J. Vmcent directed a Passion Play for

1 Producer, Richard Hollaman. 9S It was promoted as a recording of the famous Bavarian Passion

Play, but was actually shot according to a Salmi Morse screenplay in New York City. Frank

Russell played Jesus. This two reel black-and-white silent film appears to be the first Life of

Christ drama ever filmed. The George Eastman House has been able to restore the original. 196

Also in 1898/99, Sigmund Lubin produced another version of the Passion Play ''filming the perennial story on a backlot in Pbiladelphia."197 Chiti relates that Hollaman's film was re- released with additional scenes from Lubin's footage. 198 During the same year, Great Britain entered the Life of Christ genre with Walter Haggar's Sign of the Cross.

From here, a slew of'Life of Christ' films appear from many countries, primarily France,

Italy and Germany. Especially noteworthy is Pathe's two reel1907 La Passion de Notre

Seigneur Jesus-Christ directed by Ferdinand Zecca and Lucien Nonguet. The Vatican's Pontifical

Council for Social Communication (PCSC) listed it in their 'Religion' category of important

195 Terry Ramsaye devoted a full chapter (''The Saga of Calvary'') of lively narrative to this episode in his A Million and One Nights (NY: Simon and Schuster, 1926) : pp. 366-378.

196 copies on 16 mm film are held at the Museum of Modem Art in New York and the Marian Library in Dayton, Ohio.

197 Campbell, p. 74.

198 Chiti, p. 771.

58 films.t99

The first feature length Life of Christ film was Sidney Olcott's 1912 From the Manger to the Cross. 200 Olcott's wife, Gene Gauntier wrote the screenplay and played the Virgin Mary. The film had the benefit of being shot on location in the Holy Land at considerable expense. However, it grossed many times its production cost "and proved to be the most successful film made by the

Kalem Company."201 However, it suffers visually from the fixed camera positions used by the

Director.202 The Annunciation to Mary includes an early example of religious special effects in which Gabriel is given a ghostly transparency via double exposure. 203 Also, in this scene, Mary is hit with a spotlight when the angel appears. This use ofunusuallight to signify supernatural

199Copp, p. 12. Copp and others list this film as unavailable on video. However, Nastia Korbon has identified fragments of it within Belinda Giles' Ave Maria documentary. Giles listed the clips as French 1906. However, Pathe made no Life of Christ films that year; and the Pathe rooster logo is clearly evident. Proceeding from this insight, a conclusive identification was then made. Hence, parts of this acclaimed early film are easily available to interested scholars through Giles' documentary!

200 The Marian Library holds an NTSC format VHS videocassette purchased from Kino Video in New York. Olcott's film was Una.vailable commercially until recently. The film is also sometimes entitled Jesus ofNazareth.

201 Campbell, p. 82.

202 This was not unique to Olcott. Not only were shot making techniques in an early stage of development, there were theorists who preferred the impression of a theater seat vantage point: "Founded in 1908, the Societe Film d'Art aimed to seduce the middle classes into cinemas by elevating the aesthetic and intellectual content of the motion picture through the staging of prestigious plays on the screen. Unfortunately, despite the participation of some ofFrance's leading literary and dramatic luminaries, .films d'art remained exactly that- screened plays". Parkinson, p. 52.

203 By this time, Georges Melies had developed the genre of special effects films using stop motion and double-exposure photography. In 1899, his Le Christ marchant sur /esflots showed Christ walking on water. By the way, Melies 1903 Le Revenant [The Apparition] is a special effects fantasy about a ghost with no religious content, Marian or otherwise.

59 presence became conventional and is still used today.

204 The same year, Thanhouser produced a film on Jesus' Nativity called Star ofBethlehem •

The convention of increased lighting to signify the supernatural is also used here. A spotlight on the shepherds indicates the angelic presence. The cave of the Holy Family is denoted by a then- novel electric light in plain view. Only fragments of this film have been preserved via the Library of Congress Paper Print Collection. ws

There are a great many films in this genre from this period. The making of religious films helped create an aura of respectability for the new medium. Famous directors tried their hand at it. Robert Wiene directed INRI in 1923. However, it was done in standard devotional style: the characters are epic; their gestures are hyperbolic and manifest extreme emotion; their raiment reflects religious art of the period; etc. Wiene is simply following the norms of his time here, and manifests none of the 'German Expressionist' innovation for which he is remembered.206

Cecil B. De Mille contributed King ofKings in 1927. H. B. Warner gave a well-regarded performance as a noble, but very-human, Jesus. Dorothy Cumming romantically portrayed Mary as extremely gentle and friendly. The tale ignores the Infancy Gospels and starts during Jesus'

·adult life. Still, the perspective of Mary is 'high' and extremely positive. She intercedes with

Jesus for the healing of a blind child, then directly with God for mercy during an earthquake after

204 Wrongly attributed to Edison in some texts.

2os The Marian Library has fragments of this film on videotape.

206 My comments are based on secondary sources. Fr. Michael Morris, who has had the benefit of actually viewing the film at the Pacific Film Archives in Berekeley, California considers the film "a masterpiece in its own right". He wrote me that ''The stills available in New York attest to the beauty of its set design. Also, it cast in the role of Mary a world-renowned actress [Renny Porten], and it was her (then) husband [Gregori Chmara] who played Jesus."

60 Jesus dies. 207 The 'Pollyanna' portrayal of Mary will disappoint many modem viewers as unrealistic; but it was largely conventional until at least the 1950s. Still, when allowance is made for cultural differences, De Mille's film remains a good treatment of the subject. It also largely closes the era ofthe 'Life of Christ' drama as a popular genre. These films will still be made, but mostly in countries with large Catholic populations like Spain and Mexico. In the 30s, sound revolutionized the industry as a popular fad. Hollywood no longer needed the high-brow appeal of religion to draw viewers in droves.

207 Cf Mt 27:51

61 Melodramas (1910-1930)

Returning to stylistic movements of cinema as a whole, the next trend to appear is that of melodrama. Almost single-handedly, David Wark Griffith introduced the world to narrative film with extensive inter-cutting to emphasize meaning. The best example is the conclusion to his

1916 Intolerance, a masterpiece weaving plot developments from different stories together in

rapid sequence so that the brutal consequences of intolerance appear catastrophic and universal.

Within this work, Griffith includes two scenes from Jesus' Life: the wedding at Cana and the Crucifixion. At Cana, M~8 is described as 'The Mother' and acts with all gentleness and

sweetness. At Calvary, she is witness to the violent effects of intolerance, like the other mothers

in the film. Additionally, Lillian Gish portrays the archetypal mother, likened to the earthly Mary, rocking the cradle through ages of violence as a segue between scenes.

The film is melodramatic and moralistic besides. It is also quite long at 3+ hours. Even with these problems, it is a masterpiece in its way. In any case, Griffith not only introduced a new

narrative style, but also an overly-emotional, moralistic, unrealistic strain of drama which

predominated the next quarter century of cinema. These melodramatic aspects would linger until the sound era of the 1930s. A casual look at the American Film Institute's (AFI) comprehensive catalogs reveals that the vast majority of American films from 1910-1930 are classified as melodramas. 209 And the American film industry had already become very influential on the world

scene, especially since ''the First World War was virtually to decimate European film production

208 Played by Lillian Langdon

209 Perhaps over 80 %

62 for five years". 210

There are a number of reasons for this. As mentioned with religious films and films d'art, there was a desire to forge a respectable reputation for the new medium, in contrast to the low- brow fare of carnival nickelodeons. Use of melodramatic themes and presentation styles tried to give the impression of opera with its elite connotations. Also, in the absence of sound and color, exaggerated plots and gestures, helped engage viewers as the novelty of moving pictures faded.

Of course, melodramas exploring baser themes can have a certain audience appeal.211 In any case, melodramas became the norm~ and the Vrrgin Mary found her way into a number of them.

Alice Guy Blache directed a melodrama called My Madonna in 1915. The AFI summary not only shows the Marian content, but captures the sort of plot which dominated American films at that time:

Robert, an impoverished artist, has a vision of the Madonna and seeks a model to pose for a painting inspired by the apparition. In his half-mad wanderings, he meets Lucille, a high­ society prostitute who possesses the perfect demeanor for his creation. Robert paints a striking portrait, and Lucille, now in love with the artist, convinces an art buyer acquaintance to purchase it. Success and fame soon follow, and Robert turns away from Lucille, taking up with a divorced baroness. While the Baroness begins an affair with Robert, the Baron fancies Lucille and encourages Robert's liaison with his ex-wife. The Baron fights with an angry servant and is killed, but Robert, entering at the wrong moment, is caught with the murder weapon and is tried for the crime and sentenced to life imprisonment. While working for the poor, Lucille stumbles across the Baron's dying killer, who confesses, in writing, to his crime. Free but alone, Robert finds his way to a church where his Madonna painting hangs. By chance, his flesh and blood Madonna also appears, and the two happily reunite.212

210 Parkinson, p. 54.

211 As evidenced by modem 'soap operas'

212 Patricia King Hanson, ed., The American Film Institute Catalog ofMotion Pictures Produced in the United States- Feature Films 1911-1920 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1988) : p. 645.

63 The Marian Library has fragments from a 1912 film with some thematic similarities which was preserved in the Library of Congress Paper Print Collection, His Madonna:

This picture is made up of the following scenes: a female lead sits on the edge of a well; the male lead, an artist, sits at his easel in a field of new mown hay; the young woman approaches a shock ofhay. There are many short scenes of people going into and coming out of a church; and scenes of frustration of an artist unable to produce the type of picture he sees in his mind. Near the end of the film, the artist sees the simple maid he met in the hayfield in church holding a baby. This inspires him to paint a great picture called ''The Madonna. "213

Griffith's many films are also melodramatic in style, including Intolerance with its life of

Christ segments. However, except in the aforementioned 'Life of Christ' genre, from here until the present, Mary makes most of her film appearances in the course of the daily lives of people in the stories. Even a Biblical epic like 1925's Ben Hur uses 'Life of Christ' segments214 to frame the story of the protagonist. This brings us near the end of the era of melodrama's dominance.

Advances in Sound and Color reproduction will allow for films both more realistic and more spectacular and usher in a period of great prosperity, Hollywood's 'Golden Age'.

213 Kemp Niver, Motion Pictures from the Library of Congress Paper Print Collection 1894-1912 (Berkeley: University of California Press, 1967).

214 Specifically, the Nativity with Betty Bronson as Mary, and the Crucifixion

64 Fantasy Epics and the Golden Age of HoUywood (1930-1950)

Parkinson places the 'Golden Age of Hollywood' from 1927-194Jl15 and describes the usual fare as "series and serials, and inherently escapist genres like horror, the Western, melodrama and the historical biography (or biopic) ... ". 216 His list of popular genres is correct; and the overall style may be described as something of a fantasy-epic mentality. However, the dates which bracket the era seem to run from 1930 to 1950. The following reasons support this

217 terminus a quo. Though 'lhe sound era had dawned ... in the form of The Jazz Singer (1927)" , studios did not "adopt a uniform system [until] July 1930."218 Further, "solutions to the logistical problems of sound filming emerged throughout the 1930s."219 In 1932, Herbert T. ''Kalmus perfected the three-color Technicolor system, which was to become the industry standard for the next twenty years."220 Though color films had been possible since the experiments of Edward R.

Turner and F. Marshall in 1899, Kalmus' system was a quantum leap over the hand-tintingll1 and

2-color technicolor developed in the late 1920s. Of course, the imposition of the Production

Code in 1934 which forbade 'lhe depiction of nudity, passion, prostitution, homosexuality and

215 From the advent of sound with The Jazz Singer until the more realistic trends of the 40s.

216 Parkinson, p. 92

217 Parkinson, p. 85

218 Parkinson, p. 85

219 Parkinson, p. 88

220 Toulet, p. 45

221 Visible in the Nativity episode which opens Niblo's Ben Hur (1925). In fact ''By the early 1920's, over 80 per cent of American films contained toned or tinted sequences." Parkinson, p. 95

65 miscegenation"222 strongly affected movie style for decades. Apart from stylistic and technical reasons, it should also be noted that ''weekly attendances rose from 60 million in 1927 to 90 million in 1930"223 in spite of the tight economy caused by the Great Depression.

The above terminus ad quem also has several supportive reasons, primarily the studio oligopoly which survived until legal sanctions in the 1950s. Similarly, in the 50s, films were extended First Amendment protection, challenging the Hayes code. Especially distinctive was a trend to more realistic fare willing to explore the fallen aspects of human experience. Italian neo- realism had popularized this in Europe after the end of World War IT~ but it had also already been done in America in now-classic films like Casablanca and Citizen Kane . This stylistic change probably accounts for Parkinson's early date.

However, there is no debating the most golden year in Hollywood's so-called 'golden age', 1939. Among the now-revered features from that year are Stagecoach, Goodbye Mr.

Chips, The Hunchback ofNotre Dame and, among the very best films ever, Gone With the Wind and The Wizard of Oz. Together these offer a good illustration of the fantasy-epic mentality.

Of those with specifically Marian content, a number ofLife of Christ films were made in

Mexico in the 1940s. 224 Wiene's l.NRI was re-released dubbed with an English soundtrack as

Crown of Thoms in 1934. The most important Marian film of this period is probably Song of

222 Parkinson, p. 92

223 Parkinson, p. 85

224 E.g. Jose Luis Saenz de Heredia's Via Crucis del Senor por las Tie"as de Espana (1940)~ Jose Diaz Morales' Jesus de Nazareth (1942)~ and Miguel Contreras Torres' Maria Magdalena (1946).

66 Bernadette (1943).225 Jennifer Jones portrayal of the visionary as hyperbolically innocent and gentle earned her the Academy Award for Best Actress that year. The movie is still often shown on the American Movie Classics (AMC) cable channel. Though filmed in black and white, with an iconic rather than realistic heroine, there is still much to recommend it.

The conventional intense light, in this case accompanied by wind, again suggests supernatural presence. Unlike the crowds at Lourdes, the audience is able to see the Vrrgin Mary as Bernadette does,226 surrounded by a white halo and smiling broadly, gentle and distant.

225 The film seems to do a good job of conveying the tone of Franz Werfel's excellent novel.

226 Though this is the first 'Apparition film' discussed in this paper, it is hardly the first one made. The Gaucho (1928) frames its central story between incidents of Mary's appearances with consequent miraculous healings. The same distant, romanticized portrayal of Mary occurs as in Song ofBernadette. It is, in fact, the general cinematic convention up through the 1950s. Similar apparition imagery appears in Warner Brothers Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima in 1952.

67 Realistic Movements (1946-1959)

Whatever date is used to mark the next stylistic transition, it is certainly characterized by a move to more realistic portrayals showing situations emphasizing human imperfection. In a chapter called "Facing Realities", Parkinson dates this period from 1946-1959 and focuses on the

Italian neo-realist movement as the primary influence. ''In 1942, Cesare Zavattini, the leading theorist and scenarist ofNeo-Realism, ... urged Italian film-makers to repudiate the star system, studio artifice and plot contrivance that had bolstered the escapism, spectacle and rhetoric of the

Fascist era, and focus solely on the contemporary realities facing ordinary people in their daily lives."227 Subsequently, Italy's best directors, often constrained by post-war realities, made films starring non-professionals, shooting in available light, using the ravaged city as background. The best known of these films is Vittorio De Sica's The Bicycle Thie/(1948) which made the PCSC list of outstanding films in the 'Values' category. 228 The film tells the story of an Italian worker desperately seeking the lost bicycle needed for his livelihood.

Roberto Rossellini pioneered the Italian neo-realist movement with films like Rome, Open

City in 1945. However, his contribution to Marian cinema mixed the appearance ofneo-realism with an allegorical plot aimed at social critique. Anna Magnani gave a stellar performan~e as a simple peasant who believes she has met Saint Joseph and conceived virginally. The plot suggests that she has been violated while drunk. However, apart from the pregnancy there is no evidence of intercourse shown. On the contrary, the title implies that the conception is a miracle of God.

227 Parkinson, p. 150

228 De Sica had already made a well-respected film on the shrine of Loreto called La Porta del Cie/o in 1944.

68 This ambiguity allows the film to be seen as a stylized allegory of the Nativity or as a realistic tale of the abuse of a good-hearted but underprivileged woman. In either case, the film criticizes those who claim to be Christian and still inflict hardship on the needy. It is clear that Rossellini's villains would have treated the Virgin Mother of the Gospels no better.

The film was condemned by the Catholic Legion of Decency, but eventually received positive reviews from the Vatican. However, its significance for American culture is much broader than its relevance for Catholics.

In clearing Roberto Rossellini's, The Miracle, of charges ofblasphemy in 1952, the U.~. Supreme Court overturned its decision in the 1915 Mutual case which had excluded motion pictures from categorization in the media and thus denied them the right to free speech under the First Amendment. Amidst the following influx of foreign-language films, immune to the strictures of the Code, Preminger produced a succession of pictures on deliberately controversial themes: extra-marital sex (The Moon is Blue, 1953)~ drug addiction (The Man With the Golden Arm, 1955)~ rape (Anatomy ofa Murder, 1959)~ and political corruption and homosexuality (Advise and Consent, 1962). Hopelessly discredited, the Code was abandoned altogether in 1968 in favor of a ratings system ranging from general audience to adults only.229

However, American films had already been moving away from the light plots and idealized heroes ofHollywood's golden age. The style called .film noir, used often for detective fiction, gave the same low-light, black-and-white appearance, and showed the same human-all-too-human protagonists as Neo-Realist films. It was, in fact, considerably more pessimistic and

"demonstrated a preoccupation with the basest human instincts and a conviction of the inevitability of moral corruption. "230 It is held by most that "its prototypical style was established

229 Parkinson, pp. 166-167

230 Parkinson, p. 156

69 by Wtlder's Double Indemnity (1944)".231

This emphasis on human limitations came to extend far beyond the seedy criminal realtn of detective fiction. In 1952, High Noon presented Gary Cooper as a weak, frightened, unpopular man cast in the role of town sheriff as crisis looms. In 1959, Audrey Hepburn portrays a talented, sincere young nun who eventually abandons her order.

Still, this tendency of projecting the trajectory ofltalian Neo-realism into the spectrum of later American fare, had little effect on American religious films in the 1950s. John Brahm's

Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima had strong anti-Communist tones. The visionary children are as innocent and virtuous as Bernadette a decade earlier.

A number ofLife of Christ films were made in this decade, several by John T. Coyle,232

Irving Pichel233 and Edward Dew. 234 All these films were essentially illustrated Bibles~ and the stories come off as devout, but shallow. For example, in I Beheld His Glory biblical literalism was taken to an extreme as John and Mary walk towards the Cross well into Jesus' Crucifixion, listen to Jn 19:6 and then exit. Jesus' Mother was not even listed in the credits.

The Life of Christ films done by Patrick Peyton's Family Theater in 1957 to illustrate the

Rosary mysteries exhibit the same devotional style but, having the broad Catholic tradition to draw on, are a bit more expansive with their plots. The break with cinematic conventions will come in the 1960s, both in America and Europe, both in secular and religious films.

231 Parkinson, p. 156

232 E.g. Return to Nazareth and Conflict both 1955

233 E.g. Day of Triumph (1954) and/ Beheld His Glory (1952)

234 A whole series done for Family Films

70 Various 'New Waves' (1959-1990)

In a chapter entitled "New Inspirations", Parkinson dates the period at which world cinema consciously breaks with established conventions235 from 1959-1970. Though in some ways this movement continues the trajectory of pessimistic realism from Italian Neo-Realism236 and American film noir, 237 the real heart of these new inspirations is a 'fum to the individual', like that seen in Existentialist Philosophy and some Catholic Theologf38 in the 1950s.

'A classic film cannot translate the real rhythm of modem life', wrote Alain Resnais.239 'Modem life is fragmented, everyone feels that. Painting, as well as literature, bears witness to it, so why should the cinema not do so as well, instead of clinging to the traditional linear narrative. '240

Resnais calls for cinema which reflects interior subjectivity rather than narrative coherence or strict objectivity. Similarly, 'auteur theory' held that "the most significant films were those that bore the 'signature' of their directors by proclaiming their personalities and key themes."241

235 Thematic content, moral perspectives, narrative style and visual construction all freed themselves from the 'tradition of quality', essentially the artistic norms of Griffith and the moral norms of the Hayes Code.

236 For example, the well-recognized French new wave film, The 400 Blows, ''was an austere account of adolescence that consciously evoked [Italian] Neo-Realism", Parksinson, p. 186.

237 "Godard's debut feature, Breathless contained virtually every cinematic device associated with the nouvelle vague and is widely considered to be its most influential film .... it was dedicated to the U.S. B-movie studio Monogram and was the first of a number of pictures similarly modeled on.film noir ... ", Parksinson, p. 188

238 E.g. Karl Rahner

239 A pioneer in the new movement with the film Hiroshima, Mon Amour in 1959.

240 Parkinson, p. 185

241 Parkinson, p. 185

71 Whether, in the audience, the director or the dramatis personae the focus is on subjective perception, following the Existentialism242 popular in France at the time. The resulting school, which dominated French cinema at the time, was referred to as nouvelle vague, the French 'New

Wave'.

Its technical characteristics included ''location shooting (using natural light, direct sound and hand-held cameras}, improvisation, homages to admired auteurs, private jokes and elliptical editing." 243 However, "the nouvelle vague soon ceased to function as a collective phenomenon"244 and it is difficult to define the movement as a whole. The common link is a general reaction against the established 'Tradition of Quality'. The American New Wave, for example, was "radical merely in terms of content. Formal experimentation was largely the preserve of the documentary and underground movements. "24s Bonnie and Clyde (1967)

"disposed of the cinematic taboos surrounding violence and death, [while] The Graduate (Mike

Nichols, 1967) did much the same for sex. "246 In 1968, the Production Code was replaced by the generic rating system still used today. 247 From this time on, Parkinson mentions a variety of 'new

242 E.g. Camus and Sarte

243 Parksinon, p. 186.

244 Parksinon, p. 186.

24s Parkinson, p. 198.

246 Parkinson, p. 198.

247 For a thorough treatment of the history of this change, see: E. Michael Jones, ''The Hollywood Front," Fidelity (September 1995}, pp. 25-37. This article studiously details the various court decisions and actions of key players in the process.

72 waves' which occur in various countries.248 However, apart from criticism of Communist repression by directors in Eastern Europe, the only thing defining many of these national movements is their relative unconventionality. Parkinson places the ripple effects of the French

New Wave well into the 1980s. This estimate is correct, but probably conservative.

The effects of this trend were seen in Marian films from the period. In this area, the general reaction against cinematic expression manifested itself largely as hostility to traditional

Christianity. 249

In 1962, Roberto Rossellini, Jean-Luc Godard, Pier Paolo Pasolini and Ugo Gregoretti contributed short films to a piece release~ as ROGOPAG or Brain Wash. Pasolini's segment La

Ricottli50 "attempted to show the contrast between the solemn filming of The Passion Play and the obnoxious behavior of the actors between takes,"251 including a scene in which one of the women at the cross (perhaps playing the Virgin Mary) does a strip-tease. Though censored as sacrilegious at the time, Pasolini' s work offers a healthy critique of an abuse of Christianity rather than of its substance.

248 Germany, New Zealand, India, Canada, Egypt, Brazil, China, England, etc. as discussed by Parkinson from pp. 218-252.

249 For a controversial, yet thorough, examination of this trend see Michael Medved's Hollywood vs. America: Popular Culture and the War on Traditional Values (NY: Harper Collins Publishers, 1992). The author, a prominent film critic, explores the anti-conventional religious attitude in the context of anti-conventional movements regarding violence, promiscuity, heroic characters, etc.

250 This may be translated into English as 'the cream cheese'.

251 Campbell, p. 151.

73 Buiiuel's surrealistic La Voie Lactee252 has the same goal. The film generally lampoons the violent disagreements of Church history while affirming healthy spirituality in some key scenes. In one, a scientist proclaims his fear in technology as worse than an 'absurd faith in God'.

In another, a heretic is deeply converted after seeing the Virgin Mary perched in a tree. Edith

Scob plays the Virgin Mary, dressed identically in the apparition scene as in the tongue-in-cheek segments showing the historical life of Jesus.

In 1984, Jean-Luc Godard's Je vous salue Marie253 offered a .film noir-like story of a virginal conception. However, Peter Malone seems correct in stating that Godard presents a

'Marian metaphor' rather than a 'stylized image' of the real Mary. Sarrias describes the film as

"the appropriation of the fact of Mary's pregnancy in order to make an anthropological social denunciation by the French film director."254 Again we have a critique of the established order, in this case, a denunciation of the sexually-conditioned relationship between men and women. This is emphasized by the distribution of Godard's film along with Anne Marie Mieville's Book of

Mary. Her film also shows the uneasy interplay between a man and his wife and daughter.

The film was rated '0' as Offensive by the U.S. C. C.'s film reviewer, Henry Herx because

"extensive use of nudity and extremely rough language in a context so sacred to Christians will be offensive to many." 255 Perhaps, we can overlook questions of sacrilege, since the film may be

252 I.e. The Milky Way (1969)

253 Hail Mary

254 Cristobal Sarrias, ''Maria en arte literario y cinematogra.tico," Ephemerides Mariologicae (1995), p. 234.

255 Henry Herx, ed., The Family Guide to Movies and Videos (Washington, DC: United States Catholic Conference, 1995) : p. 233. 74 seen as an allegory alluding to the Marian symbol rather than a retelling of the Gospel. Still, at least because of sexually graphic scenes bordering on the pornographic, the offensive rating is well deserved. Even so, Godard emphasizes for us that the notion of the Virgin/Mother is still an ingrained part of the popular understanding ofMary.

Even in the genre of Children's Animation, this anti-conventional tendency appears. Bill

Melendez's A Charlie Brawn Christmas ended its frantic humor with Linus reverently reciting

Luke's Infancy Gospel in 1965. In the 1992 sequal, It's Christmastime Again, Charlie Brawn,

Director Melendez has Sally stop Linus' Bible reading with constant interruptions. The catastrophic Christmas pageant staged by the gang leaves the impression that the holiday is being lampooned rather than respected as in the original.

There are a number of other films with Marian content from this era, including the best

'Life of Christ' films ever made, Zeffirelli' s Jesus ofNazareth and Pasolini' s Gospel According to

Saint Matthew. However, we have seen enough to appreciate the tone of this period and note its effects on Marian films.

75 Religious and Marian Revival (1985-Present)

It also seems reasonable to posit the existence of another movement growing in the 1980s even as the anti-conventionalism of the various 'new waves' started to wane, a religious and

Marian revival. In the 1980s, the number of Marian films skyrockets, distributed mostly on videotape. Technological advances allowed quality productions to be made on limited budgets.

Large numbers of inexpensive films on all topics have since been made covering almost all topics, including dozens of documentaries on Marian shrines and apparitions. Many of these were amateur productions by promoters ofrecenf'6 apparitions. However, there were also many excellent professional documentaries.

Bob and Penny Lord have produced a whole series on Mary under various titles, describing the often-miraculous origins and subsequent pilgrimages and shrines. These are frequently shown on the Catholic Cable Network, EWTN. An excellent documentary on the apparitions and messages of Fatima was done independently by Jean Whalen in 1985.

Medjug01je, drawing pilgrims by the hundreds of thousands over the last 15 years, has created a niche market of interested viewers. Apart from the many documentary films, the Medjugotje phenomenon has been discussed on television news and talk shows. A feature film has also been made starring Martin Sheen as Fr. Jozo. 257 These films generally present a 'high-Mariology' showing Mary in her glorified state as heavenly patroness.

There are a number of reasons for this Marian revival. As mentioned, the popularity of

256 E.g. Mother of Great Love, Mother of Great So"aw about Conyers, Georgia.

251 Gospa (1995) directed by Jakov Sedlar. Sheen also starred in the unsuccessful fictional drama A State ofEmergency (1986) commissioned by the World Apostolate of Fatima.

76 apparitions (especially Medjugorje) has created a ready-made niche audience from the numerous pilgrims and other believers. This is not unexpected given the conventional wisdom that sees immediate spiritual experience as the current vogue in religion. Millennial apprehension, stoked by the media, also encourages people to accept Mary as messenger of secret promises of divine activity to come. When these appearances are reported, television news magazines rush to report them like the latest gossip.2Ss

The personal Marian devotion publicly manifested by Pope John Paul IT is certainly another factor. His Marian Year Rosary recitation was telecast to a huge audience along with simultaneous shots from various famous Marian shrines around the world.

Perhaps another significant factor is the diffuse character of the anti-conventional new wave movements. The common link was largely one of negation of established norms rather than the promotion of any positive ideals. Since no alternative vision ofMary or the Marian symbol was consistently offered, it is not surprising that people eventually reclaimed the traditional one.

Jean Delannoy'sMarie de Nazareth (1992) illustrates this point. The Director has been established for four decades and produced a film that in many respects has a 50s air to it. Though

Miriam Rousell portrays Mary early on as a likeable, approachable, very human girl, from the conventional spotlight and wind symbolism at the Annunciation on, she comes off more as an icon, even showing stigmata on her forehead as Jesus carries his cross. Though very much, a traditional portrait of Mary, the Lifetime cable network, which caters to women, has shown the

2Ss As NBC's Inside Edition did with apparition reports in Tampa, Florida in 1996.

77 film several times, dubbed into English. 259 It is something of a 'chick flick' 260 in that Mary and other women have the most prominent roles in a film which emphasizes ordinary life and interpersonal relationships over action and high drama. Still, it is essentially an old-fashioned devotional film.

This concludes our general overview of film history. We have seen various trends: the earliest actuality films, followed by melodramatic narratives, followed by the fantasy-epics of

Hollywood's 'Golden Age'. A reaction favoring more realism follows the Second World War, blossoming through the various 'new waves' into a broader reaction against cinematic convention in general. The Marian films from each of these periods have often showed the influence of the popular styles of the day. However, they could be summed up into two camps: the distant romanticized Mary of cookie-cutter devotional films common up to 1960, and the unconventional

Marys manifesting the visions of individual directors in the new wave eras. Recently, there seems to have been a return to a more traditional Marian fare, predominantly emphasizing the glorified

Mary of apparitions.

259 The angel's voice at the Annunciation was dubbed by a woman, where Delannoy's original used a man's voice.

260 This term has been become standard parlance in the vocabulary of American media critics. It is generally used in a descriptive rather than a pejorative sense, though there is a critical connotation directed at marketers who overemphasize the demographic character of viewers.

78 Chapter V: Thematic Survey of Mary in Films

We now turn to the largest section of the thesis, a comprehensive synchronic study of films involving Mary based on extensive analysis of primary source material. The state of current research justifies this approach for a number of reasons. Zwick's 1997 article in Handhuch der

Marienkunde, the best, and also most recent, work to date on Mary in Film, generally follows this approach. However, the categorization scheme used in this paper is a bit different and is deduced from broad trends observed in the data. However, the lack of published material in English, invites a variety of approaches to enhance the level ofunderstanding of the topic.

The only important work in English is Peter Malone's 1992 "Mary on the Screen", a study which briefly summarizes the style and content of about 60 feature films from the 1890s up to its publication. This work, though short, is of high quality, as is to be expected from the author's prominence,261 and so recent that repeating Malone's approach would be redundant.

Further, the relative obsolescence of the surveys in the Marian professional journals would call for updating, even if any of them were available in English. They all basically used the approach of a comprehensive262 synchronic survey. Further, they all share, as do many film histories, the weakness of over-reliance on secondary sources. 263 Over the years the Marian

261 Fr. Malone is currently President of Organization Catholique International de Cinema.

262 Though none examined more than 150 films

263 For example, on. p. 276 Zwick credits Esposito's Nuovo Dizionario di Mariologia article for informing him that R. Laurentin was a Consultant for J. Lefef on Marie, fil/e de Nazareth (1965). However, Fr. Laurentin has told me personally that he had no direct involvement with the film. A look at the credits would have resolved this issue. However, Lefefs film is very hard to obtain. I have not been able to view it either. Also, some sources list 'Lelef rather than 'Lefef. I do not know which is correct.

79 Library has examined over 1,000 titles with some possible Marian content. Of these, 220 have been fully documented. 264 Comments on the remainder are based upon partially-documented personal reviews or on secondary sources.

At this point, allow me to describe the organizational structure used to categorize the films for further analysis. The most distinctive empirical fact evident from seeing a compendium of

Marian films is the difference in the genre of films in which Mary appears. 265 There should be little debate over whether a film which refers to Mary is a Drama or a Documentary. A third category which applies to a number of films related to our topic is that of the recorded Lecture.

Each of these broad genres is quite distinct from the others, 266 but broad enough that each contains many Marian films. Within each of these broad general categories, a handful of well- defined subcategories appears from a natural consideration of the material. 267

264 Most of these detail reviews were done by me personally. However, I am greatly indebted to Ken Breakall, Kyle Callahan and Charlotte Ventresca. Each of them have done at least 20 complete reviews. These reviews are available in the archives of the Marian Library. The full list of about 1,200 titles is presently being compiled into a database which should eventually be made available to the public.

265 A variety of facets have been considered over the course of the project for making comparisons between different Marian representations: implicit vs explicit; incarnate vs spiritual; major vs minor references; positive vs negative characterizations, etc. The genre criterion was chosen as the initial classification norm since it reduces subjective judgements to a minimum.

266 One might logically group Lectures under the Documentary category but that would downplay the importance of many distinguishing features. The primary difference is that documentaries give greater emphasis to visual aspects of presentations; while lectures focus primarily on oral content. Documentaries exhibit the full range of cinematographic techniques; while lectures are extremely limited (e.g. medium shots from a fixed camera position).

267 It is not until one moves to considerably finer detail that disagreements about category may be considered legitimate.

80 Marian representations in dramas may be subdivided into two broad groups: Historical films which present the figure ofMary herself; and Symbolic films which only allude to the person of Mary. The Historical class of dramas may be subdivided between those representing the person ofMary during her life on earth and those representing Mary as an eschatological figure. 268

Similarly, Symbolic Marian dramas also divide into two camps: those suggesting Mary's presence by using an inanimate object/69 and those alluding to her with a character having certain similarities. 270 Evaluating a character's trait as Marian may deal with either audience perception or the author's intent in presenting such a character. 271 To allow for the author/audience distinction, it seems reasonable to further divide the Symbolic Marian characters between those in which the symbolism is Intentional on the part of the author and those in which it is only potentially

Illustrative depending upon audience perception. zn With this distinction we conclude our list of subcategories found in Marian Dramas.

268 Theological issues about how Mary now lives in her glorified state are irrelevant to these presentations. In these films, Mary interacts like any other concrete person. She is seen and heard and speaks and does other actions germane to the course of events as do any of the other dramatis personae. For example, within the scope of a dramatic narrative on Lourdes, Mary is as much a 'historical' figure as Bernadette. Such films are only interested in the eschatological figure of Mary as she interacts within a concrete historical context.

269 E.g. An icon or holy picture, a holy object like the Rosary or a Marian medal, a holy place (especially a Marian shrine), or even a hymn or similar verbal reference.

270 E.g. an irregular pregnancy, often with explicit suggestions of miraculous origins as in Rossellini's II Miracolo.

271 The 'hermeneutic circle' considers these areas as ontologically distinct though potentially compatible via a dialectical process mediated by the vehicle of communication.

zn Should the virginal conception ofXena, the warrior princess, be construed as an allusion to Mary's conception, or to that of another mythical heroine like Danae, or something else entirely?

81 Documentaries also broadly subdivide into two major groups: those considering Mary within the context of Christian Devotion; and those which examine Mary from a more academic perspective, most frequently within the context of Christian Art. Devotionally-oriented documentaries further subdivide into those which examine established activities273 and those which study special events.274 Documentaries on Marian art may be further classified based on the type, style and period of art studied: painting; sculptUre; architecture; ballet; music; etc.

Finally, Lectures are by definition of an informatory nature. However, even here one may separate those with a catechetical or devotional tone intended for believers from those with an objective orientation aimed at a broader secular audience.

These classes and subclasses describe the parameters within which particular Marian films will be appraised. When analyzing any work, it is important to recognize its genre and appraise it in accord with the special characteristics of its class. For example, it is ridiculous to criticize a documentary for a lack of dramatic action or to complain because a symbolic Marian figure is not dressed like a woman of ancient Palestine.

Besides the issue of respecting differences implied by diverse super-classes, special demands are placed on a reviewer by specialty subclasses. For example, a Comedy/Drama in which the figure of Mary is treated in a humorous way need not be presumed as an intentional degradation of her or of Christianity, since the genre implicitly demands that its characters be treated humorously. On the contrary, humor implicitly affirms norms from which humor is drawn

273 E.g. regular pilgrimages or celebrations at established Marian Cathedrals or Shrines conunemorating famous Apparitions

274 E.g. Topical Conferences, Papal Visits, Seasonal programming on Mary's Life or Cultural Significance, etc.

82 when characters fall short of these ideals. 27s

Further, films in which choreography and music define the character of the wor~76 require even more expertise in the artistic field from reviewers. Animated films raise similar questions.

And since these are often designed for children, yet another type of specialized training becomes valuable. This kind of detailed appraisal of films which fall into specialty genres is beyond my competence and the scope of this paper. However, these intricacies do not affect the classification standards used in this paper. Operas, Animated Children's stories, and Comedies all fall broadly under Drama by virtue of their plot construction. Accepting these limitations, we shall now review the cadre of all Marian films within the aforementioned three super-classes and their associated subclasses.

The following sections, when taken as a whole, will consider virtually all the Marian films in our database. However, many of these references will be limited to noting the category and date of a film, and often, also its title and director. However, a number of films will be treated in more detail. There are a number of practical reasons for this selective approach. Many of these films are difficult to obtain, usually because of their age. Hence, I have been unable to review them personally. Further, of the titles which I have not been able to view, many of them have not been treated in detail in published reviews. Films having such reviews tend to be those with larger

27s We laugh at the way Homer Simpson deals with his family, since it ridiculously falls short of the norms we would expect in healthy real families.

276 E.g. Ivan Marko's Jesus, Son ofMan: Oratorio in Dance (1988)~ The American Bible Society's The Visit (1994). The field of Opera also makes significant use of the Marian figure a number of times also (e.g. Caval/eria rusticana, Otel/o, Suor Angelica, etc.)

83 audiences, bigger production budgets and some degree of critical attention.277

Three sources have been particularly helpful in providing detailed information on Marian films which I have not seen myself Peter Malone's 1992 article ''Mary on the Screen"; Richard

Campbell's The Bible on Film (1981); and, for silent films, Nastia Korbon's unpublished manuscript "Passions et vies du Christ dans le cinema muet (1897-1927): Du Thedtrefilme au

Christ de Lumiere". The articles by Chiti, Esposito and Ayfre published in various Marian professional journals provide little in the way of detailed commentary on the films they list.

Hence, I have not been able to provide detailed comments on the titles for which these articles have been the only source of information.

Admittedly, the selective qualitative treatment of films in this paper is a limitation.

Though not absolutely comprehensive, this work does improve on the thoroughness of publications available to date. Also, the film database used at the Marian Library allows vastly greater flexibility in exploring particular questions tllan is possible in a printed text. Finally, it should be noted that research on Marian films will always be a 'work-in-progress'. New films will likely be made in the future. Existing films will be reviewed in greater detail over time. Further, out-of-print films often become available, especially through the restoration work of a number of film archives in Europe and the United States which have received mandates via increased funding since the 1990s.

277 Often because the director is well known, like De Mille, Bergman or Scorsese

84 Lectures

Before proceeding, a few words are in order about the dataset used to obtain the information which follows. The Marian Library's information on Marian films was initially stored in a LibraryMaster database and contained about 300 titles drawn mainly from the lists of Chiti,

Esposito and Ayfre, and also from the library's video collection. This information has been merged into the current database which uses Microsoft Access 97. The list of titles has also been increased to over 1, 000 by examining a number of sources. The research in this paper somewhat favors films in the United States, drawing on the Marian Library video collection, the American

Film Institute catalogs of feature films, Kemp Niver's list of early films from the Library of

Congress Paper Print Collection, the general catalogs of Movies Unlimited and Facets Films, and the catalogs of American distributors of Religious films like Oblate Media, Ignatius Press and

Center for the Queen ofPeace. However, hundreds of foreign titles are also included, often because they have been distributed in the United States. A large number of these foreign titles were listed in the aforementioned Marian professional journals. Also, a number of foreign titles have been added to the database after reviewing the catalogs of San Paolo Audiovisivi in Milan,

Voir & Dire in Paris , Film Plus and Hanssler Video in Germany, and with lists from the British

Film Institute and the Pontifical Council for Social Communications. It is worth noting that very few titles exist from Asia, Africa and Eastern Europe. Maintenance of the database is an ongoing project as out-of-print features occasionally are made available and new religious films are still being made. However, updates have been halted as of January 1, 2000 to accommodate this research on the existing data.

85 Of the 1034278 titles currently listed in the Marian Library film database, 108 are classified as Lectures with major Marian content. The complete list of titles for these Marian Lectures along with their year and Director, when known, appears at the end of this section. The list includes a few titles in which Mary is not the principal topic but still receives significant treatment. 279 These lectures are the least complicated of the major groupings.

The Lecture group is characterized by an emphasis on oral rather than visual content. The vast majority of the recorded lectures were taken in medium shot280 using a single camera from a stationary position and exhibit very limited post-production editing. A notable exception is the six-part series on True Devotion to Mary. 281 Though the emphasis remains on the oral presentation, the visual content is relatively diverse and complex. The speaker, Fr. Frederick

Miller, was photographed from a number of angles and distances. Further, various Marian artwork was inter-cut into the presentation as the talk continued. Clearly, considerable editing was done after the initial recording and multiple cameras appear to have been used. 282 Finally, given the weighty theological content, which might challenge one's interest over time, the 20 minute segments seemed appropriate.283 This series illustrates well the range of techniques which

278 Out of this total, 65 were reviewed and found to have no Marian content.

279 E.g. Jesus I trust in You (1950) about the Divine Mercy devotion and The Power ofSt Joseph shown on EWTN in 1997.

280 I.e. showing the speaker's head and upper body without closeup

281 Directed by AI Nicosia for the World Apostolate of Fatima in 1987.

282 Though editing of repeated takes could give the same effect.

283 With a brief introduction, each could also fit nicely into a 'half-hour' broadcast slot, which always runs less than 30 minutes because of advertisements.

86 make a recorded lecture as engaging as possible.

Lectures shown on EWTN's popular Mother Angelica Live telecast are even more sophisticated. The talks are presented within a talk-show format like those used with considerable success on the major commercial networks. However, the quality of the visual product is even more significant for engaging viewers. A casual viewing shows that a minimum of three cameras is used, two of which allow close-ups of different speakers so that a conversation can be constructed from alternating shots, and a third for distance shots of the group. It costs a good deal for this kind of equipment and for the professionals to use it, but the result is a· strikingly pleasant contrast to common lecture fare. A great number of these talks have significant content on the Virgin Mary. In fact, Mother Angelica rarely passes over Our Lady completely in an episode. However, only a limited number of episodes are available for purchase. 284

The Marian Lectures break down into two groups: promotional talks by devotees of various reported apparitions;285 and catecheticallectures. The EWTN lectures include five in the former category and ten in the latter. Among the non-EWTN Lectures there were 44 catechetical lectures. These latter run the gamut from traditional talks like Console your Mother (1989) through progressive treatments like Mary Today (1990), with Behold your Mother (1975), based

284 Of these, the following discuss Mary at length: Garabandal (1998);Mary and the Eucharist (1998); Mary, Mediatrix ofall graces (1997); Mary, Our Sweet Mother (1998), The Message ofFatima (1997); Messages of Garabandal (1994); The Messages of Our Lady in Akita (1994); Our Lady Heals Mother Angelica (1998); Our Lady in Scripture and Tradition (1998); Our Lady's Triumph (1994); The Power of St. Joseph (1997); St. Joseph: Patron ofFamilies (1995); The Trouble I had with Mary (1991 ); Why we need Mary as a Mediatrix (1997); and Woman ofFaith (1987). The Marian Library has a copy of each on videotape.

285 E.g. Medjugorje, Garabandal, Fatima, Akita, Marlboro, New Jersey, and Lourdes for a total of27

87 on the pastoral document from the usee, somewhere in the middle. Of the 44, nine were oriented to children. 286 This technologically simple medium still allowed for some interesting visual effects borrowed from the 'magic lantern' days preceding motion pictures. A certain impression of animation can be created by focusing to a section of an image and moving this narrow view to different sections, or by changing focus to see more or less of the total picture.

These techniques appear in some of the children's catecheticallectures. However, it is still difficult to cater to children's tastes while emphasizing the verbal. The bulk of children's fare comes packaged as animated drama.

The most interesting insight which comes from examining Lectures about Mary arises not from the topical content or visual style, but from the date of production. There is no record of any Marian lecture recorded befo.re 1950. 287 This was followed by five more titles through 1958.

Then, no record of any such work appears from the 1960s. Of course, this is but one class of

Marian media. Still, it correlates with the opinion of a number of scholars which sees the 1950s as a high-water mark in popular interest in Mary and the 1960s as a profound lull.

One should note that of the 44 catecheticallectures, only two, done rather recently, were made by non-Catholic confessions: Mary at the Temple (1993) from the Protestant Ecufilm company; and Mary: Icon ofHuman Perfection (1995) narrated by Fr. Thomas Hopko, an

286 Three of these were done on filmstrip with one more videotaped from a filmstrip presentation: Behold your Mother ( 1975) from Don Bosco Multimedia. Don Bosco also markets a version of this lecture for adults.

287 The first of the Marian Lectures was Rosary, Ave Maria and the Lord's Prayer, a lecture on the Rosary released in 1950.

88 Eastern Orthodox Priest. 281

Thirteen more lectures were recorded from 1972 to 1986. From 1987-1988, during which

Catholics celebrated a 'Marian Year', eight lectures were recorded, more than the entire strongly

Marian decade of the 1950s.

One may speculate on the reasons: an increasingly visual culture; an abatement of the

ecumenically-sensitive Marian reticence which followed Vatican II; the growing popularity of

Medjug01je; the Marian initiatives of John Paul II; a nostalgia movement in popular entertainment which has intensified in recent years, perhaps as a reaction against the anti-traditionalism of the

'60s generation'; etc. In any case, the ten years from 1989-99 saw the release of63 Marian

lectures. The increase can be largely explained by technical advances which allowed production

of video material of relatively high-quality to be made affordably, and marketed efficiently, by those with the desire to do so. And judging from the tone of the talks, those with the desire to do

so seem to have largely been devotees of Mary.

How much of this increased media production was inspired by a growing appreciation of

Mary and how much it inspired that renewed perspective is difficult to gauge. In the case of these

Marian lectures, the audience is certainly a minute fraction of the general population. Also, I

generally lean to the opinion that the mass media initially follows culture in such dialectics. 219

211 Though not strictly catechetical in nature, there are two additional lectures done from an Orthodox Christian perspective in which Mary is discussed at length: The Christmas Icon and Our Lady ofKazan Drawing both narrated by Fr. Alexander Jasiukowicz. Mary was also discussed briefly in other lectures by Fr. Jasiukowicz's on Eastern iconography: Comparative Iconography (1992); and The Form ofIconography (1990).

219 A similar dialectic is discussed in Communio et Progressio # 22: "It is obvious that there has been a decline in moral standards in many areas of life today ... It is easy to find evidence of this decline in all the means of social communication. But how far these

89 However, the number of titles released does provide one criterion for judging popul~ interest in

Mary. This social trend of relatively high interest in Mary during the 1950s, significantly decreased increased in the 1960s, and renewed interest in recent times, will be considered as we study other classes of Marian motion pictures.

In addition to these cultural insights, certain conclusions may be drawn about the course of theological trends. The most obvious observation arising from the data is that, as far as filmed

Lectures go, presentations on the Virgin Mary are limited almost exclusively to Catholics. Many of these titles are created and distributed through Catholic organizations like EWTN, Don Bosco

Multimedia, Franciscan Communications and the World Apostolate of Fatima. The only lecture primarily focused on Mary which has been done from a Protestant perspective is Harry Leake's

Mary at the Temple (1993). This talk emphasizes, though without polemics, the human limitations ofMary's relationship with her Son. Similarly, Gary Uhrin'sMary: Icon ofHuman

Perfection (1995) was the only strictly Marian lecture done from an Eastern Orthodox point of vtew.

For the Orthodox, the problem is not a lack of devotion to the person of Mary, but rather limited activity in the audio-visual industry as a whole. Indeed, given the ornate audio-visual tradition of their liturgical tradition, they may feel less need for such supplements. Protestants have also generally been less active than Catholics is producing and disseminating religious films and videos. However, the scarcity of Marian offerings in this genre certainly reflect the fact that, means must be blamed for the decline is open to question. Many responsible men hold that these means are only a reflection of what already exists in society. Others hold that they increase and spread those tendencies and that, by making them commonplace, lead to their gradual acceptance. And still others would put most of the blame squarely upon the means of social communication. What certainly is true is that the weakness lies in society itself ... "

90 even today, there is less popular interest in Mary among Protestants than among Catholics.

Beyond such general observations, the specific content of these lectures reveals additional detail. As noted earlier, discussions of reported Marian apparitions are the most popular theme for Marian Lectures. The lion's share of these talks are aimed at a broad Catholic audience.

Similarly, the vast majority examine recent apparitions not yet approved, giving messages with a rather apocalyptic tone. It seems likely that much of this effect corresponds to the same millennia! apprehension which spawned the recent Y2K computer concern. If so, we may expect to see a decrease in the number of titles exploring these themes as we move beyond the year 2000.

The subclass of catecheticallectures, by contrast, shows considerable variety. While most of these lectures were geared to adults, several were aimed at a young audience. Also, the style of treatment ranged from very traditional to very progressive with most talks in the broad center.

Console your Mother (1989) and Our Lady ofFatima (1988) each advocate the 'First Saturday

Devotion' rooted in a spirituality of atonement, especially popular in the 1950s. At the other extreme, George Torok's Mary Today (1990) manifests a strongly progressive slant, promoting the importance of women. The talk primarily emphasized the 'Mothers and Brothers' pericopes, with secondary emphasis on Mary's presence at Pentecost, downplaying the Infancy narratives to such a degree that their importance, if not their historicity comes into question.

The Catholic magisterium has balanced these two extremes in the period since Vatican

IJ290 and the video lectures on Mary generally reflect this. In fact, video lectures291 on Mary in the

290 For example, note section 4 in Paul VI's Maria/is Cultus (Boston:Daughters of Saint Paul, 1974): ''We would also remark that the Advent liturgy, by linking the awaiting of the Messiah and the awaiting of the glorious return of Christ with the admirable commemoration of His Mother, presents a happy balance in worship. This balance can be taken as a norm for preventing any tendency (as has happened at times in certain forms of popular piety) to separate

91 teaching of the Council Fathers and in the American Catholic Bishops pastoral letter on her, have been made. While the general thrust of orthodox post-conciliar Catholic piety characterizes most of these lectures, the number of particular topics studied is quite varied. For example, single talks have been recorded on Mary in the Communion of Saints, Mary and the Eucharist, Mary and the

Holy Spirit, and Mary and the Rosary. There are also a few areas which have been treated repeatedly: De Montfort Spirituality (2); the proposed dogma on Mary's Mediation (2); Mary and

Sacred Art (5); Marian pious associations (5);292 and the largest .group, Mary and Ecumenism (6).

From the first Marian lecture released in 1950 through the opening of the Second Vatican

Council, six films were made, three on approved apparitions and three on private devotions. This differs in both breadth and focus from the fare available since. Clearly, the genre of Marian lectures correlates to Vatican IT's general Marian thrust of updating and broadening popular attitudes, and specific aims like an increased ecumenical emphasis and a decreased emphasis on private revelations and devotions.

devotion to the Blessed Virgin from its necessary point of reference - Christ."

291 Robert J. Fox's Vatican II: Marian Council (1987) and Don Bosco Multimedia's Behold your Mother (1975), respectively

292 I.e., Aposto/ate for Family Consecration; Apostolate ofHoly Motherhood; and the Marian Movement ofPriests (2)

92 Catechetical Marian Lectures

Year Title Director

1998 Mary and the Eucharist Chris Sadowski 1998 Mary, Our Sweet Mother Chris Sadowski 1998 Our Lady in Scripture and Tradition Joe Copeland 1997 Mary, Mediatrix of all graces Darren Fordham 1997 The Power of St. Joseph Darren Fordham 1997 Why we need Mary as Mediatrix Darren Fordham 1995 All in one accord with Mary Charles Beaudry 1995 Holy Spirit and Mary John Randall 1995 In Communion with Mary and the Saints Charles Beaudry 1995 Mary: Icon of Human Perfection Gary Uhrin 1995 Rosary for Little Children Jennifer Naimo 1995 St. Joseph: Patron of Families Fred Williams 1994 Mary's Yes to God 1993 Mary at the Temple Harry Leake 1993 Mary, Mother of God 1993 Mary, the Second Eve Family Life Center International 1993 What Catholics believe about Mary and the Saints Gregg Mullen 1991 Mary, Model of Contemporary Discipleship Dennis Diehl 1991 The Rosary and the Eucharist 1991 The Trouble I had with Mary Rick Sutton 1990 The Blessed Mother Charles Beaudry 1990 DaysofMary 1990 Great Things for God 1990 Marian Theology Dwin Towell 1990 Mary Today George Torok 1990 Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary 1990 Mary, Our Friend Greg Stuart 1990 Mary: An Ecumenical Perspective 1990 Mary: Ark of the Covenant 1990 Mary: Holy Mother 1990 Mary: Model of Our Pilgrimage in Eastern Christian Prayer 1990 Our Lady's Prayer 1988 Mary, Mother of God 1988 Mary, Mother of Jesus Kathy Lombardi 1987 Mary and Ecumenism Lori Andrews 1987 True Devotion to Mary AI Nicosia 1987 Vatican II: Marian Council Robert J. Fox 1987 Woman ofFaith

93 Catechetical Marian Lectures (cont.)

Director

1986 Mary 1985 Mary, Our Mother 1980 The Rosary 1978 Godbearer: Mary in the Eyes of the Church 1978 Magnificat: Mary's Words To Us 1978 Our Own Lady 1978 Woman ofFaith: Mary in the Gospels 1977 Days ofMary 1975 Behold Your Mother Don Bosco Multimedia 1974 Mary, Mother ofFaith 1955 MyRosary N.A. Holy Family: Model for the Christian Home Charles Beaudry N.A. A Man Like Us N.A. Mary N.A. Mary and the Rosary for the Young Catholics N.A. Mary ofNazareth Maria Aktuell Osterreich N.A. Mary's Story N.A. A Savior is Born N.A. Walking with Jesus N.A. We Honor Mary, Mother of Jesus N.A. The Woman I love Keep the Faith

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

94 Lectures on Marian Apparitions

Year Title Director

1998 Garabandal Darren Fordham 1998 Our Lady Heals Mother Angelica (Part I) Joe Copeland 1998 Our Lady Heals Mother Angelica (Part II) Darren Fordham 1997 The Message of Fatima Darren Fordham 1997 Secrets and the Afterlife Faith Publishing, Co. 1996 A Closer Look at the Marian Movement of Priests A-Plus Keepsake Video 1996 Dear Children, Time is Short A-Plus Keepsake Video 1996 Our Lady Comes to Marlboro, New Jersey 1995 Mary, Mercy and the Eucharist Charles Beaudry 1994 Messages of Garabandal Tim Brown 1994 The Messages of Our Lady in Akita Fred Williams 1994 Our Lady's Triumph Tim Brown 1993 Love Letter to Mary Chris Wmters 1993 National Conference on Medjugorje 1992 Dear Children, Please help me win my battle against Satan Stephen Valenta 1992 A Talk by Mark Treanor 1990 Clothed with the Sun Jeffrey Mirrus 1990 DaysofMary 1990 Medjugorje: Our Lady's Message of Love 1990 The Message ofMedjugorje 1990 Our Lady Says: Pray the Rosary 1988 Our Lady of Fatima Louis Kaczmarek 1987 Sally Jesse Raphael Show 1958 Wonderful Story ofLourdes 1950 Blue for every Red 1950 Jesus I trust in You 1950 Realization of Fatima N.A. Dear Children Ernest Williams N.A. Holy Family: Model for the Christian Home Charles Beaudry N.A. Our Lady of Czestochowa N.A. Our Lady's Message of Prayer N.A. She Looked at Me Louise Pisani

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

95 Lectures on Other Marian Topics

Year Title Director

1993 The Virgin's Cult: An anthropological perspective 1993 The Missionary Image, Total Consecration and Apostolic Activity 1992 Apostolate of Holy Motherhood Michael J. Deck 1992 River of Light 1990 Mary and the Church in the Mystical Poetry of Saint Ephrem 1990 Mary in Eastern Christian Art 1990 Mary in Music and Hymnography 1990 Mary's Miraculous Medal 1990 Mary: Model of Our Pilgrimage in Eastern Christian Prayer 1990 Medjug01je: Our Lady's Message of Love 1990 Our Lady's Prayer 1989 Apostolate for Family Consecration Jerome F. Coniker 1989 Console your Mother 1986 Christmas Stories Bobby Giles 1982 The Role of Women in the Church Michael Scanlon 1980 The Rosary 1978 Our Own Lady 1977 Days ofMary 1972 Shepherds and Wisemen 1955 My Rosary 1950 Rosary, Ave Maria and the Lord's Prayer N.A. The Christmas Icon A. J. Jasiukowicz N.A. A Cozy Chat with Sister Janja N.A. Da Vinci: Madonna, Child and Saint Anne N.A. Mary and the Rosary for the Young Catholics N.A. Our Lady of Czestochowa N.A. Our Lady of Kazan drawing N.A. A Savior is Born

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

96 Documentaries

Documentaries related to the Virgin Mary are considerably more numerous than lectures.

Our film database lists thirty documentaries in which Our Lady receives significant treatment though she is not the direct subject. These latter usually examine people293 or places294 noted for a

special Marian connection.

However, there are 295 documentaries in which the Marian aspect is the primary object of

concern. 29s As noted earlier, Marian documentaries naturally divide into two camps, those done

from the perspective of Christian devotional piety, and those with a more academic and secular tone. The latter group lists 71 titles, all related to Mary in Art with nine notable exceptions: the

objective biographies of the historical Mary shown on the Arts and Entertainmenf% and

Lifetime297 cable networks~ a balanced treatment of the wide variety of attitudes to Mary in

Christian culture shown on the BBC~ 298 an examination of Mary in American Culture shown on

PBS~299 and a series of five short documentaries on Mary in culture shown on Europe's ARTE

293 E.g. Campus' Maximilian Kolbe (1984), Lord's St. John Bosco (1991) or Chattington's A Most Unusual Man (1994) [about Fr. Patrick Peyton].

294 E.g. Lord's Catholic and Ancient Rome (1992) or Sackett's Catholic Maryland (1998)

29s A complete list of these titles, along with Director and Year ofRelease when known follows this section. It is subdivided between documentaries on Art, Apparitions, and others.

296 Mary ofNazareth (1995) from the Biography series

297 The Virgin Mary (1995) from the Intimate Portraits series

298 Ave Maria (1994), directed by Belinda Giles. A noteworthy fact about this film is that it contains fragments from a French silent Life of Christ which appear to be from the Zecca film praised by the Vatican and thought to be unavailable on video!

299 Devotion to Mary (1999) first aired January 1, 1999 on PBS' ''Religion and Ethics" series.

97 network. 300

The other 62 titles focus on representations of Mary in Christian art. 301 Of these, Mary: A

Word, A Prayern and Madonna and Chikf03 from the four part Development of Christian

Symbolism series offer good overviews ofthe topic. The latter covers the 411t through the I~ centuries, while the former examines Marian art from the earliest catacomb drawings into the 201h century. However, the majority of these films focus on a particular theme, an artist,304 an artistic theme, 305 or a particular work. 306

The earliest of these informational documentaries on Marian art appears to be J.

Gremillon's Chartres from 1924, the lone film in this class for that decade. The rnost recentl07 is

300 Laforce des visions (1996) by Ana Cristina Fernandez; Senhora aparecida (1994) by Pedro Coreo Martins; L 'Ave Maria d'Aaron Neville (1992) by MeinholfFritzen; Lady Madonna (1990) by Meinhold Fritzen; and Marie Modeme (1997).

301 Virtually all of these have a traditional tone, if for no other reason than the age of the artwork. However, one notable exception is a documentary of the controversial ''Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary'' exhibit at the Woman Made Gallery in Chicago, lllinois in early 1996. The exhibit, which links images ofMary with the theme of the oppression of women and the abortion issue, was condemned by the Catholic League for Religious and Civil Rights. The Marian Library has a copy of this video.

302 Directed by Alberto Castellani in 1990.

303 Directed by Preston Jones in 1992. This film received an award from the Catholic Audio Visual Educators (CAVE) association.

304 There are films on Caravaggio, Rafael, Pietro Vannucci, Da Vmci, Diirer and others.

305 E.g. Ehrhardt's A Life ofMary (1949), Strugnell's The Rosary in Art (1969), Thomas' Gothic Cathedrals (1995), and Rosa's The Nativity in Portuguese Art (1955).

306 E.g. Betti's The Deposition ofRafael (1948), Vigneau's The Cathedral of Chartres (1953) and Paulos' A Seeing Heart (1993) [about his ''Madonna of the Slaughtered Jews"]

307 Though, of course, such films are still being made

98 1999's Crowning Glory, a fine video examining Mary in Portuguese art produced by the

Daughters of Saint Paul. From two in the 1930s, the number of productions jumped to a peak of

22 in the 40s, with 20 more in the 1950s. From here, there is only a single film, The Rosary in Art

(1969) from the Catholic Art Education association, on the topic ofMary and Art until the 1987

Marian Year! 308

This precipitous clip is even more noteworthy for two reasons. The first is the relative abundance of these documentaries through 1955. The second is that the documentary style had become quite popular at the very time it abandons treatments of Marian art. The French 'New

Wave' even promoted documentary-like techniques as a replacement for traditional styles in

'dramas'. Further, technical advances had created small, light, portable cameras which allowed greatly enhanced flexibility in the making of documentaries. Still, as we saw with lectures, there was a major drop-off in the number ofMarian productions after the 1950s until the 1980s. The opinion of scholars who see this period as a major dip in popular interest in Mary receives corroborative evidence again.

As with lectures, technical advances allowing greater access to the means of producing motion pictures is certainly a significant factor in the increasing production numbers from 1988 to the present. However, it may well also signal an increase in public interest in the Marian figure, perhaps for the reasons mentioned while considering lectures. We will continue to watch this trend of 50s abundance, 60s abatement and recent renewal as we move on to consider other classes.

The lion's share of Marian documentaries, 224 titles, derive from a somewhat traditional

308 Mary ofNazareth was released by Lucien Deiss in 1988.

99 tone of Catholic devotional piety. A large number of these deal with established sites ofMarian veneration, often originating in reported apparitions or miracles associated with a Marian image and supported by regular pilgrimages to the present. Of course, the cult around the shrine at the

site of the Church-recognized apparitions at Lourdes in 1858 is more enduringly established than that for the site of apparitions in Medjug01je first reported in 1981. However, the latter has

drawn large numbers of pilgrims and become something of an established devotion in the two

decades since the first reports, even without formal approval by the Catholic Church. The same

may be said of Garabandal in Spain, Conyers, Georgia and a number of similar locations which have reported Marian apparitions relatively recently, though they have not drawn similar numbers

of pilgrims.

To be specific, of the documentaries related to reported apparitions, there are 30

documentaries on the shrine at Lourdes and its history, 21 on Fatima, 11 on Guadalupe, 3 on

Garabandal, 4 on Conyers and 33 on Medjugorje, as well as a handful of treatments on sites like

Knock, Pontmain, and Akita. 309 The fact that more titles are listed about the unapproved reports

in Conyers than about the Church-approved sites in Pontmain and Akita reflects the fact that my

dataset is somewhat slanted in favor of American releases and indicates that some of Europe's

Marian shrines are less well known in the States than Conyers. Besides Guadalupe, there are

documentaries related to miraculous Marian images in Pompei (Italy), Montevergine (Italy),

Montserrat (France), Oropa (Italy), and Czestochowa (Poland). In this large group, Fatima: The

309 For example, Bob and Penny Lord produced the following, all offered from Journeys of Faith, in English or Spanish: Our Lady of Ocotlan, Our Lady ofBeauraing, Our Lady of Banneux, Our Lady ofA/totting, Our Lady ofPilar [sic- in Zaragoza, Spain]. Many of these have been televised on the EWTN Catholic cable network.

100 Miracle of the Sun (1983), independently produced by Jean Whalen, stands out by its high quality and its substantial exposure in several countries. 310 Using the stormy course of world events in the 20th century as a powerful dramatic back-drop, and benefitting from an engaging narration by

Ricardo Montalban, this film has been broadcast on television around the world.

There are also many documentaries on Marian sites which do not rely on reported apparitions to attract visitors: cathedrals like Chartres and Notre Dame de Paris in France or the

Basilica of the Immaculate Conception in the United States; regional shrines like Our Lady of the

Snows in Belleville, Dlinois or the Black Madonna shrine in Eureka, Missouri; and even a documentary on The Marian Library/International Marian Research Institute. 311

Besides, these documentaries which witness to ongoing Marian devotion, there are also many which record special events in the history of this phenomenon. Gaumont filmed the

Proclamation of the Dogma of the Assumption in 1950. Pilgrim to Lourdes (1983) recorded the visit of John Paul IT to the famous shrine, as did ABC TV when he visited the shrine of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico in 1987. Most impressive, technically, was the recorded telecast of

Pope John Paul IT leading a 'Global Rosary' in 1987. The satellite broadcast included live footage from several Marian shrines and major cities around the world.m Though there is nothing

31°Cf Jean Whalen, ''The Making of a Film on Fatima - ·The Miracle," Queen ofAll Hearts (July-August 1994), pp. 14-17.

311 All Generations Will Call Her Blessed (1997) directed by Michael Kurtz. This video received a special award at the 14th International Catholic Film Festival held in May, 1999 in Niepokalanow, the Franciscan Friars' Monastery near Warsaw, Poland. It replaced the documentary The Marian Library made on Beta cassette in 1984.

312 Specifically, Fatima, Knock, Quebec, London, Lourdes, Bombay, Guadalupe, Houston, Zaragoza, New York, Caacupe, Rome, Mariazell, Dakar, Lujan, Frankfurt, Manila, San Antonio, Czestochowa, Washington, DC and Rio de Janeiro.

101 extraordinary in the visual content, the technical logistics and vast cultural scope make this a noteworthy spectacle for the student of the mass media.

For visually impressive content, one could look, rather, to Roger Lundy's To Him She

Leads (1979), a documentary on the Basilica of the Immaculate .Conception in Washington, D.C.

In addition to the full range of stationary camera shots and good post-production editing, the video uses a variety of angles and distance shots strikingly shot from helicopter. The value of

Helen Hayes' charismatic narration also adds much to the overall effect.

A look at the historical trends is also informative. Unlike the academic documentaries and lectures examined earlier, the Marian documentaries with a devotional tone date from the very origins of cinema and show a more uniform distribution through time. In 1899, E. Thevenon filmed People leaving the Church of the Rosary in Lourdes. In 1906, Alice Guy Blache, famed as the world's first female director, shot The Monastery ofMontserrat for Gaumont. The leadership ofFrench directors in this genre reflects their overall leadership in world cinema at that time.

However, it was an Italian, Capellani, who directed Notre Dame ofParis in 1911. The number of

Marian documentaries rose to 5 in the 1920s, then 7 in the 30s, then leaped to 15 in the 40s. The

1950s again marked a numerical crest with 30 films on a whole variety ofMarian topics. For example, in relation to Apparitions and/or shrines, documentaries explored Fatima (4), Lourdes

(6), and La Salette (1). Again, numbers in the 1960s dropped sharply from the previous decade, down to 7. However~ traditional topics like Fatima (2) and Lourdes (1) still received treatment.

Also, Canada produced tw

313Louis Roger Lafleur's Our Lady of the Cape (1960) and Shrines of Quebec (1960) from the Office Provincial de Publicite Cine-Photo, Quebec.

102 filmed before. Further, a particularly fine French documentary was done by Jacques Lelefin

1965, Marie, .fille de Nazareth. This well-respected film was shot in the Holy Land and showed indigenous women living out circumstances much as Mary herself might have done long ago. 314

Moving on, we see that five titles were added in the 1970s, including the first of the many documentaries by Bob and Penny Lord: Our Lady ofPontmain (1976); and Our Lady ofKnock

(1976). The numbers jump to 35 in the 1980s, largely due to 16 titles related to the reported apparitions in Medjugorje, Croatia. 315 The earliest of these was Stanley Karminski' sA Message ofPeace (1984), but the most well-known, and, probably the best, is John Bird's The Madonna of

Medjugorje (1987). Bird's film was produced for the BBC and his professional skill is apparent.

He has since made religious programming a personal priority and produced a number of significant works. 316

In the 1990s, the number ofMarian documentaries skyrockets to 92, including 15 titles from Bob and Penny Lord. The number of documentaries related to Medjugorje dropped to

314 Fr. Rene Laurentin, the famous Mariologist, wrote a glowing review of the film which was published November 26, 1965 in Figaro: "Un Film sur Ia Vierge en premiere mondiale a Rome". Regrettably, this fine work never achieved mass popularity and is extremely difficult to find today.

315 Most of them available through the Center for the Queen of Peace in Sugar Land, Texas.

316 E.g. River ofLight (1992), a four part documentary on the history of the Church in Mexico in which the significance ofMary is emphasized, Vision ofFreedom (1991) on reported apparitions in the Ukraine and Our Lady of Guadalupe (1993). The Marian Library has a videotape of a lecture given by John Bird in 1992 also entitled River ofLight . In it, he not only discusses this historical documentary (showing some clips), but also states the religious attitude motivating his work. It is rather strident in tone and shows urgent concern for the moral state of contemporary culture. He also admits confidence in the role of Mary in correcting these problems. These facts should be known by students of his work.

103 ten,317 indicating that the apparent Marian revival noted earlier is broader than devotees of the

Medjug01je phenomenon.318 The 90s brought us another 32 films related to Marian apparitions.

The list is extremely broad: Lourdes, San Nicolas in Argentina, Hrushin in the Ukraine, Fatima,

Knock, Rue de Bac, Beauraing and Banneux (both in Belgium), La Salette, Ocotlan, Zaragoza,

Conyers, Akita, Altotting, Garabandal, Betania, Naju in Korea, etc. This breadth suggests the development of a catholic taste for Marian apparitions beyond a fixation on any particular one.

There are also a number of Marian documentaries unrelated to the miracle/apparition phenomenon. They examine sites of local interest,319 Marian movements,320 and even topics less directly connected to Mary. 321 There are enough titles on enough different topics to suggest that the renewed Marian interest fueling their production is not limited to apparition supporters,

Medjugorje or otherwise.

Nor does it appear that the availability of affordable equipment was the primary cause, as

317 Done to commemorate the tenth anniversary of the first reported apparitions, 1991's Tell the World not to Wait from Eldon Productions is the most professionally done of the lot. Filmed shortly before the outbreak of hostilities, the bulk of its footage was shot on location and includes live interviews with several of the principal players.

318 Perhaps, though, Medjugorje initiates have developed an appreciation for Marian apparitions in general.

319 E.g. the Miraculous Medal Shrine in Perrysville, Missouri, the Ave Maria Grotto in Cullman, Alabama, the giant statue of Our Lady of the Rockies in Butte, Montana, the large statue of the Immaculate Heart ofMary in Sioux City, Iowa [with an accompanying shrine and retreat center], the Marian Library in Dayton, etc.

320 E.g. Sparrows and Lilies (1990) on the Schoenstatt movement founded by Fr. Joseph Kentenich.

321 E.g. Grandparents ofJesus (1990) by Bob and Penny Lord; Joseph: The Man Closest to Jesus (1997) by David Eisenbise; The Vision ofPatrick Peyton, CSC (1997) by Joseph D. Fenton, etc.

104 there was no quantum leap in recording technology after the 1980s. The increase in the number of devotionally-oriented Marian documentaries seems to witness to an increased demand fed by an increased public interest, a fact which seems to have been recognized by the major televison networks in the United States which have been airing more religiously-themed programming of late, and plan to continue doing so for the near future. Regarding Marian documentaries in particular, note that the national PBS program ''Religion and Ethics" aired a feature on "Devotion to Mary'' in 1999. 322

At this point, it should be noted that the vast majority of these documentaries were made in the United States. Given America's dominance of the cinema industry since the First World

War, the same could be said of motion pictures in most any genre. However, there are similar, signs of an increase in popular interest in Mary in Europe as well, in the form of several recent television broadcasts.

In the 1990s, the ARTE network broadcast five documentaries related to Mary:323 La force des visions (1996) by Ana Cristina Fernandez on the apparition/pilgrimage sites in Fatima,

Lourdes and El Escorial, Madrid; Senhora aparecida (1994) by Pedro Coreo Martins about a popular devotion to Mary in Portugal; L J4ve Maria di4aron Neville324 (1992) by Meinholf

322 1n this feature, originally aired January 1, 1999, Fr. Thomas Thompson and Fr. Johann Roten of the Jntemational Marian Research Institute offer expert commentary on Mary. Artwork from the Marian Library is also shown.

323 I am indebted to Na~ia Korbon, a doctoral candidate in Cinematographic Studies at the Sorbonne, for this information. Her thesis topic is 'Life of Christ' films.

324 This film makes a powerful artistic statement pitting the Marian symbol against the violence and oppression Neville has experienced. A black artist, he talks especially of racial prejudice. Shots of a hodegetria with black figures, as well as statues of the Addolorata, place Mary clearly on the side of the oppressed!

105 Fritzen about Mary in Neville's songs~ Lady Madonna (1990) by Meinhold Fritzen about Mary in the famous song by the Beatles~32s and Marie Modeme (1997) by Jiirgen Hille about Mary in contemporary Art and Photography. Daniel Facerias, also directed a French documentary on the

Lourdes Shrine in the same time frame. There are fewer examples, 326 but the trend to greater interest in religious and Marian programming seems similar to that in the United States.

32s And also in their song, ''Let it Be"

326 Anticipating our review of dramas, the series of Bible films produced for Italian television by Lux Vide, including the television movies Jesus and Maria, figlia del suo figlio, which aired in December 1999, seem to agree with the pro-religion trend of the American mass media.

106 Documentaries on Mary and Art

Year Title Director

1999 Crowning Glory Daughters of St. Paul 1998 The First Christmas Crib Greg Friedman 1997 Modem Mary Jiirgen Hille 1996 Mary, Mary, Quite Contrary 1996 The Virgin Mary in Art: Renaissance to Reformation Preston Jones 1996 Vrrgin Mary, Changing Symbolism Preston Jones 1995 Gothic Cathedrals Andy Thomas 1995 Heaven or Hell: Last Judgement Preston Jones 1995 Mary of Nazareth 1994 Crucifixion and Resurrection 1994 Our Lady of the Apparition Pedro C. Martins 1993 A Seeing Heart Dan Paulos 1993 Images of God, Mary and the Saints Jean Unsworth 1992 The Hail Mary of Aaron Neville MeinholfFritzen 1992 Madonna and Child Preston Jones 1990 Lady Madonna Meinholf Fritzen 1990 Mary: A Word, A Prayer Alberto Castellani 1990 The Mystery ofElche Mayra Vilaseca 1990 Saints Gallery 1989 Mary: Woman ofFaith Dorothy Woodward 1988 Mary of Nazareth Lucien Deiss 1969 The Rosary in Art Catholic Art Educ. 1955 The Nativity in Portugeuse Art Battista Rosa 1955 Queen of Heaven Hoesaerts & Arcady 1955 Rosary in Art Joseph Strugnell 1954 Ave Maria Pierre Jacquin 1954 Lady of Paradise M. Paolo Salviucci 1953 The Cathedral of Chartres A. Vigneau 1953 In Search of Mary Marcel Gibaud 1953 The Trial of Christ Jean Conelle 1952 The Cathedral ofRouen Andre Roy 1951 Early images of Christ Luigi Chiarissi 1951 Life of Christ MarcelGibaud 1951 Mystery of the West Alfred H. Jacob 1951 The Work ofMaster Stwosza S. Lozdzenski

107 Documentaries on Mary and Art (cont.)

Year Title Director

1951 Our Lady of La Salette M. Gueugnon 1950 Crucifixion Jean H. Lenauer 1950 The Life of Mary Gian M. Cominetti 1950 The Nativity G. Fill 1950 Our Lady of Luxemburg Florent Antony 1950 The Procession of the Magi Kings Giampero Pucci 1950 Rafael's Madonna F. Stella d'oro 1949 Handmaid of the Lord Vincenzo Chiarissi 1949 ll Perugino's 'Madonnas who saw' Adelche Bianchi 1949 A Life of Mary Alfred Ehrhardt 1949 The Madonna of Gibilmanna Ugo Saitta 1949 The Night of the Miracle Masingo Angioletti 1948 The Cathedral J. Beranger 1948 The Creche Alfredo Pacini 1948 The Deposition of Rafael Giuliano Betti 1948 The Drama of Christ Luciano Emmer 1948 Eternal Inspiration Giampero Pucci 1948 The Mother of God Alfred Ehrhardt 1948 To the Honor of God Alfred Ehrhardt 1947 Ave Maria Fernando Cerchio 1947 Fourviere P. Maudru 1947 Holy Night MarioBava 1947 The Way of Calvary Giorgio Rivalta 1943 The Creche Malerio Mariani 1936 Cathedrals Lucette Gaudard 1932 The Madonna of Caravaggio Gian d'Isernia 1924 Chartres J. Gremillon N.A. Light and Shadow N.A. Madonna Through Paper Cutting Dan Paulos N.A. Medjugorje: The Lasting Sign

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

108 Documentaries on Marian Apparitions

Year Title Director

1999 Our Lady of Guadalupe and Miraculous Mexico Dan Lynch 1997 Annageddon: Prophecies of our Time and the End of Time 1997 Bernadette: Introducing the Saint of Lourdes & Nevers, France Dan Paulos 1997 Make My Messages Known MiltonBazo 1997 Prophecy and the New Times Ted Flynn 1996 Inside Edition 1996 A Long Journey to Guadalupe 1996 Miracles ofHealing Christopher Lewis 1996 Miracles of Time and Faith Christopher Lewis 1996 The Strength of Visions Ana C. Fernandez 1995 Mary draws us to the Eucharist SangM. Lee 1995 San Sebastian of Garabandal: The Eyewitnesses Michael Tubberty 1995 The Source 1994 Medjugmje Croatia: Open Your Heart to God 1994 The Message of Garabandal Maryanne Hamill 1994 Miracle at Conyers 1994 The Queen of Mexico Christine Arata 1994 The Story of Knock Miriam Judge 1994 Why do you test me? 1993 Betania: Land of Grace Drew J. Mariani 1993 Garabandal: The Eyewitnesses Maria Saraco 1993 Medjugmje Under Siege David Manuel 1993 Medjugmje: Caught in the Middle 1993 Mother of Great Love, Mother of Great Sorrow 1993 Our Lady of Akita Japan Craig Driscoll 1993 Our Lady of Altotting Bob and Penny Lord 1993 Our Lady of Czestochowa Bob and Penny Lord 1993 Our Lady of Guadalupe John Bird 1993 The Queen Alfonso Alvarez 1992 Am I not here who am your Mother? Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady ofBanneux Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady ofBeauraing Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady of Fatima Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady of La Salette Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady of Lourdes Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady of Lourdes Shrine 1992 Our Lady of Ocotlan Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady of Pilar Bob and Penny Lord

109 Documentaries on Marian Apparitions (cont.)

Year Title Director

1992 Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal Bob and Penny Lord 1992 Our Lady's Call to Conversion 1991 Apparitions of the Mother of God in Argentina 1991 Lourdes: Pilgrimage and Healing 1991 Marian Apparitions of the 20th Century 1991 Portugal 1991 Triumph of Mary's Immaculate Heart 1991 Tell the world not to wait 1991 True Way Carmelo Rivera 1991 A Vision of Freedom John Bird 1991 Woman clothed with the sun June Keithley Castro 1990 The Little Shepherds and their Mission 1990 Medjugorje Yugoslavia: The Year ofthe Youth 1990 Medjugorje: Our Lady's Messages of Conversion 1989 A Call to Holiness Drew J. Mariani 1989 Kibeho: Apparitions of the Blessed Virgin 1989 Medjugorje: Hope for the World Joseph Roalef 1989 Medjugorje: The Miracles and the Message J. Paddy Nolan 1989 Medjugorje: Visionaries Answer Questions A-Plus Keepsake Video, Inc. 1988 I am the Queen of Peace DeaBoic 1988 Land of Our Lady 1988 Love's Call to Freedom Hans Schotte 1988 Medjugorje: A Meditation June Keithley Castro 1988 Medjugorje, the signpost 1988 Medjugorje: Transforming Your Heart Drew J. Mariani 1988 Miracles of Lourdes, Fatima, Guadalupe and Knock MichaelA. DeMark 1988 The Miraculous Medal 1988 Our Lady of Soufanieh Antoine Mansour 1987 The Madonna ofMedjugorje John Bird 1987 Miracles in Medjugorje McCall and Bailey 1985 Fatima: The Miracle of the Sun Jean Whalen 1984 Medjugorje: A Message of Peace 1984 Medjugorje: A Message of Peace StanleyJ. Karmisnki 1984 Queen of Peace Hans Schotte 1984 Yugoslavia: Visions of the Vtrgin Mary UPITN 1981 Cloak of Juan Diego Mel London 1981 A Hill of Redemption John Bird 1980 Fatima, our hope

llO Documentaries on Marian Apparitions (cont.)

Year Title Director

1980 Lourdes: Journey of Faith 1977 Our Lady of Knock Bob and Penny Lord 1976 Our Lady ofPontmain Bob and Penny Lord 1971 The Events at Garbandal Richard Everson 1967 Fatima: Hope of the world E. Piccon 1966 Lourdes Christian Gion 1960 Peace Plan From Heaven Paul Lawrence 1958 Chosen Village 1958 Lourdes Ken Russell 1958 Lourdes Shrine Robert Southard 1955 Lourdes and its Miracles Georges Rouquier 1952 The Miracle of the Black Madonna Oreste Natoli 1952 Our Lady of Oropa Romeo Spezzali 1951 Le Puy-en-Velay M. Gueugnon 1951 Lourdes Paul Guegnon 1951 Our Lady of La Salette M. Gueugnon 1951 Lourdes, city ofLight Chan. Mazioux 1950 Fatima Triumphs 1950 Report from Fatima 1950 Three Conditions 1949 The Pilgrim Lady 1949 Pilgrimage to Fatima Andrew Buchanan 1948 Fatima 1947 Our Lady of Fatima 1943 Fatima, land ofFaith Jorge Brum do Canto 1940 The Queen ofMexico Fernando Mendez 1934 The Drama of Lourdes Julian Duvivier 1934 Lourdes Jean Loubugnas 1933 The Wonderful Tragedy ofLourdes Henri Fabert 1932 Lourdes 1926 The Miracle of Our tady of Pompei Enrico Guazzoni 1924 Montevergine Domenico Buono 1922 The Miracle of Our Lady of Pompei Nicola Nitari 1920 Vow to the Vrrgin ofMontevergine N.A. Bridge to Heaven Michael H. Brown N.A. Fatima: Hope for all humanity N.A. A Journey toward Jesus N.A. Lourdes Jeanne Solomon Langley

Ill Documentaries on Marian Apparitions (cont.)

Director

N.A. Medjug01je Messages: Closer walk with Jesus N.A. Medjugorje: A Pilgrim's Perspective N.A. Mirjana: Visionary ofMedjugorje N.A. Wake up America

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

112 Other Marian Documentaries

Year Title Director

1999 Block Rosary Special Event John Maffei 1999 Devotion to Mary 1999 Walk in the Footsteps of Jesus Towards the Great Jubilee Year Dan Lynch 1998 The Key to the Triumph Ted Flynn 1998 Mary's House - All are invited Robert Larson 1998 Rediscovering the Rosary: A Contemplative Prayer Steven C. Warner 1997 All Generations Will Call Her Bless~d Michael Kurtz 1997 Jesus living in Mary Richard Payne 1997 Joseph: The Man closest to Christ David Eisenbise 1997 Oceans ofMercy. Three Lives, One Vision, No Limits 1997 The Vision ofPatrick Peyton, CSC Joseph D. Fenton 1996 Cathedral David Macauley 1996 The Vrrgin Mary Jane Crawford 1995 Holy Hill SteveKolb 1995 Holy Rosary with Pope John Paul IT 1995 Lithuania, Land ofMartyrs Bob and Penny Lord 1995 The Vrrgin Mary 1995 Where Jesus Walked Rolf Forsberg 1994 Ave Maria Belinda Giles 1994 Black Madonna Shrines and Grottos David Berliner 1994 Journey of Love 1994 Padre Pio's Way of the Cross J. Paddy Nolan 1994 Solemn Mass of Dedication of Our Lady of Hope Chapel Leigh Sutherland 1993 The Making ofthe Statue ofthe lminaculate Heart of Mary Phil Bangs 1992 Jesus and the Fisherman Deben Bhattacharya 1992 Mary, Mother of our Century 1992 Our Lady of Prayer Michel Guerin 1992 Our Lady of the Rosary Bob and Penny Lord 1992 A Place to Call Home George Torok 1992 River of Light John Bird 1992 The Story of Our Mother of Perpetual Help Chuck Neff 1991 Ave Maria Grotto David Graziplene 1991 Christmas at the Miraculous Medal Shrine 1991 Green Scapular Story 1990 Grandparents of Jesus Bob and Penny Lord 1990 Little Miracles Steve Allen 1990 Mary, Vrrgin of Liberty Comunidad de Jenisalen 1990 Portrait of Our Lady

113 Other Marian Documentaries (cont.)

Year Title Director

1990 Sorrowful Mother Shrine 1990 Sparrows and Lilies Roman Fink 1990 Way of the Cross at Lourdes Bob and Penny Lord 1990 Within her Immaculate Heart William J. Bozarth 1989 A Hymn in Stone Michael Warsaw 1989 The Madonna 1989 Vespers of the Blessed Virgin John Eliot Gardiner 1988 The Service of Supplication 1986 Lost Years of Jesus Richard Bock 1985 The Promise Takes Root John Meredyth Lucas 1984 The Marian Library 1983 Pope John Paul II: Pilgrim to Lourdes 1980 Shrines of Our Lady Paul Harris 1979 To Him she leads Roger Lundy 1978 The Frames ofNaples Gabriele Palmieri 1965 Mary, daughter ofNazareth Jacques Lefef 1960 Gracious France 1960 Our Lady of the Cape Louis Roger Lafleur 1960 Shrines of Quebec 1956 Holy Land Rinaldo dal Fabbro 1955 The Cathedrals ofFrance EdLogerau 1955 Rites and the Sun Enzo Trapani 1954 Ave Maria Montenara Emilio Allegri 1953 Christ Margarita Alexandre 1953 Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris Georges Franju 1952 Ephesus J. de Riquier 1952 Life of Mary Manuel Hernadez Sanjuan 1951 Annunciation RogerLivet 1950 Florentine Madonna Franco Mantovani 1950 Gate ofHeaven Wolfgang Liebeneiner 1950 Journey to Europe 1950 Our Dear Lady Anton Kutter 1950 Our Lady of Perpetual Help 1950 Proclamation of the Dogma of the Assumption Pio Gaumont 1950 The Salvation of Rome Piero Regnoli 1950 Through the Pyrenees to Lourdes Screen Traveler

114 Other Marian Documentaries (cont.)

Year Title Director

1949 Flight from Nazareth to Loreto Arnaldo Genoino 1949 The Gospel of the stone Sec han 1949 Holy Mary of Healing Ugo de Rossi 1949 The Living Creche Carlo Alberto Chiesa 1949 Miracle in Stone Rene Hervouin 1949 The Miracle of Loretto Arnaldo Genoino 194~ Our Lady on the Street Comer Salviucci & Genoino 1948 Our Lady and her People Paul Vermeiren 1947 Rosary Sunday and the Cardinal's Welcome 1946 The Virgin, Captain of our history Jeronimo Mihura 1939 The Tears of the Spinster G. Pozzo Bellini 1936 Ave Maria de Schubert MaxOphuls 1936 Hail Holy Queen Plater Zybeck 1925 The Man Nobody Knows Errett LeRoy Kenepp 1911 Notre Dame of Paris Capellani 1906 The Monastery of Montserrat Alice Guy Blache 1903 National Pilgrimage to Lourdes Alice Guy Blache 1900 DUrer's Life of Mary 1900 The France of Our Lady 1899 People leaving the Church of the Rosary in Lourdes E. Thevenon 1899 St. Dominic N.A. Let the little children come N.A. Matter of Faith N.A. Message in the Stained-Glass Windows of Chartres N.A. Message of the Chartres Cathedral N.A. Notre Dame du Sacre-Coeur N.A Our Lady of the Rockies N.A. Our Lady of the Snows N.A Stone Lady N.A The Virgin in Flanders

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

115 Dramas

The largest and most complex portion of my study is the figure of Mary in cinematic dramas. This chapter will concern itself with the general content of these films. However, a number of theological issues are explored in these dramas. While the following section will touch on these in passing, a systematic consideration of these matters will be done in the next chapter.

As noted earlier, these films can be divided between those which present the person of

Mary as a 'historical' figure and those which simply allude to her with some sort of symbol. We begin by exploring the former group, which itself can be further divided into films which attempt to present the Mary of history, and those which show the Mary of glory acting within salvation history.

There are 72 titles which may be described as 'Life of Christ' or 'Life of Mary' films. In the former, Mary appears as a supporting character, sometimes a quite minor one. There are 63 such films, spanning the earliest years of cinema to the present. The latter group, in which Mary appears as the principal figure, includes only 9 titles. 327 The subsequent section will examine all the titles in this latter category. However, the descriptions of the films which I have seen personally will be more exhaustive than the comments on the remaining titles.

327 Mater Dei (1950) by Dom Emilio Cordero; The Nativity (1978) by Bernard L. Kowalski; Mary and Joseph: A Story ofFaith (1979) by Eric Till; Miriam ofNazareth (1987) by Vincenzo Labella; Maria (1992) by Rosa Perahim and Jose Castan; Per amore, solo per amore (1993) by Giovanni Veronesi;Marie de Nazareth (1993) by Jean Delannoy;Mary, Mother of Jesus (1999) by Kevin Conner; and Maria, figlia del suo figlio (1999) by Goffredo Lombardo.

116 'Life of Mary' fdms

The first of these 'Life of Mary' films is the 1950 Italian drama, Mater Dei, with Myriam de Maj as the Virgin. This color film reenacts many episodes from Mary's life as recorded in the

Gospels and certain apocryphal accounts. 328 Again, this may be interpreted as sign of a peak in

Marian devotion in the 1950s. It is reasonable to assume that an increase in the number of films on a topic somewhat corresponds to increased public interest in that topic. Of course, the fact that the film was made in Italy, emphasizes the fact that this increase affected mostly the Catholic population.

No 'Life of Mary' films were then made until the late 70s, similar to the paucity in Marian

Lectures and Documentaries in the same period. Kowalski's The Nativity (1978) presents an imaginative reconstruction of events from Mary's youth through the birth of Jesus. Madeline

Stowe played Mary, with John Shea as Joseph. The film opens with scenes of Mary and Joseph casually courting. After her parents arrange the marriage, Zechariah blesses their betrothal. All join in festive dancing as the affection between the couple is quite apparent. The Marian

Annunciation is unique and creative, possibly alluding to the myth of Rhea Silvia's virginal conception even as it portrays Christian Scripture. Walking by a stream, wind blows and Mary converses with an unseen presence, suggested by sunlight on the waves. She kneels in awe, then collapses into sleep, reciting her fiat. Joseph finds her, and she flees into the stream after awaking. Joseph follows her and she tries to explain the miracle. He doesn't believe her and leaves. A unique and edifying section of the film then follows as Mary's parents and Joseph consider the good character which she has shown in the past as they ponder the truthfulness of her

328 Cf Ayfre, p. 803.

117 incredible claim. God's revelation to Joseph is effectively and artfully portrayed, coming to him interiorly as he stands in sunshine on top of a hill. This dramatically engaging film is one of my personal favorites, blending an awareness of the sacred with a pervasive tone of plausible realism.

For example, angelic manifestations ar~ never shown directly, but manifest themselves in the actions of their witnesses. Jesus' birth is not shown, which both respects the dignity of a very personal event, and leaves open the question of how the labor pains associated with the Fall in the

Bible, played themselves out in the birth of the Savior. Among the film's innovative features, the portrayal of warm human affection between Mary and Joseph is a rare pleasure. The notion of a prenuptial 'vow of virginity' between Mary and Joseph, once a common teaching in Catholic catechetics, was not considered in Kowalski's film. Prior to God's direct vocation calls, Mary and Joseph expect, like most engaged couples, to have children in the normal fashion.

The 1979 television movie, Mary and Joseph: A Story ofFaith, with Blanche Baker as

Mary and Jeff East as Joseph can not be given similar praise:

Leonard' Maltin's TV Movies and Video Guide rated Mary and Joseph 'Below Average' with the thumbnail review: Pedestrian what-might-have-been depiction ofBiblical events focusing on Christ's parents as a struggling young couple and the early days of their marriage. The leads play it as a pair of American youngsters plunked down in Biblical Nazareth. 329

This lame 'inculturation' fails in adding a realistic tone to the story. In it, fabricated events tied to Roman oppression dominate the Gospel accounts. However, the Angelic

329 Malone, 1992, p. 27

118 Announcements330 to Mary and Joseph, the Visitation,331 Jesus' Birth in Bethlehem, and the concluding visit of the Shepherds are all shown. As in Kowalski's film, the possibility of a 'vow of virginity' is ignored; and Mary explained her amazing situation directly to an unbelieving

Joseph. Mary's labor pains are shown explicitly, though briefly. _

Marie was filmed from a play by Daniel Facerias originally performed at Lourdes.

Starring Barbara d 'Alcantara, the video is only available in SEC AM format with the original

French dialog. It opens with Anna's miraculous conception, mentioning the apocryphal detail of the previous barrenness of Mary's parents, then shows the Presentation of Mary, the

Annunciation, the visit to Elizabeth, the birth of Jesus, the wedding at Cana, Jesus taking leave of

Mary to begin his mission, Mary with the women disciples, Mary at the Cross, Mary at Pentecost,

Mary in Ephesus and finally, Mary's Assumption. Interestingly, a choeur des anges is only heard in the context of Anna's conception ofMary, while Gabriel, played by Michael Lonsdale, actually appears to invite Mary to become the Mother of Jesus. This technique visually emphasizes the greater importance of Mary's child in salvation history.

The Italian film, Per amore, solo per amore was based on the award-winning 1983 novel by Pasquale Festa Campanille. Diego Abantuono played Joseph. Penelope Cruz played Mary while Eliana Giua played young Mary.

Delannoy'sMarie de Nazareth offered an important development. While, Kowalski and

Till gave us Mary as a main character; their films ended with the birth of Jesus. This is consistent

330 To Mary, visibly as a man bathed in white light seen from a distance, similarly to Joseph in a dream. The angel spoke to Zechariah as a disembodied voice while a spotlight bathed the Priest's face.

331 With a quality performance by Colleen Dewhurst as a low-key Elizabeth.

119 with the whole class of'Life of Christ' dramas, including the Gospel ofLuke, in which Mary has an important role as Theotokos, but a relatively minor one as Jesus matures and takes center stage. Delannoy's film follows Mary through the entire life of Christ; and she remains the focus of attention throughout. Miriam Muller played Mary at both periods. As in Scripture, the 'hidden years' are omitted save for a scene showing young Jesus at the death of Joseph. In fact, the entire film largely follows Scripture. Fr. Laurentin, praising the film, noted its Biblical fidelity as a factor in ecumenical suitability. 332

The film avoids incidents from the various apocrypha, while the biblical episodes involving

Mary are all treated in a direct fashion: the Annunciation, the Visit to Elizabeth, the doubt of

Joseph and the dream which removes it, Jesus' birth in Bethlehem, the Flight into Egypt, the

Finding in the Temple, the Wedding at Cana, the 'Mother and Brothers'333 episode, and the

Crucifixion.

There is a single incident in which traditional Catholic piety conquers Biblical realism.

Zwick noted critically that visible stigmata appear on Mary during Jesus' Passion.334 In fact,

332 "Ce film est protestant au meilleur sens du terme, parce qu'il a voulu evoquer l'Evangile seul. C'est done un film biblique, et ainsi largement oecumenique, qui contribuera a rallier les chretiens de toutes confessions .. ." from ''Un beau film sur Ia Vierge Marie, proche de l'Evangile" published in the March 1995 issue (#302) of Stella Maris, pp. 25-27.

333 The phrase 'Mother and Brothers' pericope is routinely used by exegetes in reference to the following scriptural texts: Mk 3:31-35; Mt 13:54-58; and Lk 8:19-21 . I intend only this meaning when using the phrase. I do not intend the phrase to imply that these 'brothers' of Jesus are natural children of Mary. The Delannoy film mentioned above does not present them as Mary's children. In fact, very few films explicitly portray Mary as having children other than Jesus. This is surprising since Protestants tend to interpret the biblical references to Jesus' brethren as being natural children of Mary and Joseph.

334 CfZwick, pp. 272-274

120 Zwick saw this as representative of a pervasive flaw in which Mary was portrayed ambivalently as either a real woman or an icon of religious symbolism. Mary's unaccountably joyful detachment while confused relatives debated her unexpected pregnancy was a particularly unpleasant example of the latter. Still, the production values are quite good, as may be expected from a director with over 50 successful years of production experience. The best acting is certainly done by Francis

Lalanne as Joseph. The natural affection between Mary and her betrothed before the

Annunciation is poetic and beautiful while still appearing true-to-life.

Among the best scenes, are those in which a mature Mary interacts with the women disciples of Jesus, at times exercising a leadership role paralleling that of her son with his male followers. The attention paid to the women who followed Jesus, and the prominence given to

Mary herself, are innovations which probably make the film especially appealing to contemporary women viewers. Lifetime, 'the cable network for women', must have thought so~ as it broadcast a version of the film in 1995 which had been dubbed into English. 33s Still, in many ways, it was a very conventional treatment of the subject. For example, the Annunciation to Mary was done by a disembodied voice accompanied by an unusual light and a gust of wind. The same effects are used to show the Announcement to Joseph in a dream. Similarly, a thunderstorm and landslide accompanied the death of Jesus.336

Even more recently, NBC aired Mary, Mother ofJesus, a film produced by Eunice

Kennedy Shriver and her son, Bobby. "The movie was seen by approximately 16.7 million viewers. That extremely large number .. . catapulted 'Mary, Mother of Jesus' into first place

33s Including a female voice which replaced the male who had done Gabriel in French.

336 Cf Mt 27:52

121 among all the television shows which were televised on November 14 [1999]."337 The film is conventional in general tone, style and content, but has several important distinguishing features.

As did Delannoy's, this film followed Mary through Jesus' youth and then resumed with his adult life, while still k~eping the focus on her. Young Mary was played by Melinda Kinnaman with the look and feel of an American teenager (like Blanche Baker). Pernilla Augustl38 gave a fine performance as the older Mary. In both cases, the actresses, projected a Mary who was strong, active and concerned with the real good of people even when such concern seemed intrusive to others. The film took pains, perhaps more than was appropriate, to show how Jesus derived many of the themes and attitudes he would preach to the world from her. All this is certainly a sign of the times, and makes the film more appealing to advocates of woman's rights in the

Western First World of today.

Similarly, both actresses, but especially August, brought out the struggle for faith Mary faced in dealing with the misfortunes of life. Her portrayal showed not the simply cathartic tragedy of melodramatic convention, but a real existential challenge to faith in the goodness of life. This theme is relevant to all religious-minded people living with the legacy of the Second

World War which includes the Holocaust and the use of atomic weapons.

The film took some liberties with Scripture. The most questionable was the ascribing of biblical passages from Jesus to His Mother. The notion that Jesus learned much of what he later

337 Cited from a letter by Sargent Shriver dated 11/19/1999. This figure is even more remarkable coming during the highly competitive ratings 'sweeps' period. For example, during that same time slot (8-1 0 PM EST), FOX aired new episodes of The Simpsons and Futurama followed by the conclusion to the 2-part season premiere of the X Files!

338 Fresh from the role of Shmi, virgin-mother to mythic messiah, Anakin Skywalker in The Phantom Menace, the latest episode in the Star Wars series.

122 taught at home is quite sound; but the directness used to make that point seems excessive and will probably disturb Evangelical Christians. Also, after the tesurrected Christ appears to various disciples, the film included an explicit appearance to Mary. Though neither impossible, nor implausible, the Bible mentions no such event.

Even worse than the liberties taken with Scripture, were some of the verbatim uses made ofbiblical passages. Most of the film's dialog was constructed to sound natural to its audience.

Interrupting this with hieratic language from Scripture occasionally produced an unpleasant contrast. For example, before the Annunciation, Mary is conversing casually, then sees Gabriel while she is out walking alone. From the side of a hill, the angel appears, bathed in light, reciting the familiar text ofLuke 1. From an overall artistic standpoint, the scene is ineffective. However, the technology used to create an impression of shimmering diaphanous translucence in the angel's robe was unusual and striking. Similarly, a powerful dream sequence in which a skeptical Joseph ponders Mary's fate, abruptly ends with a direct quote from the Infancy Gospel of Matthew.

While objectively noting certain flaws, one need not be too critical of this film. It is devout, respectful, and offers a Mary which, while oriented to contemporary concerns, is fully in accord with Catholic tradition. The acting, especially of the female leads, was good; and, by television standards, the production values were quite sound.

A significant criticism is that Mary was rarely shown in interpersonal relationships of depth. A good example was a scene in which she conversed with Mary Magdalene. They exchanged only a few sentences, sitting at a distance, and facing away from each other. Also,

Mary's converse with Jesus' male followers was largely limited to stern criticism of their cowardly retreat from Jesus' Crucifixion. It might be said that Mary manifested a commitment to her Son

123 which superceded her relations with anyone else. In fact, the movie explicitly presented Mary's relationship with Jesus as deep, caring and affectionate. Their intimacy sharing the grief of

Joseph's death offered a good example. However, as a result, Mary came off as a character more apt to be respected than liked. Both views have been a part of Christian tradition. Still, a better balance would have been preferable. In part, this slant may derive from the importance Americans have placed on 'rugged individualism' as a traditional cultural virtue. Europeans, in contrast, tend to value community values more. Hence, it is not surprising that Delannoy' s recent film dealt more directly with interpersonal relationships than the NBC television movie.

Finally, we may note that another 'Life of Mary' film was recently produced for Italian television, Maria, fig/ia del suo fig/io. The Director was Goffredo Lombardo339 with Yael

Abecassis cast as Mary and Nicholas Rogers as Jesus.

Though the number of films in this class is limited, we should note the same proportional increase in numbers from 1987 to the present as we saw with lectures and documentaries, as well as their complete absence in the 1960s. Further, we should note that the airing of several of these films on American television indicates that recent interest in the figure of Mary is not limited to

Catholics. Also, we may note the frequent use of wind and unusual lighting as conventional symbols of supernatural presence.

339 As reported in a 12/7/1999 press release from ZENIT in Rome. The film, shot in Tunis, was shown at the 'Tertio Millennia Festival of Spiritual Films' on December 2, 1999 at the Gregorianum in Rome and scheduled for broadcast on Italian television Dec. 14 and 15, 1999. ''The script highlights Mary's suffering and her acceptance of the death of her only Son." The entry in the Internet Movie Database, made while the film was in the production stage, incorrectly lists Fabrizio Costa as the Director.

124 'Life of Mary' Films

Year Title Director

1999 Mary, daughter ofher son Goffiedo Lombardo 1999 Mary, Mother ofJesus Kevin Conner 1993 For love, only for love Giovanni Veronesi 1993 Mary ofNazareth Jean Delannoy 1992 Maria Rosa Perahim 1987 Miriam ofNazareth Vincenzo Labella 1979 Mary and Joseph: A Story ofFaith Eric Till 1978 The Nativity Bernard L. Kowalski 1950 Mother of God Dom Emilio Cordero

125 'Life of Christ' fdms

'Life of Christ' films form a much larger and more diverse collection. 340 In these films,

Jesus is the central character and is examined primarily in the context of his historical life. In most of these, the Vrrgin Mary also appears, though, as in the canonical Gospels, with less emphasis than her son. Still, she does have a significant role in many of these films. There are 63 motion pictures of this type, from many different countries, from the early days of cinema up to very recent times.

The earliest of these were two 1897 'actuality films': Charles Hurd's recording of the traditional Passion Play in Oberammergau; and Walter W. Freeman's film showing a folk procession of the Passion in Horitz in Bohemia. 341 This same year Kirchner shot a brief Passion film based on a church program in France. 342

An important step was taken soon afte~ 43 as Henry C. Vmcent directed the first 'Life of

340 An important reference is presently being prepared as a doctoral dissertation at the Sorbonne in France by Nastia Korbon. She has already produced a useful treatment of 'Life of Christ' films in the Silent era from which I have benefitted in the form of an unpublished manuscript: Passions et vies du Christ dans le cinema muet (1897-1927): Du Theatre .filme au Christ de Lumiere. For example, she lists seven films on the Passion produced in France and the United States from 1897-1899 alone. Her paper on Silent 'Life of Christ' films is currently being considered for publication by O.C.I.C.

341 There is considerable detail on both films in Charles Musser's essay, "Les Passions et les mysteres de Ia Passion aux Etats-Unis" in Roland Cosandey, et al., eds., Une invention du Diable? Cinema des premiers temps et religion (Sainte-Foy: Les Presses de l'Universite Laval, 1992) : pp. 160-186.

342 Some details can be found in Campbell's The Bible on Film. Also, Korbon notes that it includes scenes showing the birth of Jesus.

343 Some sources give 1898, others 1899. Ifthe latter, this study, coincidentally, marks the centennial anniversary of Mary in cinematic drama!

126 Christ' Drama performed from a screen play: The Passion Play of Oberammergau. The George

Eastman House has restored the original; and prints on 16mm film may be ordered from the

Museum of Modem Art (MOMA) in New York.

Also in the 1898-99 time frame, Alice Guy Blache filmed La vie du Christ, a "series of eleven novel tablea~ inspired by the paintings of the great masters. 345 In 1906, Blache reprised the theme under the same title, this time with 25 tableaux "after the illustrations of James

Tissot". 346 Fragments of this latter film are kept at the Museum ofModem Art (MOMA) in New

York. This style of tableaux modeled on famous art dominated 'Life of Christ' films early on and has kept an influence up to recent times. Nor is this approach limited to 'Life of Christ' films or to religious art. For example, Wyler's superb Ben Hur (1959) seemed to model the early nativity sequence on Rembrandt van Rijn's 1654 ''The Adoration of the Shepherds: With the Lamp" as well as to model the scene of Quintus Arius' triumphant entry into Rome on Thomas Cole's 1836

''The Course ofEmpire: Consummation ofEmpire".347

344 These scenes are dramatic re-enactments ordered in accord with the original artwork, not simply the filming of static poses.

345 Slide, p. 132. Slide, probably the best living authority on silent films, lists the scenes: La creche a Bethlehem; La fuite en Egypte; L 'entree a Jerusalem; La cene; Le jardin des oliviers; Jesus devant Pilate; La flagellation; Le chemin de croix; le crucifiement; La descente de croix; and La resurrection. 346 Slide, p. 147. He lists the scenes as: Arrivee aBethlehem; La nativite; Le sommeil de Jesus; La samaritaine; Miracle de Ia fille de Jaire; Marie Magdeleine; Les rameaux; La cene; Au jardin des oliviers; La Veillee; La trahison et !'arrestation; Jesus devant Pilate; La flagellation; Ecce Homo; Chargement de Ia croix; Jesus tombe pour Ia premiere fois; Sainte Veronique; La mantee en Golgotha; La crucifixion; L 'Agonie; Descente de croix; La mise au tombeau; and La resurrection.

347 Cf Diane Apostolos-Cappadona, ''The Art of'Seeing': Classical Paintings and Ben Hur'' in John R. May's, ed., Image and Likeness: Religious Visions in American Film Classics

127 From 1910 to 1920, there are another eight titles, the most notable ofwhich is Sidney

Olcott's feature length From the Manger to the Cross from 1912. The film was shot in the Holy

Land at considerable expense but yielded extraordinary profits for its day, grossing over one million dollars. Olcott's wife, Gene Gauntier, wrote the screenplay and also portrayed Jesus'

Mother. The film includes scenes of the Annunciation, the Flight into Egypt, periods of Jesus' youth, John the Baptist heralding Jesus, Jesus calling His disciples, some of His miracles, the Last

Supper and Jesus' death by crucifixion. In one particular example, at the Annunciation, Olcott's angel appeared dimly superimposed via double exposure, while a spotlight bathed Mary in white light.

The entire film suffers visually from Olcott's dependence on a stationary camera. 348 In shot construction, it resembles devotional art popular in the first half of the twentieth century. To be precise, Olcott's inspiration for many scenes, as with Blache a few years prior, was the then- popular religious art of James Tissot. 349

Thanhouser produced Star ofBethlehem the same year.350 Only fragments are available through the Library of Congress Paper Print Collection. However, the journey to Bethlehem, the

(NY: Paulist Press, 1992): pp. 104-115. There are many other examples, even in Wyler's film. For example, Buiiuelparodied Da Vinci's ''Last Supper" in Viridiana (1961) while Scorsese, in Last Temptation of Christ, modeled his realistically brutal crucifixion on da Messina's Crucifixion.

348 The film is no longer difficult to obtain on videotape and the Marian Library has a copy purchased from Kino in New York. ·

349 "Sidney Olcott va construire son film en s'inspirant, comme l'avait fait Alice Guy avant lui, des dessins de James Tissot." Korbon, p. 13.

350 An imitation of the 1909 Edison film by the same title. Cf Korbon, p. 11.

128 birth of Jesus, the announcement to the shepherds and the adoration of the shepherds can all be seen. Again, the shot construction resembles devotional art of the period. A spotlight shone on the shepherds suggests supernatural presence and a bare incandescent lighf51 denotes the

Bethlehem cave.

There are only four titles from the 1920s with De Mille's 1927 ](jng ofKings being the best by far. The film starts with the adult life of Jesus, portrayed by H. B. Warner. Rather weak as a male lead, his virtuous but notably human Christ is among the finest of cinema. Dorothy

Cumming played Mary with romanticized beauty and saccharine sweetness. In an early scene, heavy with melodrama, she brings a blind child to Jesus. However, the reverse dissolve which ends with the camera focus moving from a blur to Warner's smiling face is artistically powerful.352

The technique has been used many times since, in a variety of cinematic contents.

Another interesting Marian episode occurs after Jesus' death. The earth quakes as in

Matthew's Gospel. The prayers of the Jewish high priest bring no abatement, but, at Mary's parallel petitions, the natural disaster ceases. As a whole, De Mille's work is the finest Life of

Christ from the silent era, and with allowances, still stands out as among the best ever.

The following year saw the release of Jean Conover's Ecce Homo, a poorly received, low- budget film with Anna Lehr as the Vrrgin Mary. 353 This brings us to the close of the silent film

351 Then as novel an effect as is the laser light used in the movie industry today.

352 "Elle retrouve Ia vue progressivement en decouvrant, yeux clos, Ia lumiere de plus en plus intense emanant du visage de Jesus. Par Ia suite, le Christ sera toujours uni a Ia lumiere, sa tete et ses epaules irradiees, ses vetements seront toujours tres blancs." Korbon, pp. 16-17

353 Cf Campbell, p. 109.

129 era and the end of the era of the 'Life of Christ genre'. From 1929 through 1941, our database shows only one title in this class, Julien Duvivier's 1935 French film, Ecce Homo, "the first all talking film made on the Life ofChrist",354 with Juliette Verneuil as Mary.355 The film covers the events of Holy Week from Jesus' entry into Jerusalem through his death and Resurrection. Mary is shown at the expulsion of the temple merchants, the Last Supper, the trial of Jesus, the

Scourging, the Via Dolorosa, the Crucifixion and the Deposition of Christ. However, a filming of the Oberammergau Passion Play from the 1920s was re-released with sound in the 1930s as was

Robert Wiene's l.N.Rl. 356 (1923). The sound version of the latter was released as Crown of

Thorns in 1934. Henny Porten played the Virgin Mary.

The aftermath of World War I hampered the output of the European film industry as did the onset of World War II in this period. This accounts for much of the decrease in the number of productions from this sphere. In the United States, by contrast, the 'golden age of Hollywood' was simultaneously beginning. The industry was now able to appeal to people as purveyors of entertainment and to ignore the wholesome religious themes which it previously showcased as a marketing tool. This played a part in the decrease of titles from the American scene.

However, the biggest factor may have been the implementation of the Hayes Production

354 Campbell, p. 112.

355 The Marian Library has a videotape copy of the version re-released in the United States with an English sound track as Golgotha in 1937.

356 The film is very difficult to find these days. A copy is available at: Bundesarchiv Filmarchiv Fehrbelliner Platz 3 10707 Berlin, Germany. tel. (030) 8681-359 fax (030) 8681-310. The film shows none of the innovative techniques which later earned Wiene fame as the father of German expressionism. It is basically a melodramatic devotional treatment typical of the period. However, like Griffith's 1916 Intolerance, Dreyer's 1921 Leaves from Satan's Book and many other films since, I.N.RI. intercuts scenes from contemporary stories with those of the Gospel.

130 Code in the States in the 1930s. The code placed severe restrictions on the style of religious portrayals allowed. For example, negative portrayals of any religion, or of official representatives of any religion was proscribed. Hollywood, it appears, preferred flight to fight on this issue:

With the Motion Picture Code in force in Hollywood in the 30s, an atmosphere of restraint is noticeable in biblical epics of the 30s, 40s and 50s. 357

From 1941-1950, our database lists but two 'Life of Christ' films, both from Mexico:3s8

Jose Diaz Morales' Jesus de Nazareth (1942); and Miguel Morayta Martinez' El Martir del

Calvaria (1950). The latter was shown at the Cannes film festival in 1954. It showed the public ministry of Jesus up to his death and Resurrection. Enrique Rambal, Jr. played Jesus while

Consuelo Frank, dressed like a Nun, played Mary. It bears many similarities to De Mille's 1927 silent masterpiece. For example, it was filmed in black-and-white, a feature fast becoming part of the past, and covered only the adult life of Jesus. Further, three particular scenes show remarkable similarity. As with De Mille, an earthquake and landslide follow the death of Christ, only to abate at the prayers of Mary. The healing of a blind person used a reverse dissolve resembling the famous original. The intrusion ofMary Magdalene and her subsequent exorcism by Jesus are much like De Mille's, though more restrained. Martinez did not show the demons visibly, while De Mille here used double exposure to create a striking ghost-like effect.

3s7 Malone, 1992, p. 25.

3s8 This may be a consequence of the location, which was unaffected by either the Hayes production code or the wars in Europe. Despite these advantages, it is still surprising to note the production of Christian films given Mexico's officially anti-clerical political status. However, religious films have been made there with some regularity since the 1940s. In regard to the support of Christian films, the sentiments of the Mexican people seem to differ from the official stance of the government.

131 In the 1950s, we see an upsurge359 in the production of'Life of Christ' films starting with two from Italy: Malaparte's II Cristo Proibito (19~1)~ and Virgilio Sabel's II Figlio deli'Uomo

(1954). There were several series of 'Life of Christ' dramas done in the United States at that time, directed by John T. Coyle, Irving Pichel, Edward Dew (for Family Films), and Joseph I.

Breen (for Family Theater). The first three are largely illustrated Bibles, done basically in tableaux style. For example, in Pichel's 1954 Day of Triumph, Mary appears at Calvary accompanied by John only to hear Jesus recite Jn 19:6, then exit. Even so, the creation of so many films in this genre indicates a break from the industry's aforementioned religious caution:

The American Churches, including the Catholic Church, did not feel bound by such reticence. Fr. Patrick Peyton received the collaboration of Hollywood stars in his films of the decades of the Rosary. These short movies would offer the most forthright, though 50s devout, presentations of Jesus, Mary and the Gospel characters ... The Methodists produced The Prince ofPeace, 360 a full-length movi~ in the 50s. Hollywood stars also appeared in another feature movie on Jesus, Day of Triumph, directed by Irving Pichel. Jesus is presented quite ruggedly, but becomes more stolid (holy?) as it nears the Passion. 361

So again, the significant growth in the number of 'Life of Christ' films suggests an increase in the amount of popular interest in Mary in this decade~ since she explicitly appears in ten of them, though only as a supporting character. Indeed, in the Catholic films of Family

359 There are a number of reasons for this increase. In Europe, the film industry, a traditional source of this class of films, started its post-war normalization. While in the United States, Christian organizations began to fill the void in religious productions from Hollywood which followed acceptance of the Hayes production code. The booming American economy which followed World War IT, greatly improved the prospects of these independent studios.

360 Also known as The Lawton Story.

361 Malone, 1992, p. 26.

132 Theater, she always has a rather prominent place. 362 These films were done to complement Fr.

Peyton's famous 'Rosary crusade'. In fact, several of these films portrayed dramatizations of the

Mysteries of the Rosary.

Also, we should note the conventional devotional tone of these portrayals, similar to the bland, though superficially sweet, images of popular religious art of the time. Malone captured the situation of this period well: ''there has been a considerable amount ofbiblical material, much of it quite reverent, but often marred by a sentimental artistic piety and some over literal interpretations of the biblical texts. "363

In the 1960s, three 'Life of Christ' films were made. Again, we may read this drop as a sign of decreased popular interest in Mary. However, the greatest innovation was a change in quality rather than quantity:

Ben Hur offered some tableaux of the Nativity and the visit of the Magi. But it was the last of the reticent movies. In 1962, a sign perhaps of the more open 60s to come, Hollywood released a full star-cast version of the Gospels, Nicholas Ray's The King of Kings, replete with orchestrated score and an expectation that reverent movies should look like the art tradition (even if the art was that of the popular piety of the 19th century with its statues and holy cards). Dignified actress Dorothy McGuire portrayed Mary.364 The same principles lay behind the less flamboyantly spectacular, the more solemn, The Greatest Story Ever Told. This was an adaptation of the then popular Fulton Oursler

362 The regal deta~hment of Dolores Cantabella's Mary in Breen's 1957 ''The Joyful Mysteries" does little to make the figure of Our Lady appealing. However, it is a good illustration of the 'high-Mariology' which dominated popular Catholic thought at the time.

363 Malone, 1992, p. 31.

364 Malone's article has a transposition typographical error in this section. Siobhan McKenna played Mary in Ray's King ofKings. Dorothy McGuire played Our Lady in Stevens' film. Malone incorrectly listed McKenna as Mary in The Greatest Story Ever Told in the following paragraph.

133 book, directed by multi-Oscar winner, veteran George Stevens. 36s

In both cases, we see unconventionality in the making of a 'Hollywood spectacular' on a theme the industry had left to the religious fringe for decades. More significantly, we see novel content as well. Both films open with the birth of Jesus omitting the Annunciation and other miraculous events from the Infancy Gospels. In fact, Ray's film omits "all the major miracles [in the Bible accounts] ... while fictional events (like Christ visiting John the Baptist in jail) took their place. 366 Hence, it is not surprising that ''no mention of Jesus Christ's divinity was made in his film."367

Ray's film took several significant liberties with Scripture, including a few scenes involving Mary. For example, while the Finding in the Temple is omitted, an imaginary scene is added with Mary and the 12 year-old Jesus. In this episode, a Roman centurion arrives to check tax records against census information. Mary tells him that Jesus is twelve years old and was born in Bethlehem. The centurion stares at her, realizing that Jesus should have died in Herod's slaughter. Mary stares the man down; and he leaves them alone.

Similarly, in another non-Biblical scene, Mary ministers to a prostitute, quoting to her a parable which the Gospels368 ascribe to Jesus: ''Has not my son said: 'What man would not go after one lost sheep? And when he finds it, he rejoices with his neighbors."'. Also, at the

Crucifixion, Jesus utters ''Woman, behold your son" but omits the Scriptural conclusion, "Son,

~sMalone, 1992,p.26

366 Campbell, pp. 147-148

~7 Campbell, p. 148

368 Cf Lk 15:4-6

134 Behold your Mother''. Actually, this is a rather interesting device for suggesting the word-play frequent in John's GospeP69 In this case, we are asked whether John or Jesus is the Son ofMary after Calvary. Using the scriptural ending in this scene would have resolved the issue in John's favor, actually weakening a subtlety present in the Gospel by reflexively parroting the canon!

Stevens' film opens after the birth of Jesus. As with Ray's film, here the Director also deprived us of confirmation of the miracles in the Biblical accounts. However, the Lucan

Announcement to Mary is suggested by words which she reflects on after the Nativity: ''He Shall be Great and called Son of the Most High and God shall give him the throne of his ancestor

David; and his Kingdom shall have no end." The film does not show an aversion to the miraculous. For example, the raising of Lazarus is shown explicitly and is rather well done.

Further, the empty tomb is shown after Jesus' death; and the film concludes ''with Christ appearing in the clouds". 370

''Meanwhile in Italy, novelist turned movie-maker Pier Paolo Pasolini, made what many regard as the best of the Gospel movies, the 1964 Gospel According to Matthew. "371 The film is innovative in style rather than content. An adherent of the Italian version of Communism, Pasolini still "showed Christ performing many of the miracles related in the Bible".372 Of course, he limited himself to Matthew's account. Hence, his film starts after the conception of Jesus, but

369 For example, Jesus' words to Nicodemus in Jn 3:3-8, could be translated either 'born again' or 'begotten from above'.

37°Campbell, p. 156

371 Malone, 1992, p. 26

372 Campbell, p. 153

135 explicitly shows the angelic announcement to Joseph. The film is not novel in content, offering a very reverent treatment and a quite literal presentation of Scripture. In fact, Pasolini's 'Life of

Christ' is done in a tableaux-style as were the films of the Silent era. It was also made in black­ and-white, reverting back again to an earlier cinematic norm. It is much like a documentary in style, harkening back to the theoretical ideals ofltalian neo-realism, a school originating not long after three-shade,...technicolor became popular.

The film is good because it is unusual. However, it is fashionable rather than original.

When it was released, many of its stylistic elements were so old that they appeared new. Still, even now, for those who don't insist on the extremes of action and passion common in films of today, Pasolini's film stands out as among the very best in its class.

There is some interesting Marian content as well. The 'Mother and Brothers' pericope is presented, though not as an anti-Marian text. Jesus' Mother hears his harsh words, shows grief in a close up, and turns away. When Jesus concludes "whoever does God's will is my mother ... ",

Mary looks up again, showing acceptance, peace and love for her Son~ and we know that this

'hard saying' has, in the end, not excluded her at all.

The Crucifixion is especially well staged, including the role of Mary, played by Pasolini' s aged Mother, Susanna. 373 Mary and other women are shown weeping as Jesus suffers on the

Cross. However, they can not be heard. The traditional Pieta is omitted. Rather, at the

Deposition, a Mary so hurt that she seems not to believe the reality of the event before her, falls onto her knees and hugs the tombstone.

The Resurrection is also suggested with great art and power. After hearing the angel's

373 Margherita Caruso played young Mary.

136 message, the broad smile on Mary's face marks a powerful contrast to the grief seen but moments ago; while joyful music adds to the effect. Shots of a crowd running to the risen Lord, in a dance- like cadence, bring out the life-giving energy associated with Jesus' rising from the dead!

The 70s opened with Roberto Rossellini's II Messia (1971) with Pier Maria Rossi as Jesus and Mita Ungaro as Mary. Stylistically, the film is a throwback to the Director's early days as a pioneer in the Italian neo-realist movement. As such, it again breaks with convention in nouveau fashion. However, the unconventional content is striking. Though Jesus comes across as a perfect man; nothing in the film suggests divinity. Miracles are entirely absent.

Amidst this tide of change, Franco Zeffirelli made Jesus ofNazareth for NBC television in

1977. Though dramatically innovative, this film is quite traditional in religious tone. Jesus, Mary and the saints of the New Testament are portrayed with devotion; and the scriptural accounts are treated as accurate sources even when recounting miracles.

This 'Life of Christ' film has had considerable impact, being shown frequently during

Christian holiday seasons and easily available on video. "The great advantage ofZeffirelli's interpretation is that it used the resources of scholarship and moved away from a literal interpretation, which runs the dangers of fundamentalist responses, to a historical/theological/ spiritual interpretation.". 374 All this is certainly true, but Zeffirelli' s real

374 Malone, 1992, p. 27 In an email dated 2/14/2000, Fr. Malone clarified the meaning of this phrase: "What I had in mind was not authentic historical recreation of the Gospel times and accurate presentation (as in the crossbeams). Rather, Pasolini and King of Kings and Greatest Story [ever told] tended to have screenplays that used the Gospel text as screenplay and hence were often too literal. Each counter-balanced it by the musical score (Pasolini) or invented or amplified incidents (e.g. Jesus' visit to John the Baptist in King ofKings, which I find an excellent sequence). What Zeffirelli and Burgess did was to write a screenplay incorporating Gospel text but not in the order of the Gospels (e.g. the Prodical Son told at Matthew's Banquet). But they also wrote

137 accomplishment is the production of an engaging story by avoiding an over-reliance on biblical texts, but still being faithful to the historical, spiritual and theological givens of the subject at hand.

Several Marian scenes illustrate the style and effect of this approach. Zeffirelli is among the first to open with the betrothal ofMary and Joseph, including a joyful public celebration. The

Annunciation occurs that night, and is equally innovative. Mary, played by Olivia Hussey,

Zeffirelli' s Juliet of a few years earlier, is disturbed by an unseen presence suggested by light pouring through her window. Especially moving is the fear which she portrays at the outset.

Through energetic questioning, her mood softens and she concludes by peacefully reciting her fiat from a devotional posture. Her visit to Elizabeth is shown, as is her journey with Joseph to

Bethlehem.

At the Nativity, Zeffirelli again pioneers by showing the discomfort of Mary as her delivery draws nigh. Tastefully, he does not intrude on the private birth experience; but has already made the point that Mary's 'perpetual virginity' does not imply an unnatural labor. The

Circumcision of Jesus and his naming are shown, as are the visit of the Magi and the Flight into

Egypt. Jesus' Bar Mitzvah is shown followed by the Finding in the Temple. Joseph's death is then shown and the film moves on to the first public pronouncement of Jesus in a Nazareth synagogue.

As in Scripture, there are few Marian scenes during Jesus' public ministry. However,

creatively using scholarship about the times of Jesus (e.g. Herod's long explanation to the Romans at the beginning about the religious and political situation in Judaea). The creation of the Ian Holm character, the secretary of the Sanhedrin, enabled them to use scholarship in getting behind the literal words of the Gospels."

138 Zeffirelli alludes to the 'Mothers and Brothers' pericope as Mary herself corrects someone who dotes on her as the Mother of the great man, himself In that scene, a stranger greets Mary:

''Blessed are you among women." Then, kissing her dress, he adds: "You are His Mother." She replies: "Anyone who believes in our Father in Heaven is his brother, his sister, his mother."

At the Crucifixion, Mary hears John 19:6 and watches her Son die, shown by Zeffirelli in an extremely moving close-up of Jesus of extended duration. Holding the body of Jesus, Mary embraces him with fervor, weeping "in the histrionic and emotional Italian style". 375 Though this technique could easily have come off as overly affected and theatrical, under Zeffirelli' s direction, the scene appears quite touching.376

In my opinion, this film is, by far, the best 'Life of Christ' ever done. 377 The key is that

Zeffirelli, a very fine Director, made a great Drama, a great film showing the visual skill for which he is known, which also happens to be a faithful, but not slavish, treatment of his very old subject.

The film also has extensive Marian content, in part because, at six hours, it could be quite thorough in treating all relevant aspects of the Gospel story.

To sum up then, in the 60s and 70s, rather than seeing Mary drop off the cinematic

375 Malone, 1992, p. 27

376 In the aforementioned email, Fr. Malone also clarified this point: ''My reference to the histrionic and emotional Italian style would refer more to Signora Pasolini in her son's film which I did not find so touching as over-emotional for my tastes."

377 An opinion shared by Nastia Korbon, and most of my 'Mary in Film' students. In fact, a great number of people must share these sentiments. NBC's web site quoted the following under 'milestones' for 1977: "more than 90 million people watch made-for-television epic Jesus of Nazareth."

139 horizon378 as in other genres, we find that the Mary of Drama (and Jesus as well) simply changed.

It is true that the number ofLife of Christ/Life ofMary films decreased after cresting in the 1950s, as we saw with Lectures and Documentaries. However, Mary did not vanish as in the other genres. It is only the distant, romanticized image of the Madonna common throughout Cinema's first half centwj79 which faded away.380

As noted earlier, from the time ofZe:ffirelli's 'Life of Christ' we see a number of'Life of

Mary' films, mostly from the United States, probably indicating an increase in popular interest in

Mary as mentioned before. Of course, this shift in the proportion of attention paid to biblical characters also illustrates the zeal for novelty promoted by the various new wave schools.

However, 'Life of Christ' films also continued to be made. Besides the aforementioned

'Life ofMary' films, there were 11 'Life of Christ' films made from the time ofZe:ffirelli's masterpiece to the present.

Unlike the trend to a revival of traditional devotional tones seen with Marian Lectures and

Documentaries, the bias toward innovation, characteristic of the various cinematic new waves, continued unabated in the 'Life of Christ' genre. For example, in 1987, Franco Rossi's Un

378 Except in Norman Jewison's Jesus Christ Superstar (1973)

379 This convention was common in the devotional piety of the 191h century and was maintained in popular religious art and sentiment up to the 50s. Cf Malone, ''Mary on the Screen", p. 31 or, for a much broader treatment, see: Johann G. Roten, ''Popular Religion and Marian Images," Marian Studies 45 (1994), pp. 62-120.

380 In the period, we see the first Marian parodies: Bufiuel'sMi/ky Way (1968); Terry Jones' Life ofBrian (1979); and Peter Alexander's The Thorn (1974), Bette Midler's screen debut. Such satire is not necessarily hostile to traditional religion. Since humor works by playing on the contrast between a norm and a flawed representation of that norm, all these films presuppose the traditional Mary as the norm against which the film's characters are judged.

140 Bambino di nome Gesu explored the 'hidden years' of Jesus, starting after the Flight into Egypt, and emphasized the relationship of Jesus with his foster-father. Mary, played by Maria Del carmen San Martin had a relatively minor role. These original features in the content of Rossi's film reflect the mania for novelty favored in cinema's later 'new waves'. This Italian film won an

International Emmy award with Bekim Fehmiu as Joseph and Matteo Bellina as young Jesus.

The next year, Martin Scorsese, gave us The Last Temptation of Christ, a controversial treatment which earned an Offensive rating from the USee's film reviewer, Henry Herx. Mary, played by Verna Bloom, had a very small role. Like many other versions, Scorsese's covered only the adult life of Jesus. However, Scorsese' s Mary is quite unsupportive of her son's mission, and seems throughly unaware of any special destiny for him. Had this 'Mary' heard a message similar to Luke 1, or experienced the corroborative divine sign of virginal conception in her youth, one would expect her to show more acceptance of her son's divinely-ordained mission during his adult years. Scorcese's film implies that such preparatory revelation to Mary may not have occurred. 381

However, Mary's doubts are fully consistent with those held by Scorsese's Jesus, himself

Further, the film's audience is quite justified in questioning the call and mission of the protagonist as shown. One wonders what the followers ofScorsese's Jesus wound up embracing when forming communities after his death.

Scorsese loosely alluded to the 'Mothers and Brothers' pericopes of Scripture as follows:

Mary approaches Jesus during his public ministry and begs him to come home. He replies: ''Who

381 This is also suggested by a scene near the film's conclusion, in which Jesus hears St. Paul preaching about his life, death and resurrection, and mentions Jesus' virginal origins. Jesus then identifies himself as the son ofMary and Joseph and calls Paul a liar.

141 are you?" to which she responds: ''Your Mother!" With a blank stare Jesus continues: "I don't have a mother ... I don't have any family, just a Father in Heaven." Weeping Mary says: ''Don't say that to me." Then Jesus concludes with: ''Who are you ... really, who are you?" Surprisingly,

Scorsese's treatment of this incident completely ignored the theme of spiritual kinship found in the

New Testament accounts!

Further, it gave Scorsese's 'Mary' another opportunity to show her doubts about Jesus.

The scene ended with a woman telling Mary that angels were with Jesus. Mary turned to her and said: ''There were? ... I'd be happier if there weren't."

As in the Scriptural accounts of Jesus' adult life, there was little explicit Marian content in this film.382 Besides the above, there was only two instances. Near the conclusion, Mary is shown briefly at the Last Supper. Shortly afterwards she is shown while watching Jesus' Crucifixion, and hears him apologize for being "such a bad son".

At the beginning of this film, a disclaimer appears that it is not meant to be a historical or biblical account, but simply a story of the struggle ofthe spiritual life. Had it not so fully appropriated historical and biblical characters it could be judged as such a tale. As it is, Herx's

'0' rating, essentially a condemnation, is quite appropriate. 383 However, the film does serve to illustrate the comprehensive zeal for breaking cinematic conventions which we have noted since

382 Scorsese even presented the Wedding at Cana without showing Mary! In this scene, the miraculous character of Jesus' provision of wine was also downplayed, a further variance from Scripture.

383 There are a whole host of published reviews of this film for those desiring more information. I especially recommend Michael Morris' "Of God and Man," American Film Vol. 14 # I (October 1988), pp. 44-49; and Jonathan Rossenbaum's "Raging Messiah," Sight and Sound Vol. 57# 4 (Autumn 1988), pp. 281-282. There is also a lengthy discussion guide on this film from Cultural Information Service.

142 the French New Wave of the 1950s.

There are many aspects of content and style which are unique in Scorsese's film and which manifest the industry's bias towards novelty. The brutally realistic portrayal of the Crucifixion is a powerful and laudable innovation. The aforementioned adaptation of the 'Mothers and Brothers' episode showed a previously-untried freedom with Scripture. Scorsese also included original scenes, like Jesus assisting in a crucifixion. 384 Perhaps the most unconventional aspect of

Scorsese's film is the general portrayal of his protagonist as mentally unstable, having more in common with the male leads in Taxi Driver or Raging Bull than with the protagonist ofthe

Christian Gospels.

A few pictures have also been done from an evangelical perspective in this time frame:

Peter Sykes' Jesus (1979) an illustrated Bible based mostly on Luke's Gospel~ Behold the Lamb

( 1991) produced by Happy Church for broadcast on Christian television; and Robert Marcarelli' s

The Revolutionary (1995). Any of these would have had little problem satisfying the devotional expectations of Americans in the 1950s. However, it is worth noting, that Mary gets significant treatment without apology in all three films as evangelical fidelity to Scripture overrode any

Protestant reservations about abusing her figure. Of course, in all three cases, the Marian scenes are drawn from Scripture passages with explicit Marian content: the Infancy narratives, the

Wedding at Cana, and the Crucifixion of Jesus.

This note on the Biblical roots of presentations on Mary as a historical figure, marks a good transition into our next topic. For while many motion pictures have explored the character

384 In this case, the incident has no basis in Scripture, but is taken directly from Kazantzakis' novel.

143 of Mary as she lived in ancient Palestine, there are also many in which she is shown alive in h~venly glory. In these films, examining Mary in various apparitions, she remains a 'historical figure' in the sense that she manifests herself and interacts with other characters as does any other concrete person.

144 'Life of Christ' Films

Year Title Director

1999 Jesus Roger Young 1995 The Birth of Jesus Yusaku Saotome 1995 Birth of the Savior Edward Dew 1995 Crucifixion-Nicodemus-Ascension-Resurrection Edward Dew 1995 The Revolutionary Robert Marcarelli 1993 Jesus, the Child-God Miguel Zacarias 1991 Behold the Lamb 1988 The Last Temptation of Christ Martin Scorsese 1984 The Life of Jesus Christ Miguel Zacarias 1983 Christ in the Concrete City Phillip Turner 1980 For this cause 1979 Life of Christ 1976 Jesus ofNazareth Franco Zeffirelli 1973 Have you condemned him? J. L. Saenz de Heredia 1971 The Messiah Roberto Rossellini 1965 The Greatest Story Ever Told · George Stevens 1964 The Gospel according to St Matthew Pier Paolo Pasolini 1961 King ofKings Nicholas Ray 1957 Life of Christ: The Glorious Mysteries Joseph I. Breen Jr. 1957 Life of Christ: The Joyful Mysteries Joseph I. Breen Jr. 1957 Life of Christ: The Sorrowful Mysteries Joseph I. Breen Jr. 1955 Boyhood and Baptism John T. Coyle 1955 Holy Night-Escape to Egypt John T. Coyle 1955 Return to Nazareth/Conflict John T. Coyle 1954 The Son of Man Virgilio Sabel 1951 Christ Denied C. Malaparte 1950 The Martyr of Calvary Miguel Morayta Martinez 1942 Jesus ofNazareth Jose Diaz Morales 1935 Behold the man Julian Duvivier 1927 King ofKings Cecil B. De Mille 1923 I.N.R.I. Robert Wiene 1921 Behold the Man Spencer Gordon Bennett 1919 The Eternal Light Otto Goebel 1918 Restitution Howard Gaye 1917 The Christ Count Julio Antamoro 1914 The Birth of our Savior Charles Brabin

145 'Life of Christ' Films (cont.)

Year Title Director

1914 Photo-drama of Creation Charles Russell Taze 1912 From the Manger to the Cross Sidney Olcott 1912 Star of Bethlehem Theodore Marston 1911 Jesus Henri De Fontaines 1910 Herod and the Newborn King Gaumont 1909 The Birth of Jesus 1909 Mystery of the Passion from Oberammergau Montrose J. Moses 1909 The Passion Play 1907 Life and Passion of Jesus Christ Pathe 1907 Life and Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ Ferdinand Zecca 1907 The Life of Jesus Segundo de Chomon 1907 The Virgin and her Son Chevalier 1906 The Life of Christ Alice Guy Blache 1904 The Mystery of the Passion ofHoritz Ludwig Deutsch 1902 Life and Passion of Christ Pathe Brothers 1900 The Passion of Jesus Luigi Topi 1899 The Life and Passion of Jesus Christ Pathe Brothers 1899 The Life of Christ Alice Guy Blache 1899 The Passion Play Sigmund Lubin 1898 The Sign of the Cross Walter Haggar 1898 The Passion Play of Oberammergau Henry C. Vincent 1897 Mystery of the Passion from Horitz Walter W. Freeman 1897 Mystery of the Passion from Oberammergau Charles H. Hurd 1897 The Passion of Christ Kirchner [aka Lear] N.A Black Nativity Langston Hughes N.A. Jesus, Mary and Joseph Gayle Bedall N.A. Jesus, Mary and Joseph Eric Del Castillo

N .B. N .A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

146 Films about Marian Apparitions

As noted earlier, a number of documentaries have been produced about various Marian apparitions. However, the titles studied in this section are all dramas, featuring extensive re- enactments, and emphasizing plot construction over historical presentation. The number of film dramas exclusively dealing with Marian apparitions is relatively small, 26 titles in all, beginning in

1919 with Bernadette de Lourdes. Ayfre tells us that this Black-and-White French Silent is cinema's first drama to tell of the miraculous events at the origins of the famous shrine. However, he was not able to supply the Director's name. The film is not listed at all in the Internet Movie

Database. In fact, the only information available on this film and other titles in this class before

1940 come from very brief references in the aforementioned Marian professional journals. Hence, there is no commentary to add beyond the limited facts given below.

In 1926, B. Simon gave us Le Miracle de Lourdes, another Black-and-White French silent film. Roberto Chiti lists Vie de Bernadette in 1929. He omits the Director's name, but notes that

Janine Borelli played Bernadette. In 1928, came Fatima Milagrosa, made in Portugal and directed by Rino Lupo. No feature dramas on Marian Apparitions were released in the 1930s, probably for reasons similar to those we explored for the simultaneous decrease in Life of

Christs.38 s

Two Mexican films ended this drought in 1942, Gabriel Soria's La Virgen Morena and

Julio Bracho' s La Virgen que jorja una patria. Both films relate the story of Our Lady of

Guadalupe.

38s Primarily, these causes were: depression of the European film industry after World War I~ and reaction to the Hayes Code in the United States. The Second World War also contributed to this phenomenon in the late 1930s.

147 The 1940s gave us but one more Apparition drama, though it is probably the best-known in the entire class, Henry King's Song ofBernadette (1943). This film was based on Franz

Werfel's novel of the same name and follows it rather well. Jennifer Jones played a demure, innocent Bernadette well enough to earn an Academy Award for Best Actress. Though wind blows and Bernadette is illuminated by a spotlight in a thoroughly conventional attempt to suggest the presence of the supernatural, King also made Mary visible to his audi~ce. Linda Darnell gave the image and voice to Mary in shots both concrete and mundane, with little to distinguish her from the flesh artd blood Mary in, say, De Mille's King ofKings . The image of Mary has been romanticized in Song ofBernadette, but gives no sign of having been glorified. Mary's character was portrayed by an actress shot with minimal alteration from special effects. Theologically speaking, this gives the impression of'nature transformed by grace' in history, rather than of graced nature eschatologically 'transformed into glory'.

Malone found an excellent quote to evaluate the film: "Ivan Butler is critical of the movie, praising its stunning photography, but noting that 'visual beauty is no substitute for emotional depth. "'386 The general public has been less discriminating. The film was popular at its release and ·continues to have a certain appeal. It may be easily found on videotape, and is frequently shown on the American Movie Classics cable station.

The 1950s gave us four more titles, three of them related to Fatima, a hot topic at that time. Also in the 50s, the Blue Army made a number of Documentaries and Lectures on Fatima, though regrettably, the copies kept at the Washington, DC headquarters of the World Apostolate of Fatima were destroyed by fire in the 1990s.

386 Malone, 1992, p. 28 citing Butler's 1969 Religion in the Cinema

148 Further, in 1948, Urban Nagle, a Catholic Priest, wrote a screenplay for yet another

Fatima drama which, though performed as a stage play by the Blackfriar's in New York, has never been filmed. 387 The most popular of these dramas on Fatima came from Warner Brothers in

1952, The Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima directed by John Brahm. The film had a strong anti-

Communist message, generally in line with American popular sentiments of that time. As in Song ofBernadette, Mary was shown to the audience, in superimposition, but still concrete, rather than via effects which might suggest the trans-corporeality of a glorified state. Malone notes that '1he overall effect of the movie is quite flat (even the special effects for the miracle of the sun)."388

Given the trends we saw in other genres, it should no longer surprise us that no feature dramas done on Marian Apparitions were made in the 60s. Nor did the following decade produce anything besides a series of 'video-strips' from Don Bosco Multimedia: Our Lady of Guadalupe

(1977); Our Lady ofFatima (1978); St. Bernadette and Our Lady ofLourdes (1978); Our Lady ofLa Salette (1979); and St. Catherine Laboure and Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal (1980).

Even these could be dismissed as catechetical fare rather than real drama. The miraculous events depicted are shown via still art in a traditional devotional style. Coupled with dialog, these scenes offer a dramatic effect similar to that of'comic books'. Since these video-strips are aimed at a

387 The script is available at the Marian Library: Urban Nagle, Lady ofFatima: A Play in Two Acts (NY: The Declan X. McMullen Company, 1948). This text informs us of some of the visual effects: ''The Blessed Virgin's costume was a free-flowing dress with close sleeves, and a long, floor-length veil. This costume, as in all the descriptions of Our Lady of Fatima's apparel, was all white.", p. xii; '1he apparition may be done behind a scrim plug ... or the figure may come through the doorway in relative darkness", p. 20; ''Our Lady of Fatima is standing ... in an aura of light", p. 22; also, ~'The effect of the miracle [of the sun] ... can be done by having four or five different-colored lights on the stage and turning them on alternately.", p. vi.

388 Malone, 1992, p. 29.

149 young audience, this seems quite appropriate. We may recall that official Catholic teaching affirmed the possibility of using this genre to present sacred subjects: "'Comics' and illustrated stories are not to be despised. They can be used to illustrate the Sacred Scriptures and the lives of the saints." 389

The 1980s brought us seven titles in this class, bringing more evidence that something of a

Marian revival occurred after the post-50s lull. Three deal with Our Lady of Guadalupe and her appearances to Juan Diego around 1537: Hugh Noonan's Once on a Barren Hill (1985); Alfredo

Salazar's Spanish-language The Virgin of Guadalupe (1987); and El gran acontecimiento (1981 ), an animated children's version of the story in Spanish from Fernando Ruiz Alvarez. All three essentially illustrate the Guadalupe legend well-known in Catholicism. However, Noonan's film gave special emphasis to abuses of the human rights of natives by the Spanish colonists and to the

Church's attempts, aided by a heavenly patroness, to restrain them. Alvarez' animated tale, by contrast, included some unusual visual content. When Mary first appears, the vision gives the impression of a blossoming flower. Later, she departs in a luminous globe.

1988 gave us an animated children's story on the miracle at Fatima, Steven Hahn's The

Day the Sun Danced. Here, though the Angel of Portugal ~d Our Lady are fully human in appearance, both radiate an intense glow of white light.

Especially worthy of note, is Jean Delannoy's Bernadette, also from 1988. In contrast to

Song ofBernadette, but like the Life of Mary films we examined from the 1970s, Delannoy did not destroy the mystery of the supernatural manifestations with overly explicit imagery. ''The apparitions are suggested by two gusts of wind that precede the first and by an intensification of

389 CP # 136

150 the light. The rest is left to the audience's imagination."390

It is also worth noting that Sydney Penny played a rather rough and strong Bernadette, more like the Margaret Thatchers and Jean Kirkpatricks of 80s headlines than the demure heroine which won Jennifer Jones an Oscar. Films follow culture; and all this is surely a sign of the times.

It is also worth mentioning that the thoroughly conventional supernatural cues of wind and light which Delannoy used in this film, would appear again in the Annunciation sequence of his 1993

Marie de Nazareth.

Steven Hahn brought us another animated children's story in 1990, Bernadette: Princess ofLourdes . Two more titles bring us up to the present: Apparitions at Fatima, made on-site in

Portugal by Daniel Costelle in 1994; and Bernadette (1998) a low budget feature directed by paper-cut artist, Dan Paulos. Randi lngerman played Mary in Costelle's film. She appears superimposed via double exposure, but is further obscured by intense white light. This effect may not please everyone; but it is much more suggestive of mystical transfiguration than the direct shots which King and Brahm used decades earlier. The effects used for the solar miracle are unique and rather striking as well.

Amazingly enough, no dramas have been made which deal primarily with the miraculous events reported in Medjugmje. Though Jakov Sedlar's 1995 film, Gospa, was set in that context, the apparitions and messages reported in Medjugorje were given only minimal treatment. The film's principal purpose was to critique the abuse of human rights by Communist authorities in the region. Similarly, a film produced by the World Apostolate ofFatima in 1986, Richard Bennett's

A State ofEmergency, gave only brief attention to the apparitions and messages of Our Lady.

390 Malone, 1992, p. 28

151 However, there was one brief scene in which the protagonist saw a vision of Mary within a plasma chamber. Like Gospa, Bennett's film also had a primarily political theme, a warning against the dangers of atomic tests. Martin Sheen starred in both films.

State ofEmergency ran briefly at a limit~ number of theaters, received little notice and vanished without a trace, leaving the Fatima Apostolate with significant financial loss. The film has never been televised or released on video, though a few master copies have been preserved in the care of John Haffert. 391 In any case, the way these pictures avoided explicitly portraying the supernatural might manifest concern over mishandling mystery. The same can probably be said for the way Delannoy handled Mary's 'appearances' in his 1988 Bernadette. The proliferation of animated versions at this time might well signify the same thing.

We can summarize the information from the genre of dramas about the trans-historical

Mary in a few sentences. Films on Fatima, Lourdes and Guadalupe made up the vast majority of features in this group, probably as a result of their status as Church-approved sites. Wind and intense light were the conventions of choice for suggesting the supernatural. The trend seen elsewhere of 50s crest, abatement in the 60s and 70s, and revival from the 80s to the present characterizes this genre as well. Finally, there seems to be an awareness that, out of respect for religious mystery, alternatives need to be found to concrete visual portrayals of supernatural agents. Judging from some of the above examples, it seems that animated works have an advantage over conventional photography in suggesting the supernatural. If nothing else, animated characters naturally convey an impression of alterity from flesh-and-blood human beings, a decided benefit in showing an angel or a transfigured saint.

391 Mr. Haffert shared these facts with me in a 1999 phone conversation.

152 Dramas on Marian Apparitions

Year Title Director

1998 Bernadette Dan Paulos 1994 Apparitions at Fatima Daniel Costelle 1990 Bernadette: Princess of Lourdes Steven Hahn 1988 Bernadette Jean Delannoy 1988 The Day the Sun Danced Steven Hahn 1987 The Virgin of Guadalupe Alfredo Salazar 1985 Once on a Barren Hill Hugh Noonan 1984 The Lady Tim Reuter 1981 The Big Event Fernando Ruiz Alvarez 1980 St. Catherine Laboure & Our Lady of the Miraculous Medal Don Bosco Multimedia 1979 Our Lady of La Salette Don Bosco Multimedia 1978 Our Lady of Fatima James Chiosso 1978 St. Bernadette and Our Lady of Lourdes Don Bosco Multimedia 1977 Our Lady of Guadalupe James Chiosso 1955 The Prisoner of Evil Mario Costa 1952 The Miracle of Our Lady of Fatima John Brahm 1951 The Lady of Fatima Rafael Gil 1950 Story of Fatima 1948 Lady of Fatima Urban Nagle 1943 Song of Bernadette Henry King 1929 Bernadette of Lourdes 1928 The Miracle of Fatima RinoLupo 1926 The Miracle of Lourdes B. Simon 1919 Bernadette ofLourdes N.A. Miracle ofFaith N.A. Our Lady of the Poor Jim Reuter

N.B. N.A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

153 Symbolic Marian Fllms

Oassification Criteria

This seems a good point at which to begin our discussion of those dramas which avoid the

concrete figure of Mary, herself, as dramatis persona, but still allude to her character with some

.sort of symbolic representation. The Marian Library database lists 209 dramas of this type, of

which 145 use a concrete image392 or statement,393 while the remaining 64 present a female

character with one or more traits which may be associated with Mary. This paper will refer to the

former group as films which use 'Marian symbols', to the latter as films which present 'Marian

figures', and to the entire class as 'symbolic Marian films' .

Most often, these dramas tell a story largely unrelated to Mary, Jesus, Christianity, or even

religion in general. Hence, the Marian content is easily overlooked, indicating that the above

figures are almost certainly well below the actual total for both subgroups.

Ayfre showed an awareness of these 'symbolic Marian films', listing, in 1958, 9 titles

under the heading: "Marie dans Ia vie quotidienne des hommes". 394 However, he correctly notes

that this group can not be analyzed exhaustively, but rather noted with a few characteristic

392 E .g. statue, rosary, tcon·

393 E.g. hymn, prayer, brief invocation

394 La Providence de Notre Dame des Flots (1904) by G. Memes~ La legende de Soeur Beatrix (1923) by I .de Baroncelli~ Himlaspelet [aka Le Chemin de Ciel] (1944) by A1f Sjoberg~ Maria Candelaria (1946) by Emilio Fernandez~ II Miracolo (1948) by R. Rossellini~ Journal d'un cure de campagne (1950) by Robert Bresso~ Due soldi di speranza (1952) by Sandro Genzhi~ Maddalena [aka Une fille nommee Madeleine] (1953) by A. Genina~ and II Bidone (1955) by F. Fellini.

154 examples.39s Of his nine titles, concrete Marian images appear in seven films, while one feature

presented a symbolic Marian character, and another took us to heaven and showed the Vrrgin

herself

Esposito's 1985 article described the same class as ''La Madonna nella vita quotidiana",

listing 15 titles. 396 His list contains eight titles showing a concret~ image of Mary, two presenting

symbolic Marian characters, and five in which the Vrrgin Mary, herself appears as either a

historical or eschatological figure. It should be noted that Esposito divided his fifteen titles

between those in which the Marian content makes a major contribution to the message of the film

and those in which it does not. 397 Neither Esposito, nor Ayfre offer much analysis beyond their

brief lists.

Zwick's fine recent article in Handbuch der Marienkunde takes a more qualitative

approach. Rather than listing a plethora of titles with minimal commentary, he examined a

handful of titles in greater detail. His text treats the class of films which this paper calls 'symbolic

39 S ''Marie intervient egalement par des imageS OU des signes diverS dans beaUCOUp d'autres films qu'il ne peut etre question de recenser d'une fa~on exhaustive. On ne peut que signaler quelques exemples juges plus caracteristiques.", Ayfre, p. 810

396 Intolerance (D. Wark,[Griffith] 1916); Ben-Hur (F. Niblo, 1925);Magdalen: Ia pecadora de Magdala (I. Diaz, 1945); Le notti di Cabiria (F. Fellini, 1956); Andrei Rublev (A. Tarkovskij, 1966); La via lattea (L. Bufiuel [1968]); Settimo sigil/o (I. Bergman, 1956); II Bidone (F. Fellini, 1953);Himlaspelet(A. Sjoberg, 1944);MariaCandelaria(E. Fernandez, 1946);/1 miracolo (R. Rossellini, 1952); Due soldi di speranza (R. Castellani, 1952); Maddalena (A. Genina, 1953); and Cammina cammina (E. Olmi, 1983).

397 Esposito, p. 369: ''V-1. Maria struttura portante della vicenda; V-2. Maria come riferimento episodico, scarsamente influente sulla vicenda."

155 Marian films' under the heading: Tranfigurationem und Aktua/isierungen. 398 In this section, he discusses Helmut Ka.utner' s In jenen tagen (194 7), Rossellini's II Miracolo (1948), Fellini' s La

Strada (1954), and Le notti di Cabiria (1957), Pasolini'sMamma Roma (1962), Cameron's

Terminator (1984), and Tenninator IT (1991), Jarman's The Garden (1990), Olrni's Cammina

Cammina (1983), and Godard's Je vous sa/ue, Marie (1984). All these films will be examined in this paper under the classification of 'symbolic Marian figures' .399

Zwick also included a section called: Madonnen am Wegrand, 400 in which he noted films in which Marian images appear explicitly, but only briefly. In this group he listed Tarkowskij's

Andrej Rubljows (1966), Nostalghia (1983), and Offret (1986), and Kieslowski's Dekalog 1

(1988). All these films are treated in this paper as those using 'Marian symbols'.

To begin this section of study, one should note that the titles listed by Esposito, Ayfre and

Zwick, though this was not done by the authors themselves, may be separated into three groups: those which portray Mary as a concrete figure, either historical or eschatological; those which portray a symbolic Marian character as one, usually the principal one, of the dramatis personae; and those which allude to the figure of Mary either visually, or audibly. The common feature of all films in this class is that, though they explicitly refer to Mary in some way, the Marian symbol is used as only a minor element in the overall plot construction.

This criterion is the reason for which this paper includes some films in which Mary,

398 Cf pp. 303-310. The terminology parallels that of Theodore Ziolkowski's Fictional Transfigurations ofJesus, Princeton, 1972.

399 I.e. those in which a character in the film exhibits certain traits associated with Mary

400 Cf pp. 310-312.

156 herself, appears within the broad subgroup ofMarian symbolic films. 401 In these handful of films, though Mary appears as a character, her contribution to the entire story is so minimal that it invites little consideration of her as a person. and adds little more to the plot than brief shots of inanimate Marian symbols add to other stories.

Films in which Mary is presented as a concrete person. though relatively briefly, include:

Ben Hur (1925); The Gaucho (1927); Hill Number One (1951); The Juggler of Our Lady (1957);

The Miracle (1959); Desert Desperadoes (1959); Ben Hur (1959); Barabbas (1961); The Little

Drummer Boy (1968); The Little Brawn Bu"o (1977); One Who Was There (1979); The Day

Christ Died (1980); The Juggler ofNotre Dame (1982); Dismas (1983); Maximilian Kolbe

(1984); A State ofEmergency (1986); The Magic Boy's Easter (1989); and Miracle in the

Wilderness (1991). Most of these stories relate a tale ofhow the lives of some contemporary of

Jesus, mostly a fictional one, met Mary (and other biblical figures), in a way which brought · religious meaning into their otherwise mundane tale. In these stories, Mary (and other biblical characters) are present mainly as historical artifacts. However, in a subtle way, they also perform a semiotic function as symbols of transcendent meaning.

Some of the above films, have a more direct signification. In The Gaucho, The Miracle, and the Juggler ofNotre Dame, the glorified Mary appears on-screen. working concrete miracles which resolve the plot in favor of the protagonists. As noted above, this paper classifies these among 'symbolic Marian films' rather than apparition dramas due to the relative brevity of the explicit Marian content. As further justification. note that in the three films just mentioned, inanimate Marian symbols also appear and are shown for greater duration than the brief

401 As shown above, this practice follows Ayfre and Esposito.

157 apparitions.

In films like these, Mary fulfills a role like the deus ex machina of classical Greek drama, or the 'fairy godmother' who appears in many children's fairy tales. As we shall see later, this appears to be an established convention in cinema, and it is not the only one!

158 Conventional uses for the Marian Symbol

The Marian symbol as dea a machina

Moving on to films which allude to the figure of Mary either visually, or audibly, 402 we find other examples in which the Marian symbol connotes the dea ex machina of the plot, in addition to those mentioned at the conclusion of the previous section. Already, in 1904, Melies used this device in La Providence de Notre Dame des Flots. 403

402 I.e. with a hymn, prayer, invocation or statement about Mary

403 LA PROVIDENCE DE NOTRE DAME DES FLOTS N° du catalogue de Ia "Star Film" : 598-602 (100 metres)

''ll s'agit d'un sujet pathetique et moral qui convient atous les publics. Le jeu -toujours tres sobre­ des acteurs est absolument parfait; atel point qu'on pourrait croire que c'est Ia realite qui se deroule sous nos yeux. Voici Ia description de cette excellente comedie: Dans Ia bicoque d'un pauvre pecheur -Ia porte ouvertez laisse entrevoir Ia mer- une petite fille s'amuse avec de vieux jouets et sa mere attend, anxieuse, le retour de son marl pour pouvoir acheter de quoi nourrir Ia famille. Le marl rentre demoralise, car il n'a plus un sou vaillant; Ia peche a ete mauvaise ces derniers temps, et le boucher et le boulanger ne veulent plus lui faire credit. La mere et Ia petite fille eclatent en sanglots, tandis que le pecheur maudit le sort qui s'acharne sur eux. Mais illui vient une idee : il se rappelle quelque priere apprise dans sa jeunesse. n tombe alors agenoux devant une image pieuse et s'adresse a celle que l'on invoque jamais en vain. Rasserene par Ia priere, il s'allonge sur sa couche et reve que Ia Fortune montee sur une roue - son attribut- seme de l'or a foison avec une come d'abondance, le symbole de Ia richesse. Mais le reveil n'en est que plus terrible lorsqu'il realise qu'il n•a vu toutes ces richesses qu'en reve. n saisit un revolver sur Ia table pour mettre fin a ses tourments. A cet instant, sa femme, alertee par ce remue-menage, arrache l'arme fatale de ses mains et lui reproche cette lachete d'avoir voulu abandonner sa femme et sa fille sans ressources. Entre temps, un bourgeois et sa fille, en visite de charite, sont entres dans Ia miserable bicoque. lls sont emus par ce que leur disent Ia femme et le pecheur de leur souffiances. lls donnent de !'argent et quelques objets utiles a cette pauvre famille qui, desormais, n'aura plus a redouter les tourments de Ia misere. En les quittant, Ia fille du bourgeois prend, dans !'embrasure de Ia porte, !'aspect de !'image pieuse devant laquelle a prie le pecheur. Celui-ci, se rendant compte que sa priere a ete entendue, tombe a genoux, avec sa femme et sa fille, et rend grace au Tres-Haut, qui n'abandonne jamais ceux qui ont foi en lui."

The above plot summary was sent to me via electronic mail by Marie-Helene Melies, a relative of the famous French Director!

159 The medieval legend of Sister Beatrice, who abandons her vocation, but returns at the denouement to find that her place has miraculously been maintained by the Virgin Mary, also makes the dramatic point that supernatural forces can intervene to redeem apparently hopeless situations. This story was first filmed by Michel Carre as Das Mirakel in 1912~ but has been reprised in Thanhouser's The Legend ofProvence (1913), Baroncelli's La /egende de Soeur

Beatrix (1923) and Irving Rapper's The Miracle (1959). The legend is also recounted in

Buiiuel's satire, Lavoie /actee (1968).

In Puccini's Suor Angelica, the Vtrgin Mary again appears to rescue a Nun from the consequences of a sinful choice. The videotape version, directed by Brian Large in 1983, indicated Mary's appearance with a spotlight from off-stage. In some stage versions, a Marian statue has been used, while in others she is not shown at all.

In 1927's The Gaucho, Our Lady appears to rescue Douglas Fairbanks Sr., here playing a dashing rogue, from an incurable disease. The Cuban film, La Virgen de Ia Caridad (1930), directed by Ramon Peon, delivered ~ needed property deed to a poor family from the frame of a

Marian painting. In Serenade (1956), a scene in which Mario Lanza sings Schubert's 'Ave Maria' after hearing his girl friend praying to the Madonna, marks the transition from crisis toward happy ending for his career, their relationship and the healing of their personal problems.

The lone Marian scene in Bennett's A State ofEmergency shows Our Lady briefly appearing to rescue nuclear physicist Martin Sheen's sight during a laboratory accident, 404 an

404 In this scene, Sheen's character is exposed to blinding light from a 'plasma chamber'. His colleagues are amazed that he has not lost his sight. Though I have not seen the film, my comments about its content are based on the novelization by Thomas Casaletto, State of Emergency (NY: Richardson & Steirman, c1987).

160 event which rekindles his lost faith and inspires him to labor against the dangers of atomic testing.

In 1992's Sister Act, a lounge singer in hiding teaches a group ofNuns how to sing; and a "soulful singin' chorus" of Salve Regina signifies the upturn of the order's flagging fortunes. Finally, in the conclusion to the animated Hunchback ofNotre Dame (1996) from Disney studios, the famous Cathedral comes alive, rescuing the beset heroes by delivering the villain to the demons he has invoked in an earlier scene.

Nothing appears in a motion picture, especially a drama, by accident. If a Marian painting or statue is shown, it has been brought from the prop department. If a Marian scene is shot, the cinematographer has done so at the director's request. Similarly, lines of dialog related to Mary came from a screenwriter. Even if something accidental were to make its way into the film, the decision about releasing it to the public would be made during post-production editing.

When scenes like the above appear in cinema, they have surely been placed there for a reason. The task is to discern what that purpose is. Inasmuch as cinema is a communication medium, we may expect that, more often than not, an author's intent may be grasped by the audience. It is, in fact, relatively easy to perceive the intended meaning in brief scenes such as those above, which tend, of necessity, to be rather univocal,

In the cases above, Marian content is used to miraculously manufacture a happy ending from difficult circumstances. The fact that this has been done with regularity through all eras of motion picture history indicates that something of a cinematic convention has been established.

My insights along these lines are generally inductive. Conventionality may generally be assumed when noting frequent association of'Marian symbols' with certain dramatic events, especially when instances may be found over long periods of time.

161 Indicator of death or the danger of death

Another conventional use for Marian symbols, related to the dea ex machina theme as the particular is related to the general, is to indicate the proximate danger of death, and often, actual death itself That is, the particular 'hopeless situations' prompting the assistance of benevolent supernatural forces are directly life-threatening. These may include instances of actual physical death in which supernatural assistance, often only implicitly, occurs on a trans-historical 'spiritual' order.

In Griffith's famous Intolerance (1916), the three historical stories, including the 'Life of

Christ' tale with Lillian Langdon as Mary, end tragically in the death ofloved ones. In 1937,

Captains Courageous concluded with a young apprentice seaman purchasing Marian articles as a memorial to his deceased mentor. 1948 brought us Portrait ofJennie in which Joseph Cotten learned of the tragic destiny of his beloved from a nun in a room with a large statue ofMary. He then rushed to Jennifer Jones only to see her drown before his eyes.

In Bresson's 1950 Diary ofa Country Priest, the title character clutches his Rosary while dying. Richard Fleischer's Barabbas (1961), presents Mary only briefly at her son's Crucifixion, a pre-figurement of the death destined for the title character at the film's conclusion. Demon with a Glass Hand (1964), an episode from the Science Fiction television series, The Outer Limits, has its Hispanic heroine invoke the Vrrgin Mary over her apparently dead companion. In James

Fargo's The Enjorcer4°s (1977), an assassin dressed in a religious habit is gunned down before a statue of Mary in a Catholic parish. The same year, Robert Redford portrayed a soldier reciting

40S The Marian symbol shown in relation to proximate death is also used in some of Eastwood's Westerns: The Good, The Bad and the Ugly (1968); Joe Kidd (1972); and The Outlaw Josey Wales (1976).

162 the Rosary as he makes for a beachhead under fire in Richard Attenborough's A Bridge Too Far.

In Fred Walton's 1987 film, The Rosary Murders, the killer leaves a Rosary with each victim.

Finally, 1995 gave us John Erman's The Last Best Year, in which terminally ill Bernadette Peters

recalls childhood memories of the famous Marian icon, Our Mother of Perpetual Help, which help

prepare her for a peaceful death.

These varied scenes are linked by a clear theme which associates Mary with possible or

actual death. In cases like that mentioned in A Bridge too Far, the character utters a Marian

prayer during a life-threatening event. At least implicitly, his survival against heavy odds may be

seen as a manifestation of benevolent providence. In cases like that mentioned in The Last Best

Year, the character who contemplates Mary actually dies. Explicitly, supernatural assistance may

be seen in the emotional comfort she experiences. However, supernatural assistance on the

spiritual order is clearly implied by the dying heroine's final comments about seeing Our Mother

of Perpetual Help bathed in light. The number of examples and their regular occurrence over time

leave little doubt that this theme, associating the Marian symbol with possible or actual death, has

become an established convention in the motion picture industry.

Comparative standard of virtue

Another conventional use for the Marian symbol seems to be as indicator of a character's

virtue or vice. That is, characters in harmony with the Marian symbol gain the favor of the

audience, while those unmoved by it show their wicked character. In Biograph's An Arcadian

Maid (1910), Mary Pickford abandons her Rosary before stealing in order to win a man's

affection. After his death, she repents, returns the ill-gotten-gain and takes up her Rosary again.

163 In Herbert Brenon's 1915 melodrama, 406 Sin, Theda Bara. playing an Italian peasant caught in a romantic triangle, chooses the man willing to steal for her. In this case, her folly and his wickedness are brought home by the object of their larceny, jewels dedicated to the Madonna and stolen during a Marian festival. The 1923.version ofHunchback ofNotre Dame, has Patsy Ruth

Miller state her entrustment to the Vrrgin when threatened by a dishonorable suitor.

The classic 1939 version, directed by William Dieterle, makes the same point even more strongly. Esmerelda. played by Maureen O'Hara in her screen debut, is awed and humbled by her first exposure to a statue ofMary in the great French Cathedral. Jean Frollo, Chief Justice of

Paris, played by Cedric Hardwicke, appears and orders her to leave as unworthy. While O'Hara pours out her concerns before the statue with beaming face upturned, Hardwicke stares with downcast eyes at the object of his lust. There is no question who wins the sympathy of the

Vrrgin, and of the audience.

Henry Koster's Come to the Stable (1949) opens with a Nativity play staged by French

Nuns new to America. This sacred scene wins some key figures over to their cause of building a children's hospital, including the audience. Desert Desperados (1955) opened with are- enactment of the biblical Flight into Egypt creating a positive association for the main story of criminals on the run in the Egyptian desert.

Francis Ford Coppola's Oscar-winning, The Godfather (1972), shows us the other side of the coin, villainous crimes which look even worse since done in the vicinity of sacred symbols.407

406 Very similar in plot to Ermanno Wolf-Ferrari's 1911 opera, I Gioielli della Madonna.

407 Not forgetting the 1960s, this effect is also seen in Tarkovsky's superb film, Andrei Rubli!v (1969) in which after sacking an Orthodox Church, the Tatar chieftain stands before an icon of the Nativity and states his puzzlement at the doctrine of the Vrrgin Birth! The brutal

164 The most powerful example of this technique was accomplished without explicitly Marian symbols though, when this film concluded with alternating shots of AI Pacino at the Baptism of his child and several grisly murders he has ordered carried out at the same time. Using religious images, many times explicitly Marian ones, in order to heighten the contrast with on-screen violence, has been done many times by this famous Director, for example, in the two Godfather sequels and also in 1974's The Conversation. To give specific examples: in Godfather, Part II,

Michael Corleone murders his brother while he recites a 'Hail Mary'~ in Godfather, Part III, a hit- man drops a Rosary on the victim's pillow before going to work~ and in The Conversation, a wire-tapper ransacks his abode looking for a bug, ending by tearing apart a statue of the

Madonna. Critics of Coppola's work from the auteurist school should note these facts.

The Name of the Rose (1986), Annaud's treatment ofEco's novel, contrasts an early scene in which a disturbed old monk prays before a Marian statue, with a scene near the conclusion in which a sincere novice humbly implores the Vrrgin for help in the face of crisis. A miraculous rescue, only hinted at subtly by Eco, confirms which person is seen favorably by Mary

[and by Providence, or God]. While the disturbed old monk was forced to fl~ the inquisition, the pious novice had his disinterested prayer for the life of a falsely-accused girl granted.

Similarly, Joffe's The Mission, released in the same year, contrasts the Christian missionaries using an image of the Madonna and Child to evangelize South American natives with

European imperialists who think so little ofMary that one of them kills his own brother in a street

attack on the parishoners shows his disregard for Christian standards of conduct~ while his denial of the Virgin Birth shows his disregard for standard Christian teaching. By showing these two scenes in close sequence, Tarkovsky indicates their relatedness, and by extension, a relatedness between rejection of the Christian Madonna and rejection of the healthy civil standards promoted within Christianity.

165 as a statue of Mary passes by in procession. These scenes contribute to the audience's sympathy for the missionaries and their antipathy to the invading colonists.

Also from 1986, Zeffirelli's film version of Othello, has the famous moor cast a Rosary into the flames as he sets off to murder his innocent wife who has been praying before a portrait of Mary before his attack. Desdemona's prayer to Mary cements our confidence in the appropriateness of her conduct, while Othello's rejection of the Rosary informs us of his commitment to deplorable violence.

We may recall how Mary Pickford, already in 1910, was filmed discarding her Rosary before committing larceny. Similarly, in Corey Allen's The Choice (1992), a young woman discards the Marian medal she keeps as a family heirloom after deciding to seek an abortion.

When Providence rescues her from a traffic accident, she repents and, like the Arcadian Maid, reclaims her sacred momento. In these episodes, attraction to concrete Marian symbols suggests virtuous conduct, while their abandonment is a clear sign of a commitment to do evil acts.

In all these examples, we have seen symbols of Mary used to signify the virtue or vice of the dramatis personae, by similitude or by contrast, respectively. The frequency of this phenomenon spread throughout motion picture history, indicates that this usage, too, represents an established cinematic convention.

Opponent of demons

Another theme, related to the above as the specific is to the generic, is to signify Mary as the enemy of demonic forces. Though the Marian symbol had been used since early cinema as an opponent of dramatic antagonists, explicit treatments of her in conflict with demons per se come later and with less frequency. The first seems to occur in Disney's 1940 animated classic,

166 Fantasia. The closing segment, directed by Wilfred Jackson, contrasts an eerily energetic mystical portrayal of Walpurgis Nacht to Moussorgsky's ''Night on Bald Mountain" with a tranquil procession by candlelight set to Schubert's "Ave Maria'>408 the following dawn. In 1965, we see another example of enmity between-Mary and the demons in Buftuel's Simon of the

Desert. When the famous 'Stylite', chosen as the Director's protagonist and title character, exorcizes demons from a brother monk, they utter curses against the Virgin Mary before departing. The clearest example can be seen in Friedkin's The Exorcist (1973). Early on, a number of eerie incidents subtly suggest the presence of unseen foes. However, the demons make their presence felt by desecrating a statue of Mary in a Catholic parish and murdering a man the same night. Having revealed themselves through their hatred of the Holy Virgin, the demons can

408 With the following special lyrics written by Rachel Field:

"Ave Maria! Now your age-less bell so sweetly sounds for list'ning ears. From heights of heaven to brink of hell its tender notes have echoed through the years. Aloft from earth's far boundaries each poor petition, every prayer, the hopes of foolish ones and wise must mount in thanks or grim despair. Ave Maria!

Ave Maria! You were not spared one pang of flesh, or mortal tear~ so rough the paths your feet have shared, so great the bitter burden of your fear. Your heart has bled with ev'ry beat. In dust you laid your weary head, the hopeless vigil of defeat was yours and flinty stone for bread. Ave Maria!

Ave Maria! Heaven's bride, the bells ringing in solemn praise, for you the anguish and the pride, the living glory of our nights and days. The Prince of Peace your arms embrace while hosts of darkness fade and cower. Oh, save us, Mother full of grace, in life, and in our dying hour. Ave Maria!"

The above were published by Random House in Ave Maria: an interpretation from Walt Disney's Fantasia ( 1940). Only the last stanza was sung in the film! It should also be noted that only the Sorceror's Apprentice episode was redone for Disney's Fantasia 2000 (1999). The other skits are entirely new. The Ave Maria sequence does not appear in the new release.

167 no longer hide, and manifest themselves in a host of explicit ways through the remainder of the story.

In the 1994 television mini-series, The Stand, based on a novel by Stephen King, the protagonist leaders gather around a small statue of Mary to plot defensive strategy against their demonic foes. Human agents of these supernatural villains respond by bombing a meeting of these very people during a meeting held on September 8! Finally, note that, in 1996, Trousdale's animated Hunchback ofNotre Dame contrasted Esmerelda's chanted prayer to Our Lady within the famous Cathedral with Frollo's musical petition to fiery demons in his alchemist lab. Again, we have enough frequency and regularity in the occurrence of this theme to accept 'Mary as enemy of demons' among the conventions of cinema.

Analogue of the female romantic lead

Perhaps unexpectedly, the Marian symbol has frequently also been used to identify the female romantic lead. There are several silent films which explore the romantic tales of heroines who have posed for portraits of Mary. 409 This technique of associating a Marian symbol with a romantic heroine is also present, in varying degrees, in the many screen incarnations of Hugo's

Notre Dame de Paris from 1905 through 1998. Another very clear example of this connection occurs in Leo McCarey's 1956 An Affair to Remember. While leading lady, Deborah Kerr, visits the grandmother ofher romantic interest, Cary Grant, they spend time in the matriarch's chapel.

As Kerr bows her head, covered with a wide-brimmed hat which suggests a halo, Grant alternates his gaze from Kerr to an image of the Virgin Mary, making clear the parallel the Director wishes

409 E.g. Alice Guy Blache's.MyMadonna (1915)~ Lund's The Painted Madonna (1917)~ George Baker's Revelation (1924); WillS. Davis' Through Dante's Flames (1914)~ and Borzage's Street Angel (1928).

168 to suggest.

The Academy's Best Picture of 1961, West Side Story, 410 also drew parallels between the

Vrrgin Mary and Natalie Wood as Maria, the tragic heroine. The still-popular song ''Maria", includes the lyric: 'Maria, say it soft and its almost like praying ... ', suggesting that the movie's title heroine, has something in common with that Mary most-mentioned in prayer, Jesus' Mother.

Also, at the conclusion, Maria, wearing a veil, is shown in a posture resembling the traditional

Addolorata, as her dead lover is carried off in a scene much like a Depositio Christi.

We have already mentioned the Marian link to Desdemona, the female romantic lead in

Zeffirelli's 1986 operatic version of Othello. A recent example is found in Baz Luhrmann's contemporarily stylized Romeo and Juliet (1996). Marian images are scattered throughout

Juliet's house, including a statue in her bedroom.411 Luhrmann also made the point of his heroine's other-wordly beauty, in a slightly different way, by showing Juliet dressed as an angel

[with wings] at a costume party.

Since ''Marian symbols" have often been associated with heroines who eventually marry to fulfill the plot, it seemed reasonable to expect that a romantic tryst played out to background scoring of Schubert's 'Ave Maria', would lead to marriage in 1997's, The Last Don. Though this did not occur, in the 1998 sequel the couple did wed, providing a retroductive warrant for this hypothetical convention.

410 In which Rita Moreno also earned the award for Best Supporting Actress, beating out a brief but exceptional performance by Judy Garland in Judgement at Nuremberg!

411 A description was given in the promotional web site for the film, www.romeoandjuliet.com/players/pn3.html, dated 1/27/1997: "A large canopied bed, piled with quilts fills the room, its mahogany headboard placed beneath an ornate altar to the Virgin."

169 It may initially seem surprising that the great Christian icon of virginity came to be associated with romantic heroines and Hollywood-style marriage fantasies. However, the notion ofMary as romantic ideal has been a part of the Western Civilization in which Cinema developed for centuries. Perhaps the remote cause behind this stereotype dates back to the 12th century and the days of the Troubadours and their myth of'courtly love'. A popular treatment of these themes, explicitly discussing the Virgin Mary as romantic ideal, was given by Joseph Campbell in the 1988 video, Love and the Goddess. Also, parallels between Mary and Eve can be found from the time of John's Gospel. Since Eve is Scripture's archetypal wife, parallels to Mary may have picked up on this theme. Whatever the socio-cultural roots of this phenomenon are, we have seen many examples in which associations have been made between female romantic leads and 'Marian symbols' throughout the history of film. We will examine this convention further when discussing symbolic Marian characters in film.

Catholic or Ethnic artifact

Finally, Marian symbols have been used simply to connote the ethnicity412 of characters in a drama. There are a number of films in which ''Marian symbols" are shown in the presence of characters with distinct ethnic backgrounds, primarily Irish, Hispanic and Italian. Films in which characters with Irish roots are shown with Marian symbols include: Going My Way (1944)~ A

Bridge Too Far (1977)~ The Secret ofRoan lnish (1995)~ and The Butcher Boy (1997). Titles in

412 And we may include cultural Catholicism among these ethnicities. On p. 31 of''Mary on the Screen", Peter Malone wrote: "Just as the cross and the crucifix are used by some production designers to suggest a Christian or Catholic environment, so also pictures or statues of Mary are placed strategically in the background. Autobiographical movies like Terrence Davies', Distant Voices, Still Lives and The Long Day Closes rely on statues, hymns and prayers to indicate the Catholic atmosphere of the 40s and 50s in Liverpool and the effects of the piety of the period on an adolescent boy.

170 ------

which Marian symbols are associated with Hispanic characters include: The Virgin of Charity

(1930); Maria Candelaria (1946); Seven Cities of Gold (1955); Nazarin (1958); Joe Kidd

(1972); The Mission (1986); and Our Lady of the Tortilla (1987). A large subset of this class

presents Marian symbols in association with characters having an Italian background, for example:

Jewels of the Madonna (1911); The Great Caruso (1951); Nights ofCabiria (1957); La Dolce

Vita (1960); The Godfather (1972);413 Cavalleria rusticana (1982); La Gioconda (1986);

Household Saints (1993); II Postino (1995); and The Last Don (1997).

Once again, the frequency and regularity of this thematic technique, confirm that using the

Marian symbol to connote cultural background, either national or denominational is a standard

convention for the film industry. As just noted, the nationalities considered stereo-typically

Marian by the film industry are primarily Irish, Italian and Hispanic. When the Marian symbol

occurs in connection with a religious denomination, film-makers use it almost exclusively to

connote Catholicism.

Our list of such conventions, now complete, is as follows: Ethnic Identifier; Catholic

Identifier; Indicator of proximate danger of death; Opponent of Demonic forces; Indicator of a

character's virtue or vice; 'dea ex machina'; and Indicator of a female romantic lead. Looking at

the titles listed to illustrate conventions above, one sees that many titles occur under more than

one heading. Nothing in the cinematic world is entirely univocal, especially in the area of drama.

While these brief Marian episodes generally offer clear implications, the multiple headings just

mentioned show that even these conventional symbols may be somewhat multivalent. However,

when these brief Marian scenes occur in film drama, the primary meaning can usually be

413 And Coppola's sequels in 1974 and 1990.

171 discerned. In which case, the other conventional signs become subordinate contextual background for the main theme.

For example, in Bresson's Diary ofa Country Priest, brief Marian content emphasizes the

Catholic context of the story, within which the conventional symbolism of the Marian Rosary as support at the hour of death becomes plausible. In West Side Story, we assume that Maria and her family are Catholic, but this fact is subordinate to their being Hispanic, a fact of major import to the plot, emphasized by the Marian statue in her bedroom. In this particular film, there are still other uses made of the Marian symbol. For example, when Maria's brother dies, she immediately runs to that statue and prays to Our Lady. Of course, we have already noted the conventional use of Marian symbols in association with the theme of death. As a final example of primary intent and supportive context, note that when Christian Slater, in The Name of the Rose, begs a Marian statue for aid at a time of need, this is consistent with the fact that he portrays a Catholic novice.

Outside of a recognized Catholic or similar ethnic content, film-makers have other conventions for creating similar effects. For example, when Arnold Schwarzenegger's killer cyborg steps upon a child's doll, the gravity of his wickedness is no less apparent than when hit men shatter a statue of Mary on route to a murder in Godfather Part III. When Eli Wallach's

Mexican character kisses his scapular in The Good, The Bad and The Ugly, we know that he expects the wounded soldiers he has found to be dead. But we are equally certain that Charles

Foster Kane has died when he drops a Christmas globe to shatter on the ground in Welles' 1941 classic. More examples could be given, but the principal will remain the same.

There is one final convention which uses the Marian symbol which we have yet to discuss.

Brief but explicit Marian content is frequently used to identify a symbolic Marian character. We

172 will now consider such figures to conclude our study ofMary in dramatic films.

173 Dramas in which Marian symbols appear

Year Title Director

1999 Entrapment JonAmiel 1998 Central Station Walter Salles 1998 Hunchback PeterMedak 1998 The Most Fabulous Story Ever Told Paul Rudnik 1997 In the Footsteps of Christ Regardt van den Bergh 1997 The Last Don Graeme Clifford 1996 The Frighteners Peter Jackson 1996 The Hunchback ofNotre Dame Gary Trousedale 1996 Magic Hunter Ddiko Enyedi 1996 Mary KayPavlou 1996 Rasputin U1i Edel 1996 Romeo and Juliet Baz Luhrmann 1996 Story of Jesus and his miracles Gary Salvaggio 1996 A Time to Kill Joel Schumacher 1995 Antonio's Line Marleen Gorris 1995 The Lady Jakov Sedlar 1995 The Last Best Year John Erman 1995 The Postman Michael Radford 1995 Secret of Roan Inish John Sayles 1994 All Things Bright and Beautiful Barry Devlin 1993 Household Saints Nancy Savoca 1993 Rudy David Anspaugh 1993 Tosca Giuseppe Patroni Griffi 1992 Sister Act Emile Ardolino 1991 Jesus and His Times: Among the People Kaye Lavine 1991 Miracle in the Wilderness Kevin James Dobson 1990 Ben Hur: A Race to Glory 1990 DieHard IT Renny Harlin 1990 The Garden Derek Jarman 1990 The Godfather, Part ill Francis Ford Coppola 1990 The Hunt for Red October John McTiernan 1989 The Magic Boy's Easter 1989 Queen of Hearts Jon Amiel 1988 Dekalog One KrysztofKieslowski 1988 Monsignor Quixote Rodney Bennett 1987 Bay Coven Carl Schenkel 1987 Our Lady of the Tortilla Luis Santeiro 1987 The Rosary Murders Fred Walton

174 Dramas in which Marian symbols appear (cont.)

Year Title Director

1986 LaGioconda HugoKach 1986 The Mission Roland Joffe 1986 The Name of the Rose Jean-Jaques Annaud 1986 Othello Franco Zeffirelli 1986 A State of Emergency Richard C. Bennett 1985 Voice and the Light John Meredyth Lucas 1984 The Force of Destiny John Dexter 1984 Maximilian Kolbe Paolino Campus 1983 Dis mas Daughters of St. Paul 1982 Hunchback Michael Tuchner 1982 The Juggler ofNotre Dame Michael Ray Rhodes 1982 Peasant Chivalry Franco Zeffirelli 1980 Christmas Couriers Steven M. VlZiley 1980 The Day Christ Died James Cellan Jones 1980 Do Black Patent Leather Shoes Really Reflect Up? James Quinn 1980 Gloria Katharine Kester 1980 Little Lord Fauntleroy Jack Gold 1980 No Room at the Inn Dorothy Yost 1980 Once a Catholic Mary O'Malley 1979 One Who Was There Donald Hughes 1977 A Bridge too far Richard Attenborough 1977 The Enforcer James Fargo 1977 Hitler: A Film from Germany Hans-Jurgen Syberberg 1977 In the name of the Pope King LuigiMagni 1977 The Little Brown Burro Vic Atkinson 1977 Saturday Night Fever JohnBadham 1976 The Outlaw Josey Wales Clint Eastwood 1976 Seven Beauties Lina Wertmuller 1974 The Conversation Francis Ford Coppola 1974 The Godfather Part II Francis Ford Coppola 1974 The Seduction of Mimi Lina Wertmuller 1973 Brother Son, Sister Moon Franco Zeffirelli 1973 Catholics Jack Gold 1973 The Exorcist William Friedkin 1972 The Godfather Francis Ford Coppola 1972 JoeKidd John Sturges 1968 The Good, the Bad and the Ugly Sergio Leone 1968 The Little Drummer Boy A. Rankin and J. Bass

175 Dramas in which Marian symbols appear (cont.)

Year Title Director

1968 The Shoes of the Fisherman Michael Anderson 1967 Cool Hand Luke Stuart Rosenberg 1965 Andrei Rublev Andrei Tarkovsky 1965 Simon of the Desert Luis Buiiuel 1964 Demon with a glass hand Byron Haskin 1963 The Cardinal Otto Preminger 1963 A Feasibility Study Byron Haskin 1962 Eyes upon the cross: A cycle of plays Don A. Mueller 1961 Barabbas Richard Fleischer 1960 Elmer Gantry Richard Brooks 1960 La Dolce Vita Federico Fellini 1960 A Star shall rise John Brahm 1959 BenHur William Wyler 1959 Crosses on the Hill Eula A. Lamphere 1959 Desert Desperados Steve Sekely 1959 The Miracle Irving Rapper 1958 Nazarin Luis Buiiuel 1958 The Nun's Story Fred Zinnemann 1958 Power of the Resurrection Harold Schuster 1957 Flaming Horizon Roberto Montero 1957 The Juggler of Our Lady Paul Terry 1957 The Littlest Shepherd Florence Ryerson 1957 The Nights of Cabiria Federico Fellini 1957 Our Lady of Paris Jean Delannoy 1956 An Affair to Remember Leo McCarey 1956 Serenade Anthony Mann 1955 Seven Cities of Gold Robert D. Webb 1955 The Swindle Federico Fellini 1955 The Left Hand of God Edward Dmytryck 1955 Triumph and Defeat/Crucifixion and Resurrection John T. Coyle 1954 Day of Triumph Irving Pichel 1953 Maddalena Augusto Genina 1953 La Strada Federico Fellini 1953 We Sinners Guido Brignone 1952 I Beheld His Glory John Coyle 1952 Two Cents Worth ofHope Renato Castellani 1951 The Great Caruso Richard Thorpe 1951 Hill Number One Arthur Pierson

176 Dramas in which Marian symbols appear (cont.)

Year Title Director

1950 Diary of a Country Priest Robert Bresson 1949 Come to the Stable · Henry Koster 1948 Portrait of Jennie William Dieterle 1946 Maria Candelaria Emilio Fernandez 1945 The Bells of Saint Mary's Leo McCarey 1944 Going my way Leo McCarey 1942 The Road to Heaven AlfSjoberg 1939 The Hunchback ofNotre Dame William Dieterle 1939 Montevergine Carlo Campogalliani 1937 Captains Courageous Victor Fleming 1935 Les Miserables Richard Boleslawski 1932 Father Kordecki Eduard Puchalski 1932 The Mystery of the Black Virgin Eduard Puchalski 1930 Empty Room Dorothy Clarke Wilson 1930 Messenger of the Blessed Vrrgin 1930 The Virgin of Charity Ramon Peon 1927 Calvaire Gabriel Rosca 1927 The Gaucho F. Richard Jones 1925 BenHur Fred Niblo 1923 The Hunchback ofNotre Dame Wallace Worsley 1923 The Legend of Sister Beatrice J. de Baroncelli 1922 The Rosary Jerome Storm 1916 Intolerance D.W. Griffith 1915 Sin Herbert Brenon 1913 The Legend of Provence 1912 The Miracle Michel Carre 1911 Jewels of the Madonna 1910 An Arcadian Maid Biograph 1904 The Providence of Our Lady of the Waves Georges Melies N.A. La Boheme N.A. Rock of Truth John Bird

N .B. N .A. indicates that the date is currently not known, either because the title was taken from a source which did not include a date, or sometimes because the credits were incomplete.

177 Dramas with Explicit Marian Figures

Within the super-class ofMarian representations in drama, we have been examining a sub- class denoted as Symbolic Marian films. These films only allude to the person of Mary rather than show her directly. These Symbolic Marian dramas further subdivide between those which suggest

Mary's presence by using an inanimate object414 and those alluding to her with a character having certain similarities. 415 The preceding section dealt with films in the former category; while the remaining two sections will deal with films in the latter group. This latter group may be further divided between films in which the parallels between a dramatis persona and the Vrrgin Mary appear to derive from authorial intent, referred to as 'Marian figures', and those in which the

Marian connection exists primarily in the perception of a portion of the audience, called 'Marian illustrations'. We will now consider films with 'Marian figures' and then conclude our study of

Marian dramas by examining 'Marian illustrations' in the following section.

Ayfre, Chiti and Esposito failed to treat the subject of symbolic Marian figures in any depth. Chiti's filmography was arranged chronologically with no attempt at categorization.

Further, he listed no titles containing characters with parallels to the Vrrgin Mary!16 Ayfre, however, included Rossellini's II Miracolo (1948) among his list of Marian films. However, it was the only title he mentioned which included any sort of symbolic Marian figure. Also, he listed

414 E.g. An icon or holy picture, a holy object like the Rosary or a Marian medal, a holy place (especially a Marian shrine), or even a hymn or similar verbal reference.

415 E.g. an irregular pregnancy, often with explicit suggestions of miraculous origins as in Rossellini's 1948 II Miracolo.

416 For example, his list ofMarian titles through 1954 did not include Rossellini's 1948 II Miracolo.

178 this film under the broader heading of''Mary in people's daily lives",417 and offered no

commentary on the film's plot. Esposito followed Ayfre by including films with symbolic Marian

characters under the heading of''The Madonna in daily life".418 Besides II Miracolo, the only

other film he mentioned which had a symbolic Marian figure was Bergman's Seventh Seal (1956).

Also, like Ayfre, Esposito did not include commentary on the content of films in his filmography.

However, Malone's article, ''Mary on the Screen", did acknowledge the class of films presenting symbolic Marian figures, listing the following titles under the heading of''Marian

419 Metaphors" : Rossellini'sllMiracolo (1948)~ Jewison'sAgnes of God (1985)~ Godard'sJe vous salue Marie420 (1985)~ and The Life ofBrian (1979), "written and performed by the British comic

417 ''Marie dans Ia vie quotidienne des hommes" in the original French

411 ''La Madonna nella vita quotidiana" in the original Italian

419 Malone's use of the phrase 'Marian metaphors' seems to be identical in meaning to the use of the phrase 'symbolic Marian figures' in this paper.

420 By detaching his story of the virginal conception experienced by the heroine from any links to Judaeo-Christian salvation history, Godard forfeits the right to have his film considered as a 'Life of Mary'. However, that alone is not enough to condemn the work in toto. Even so, Henry Herx, film critic for the U.S. C. C., rated the film '0', for 'morally offensive'. John Paul IT publicly criticized the film by name when it played in Rome in 1985: ''In a statement, the Pope charged that the film, which provoked demonstrations and violence when it opened in Rome last week, 'distorts and slanders the spiritual significance and historic value and profoundly wounds the religious sentiment' for Mary. The Vatican newspaper added that the fatuousness, the nudity .. ; cannot represent Mary, not even in secular times' and called the film 'sacrilegious'." from the April24, 1985 issue of the Dayton Daily News, p. 42. In fact, the film explores neither virginity nor motherhood, but merely erotic sexuality. Given that the film dealt with a symbolic Marian figure rather than the 'real Mary', judgements of sacrilege may be unwarranted. Regardless, the film may still be rejected as pornographic. In this respect, the real problem is the intrusively direct nature of a number of sexually graphic scenes, the most objectionable of which explicitly shows Marie's young son manually exploring her 'private parts'. This is not merely offensive, but may well render the showing and marketing of Godard's film illegal in parts of the United States!

179 group, Monty Python's Flying Circus.',..21 The first three explore the theme of virginal conception, while the last alludes to Mary as 'Mother of the Messiah'.

At present, there are 63 titles on symbolic Marian characters in the Marian Library film database. This topic is clearly ripe for extensive treatment by the Academy. While this paper can not deal with the issue thoroughly, it will explore the key themes in the films presently listed in our database and suggest certain techniques which are useful for proper interpretation.422

The notion of 'hermeneutic circle' seems to offer the best initial paradigm for such investigation. To summarize briefly, this approach considers communication as a dialectical process in which the following three aspects are considered as conceptually distinct though effectively related: authorial intent to express certain ideas~ a concrete communication media produced by the author and appraised by an audience~ and the impressions created in members of the audience when exposed to the communications medium. Though designed to analyze written texts, this method may also be applied to motion pictures inasmuch as concrete films are also communications media, produced by authors and intended for audiences. Hence, when considering symbolic Marian characters, the contents of a film, the authors' intentions and the viewers' perceptions should all be taken into account.

The scenes in the films themselves are objective facts. However, the impression made on the audience by these concrete images often varies due to subjective factors. Further, there is an

421 Malone, 1992, p. 30

422 The issue is very complex. For example, I have done a 30 page monograph considering the possibility of viewing Disney's Snow White as a Marian figure. Theoretical issues and practical methodology for evaluating such theories are treated at some length. However, similar monographs could be written for each of the remaining 62 titles, before even beginning to synthesize the genre as a whole!

180 epistemological gap between the notion which the film-makers wish to convey and the concrete product they actually produce. Given that the communication medium provides only concrete data, it seems reasonable to focus our attention on 1) the author's intention to portray a figure as

Marian and 2) audience perceptions of the meaning of such characters. Hence, for clarity of terminology, this paper uses 'intentional Marian figures' to describe those dramatic characters which were intended to signify some aspect of the Virgin Mary's character, and 'illustrative

Marian figures' which may be interpreted as related to Mary by viewers with a particular background.423 Ideally, these subjective factors are best studied by interviewing, respectively, the production staff, and the audience. However, such comprehensiveness is beyond the scope of this paper.

Rather, this study uses the following norms when considering the author's intent and the viewer's perception with regard to characters which might be seen as Marian. The author's intent, when not known directly from interviews or other published statements, may be assumed when the following two conditions are met: 1) a dramatis persona manifests a trait popularly associated with the Vrrgin Mary~424 and 2) an explicit reference to the Vrrgin Mary occurs around the context of the Marian character in the film. Though not conclusive proofbeyond all reasonable doubt, this two-fold criterion is sufficient evidence to allow for a presumption of

423 Of the 63 total titles mentioned earlier, 29 show evidence of having been directly intended by the author. These titles are listed at the end of this current section on 'Marian figures. The remaining 34 titles did not meet the evaluative criteria considered adequate for presuming authorial intent. These titles will be listed at the conclusion of the section on 'Marian illustrations' which follows.

424 E.g. a virginal, or similarly irregular, conception~ a virginal espousal~ an exemplary or universal maternal temperament~ association with a Messiah figure, especially as Mother~ etc.

181 intentionality.

With regard to audience perception, this paper will limit itself to interpretations of concrete elements in films for which Marian connotations have been noted either in published reviews, in unpublished comments received from various film experts, or by myself There is, of course, relative weakness of this approach in comparison to a rigorous application of reader- response analysis.

Vrrginal conception is the most common Marian theme explored through the symbolic use of characters in film. Three titles mentioned by Malone425 are examples, and are clearly so at the

Director's express desire. One sign is that the Virgin Mary was referenced in these films through brief, but explicit, content as discussed earlier. This created an association between the symbolic dramatis persona and the explicit Marian episode by an effect called 'linkage' which was thoroughly studied by Kuleshov and Pudovkin in the 1920s. 426 The motif of virginal conception, popularly associated with Mary, provides the second proof for the two-fold criterion mentioned above.

Besides the three films mentioned by Malone, the following titles also directly explored the theme of virginal conception, directly making a Marian connection via linkage to brief, explicit

Marian content: Cross Examination (1993); and a two-part Christmas episode of the X Files

425 Specifically: Rossellini's // Miraco/o ( 1949); Jewison' s Agnes of God (1985); and Godard's Je vous salue Marie (1985)

426 Kuleshov "demonstrated the importance of what came to be known as the 'Kuleshov effect', with his celebrated experiment in which the impassive face of Ivan Mozhukin, when juxtaposed with a bowl of soup, a corpse in a coffin and a child with a toy bear, appeared to register hunger, grief and joy respectively." Parkinson, p. 73 This effect is thought to occur even when the linkage occurs via extremely brief scenes. The phrase 'subliminal messages' is commonly used to refer to these effects.

182 television series. 427

In the first story, episode# 48 of the Picket Fences television series, a comatose victim of an automobile accident is found to be pregnant though medical examination of her female anatomy indicates that she has never had sexual intercourse. In addition to the use of the Marian motif of virginal conception, characters in the story also directly compare her situation to that which Scripture relates for Jesus' origins. This made the Marian reference explicit and fu1filled the second part of our two-part test for intentionality.

The Marian theme in the aforementioned X Files episode is as follows: Part I was entitled

Christmas Carol with the concluding Part IT named Emily. In these, FBI Agent Dana Scully, though a virgin, learns that she is Mother to a child born from advanced technology. The second episode ends with Scully sitting in a Church in a posture similar to that of Mary which appears in a stained glass window in the background. Again, both the Marian theme of irregular conception, and the appearance of an explicit Marian reference are present to confirm the author's intent.

Along similar lines, virgins who miraculously nurse babies are found in Alain Cuny's

L 'Annonce fait a Marie (1991) and Alfonso Arau's Like Water for Chocolate (1992). In the former, the explicit Marian reference is already present in the title. In the latter, it manifests itself in the singing of'Ave Maria' at a Church service attended by the miraculously-lactating heroine.

A related Biblical theme on Mary is 'Mother of the Messiah'. Hence, Zwick saw in Sarah

427 Virginal conceptions have also been recently presented in The Phantom Menace (1999) and the Xena: Warrior Princess television series. However, no explicit mention was made of the biblical Mary. Hence, these two stories did not meet the two-fold criteria which would allow the presumption of authorial intent. These films could just as easily have been alluding to the 'virginal conceptions' of Greek classic myths, for example.

183 Connor, Linda Hamilton's character from The Terminator, 418 a Madonna figure, noting her irregular429 conception as a parallel to similar biblical traditions. In fact, the name Sarah, as Zwick notes,430 is associated with a 'miraculous' conception in the Scriptural record of salvation history.

The computerized villain, played by Arnold Schwarzenegger, is thoroughly diabolical, perhaps alluding to an additional Marian convention, that of 'enemy of demonic forces'. Though Zwick examined this film beside other films with symbolic Marian figures, it is not certain that 'Mother of the Messiah' or 'enemy of demonic forces' are sufficiently direct Marian references to fulfill the second part of the criterion chosen for evaluating intentionality. For that matter, Sarah's

'irregular' conception is not particularly close to the traditional Marian motif of virginal conception.

Anakin Skywalker, promised messiah of the new Star Wars trilogy was said to be born of a virgin Mother. Also, in a number of :films made popular by millennia! concerns, themes involving children born to fulfill apocalyptic prophecies place their Mothers in important roles.

Most, like Gregory Widen's The Prophecy (1995) and Carl Schultz's The Seventh Sign (1988), pay little attention to the virgin-birth or any other part of Christian Tradition. For example, in

Richard Donner's The Omen (1976), the mother ofantichrist, Damien Thorn, has no role and the

Vrrgin Mary is not referenced, even briefly by an image or sacramental. However, we learn that

421 Directed by James Cameron in 1984. He also directed the 1991 sequel.

429 Hamilton's character is defended from a murderous cyborg by a man from the future, who, at the conclusion, dies in her defense. Though their child was conceived by natural sexual activity, since the male lead died in a year temporally prior to the year in which he was born, it may be said that their child was not begotten by any man ever born.

430 Zwick, pp. 306-307

184 the mother of this 'miraculous birth' was a goat, buried under a headstone with the inscribed name 'Marie'. Donner's allusions to other aspects of Christian religion are equally slight. In these four cases, while the Marian theme of'Mother of the Messiah' is suggested, direct Marian references which would allow us to presume the author's Marian intent are lacking.

However, there are some notable exceptions to the above trend. Two films dealing with the anti christ give prominent roles to his Mother and also make brief reference to Mary, explicating the antithetical parallelism between the two. In Roman Polansky's Rosemary's Baby

(1968), Mia Farrow, playing the title role, while pregnant with the devil's child, stares at a

Nativity scene through a store display case at Christmastime. The camera focuses over her shoulder to show the Bethlehem scene through the glass, and Farrow's dim reflection in the same pane. Surprisingly, given the theme of the anti-Christ, Farrow's character is far from an 'anti­

Marian' personality. Rosemary is virtuous, pleasant, and exemplary in her maternal kindness and commitment, even after learning of the child's demonic pedigree. At the conclusion, a coven invites her to care for her son, not because of her affinity to the aims of their circle, but because of her attitude of maternal care towards him. Unless heredity dominates environment, one may wonder how this child could grow up to be a monster, given the influence of this mother.

In Mick Garris' The Stand (1994), Nadine, the Mother of the expected antichrist, blows up the headquarters of her demonic lover's enemies on September 8,431 a building in which they had gathered earlier before a statue of Mary to plan defenses against their wicked foes. Nadine's demonic vocation call and brutal, quasi-mystical conception artistically paints a perverse reversal of the sacred events of the Bible. Somehow, Mary's story hovers about the tragic situation of her

431 When Catholic and Orthodox Christians commemorate Mary's birth.

. 185 antitype.

However, the close of the 20th century is not the first time that cinema has responded to apocalyptic mania in American pop culture. The First World War gave occasion for the

Jehovah's Witnesses to suggest the proximity of Jesus' Second Coming. As a propaganda tool they created a multi-media presentation in 1914 called Photo-Drama of Creation. 432 About the same time, came a film specifically about the Mother of the antichrist, Alexandre Sanine's Les monts des vierges ( 1917). 433

The theme of 'archetypal Mother' is another dramatic type occasionally linked to the figure of Mary in film. In D.W. Griffith's silent classic, Intolerance, the tr~sitions between scenes from the trans-historical plots are made by showing a woman rocking a cradle through eternity. When Mary appears in a re-enactment of the Wedding at Cana, the subtitle read simply:

''Mary, The Mother''. Not only may we infer a relation between Mary ofNazareth and Griffith's abstract maternal icon from the title ''THE Mother", the director even made this connection explicit in the subtitle to a shot of the mysterious mother and her cradle which precedes the dramatization of the Wedding at Cana: "Out of the cradle endlessly rocking comes the comforter out ofNazareth".

Lita Lawrence's silent Motherhood: Life's Greatest Miracle (1928) opens with scenes of

432 Unfortunately there is minimal information on this project. Though it includes an extensive 'Life of Christ' section, I do not even know if the Virgin Mary appears in it.

433 ''L'idee de l'avenement de Satan con~ par une vierge, par assimilation avec Ia conception du Christ, est aIa base d'un film d' Alexandre Sanine, Les Monts des vierges, realise par les studios Rouss [sic] en Septembre 1917." p. 349 in Natalia Noussinova's ''Les films religieux et mystiques du cinema Russe" in Roland Cosandey, et al., eds., Une Invention du Diable? Cinema des premiers temps et religion (Lausanne: Editions Payot, 1992), pp. 348-357.

186 Mary and her newborn baby, Jesus. The film follows the pregnancies of two contemporary women. The poor woman awaits her delivery with joy, while the wealthy one considers an abortion. Mary's maternity presents the ideal against which both are measured.

A similar device was used recently in Wesley Strick's The Tie That Binds (1996). A young girl's natural mother, played by Daryl Hannah, leaves her to follow the child's homicidal father. Hannah carries an image ofRaphael's 'Madonna of the Chair', which she repeatedly tries to imitate posturally. 434 Near the conclusion, Hannah's character sees the child's adopted mother, played by Moira Kelly, holding the girl in a posture like Raphael's icon while a spotlight shines down. Hannah thus realizes that Kelly's character better meets the maternal ideal. Trying to convince her brutal husband of this, she is murdered and the story quickly moves to a relatively

'happy ending' amidst scads of graphic violence.

I. P. Paulin's La Nuit Mervei/leuse (1940) also parallels scenes from the birth of Jesus with the story of a contemporary Mother. Janine Darcey played both the Virgin Mary and her modem-day replica, making the parallelism strikingly apparent. 435 In these four cases, we have both explicit Marian content and the Marian motif of 'the maternal norm', to fulfill our two-fold test for intentionality.

In Mick Garris' made-for-television miniseries The Stand (1994) we have not only a

Marian anti-type but also a Marian type in Mother Abigail Freemantle, played by Ruby Dee, a

434 In this case, Hannah's physical posing is used to visually convey the notion that she also wishes to appropriate the maternal virtues ofRaphael's Madonna interiorly.

435 Similarly, in Neil Jordan's The Butcher Boy (1997), Sinead O'Connor played both the character, Colleen, in the diagetic world of the story and the Virgin Mary in visions seen by the title protagonist.

187 kind and devout elderly black woman who becomes spiritual mother to an ersatz community of survivors after a biological holocaust. Like the Mary of cinematic convention, Abigail becomes an active opponent of her people's wicked foes led by the demonic, Randall Flagg. Even more suggestive, when Mother Abigail leaves the community to go on retreat, its leaders gather around a statue of Mary to plan their defense against the unprovoked aggression which they expect from their uncivilized foes. In this sequence, Mother Mary and Mother Abigail are interchangeable!

As noted earlier, a number offilms436 explicitly referenced the Marian symbol in order to identify the female romantic lead. In these cases, film-makers attempt a lateral transfer to those elements of Christian tradition which have seen Mary as 'erotic ideal', the woman who attracts by her beauty. However, we need not stop with but one of the established conventions. A character manifesting any of the six traits noted earlier437 could be seen as a 'Marian figure' in that she plays a role conventionally associated with Mary.

For example, we have seen that Mary has often been portrayed in the role of enemy of demons. Hence, when a deceased grandmother appears in a spirit realm clad in white to rescue her grandchild from the demons who have abducted the girl in Gibson's Poltergeist II (1986), the grandmother may be seen as a Marian figure. When Mother Theresa is portrayed as a symbol of

Catholicism, she too becomes a Marian figure in light of the conventional usage. Similarly, in

John Erman's The Last Best Year, a made-for-television movie from 1990, the icon of Our

Mother of Perpetual Help fulfills the convention of helper when death is near. But Mary Tyler

436 E.g. The Painted Madonna (1917) by Oscar A. C. Lund~ My Madonna (1915) by Alice Guy Blache~ and Through Dante's Flames (1914)

437 Cf p. 171

188 Moore, playing a Counselor, fulfills the same role as a concrete character in the story. Though the possibility of treating such film characters within the patadigm of symbolic Marian figures has been raised in this work, I have preferred to treat such ~ in the previous section, classed under the heading of brief, but explicit, use of inanimate Marian symbols.

189 Dramas in which Marian Figures appear

Year Title Director

1998 Corpus Christi Joe Mantello 1998 Elizabeth Shekhar Kapur 1997 The Butcher Boy Neil Jordan 1996 The Tie that binds Wesley Strick 1996 Time Piece Marcus Cole 1994 The Hero Corey Allen 1994 The Journey Corey Allen 1994 The Search Corey Allen 1994 The Stand Mick Garris 1994 The Visit Corey Allen 1993 Cross Examination David E. Kelley 1992 The Baby of Macon Peter Greenaway 1992 Like Water for Chocolate Alfonso Arau 1992 The Rosary John Raber 1991 The Tidings Brought to Mary Alain Cuny 1989 Jesus ofMontreal Denys Arcand 1985 AgnesofGod Norman Jewison 1984 Hail Mary Jean Luc Godard 1982 The Visitor Jeff Perry 1968 Rosemary's Baby Roman Polansky 1961 The Caucasian Chalk Circle Bertolt Brecht 1961 West Side Story Robert Wise 1956 The Seventh Seal lngmar Bergman 1948 The Miracle Roberto Rossellini 1940 The Wonderful Night J.P. Paulin 1928 Motherhood: Life's Greatest Miracle Lita Lawrence 1917 The Painted Madonna Oscar A.C. Lund 1915 My Madonna Alice Guy Blache 1914 Through Dante's Flames 1913 The Three Wise Men Colin Campbell 1912 The Pilgrim Mario Coserini

190 Films with Implicit Marian Figures/Dlustrations

We have been examining a sub-class denoted as Symbolic Marian films within the class of

Marian dramas. These films alluded to the person of Mary rather than showing her directly. As noted earlier, no consistent terminology has developed among authors dealing with the issue of

Marian symbols in film. Since no conventions have arisen in this regard, this paper has developed terminology which seemed to adequately describe the categories found while analyzing the data.

Examination of these Symbolic Marian dramas found them to divide between those which suggest Mary's presence by using an inanimate object438 and those alluding to her with a character having certain similarities. 439 The former category was considered in an earlier section on 'Marian symbols in drama'. The latter category divided between films in which the parallels between a dramatis persona and the Virgin Mary appeared to derive from authorial intent, referred to as

'Marian figures', and those in which the Marian connection exists primarily in the perception of a portion of the audience, called 'Marian illustrations'.

The previous section considered films with 'Marian figures' . We will now conclude our study of Marian dramas by examining those 34 titles which present characters called here 'Marian illustrations'. While any use of Marian symbols will have some illustrative intent, use of the term

'illustrations' has been restricted to those films in which a female character manifests traits which some members of the audience could see as Marian. In those cases, a person able to make that connection may offer it for consideration to viewers for whom the connection is not readily

438 E.g. An icon or holy picture, a holy object like the Rosary or a Marian medal, a holy place (especially a Marian shrine), or even a hymn or similar verbal reference.

439 E.g. an irregular pregnancy, often with explicit suggestions of miraculous origins as in Rossellini's 1948 II Miracolo.

191 apparent. This approach could be useful for illustrating aspects of Catholic teaching on Mary to those never introduced to this teaching.

Along these lines, note that a number of Biblical figures have become traditional Marian symbolic figures more through the establishment of Catholic convention than comprehensive similitude. Heroines who have been seen as symbolic prefigurations of Mary by various theologians include Judith, Esther and Ruth. Each of these has been dealt with in film.440

However, cinematography has not made any attempt to allude to the Vrrgin Mary in these films as has been done in Catholic literature.

All this raises the issue of when is a symbolic Marian figure really manifest in a film and when does it exist only in the mind of the beholder? One key is the use of explicit Marian content, however brief, within the story. The presumption may then be made that the perceived symbolic figure is, in fact, a Marian character. Another key is the exploration of well-known themes, like virginal conception, commonly associated with Mary, within a different story. When this occurs, one may sometimes presume that a Marian allusion is intentional, even in the absence of other more explicit cues. Films in which both these criteria were met were considered in the preceding section on 'Marian figures' .

The question of intentionality is not entirely germane though. Audience perception is a distinct and essential part of the hermeneutic circle. When viewers make certain interpretations, a reviewer should factor these into an evaluation of the film. It does not matter whether or not

George Lucas intended to make a racial slur with the character of"Jar Jar Binks". A number of

440 E.g. D. W. Griffith's Judith ofBethu/ia (1916)~ John T. Coyle's Queen Esther (1948)~ Raoul Walsh's Esther and the King (1960)~ and Henry Koster's The Story ofRuth (1961 ).

192 people perceived an insult, leading to public controversy. The film's unexpectedly modest profits441 may be, in part, due to this situation.

The point is that viewer perceptions, even when due to subjective factors in a small segment of the audience, play an essential role in a thorough examination of films within the paradigm of the hermeneutic circle. Hence, this paper distinguishes films in which the intentionality of the Marian symbolism is demonstrable, from those in which, though not clearly demonstrable, this symbolism may be perceived by viewers with a certain background. As noted above, we have referred to this latter group as 'Marian illustrations', and will now consider a few examples to conclude this study on Mary in cinematic drama.

We will now discuss four films which, without explicitly referring to the Virgin Mary in a way which would allow us to assume an intentional connection on the part of the director, could still be utilized to illustrate certain characteristics which Catholic viewers traditionally associate with her: Walt Disney's Snow White and the Seven Dwarfs (1937)~ Ron Howard's romantic comedy, Splash (1984)~ Barry Levinson's The Natural (1984)~ and Victor Fleming's The Wizard of Oz (1939).

Disney's animated classic442 presents us with a kind and innocent young maiden as the title heroine. Her acquaintances, seven ''little men" called dwarfs, relate to Snow White, in a number of scenes, as children to a Mother. Snow White's principal antagonist is a wicked queen who uses black magic against her. The weapon is a poisoned apple, which does, indeed, kill the

441 A strange, but true, turn of phrase for a film which earned over $300 million in profits!

442 Rated by the U.S. C. C. among the top ten American family films of all time (as was The Wizard of Oz)!

193 heroine when eaten. 443 The story ends happily with the resurrection of Snow White through the kiss of a mysterious Prince and their exit to a beautiful city descending from the clouds. All these facts are explicit within the concrete medium of the film, knowledge of which is essential for considering its meaning within the comprehensive context of the hermeneutic circle.

Moving on to consider the interpretation of these scenes brings us into the area of subjective perception, another area which the hermeneutic circle insists be considered. The virginal innocence and maternal kindness of Disney's heroine are traits routinely ascribed to Mary in the Christian devotional tradition. Next, the Witch/Queen is clearly a diabolical figure. Her enmity with the heroine parallels that which Catholic tradition, often citing Genesis 3: 15 or Rev

12:1-17, has seen between Mary and the Devil. However, cinema too, has a well established tradition opposing Mary and demonic foes. Snow White's rescue from death by the handsome

Prince could perhaps be used to illustrate Mary's Assumption by the risen Christ. In fact, Disney used the phrase 'sleeping death' to denote his heroine's demise, much as Catholicism uses

'Dormition' to describe the end of Mary's earthly life. Also, the Prince's limited appearance in the story tends to downplay the mundane aspects of their love story. Finally, the castle descending from the clouds to meet the couple visually suggests an event similar to that mentioned in Rev 21:9-10. The Bride in these verses is often interpreted as the Church, though sometimes as Mary in particular. To find out how widely these interpretations are held would demand a broad survey of the audience using reader-response methodology.

The hermeneutic circle requires that one also answer the question of whether those who made the film intended interpretations such as those above. There are no interviews with Disney

443 Cf Gen 2:17

194 which indicate that he did. In fact, given his well-publicized Fundamentalist upbringing, interpretations rooted in Catholic tradition seem unlikely. However, Walt was not the only person with input into the final product. William Titla, who directed the Art in the Night on Bald

Mountain/Ave Maria sequence of Fantasia also worked on Snow_White. Also, a Marian still cartoon entitled, ''Madonna Duck" was created by a Disney animator around the same time.

These examples show an awareness of the Marian figure in Disney's company around the time

Snow White was made. To learn whether any of this background was intentionally worked into the story of Snow Whit~ would require, at minimum, a visit to the company archives. This is beyond the scope of the current study.

There is insufficient evidence to infer that the author( s) intended Snow White to be seen as a Marian figure. In fact, neither of the criteria used in the preceding section on 'Marian figures' 444 was met in Disney's film. Further, each of the plot elements mentioned above has been taken in isolation from the film narrative in order to highlight the possibility of a Marian connection. The phrase 'sleeping death' was used sparingly and forms a very limited part of Snow White's story.

Hence, it is of limited value in illustrating Mary's Dormition. On the other hand, Disney included a variety of scenes in which his heroine manifests positive maternal traits. These episodes form a much more comprehensive part of Disney's tale and hence, are better able to introduce viewers to the exemplary and univ~rsal maternity traditionally associated with the Vrrgin Mary.

However, such methodical thoroughness in considering authorial intent and audience perception is not strictly required. The hermeneutic circle provides a framework within which

444 I.e. 1) explicit reference to the Virgin Mary~ and also 2) a character showing traits commonly associated primarily with Mary, like virginal espousal, for example

195 viewers may merge their perceptions in a dialectic with the communicative intent of distant authors using their only common point of reference, the communications medium, itself From this perspective, then, Christian viewers may bring their perceptions of apparent Marian symbolism in Disney's film into dialog with other viewers who might miss these symbols due to their ignorance of traditional teaching about Mary. These other viewers might bring interpretations rooted in other traditions. A more complete understanding of the meaning of the film should result. When more information about the author's communicative intent is available, this too becomes part of the dialectical process. In some cases, authorial intent will not support subjective impressions of a Marian connection. Nevertheless, in the dialectical process of the hermeneutic circle, a fuller understanding of meaning arises, hopefully broad enough to embrace a diversity of initial positions and to do full justice to the film as a locus of communication.

In Splash, a mermaid assumes human form to visit a lonely man in New York City. The film has been quite popular, boosting the careers of Tom Hanks, John Candy, Daryl Hannah, and then-neophyte director, Ron Howard. Noted critic, Je:ffi'ey Lyons, rated it among the top ten films when it was released in 1984~ and it is still in mass release on videotape.

Actual episodes in the film include: Daryl Hannah, as Madison, the mermaid, 'naked and unashamed', emerges from a garden44s wearing only a necklace of beads surmounted with a crucifix at her initial meeting with Allan Bauer, the male lead, played by Tom Hanks~ they develop a romantic relationship which remains virginal through the entire film~446 Madison is exposed at a

44s Cf Gen 2:25

446 And apparently into perpetuity, as the lovers depart into the sea where Madison reverts to the anatomy of a mermaid.

196 banquet for the President, seized by government agents and abused by inhumane researchers; she is carried from her prison in a scene resembling a Depositio Christi; 441 and returning to her former state, journeys with her beloved to a glowing city on the ocean floor. 448 These are all objective facts explicit within the medium of the film:

Coming from a Catholic background, a number of points rooted in Judaeo-Christian tradition seem appropriate for interpreting the above scenes. The garden from which Hannah emerges to meet Hanks, could suggest the Garden of Eden. Madison's radical innocence is consistent with this interpretation. The necklace of beads with Crucifix appears to be an ornate

Rosary, perhaps building upon the Eden imagery with the ancient Christian Tradition which sees

Mary as Eve renewed. Virginal espousal is another particularly Marian theme. In fact, the film goes out of its way to confirm its existence in the story. 449 Presumably, this virginal romance is maintained after the denouement, given the couple's anatomical differences at the conclusion. Of course, Catholic and Orthodox Christians teach the perpetual virginity of Mary as dogma.

The politically engineered persecution of this innocent victim brings elements of a Christ- figure to the heroine, 450 confirmed by the resemblance to a classical Depositio during her rescue.

447 She is carried prone and limp by two men with her arms spread out cruciform and her face covered with a white cloth.

448 Cf Rev 21:23

449 In one scene a reporter asks Hanks if he has ever 'made love' to the mermaid and Hanks directly replies 'No'.

450 The topic of female 'Christ figures' does not seem generally relevant to the discussion of Mary in film. Besides, Madison, the Mermaid, other female characters with elements of a Christ-figure include: Joan of Arc in Dreyer's The Passion ofJoan ofArc (1928) [and the persecuted heroines in his earlier work, Leaves from Satan's Book (1920)]; Emily Watson in Breaking the Waves (1996); Alison Elliott in The Spitfire Grill (1996); and Patricia Arquette in

197 By way of authorial intent, there is no information beyond that clearly implicit in the film.

For example, it is very hard to deny that Madison first appears amid circumstances that resemble

Eve in Paradise to anyone familiar with that commonly-known Biblical legend. In the absence of relevant statements on their work which appear in published reviews, a researcher is left with little recourse than direct requests for information, and must rely on the good will of the addressee.

A related technique is to examine the scripts used in production for notes. Though final drafts are generally not marketed, earlier drafts are often available through Hollywood Book

City. 4s1 In this case, the draft obtained for Splash was not helpful. For example, when Madison first appears on land, no mention is made of garden scenery or a necklace.

Still, we are left with a number of impressions based on concrete elements of the film and derived from a background familiar with Catholic tradition. Even without the affirmation of other viewers or the film's creators, these perceptions may be brought to the table when discussing the meaning of the story from within the framework of the hermeneutic circle. For a person familiar with Splash, but not with Catholic tradition, the points listed above might be a palatable and effective way to be introduced to certain aspects of Marian doctrine.

As stated with Snow White, noting these individual plot elements is only part of the interpreter's task. Each must be considered within the overall narrative context of the film.

Madison's necklace is, indeed, the closest thing to an explicit Marian reference in the film.

However, the necklace has little to do with the general thrust of the story, and hence, should not be used too heavily in drawing parallels to the Virgin Mary. By contrast, the radical innocence of

Stigmata (1999).

4s1 6627 Hollywood Blvd. Hollywood, CA 90028 (USA) Phone: (323) 466-2525

198 Madison is among the most central elements of the story. The Eve imagery may be considered as one illustration of the heroine's pre-lapsarian character. Catholics understand this as an important

Marian personality trait related to the dogma of her Immaculate Conception. Madison's radical innocence, even when confronted by the fallen state of affairs she meets in today's 'big-city' life, has more in common with Mary's immaculate heart than with Eve's Edenic innocence. While Eve forfeited her original virtue and contributed to the fallen state of the world, Mary preserved pre­ lapsarian virtue while living in the sinful, violent world of her day. This theme of radical innocence within a fallen culture is fully consistent with the narrative context of Splash, and quite suitable for illustrating the implications of the dogma ofMary's Immaculate Conception for her character.

By now, the general methodology which this paper uses for analyzing films with a possible

Marian character should be clear: 1) view the film and objectively note concrete elements which might be interpreted as Marian cues~ 2) examine the individual elements thus noted within the overall narrative context of a film~ 3) drawing input from as many viewers as possible, list the subjective impressions made by these contextualized episodes and clarify how they relate to the figure of Mary as presented in Church tradition~ 4) seek information about the author's intended meaning for the episodes noted in steps one and two~ and 5) through dialog, seek to develop a thorough understanding of a work which does justice to these diverse viewpoints by the breadth of the resulting synthesis.

We shall now apply this technique to Levinson's The Natural. This engaging fantasy drama stars Robert Redford as Roy Hobbs, a middle-aged prospect seeking to fulfill his destiny as a major-league baseball player. As a youngster, both his athletic talent and his romantic liaison

199 with a local girl named Iris, showed great promise. A tryst with a diabolical 'woman in black' left both dreams shattered. Years later, Hobbs is able to break into the big leagues with smashing success. Another tryst with yet another femme fatale and the machinations of gambling interests threaten to destroy his dreams again. His old flame, Iris, comes to see one of his games. He sees her standing from afar, dressed in off-white, with the rays of the setting sun behind her, shining through her broad-brimmed hat like a halo. He then breaks out of a slump with a home run.

They meet after the game and start to rekindle their relationship. Iris tells Roy that, though unmarried, she has one son. The identity of the boy's father is, mysteriously, concealed throughout the film. A newspaper mentions their meeting under the headline: "The Knight and the

Lady in White". As his fortunes waver, Roy rejects his 'new woman in black' and her unsavory associates and strives for honest success. Iris comes again to a key game, this time with her son.

Learning this, Roy Hobbs ends his career with a stunning Hollywood flourish and moves on to a quiet life with Iris and her son.

Of the concrete elements in the story, three invite consideration in relation to Mary. When

Iris stands in the sunshine, she presents an image like the Virgin of Fatima or other apparitions.

The simultaneous ending ofHobb's batting slump supports such a view. Also, the headline after their meeting, implies that the goal ofHobbs [and his team] is akin to a grail quest. 452 Of course, the 'Lady in White' who patronized the Knights of the Grail was Mary, herself In Malamud's novel, 453 Iris appears in crimson.

Finally, Iris' status as single Mother of an only son, places her in the same social position

452 A point noted by some reviewers

453 Bernard Malamud, The Natural (NY: Time lnc.,1966).

200 as Mary at that age. In Malamud's text, Iris' child is female and the author clearly states her origins. However, the care used to avoid identifying the boy's father in the film might leave one wondering ifthere is something unusual about the boy's origins. The boy's presence at the gaudy

'miracle' ofHobb's final triumph supports this view.

When Hobbs learns that the boy has come to his final game, he blasts a home run, by all appearances, into orbit, winning the game and setting off a prodigious shower of fireworks by striking a bank of spotlights. Given such influence, only may well ~ssume that this is a very special child. Of course, his Mother had a similar effect during her first appearance. In her case though, the benefit bestowed was but a preparation for that worked in the presence of her son at the denouement.

Of the above perceptions, the only one echoed in published reviews is the awareness that

Hobb's goal parallels the grail quest. As to the author's intention, the only clues come from redaction analysis comparing Malamud's novel to the motion picture. Changes may well imply intentionality. And two of the episodes seen as Marian, 454 were, indeed, changed in a direction supportive of this view. Again we must note that the elements noted above have only been considered in isolation.

Regarding the overall plot, the film is primarily a story about redemption, in particular, a redemption which culminates in the establishment of a wholesome domestic environment. Both family values and spiritual healing are, of course, major themes in the worldview of Christianity.

Catholics see Mary, in spite of certain unique characteristics of her particular state, as an

454 I.e., Iris' appearance in white dress and sunlight rather than red, and the son with a mysterious, unnamed Father

201 exemplary model worthy of imitation as a wife and mother. Iris could be used to illustrate these

Marian traits in a manner fully consistent with the overall thrust of the film. Similarly, Iris plays the role of facilitator of personal redemption for Roy Hobbs, ultimately cementing his triumph while bringing him into contact with her son. In these ways, she_could be presented as a Marian character by taking advantage of the quest for personal redemption which is a central element of the entire story.

It would be desirable to learn more of viewers' interpretations via survey ·or of directorial intent via interview. However, we already have some opinions based on elements in the film which could illustrate certain Marian traits. The next step would be to bring them into dialogue with others who kttow the film.

Finally, we come to that mega-classic, Victor Fleming's The Wonderful Wizard ofOz

(1939). The film was rated among the ten best American films of all time in a recent survey done by the American Film Institute (AFI) and also was listed in the Vatican's 1995 list of outstanding films. The story opens with a young Kansas farm-girl named Dorothy compelled to run away by threats to her pet dog, Toto. We see her cradling a baby chick to her bosom on its way to an incubator. She is also frequently shown cradling her pet dog in a similar posture. When a wealthy but cruel local woman threatens Toto, Dorothy takes him and leaves home, resting at a nomad's wagon. A twister lifts Dorothy and Toto to a magical land 'over the rainbow'. Appearing from a luminous globe, a beautiful woman, Olinda, the good "witch of the North", comes to aid Dorothy on her journey, bestowing her with 'ruby slippers' as a talisman.

Dorothy sets off on pilgrimage to the Emerald City hoping its resident wizard will return her to her home. Along the way, she is joined by three companions. During the course of the

202 film, Dorothy helps each to develop important character traits. Throughout, Dorothy is opposed by the ''Wicked Witch of the West", a thoroughly diabolical antagonist.

Meeting the Wt.zard, manifest between 'pillars of fire and clouds of smoke', Dorothy is called to confront the Witch. Dorothy is captured on the way and imprisoned. Rescued by her friends as ''Night on Bald Mountain" plays in the background, the conflict is resolved as Dorothy melts the villainess by dowsing her with water. Departing, she shrieks: ''Who would have thought that a good little girl like you could destroy all my beautiful wickedness?!" Freed from the witch's influence, her former slaves genuflect, crying ''Hail to Dorothy!'"'55

Returning to the Wt.zard, Dorothy exposes him as a fraud, but is magically returned

'home' to Kansas by Glinda where the story concludes. From these concrete elements we will now attempt to interpret the film's meaning.

Though plainly an innocent virgin, Dorothy appears maternal in a variety of scenes: cuddling Toto and the chicks near her bosom; educating her companions towards personal growth; even towering over the little people who populate Munchkinland. Indeed, the

'matemalness' of Dorothy shows something of a comprehensive character. Of course, both maternity and virginity are defining traits of the Christian Madonna.

The appearance ofGlinda via luminous globe calls to mind descriptions ofMary's

455 This is the closest thing to an explicit reference to Mary in the film. It should be noted that non-Catholics might not recognize the traditional Catholic devotional practice of kneeling to honor Our Lady with shouts of''Hail [to] Mary". Even if some Protestants might recognize the allusion, they might well not appreciate it, seeing it as idolatrous veneration of Dorothy as a goddess figure.

203 apparitions at La Salette and Fatima_4S6 Also, the crimson hue of the magic slippers which she gives to Dorothy is frequently a symbol for Passion, especially of a sexual nature. In this light,

Dorothy's meticulous care of the ruby slippers, against the express temptations of the Witch, could symbolize virginal purity. However,ignoring such details, one should note that the presence of such 'spirit helpers' is a common feature in tales of mythic pilgrimage. Hence, the defining characteristic of Dorothy in this picture is 'pilgrim virgin'. Though not quite in the same sense, it may be worth noting that since Vatican IT, Catholicism has frequently commented on the

Virgin Mary as a pilgrim in faith.

Dorothy's audience with the Wizard in Emerald City clearly resembles Elohist theophanies in Scripture. In the film, the 'pillars of flame and clouds of smoke' at his manifestation are far more mystical than Baum's original description, which included three other non-Biblical images in the text. However, the novel does have all visitors don green-tinted glasses in the Emerald City, for, like the Elohist accounts, no one can directly view the Wtzard unscathed!

The witch is a throughly demonic antagonist, a fact emphasized by the background scoring ofMoussorgsky's music in her castle. Also, the way she vanishes into smoke when drenched, calls to mind folk tales in which demons are repelled by the sprinkling of Holy Water. Her severe, but unwarranted, enmity with the heroine, is structurally similar to the conventional symbolism of

4S6 Hence, a case might also be made for Glinda as a Marian figure within the symbolic convention of dea ex machina. Her mystical opposition to the Wicked Witch meets the Marian convention of'opponent of demons' as well as Dorothy's struggle does. Also, in relation to Dorothy, this heavenly Patron stands as something of a Mother figure as well. Such an interpretation would be more in line with Catholic piety which predates Vatican IT, as did the making of this film.

204 7 Mary as opponent of the demons. After her liquidation, the joyful shouts of ''Hail to Dorothy',.. 5 on bended knee, may well elicit thoughts of the Catholic devotional tradition on Mary.

A number of these pQints have been noted by other critics. Cochrane, for example, finds that the plot structure of Fleming's film resembles that of epic myths about 'hero journey': ''When we compare Campbell's full paradigm of the myth with the structure of The Wizard ofOz, striking similarities emerge. ,,..58 He also wrote that the appearance of the Wizard "shows every indication of having been influenced by the concept of the mysterium tremendum of nineteenth century piety.',..59 In his doctoral dissertation,460 Nathanson agrees with Cochrane on the theophany and pilgrimage imagery in the film. He went even further, comparing the pilgrimage motif to that of

Christian religious journey: "Just as Dorothy's quest begins in Oz and concludes in Kansas, the

Christian pilgrimage begins in this world and concludes in the next. 461 Hence, pilgrimage hymns emphasize both the transience of earthly life and the eternity of heavenly life.'>462 Additionally,

457 Explicitly identified as 'the good little girl who destroyed all ... wickedness'!

458 J. Scott Cochrane, ''The WJ.Zard ofOz and Other Mythic Rites ofPassage," in John R. May's, ed., Image and Likeness: Religious Visions in American Film Classics (NY: Paulist Press, 1992) : pp. 79-86.

459 Cochrane, p. 83 .

460 Paul Nathanson, Over the Rainbow: The Wizard of Oz as a Secular Myth ofAmerica (NY: State University ofNew York Press, 1991).

461 Though one's initial assumption might be that Oz and its Emerald City should be the goal of pilgrims and the mundane farm of Kansas only the initial point of departure, Nathanson's thesis defends the opposite case. The Emerald City represents any modem big city with the latest technology and architecture, the point of departure for pilgrims desiring an eschatological paradise beyond their mundane experience. For Nathanson, Dorothy's farm in Kansas represents a return to the Garden ofEden, the ultimate goal of human seeking.

462 Natahanson, p. 208.

205 referring to Olinda and the Wicked Witch: ''The cosmic forces represented by these two characters apparently correspond to traditional notions of angels and demons, respectively. '>463

Finally, he also discerned the sexual implications symbolized by the ruby slippers: 'lhe color red is very often found in fairy tales as blood. When the story is about a girl, this often refers to menstrual blood and the onset of puberty; examples of this would include Snow White and The Sleeping Beauty .... In a movie about a young girl whose dream has a plot that virtually revolves around possession of magical red objects, it seems safe to suggest that the symbolic reference is to blood, and very likely to be menstrual blood. '>464 The impressions of these other viewers are similar to those listed above and, hence lend support to the Marian applications derived from them.

The next question is how well they correspond to the communicative intent of the author.

The symbols of mythic pilgrimage and angelic and demonic spirits are so eviden~ that they need no special consideration. The theophanic character of the Wizard's appearance finds support in redaction analysis with Baum's original as well as in the quasi-biblicallangauge: ''No one can look directly at him".465 Similarly, we may assume specific intentionality in the ruby slippers which were not mentioned in the novel. All this is, admittedly, modest evidence for authorial intent.

Regrettably, for this particular film, such evidence will always be limited due to the large number of people who have had input to the creative process:

During its eighteen month production period, the film had ten writers, four directors, a

463 Nathanson, p. 226

464 Nathanson, p. 74

465 Cochrane, p. 233

206 variety of actors, and dozens of disparate creative inputs. No auteur theory could deal adequately with the collective energies which coalesced into the final film. Ifone were to identify an auteur, that unifying vision would have to be given to Baum himself, but the film is far from a simple retelling ofBaum's original narrative. Rather, the film must be regarded as a significant transformation of the story into an original cinematic entity which both extends and re-signifies the narrative myth through a fresh and powerful contemporary visual form.466

Based on the analysis above, perhaps symbolic illustrations of certain Marian traits may legitimately be considered as part of this re-signification. In any case, there are a number of points, based explicitly in elements of Fleming's film and supported by the interpretations of others which the Marian scholar may bring to the table for discussion within the dialectic of the hermeneutic circle. The same may be said for Snow White, Splash, The Natural, and no doubt, a number of other quality popular films. We may hope that such catechetical ventures, drawing on the appeal of popular culture, will yield good results in the pastoral sphere.

466 Cochrane, p. 79

207 Dramas with 'Marian Illustrations'

Year Title Director

1999 The Phantom Menace George Lucas 1995 Lilian's Story Jerzy Domaradzki 1995 Powder Victor Salva 1995 The Prophecy Gregory Widen 1988 The Jeweler's Shop Michael~derson 1986 Poltergeist II Brian Gibson 1986 The Sacrifice ~drei Tarkovsky 1985 The Book of Mary ~e Marie Mieville 1984 The Natural Barry Levinson 1984 Splash Ron Howard 1983 Sister ~gelica Brian Large 1982 The Visitor Jeff Perry 1979 The Thirteenth Day Leo Penn 1968 The Fall and Redemption of Man John Bowen 1966 Giles Goat Boy John Barth 1964 A Fistful of Dollars Sergio Leone 1960 Esther and the King Raoul Walsh 1960 The Story of Ruth Henry Koster 1960 Tidings of Joy Elizabeth McFadden 1959 ~gel in a Taxi ~tonio Leonviola 1959 The Virgin Spring lngmar Bergman 1956 Manuel the Mexican Carlo Coccioli 1951 Miracle in Milan Vittorio de Sica 1948 Queen Esther John T. Coyle 1939 The Wtzard of Oz Victor Fleming 1928 Street ~gel Frank Borzage 1927 Jesus in the Bohemian Forest Robert Michel 1924 Revelation George D. Baker 1924 The Vrrgin Alvin J. Neitz 1919 Demian Herman Hesse 1917 Mountains of the Virgins Alexandre Sanine 1913 Judith ofBethulia D. W. Griffith 1910 Emanuel Quint Gerhart Hauptmann 1895 A Singular Life Elizabeth Stuart Phelps 1872 The True History of Josha Davidson Elizabeth Lynn-Linton

208 Theological Appraisal

Having surveyed the Marian content within all the different classes and subclasses noted earlier, we are now in a position to recap important insights, with particular emphasis on those with theological significance. There is, of course, a vast corpus of documentation examining various cinematic topics, including a number of works on religion in film. Further, our review of relevant literature found a number of useful sources directly focused on the topic of Mary in

Cinema. Of these, the most thorough were Ayfre's La Vierge Marie et le Cinema in volume five of du Manoir' s Maria series ( 1958), the two-part article in Spiazzi' s 1954 Encic/opedia mariana

<>: "La Madonna nel cinema" by Regnoli and "Saggio di Filmografia" by Chiti,

Esposito's article on Cinema in De Fiores' Nuovo Dizionario Di Mariologia (1985); and Zwick's

"Maria im Film" in Beinert's Handbuch der Marienkunde volume 2 (1997). In English, the only reference to our specific topic is Malone's 1992 ''Mary on the Screen" which, though brief, still offers a quality overview to its audience.

None of these works may be considered comprehensive, since the largest filmographies include fewer than 150 titles. The works from the 1950s are especially lacking, in view of the constant developments in cinema. Further, all these texts are quite limited in the amount of qualitative description presented with the films studied. Finally, note that the terminology and organizational categories used varies considerably between authors. Still, it must be admitted that a solid core of reference materials on Mary in Film exists in the major languages of the Western

World.

Insights based on official Catholic documents on r.tm

There is another body of literature dealing with theological issues involving films, rather

209 than with aesthetic or academic concerns. Though no ecclesiastical text focuses on Marian films per se, there are five official documents which offer norms for interpreting films from a Catholic religious perspective, including some norms concerning works with specific religious themes:

Aetatis Novae (1992)~ Communio et Progressio (1971)~/nter Mirifica (1963)~Miranda Prorsus

(1957)~ and Vigi/anti Cura (1936).

Vigilanti Cura repeatedly stressed one theme relevant to the appraisal of films from a

Catholic perspective: Films should be evaluated in light of Christian moral norms and the natural moral law. From this perspective, those which enoble human beings should be supported and those which invite moral harm should be avoided. Vigi/anti Cura failed to consider the possibility of portraying moral evil within a constructive context. The possibility that Christian elements, like the Marian symbol, might be used to balance or correct certain moral deviations within a film's overall context was not considered in this document. This is understandable given the early state of theological reflection on the mass media at that time.

From the aforementioned perspective, the fact that the female protagonist in Fellini's

Nights of Cabiria works as a prostitute becomes an important factor in evaluating the overall suitability of the film. Similarly, the limited nudity displayed by the female lead in Splash is a consideration in assessing this film. In my opinion, Cabiria's unsavory occupation was in no way glamorized or endorsed in Fellini's classic, quite the opposite. Similarly, the restrained use of nudity in Splash was intended to emphasis the [Edenic] innocence of the character, not for sensational gratuitous impact. Of course, moral issues needing scrutiny are not limited to those of a sexual nature. The violence shown in the numerous 'gangster films' of the period was a matter of special concern at the time VC was composed. However, the slaughter which concludes

210 Griffith's Intolerance is clearly no endorsement of violence, but rather a tragically enobling call to peaceful co-existence.

In these cases, and others like them, the films do not appear to be inviting moral harm and hence, do not merit criticism under the norms of Vigi/anti Cura. Still the desire to limit occasions of moral harm is an important consideration in appraising films, Marian or otherwise, from a

Christian perspective.

Miranda Prorsus (MP) is a continuation of the teachings in Vigilanti Cura. The earlier document's aforementioned emphasis on the moral implications of films is restated. However,

MP added a concern for media to serve truth in its presentations, especially the divinely revealed truths of the Christian religion. This is an important criterion to consider in evaluating films.

For example, in Arcand's Jesus ofMontreal, characters express their belief in Jesus' illegitimacy a number of times, an opinion plainly incompatible with a revealed truth of the faith.

Though a fine film from the aesthetic and dramatic perspective, it fails in this element to 'serve the truth' as required by MP. When the person of Mary is directly presented in a film, MP would insist that required teachings about her derived from Scripture or Tradition should be respected.

The film reviewer for the Catholic Bishops in America, Henry Herx, rated the film A-IV, i.e. for adults, with reservations. ''This refers to certain movies that are not morally offensive in and of themselves but do require some analysis and explanation to avoid mistaken interpretations and false conclusions.•>467 Presumably, the 'analysis' and 'explanation' required to deal positively with Arcand's film would include catechetical instruction to clarify that Catholics believe that

Jesus had no human father and was conceived miraculously by a virgin mother. Further, it should

467 Herx, p. 2.

211 mention that while people, like certain characters in the film, may sincerely believe otherwise, even after honest research, Christians believe that their conclusions are neither undeniable, nor valid. Though concerns over doctrinal orthodoxy will be a lasting issue, Jesus ofMontreal is the only film listed in our database which directly challenged the legitimacy of Jesus.

Miranda Prorsus also acknowledged the propriety of giving qualified recommendations to some films. As noted above, it appears that the film Splash need not be condemned in toto as dangerous to audience morals. However, this recommendation should be qualified by noting the greater potential danger of its nude scenes for young people working towards a mature and responsible attitude toward human sexuality. Such an evaluation seems to accord with the norms in MP. Again, though Splash has been used as an example, many other films will require similar treatment.

Vatican IT's Inter Mirifica dealt only briefly with Christian perspectives on the media, delegating a more complete treatment to a later commission. However, some points were discussed of relevance to the interpretation of films. First, note that the Council affirmed the potential of mass media like films for presenting evangelical themes and other ethical teaching. In the 1950s, Saint Paul Media had already produced a number of 16 mm films on a variety of catechetical topics, including Mary. In recent times, Creative Communications Corporation has done several animated features on Marian apparitions and the lives of certain well-known Saints; while Family Theater has made several live-action videos illustrating the Catholic world-view.

Also, Vatican IT explicitly stated that, properly done, the depiction of moral evil might serve catechetical purposes. In The Godfather, Part II, Michael Corleone murders his Brother as he recites the 'Hail Mary', unquestionably a depiction of moral evil of the gravest order. Yet, in

212 the sequel, Michael confesses this sin to a Priest with deep regret, initiating a lengthy and painful

process of repentance and conversion. This is a good example of how the depiction of moral evil

may be used to affirm proper behavior, a technique which has the blessing of the Second Vatican

Council.

Communio et Progressio (CP) was produced by the PCSC at the Council's request. The

document is lengthy and thorough, covering many issues of concern mostly to media

professionals. However, in regard to doctrinal matters, one section offers some important insights

for appraising films:

It must be taken that the truths of the faith express the very essence of the Church and therefore do not leave room for arbitrary interpretations. Nonetheless, the Church moves with the movement of man. She therefore has to adapt herself to the specific circumstances that arise out of time and place. She has to consider how the truths of the Faith may be explained in different times and cultures. She has to reach a multitude of decisions while adjusting her actions to the changes around her. While the individual Catholic follows the Magisterium, he can and should engage in free research so that he may better understand revealed truths or explain them to a s9ciety subject to incessant change.461

The importance of upholding doctrinal truths is here restated as in Miranda Prorsus.

However, considerable latitude was given for culturally-conditioned innovations. The interior

strength and orientation to communal leadership which Mary exhibits in Mary, Mother ofHer Son may certainly be justified for its appeal to a contemporary American audience concerned with the

dignity of women, even though the Scriptures are quite sketchy about many details ofMary's

character. Even the 'valley girl' presentation of the teen-age Mary in Mary and Joseph: A Story

ofFaith may be condoned for the same reasons, at least with a young American audience. In fact,

213 though Peter Malone reviewed the film critically in ''Mary on the Screen", he appended the following comments to me in a later email:

Since I wrote the article, I used clips of the movie with secondary school students who responded very positively to it - it resonated with them as teenagers and with the soap opera styles they were used to. So, despite adults thinking it was too cute and commercial, the teenagers got some understanding ofMary.469

CP also explicitly affirmed that 'Comics' and illustrated stories could be used to present

Scriptural narratives or stories from the lives of saints. 470 Since the document was released in

1971, a slew of animated video productions have been made which do just that. Often these are aimed at a young audience, and benefit from the natural affinity children have for cartoons.

However, they have additional advantages. Visual representations of elaborate supernatural events, like the 'miracle of the sun' at Fatima, can be done more easily, cheaply and often, more spectacularly,471 in animation than in live photography. Also, the physical appearance of animated characters may be used as a natural means to suggest the alterity of a supernatural creature, like an Angel, glorified Saint, or even a human person under a special influence of grace during their earthly life.

Aetati3 ~vovae added little in terms of interpretive norms. However, while affirming the need to present authentic teaching, the document went even further to encourage innovation:

It is not enough to use the media simply to spread the Christian message and the Church's

469 From an email dated 1/20/2000. 47°Cf CP #136.

471 The Annunciation to Mary in Larry Biren' sA Royal Crown: The King Born in Bethlehem (1992) is an impressive example. He used computer-generated animation to portray Gabriel's presence with pulsating psychedelic lights.

214 authentic teaching. It is also necessary to integrate that message into the 'new culture" created by modern communications ... with new languages, new techniques and a new psychology.472

This statement opens the door to consideration of a whole variety of new approaches, styles and technical invention. So-called 'experimental films' may not be dismissed from consideration as suitable for presenting Gospel material. In fact, some experimental films have already been made exploring Marian themes. 473 From the perspective of Aetatis Novae, such films may be considered for suitability on a case-by-case basis and not simply dismissed as a group.

Having reviewed the contents of these five Catholic documents for general theological norms, we will consider theological issues raised in specific films and types of films.

Theological issues related to Marian lectures

As noted earlier, films with Marian content can be subdivided into the broad categories of lecture, documentary and drama. Of these Lectures are the smallest group, with 108 titles currently in the database. These works emphasize the oral communication of information and generally present a minimum of dramatic and elaborate visual content. Hence, the key criterion for theological evaluation is the requirement that these films 'serve truth', especially divinely- revealed truths of the Christian Faith. The vast majority of these videos were produced by

Catholics for a Catholic audience and generally may be commended for fidelity to Catholic doctrine. Of the 54 titles with a catechetical orientation, only one caused any concerns in this area. In George Torok's theologically-progressive Mary Today (1990), critical academic

4n AN#20.

473 E.g. Armando Armstrong's Animation for Fallen Catholics (1992) and Larry Jordan's Our Lady of the Spheres (1969).

215 opinions are used to justify downplaying the value of the Infancy Narratives in Scripture for forming an accurate understanding of the person of Mary. For example, the 'Mothers and

Brothers' pericopes are used to emphasize Mary's apathy concerning her Son's public ministry, a different attitude than one might expect of Mary given the predictions about Jesus' destiny made to her in the Lucan Infancy Narrative. The overall portrait of Mary which results reflects a rather

'low Mariology'.

From the other perspective, that of a 'high Mariology', we may advise caution towards two lectures shown on EWTN in regard to anticipating the Catholic Church in the development of doctrine. Mary, Mediatrix ofAll Graces (1997) and Why we need Mary as a Mediatrix (1997) both encourage Magisterial approval for a new Marian title not yet being promoted by the

Catholic hierarchy. However, the speakers explicitly affirm their willingness to accept decisions of the Magisterium on the matter. Further, since this matter has not been definitively resolved, free discussion using the mass media, was not only allowed, but even encouraged, in CP # 117.

Generally speaking, catecheticallectures on Mary simply reflect the Catholic understanding of Mary in the era after Vatican IT. Of course, the vast majority of these were made after 1970.

There were also 27 titles on the topic of various reported apparitions. Of these, 9 covered events approved by the Catholic Church: Fatima; Akita; Czestochowa; Lourdes; and the Divine

Mercy apparitions. Th~ remainder discuss reported apparitions which have not been approved:

Garabandal; Marlboro, New Jersey; Fr. Gobbi's Marian Movement ofPriests;474 and several on

474 Though the Marian Movement of Priests operates in accord with ecclesiastical direction, to date, no judgement has been made affirming the supernatural character of the locutions reported by Fr. Gobbi, himself.

216 Medjugotje. One might be concerned that lectures on unapproved sites outnumber those of approved sites, however, it should be noted that no lectures have been marketed promoting formally disapproved sites like Bayside, New York. Further, though the above lectures are generally supportive of the reported supernatural events, they generally manifest acceptance of the

Catholic Church's role in the final discernment process.

Theological issues related to Marian documentaries

The number ofMarian documentaries is considerably larger with 295 titles in our database. Of this total, excepting those on religious art, only 9 titles examined Mary from a secular or academic perspective. Each of these was shown on a specialty network like ARTE,

A&E or PBS. Hence, they were shown to relatively small audiences which, we may assume, are atypical in terms of academic interest. 47s Perhaps we may conclude that the general public generally does not limit its interest in Mary to a secular and academic perspective. In any case, even in this subclass, none of these features directly opposed traditional Marian dogmas like the virginal conception, perpetual virginity and divine maternity. Further, though some of these films explicitly did raise questions in these areas, none did so confrontationally, or in a manner demeaning to Catholic beliefs. For example, Mary ofNazareth from Lifetime's Biography series, spent considerable time on the question of whether Is 7:14 prophesied a virginal conception.

As we saw with lectures, many documentaries examined reported Marian apparitions. Of these 65 dealt with approved Marian sites: Lourdes; Fatima; Guadalupe; Knock; Pontmain and

Akita; while 40 examined unapproved sites: Conyers, Georgia; Garabandal; and Medjugorje. If

47s Of course, the audience for Catholic catechetical and devotional videotapes is also an atypical niche market.

217 there was any reason for concern over the treatment of unapproved sites in lectures, there is much less in considering documentaries, especially if we note that 33 titles dealt with the single topic of

Medjugorje. Also, as with lectures, no documentaries have been made on formally disapproved sites; and those dealing with unapproved sites generally showed acceptance of the Catholic

Church's discernment process.

Theological issues related to Marian dramas

The super-class of dramas with Marian content is the largest category by far, in large part due to the inclusion of films in which Mary is referenced only by a visual image or an oral statement. Dramas in which Mary appears in person are considerably fewer. Of these titles, 72 portray the earthly life of Mary ofNazareth, usually as a supporting character in films about the earthly life of Jesus. The vast majority of these films closely follow the Biblical accounts, presenting Mary primarily in the context of the infancy of Jesus or ofhis death.

Nine films, denoted as 'Life of Mary' films, present Our Lady as the principal protagonist.

Out of dramatic necessity, these tales add material not explicitly described in Scripture's modest presentation of the Virgin ofNazareth. The earliest of these films, Cordero's Mater Der"'16 (1950) recreated events mentioned in the Gospels as well as in Apocryphal accounts. The remaining eight films did not portray events from Mary's life found only in the Apocrypha. Each was made well after Vatican IT and, in this aspect, reflect the Council's de-emphasizing of these legendary accounts. Rather their tendency was to elaborate on Scriptural episodes with details added for dramatic effect. For example, while Matthew and Luke simply mention the betrothal of Mary and

Joseph, several films show aspects of their courtship and public betrothal.

476 Available from the Italy's Lux Vide

218 Similarly, while the Infancy Narratives mention angelic manifestations to Mary and to

Joseph, they offer few details helpful for constructing a visual representation of the events. Early

Life of Christ films showed Gabriel via direct shots of an actor, often with a ghostly aspect via

double exposure. However, these later Life of Mary films generally portrayed the event in less

concrete visual terms.

For example, Kowalski's The Nativity (1978), suggested Gabriel's presence by light reflected from a stream. In Delannoy'sMarie de Nazareth (1993), the angelic messenger

manifested himself only in a spotlight shining on Mary and in accompanying gusts of wind. In

NBC's recent Mary, Mother ofJesus (1999), though Gabriel appeared in the form of a male

actor, a visually-impressive special-effect was used to make his garments appear translucent and filled with light. These examples are part of greater trend to more mystical portrayals of the

supernatural in more recent films. In Ze:ffirelli's 1976 Life of Christ, Jesus ofNazareth, the

Announcement to Mary was made by light streaming through a window. In Delannoy's 1988

Bernadette, only wind was used to suggest the source of the seer's vision.

Specific Doctrinal Issues

It is also worth noting that two aspects of earlier Catholic catechetical teaching on Mary

are not supported in some of these recent films. In Kow8Iski' s film and also in Eric Till's 1979

Mary and Joseph: A Story ofFaith, the couple explicitly discuss their plans to have children, a fact not compatible with the 'vow of virginity' frequently ascribed to them before Vatican TI.

Similarly, in the films by Kowalski, Till, Delannoy and Ze:ffirelli, Mary was portrayed

experiencing labor pains during a rather typical delivery, a point running counter to older

219 teachings about her in partu virginity. 477 Of course, all these films were produced well after

Albert Mitterer's theological work initiated considerable debate on the topic in Catholic circles during the 1950s. Also, though teachings about Mary's pre-nuptial 'vow of virginity' and about biological aspects of her delivery were once commonly taught among Catholics, neither represents a revealed truth of the faith. These films may not be criticized on that account. Rather, the comments which these films make against those two doctrines may be seen as evidence relative to the consensus fldelium should a definitive ruling ever be made. By contrast, required beliefs like the virginal conception, divine maternity and perpetual virginity of Mary have not been widely contested in either 'Life of Christ' or 'Life of Mary' films.

The subgroup of dramas about Marian apparitions includes 26 titles, all of which dealt with sites approved by the Catholic Church, especially Lourdes, Fatima and Guadalupe. The only drama to explore an apparition site not yet approved by the Church was Jakov Sedlar's Gospa

(1995). However, the reported supernatural events at Medjugmje were totally incidental to the film's plot and were mentioned only in passing. Presumably, this strong bias towards approved sites, reflects respect for the role of the Catholic Church in discerning the authenticity of these sites.

Suggesting the Supernatural Visually?

Theologically, these films offer little to be analyzed beyond what could be learned by reviewing textual accounts of the apparitions. However, since film is a visual rather than a verbal medium, one important issue arises: how should one portray supernatural events. For example,

477 Aspects debated in regard to Mary's continued virginity in delivering Jesus included not only whether she experienced labor pains, but also detailed anatomical points about how she avoided physical distortions associated with childbirth.

220 though Mary appeared bodily [and fully human] to the children at Fatima, they reported that she was refulgent with light.

Also, the Fatima apparitions concluded with an unprecedented solar prodigy. Events such as these, if one chooses to attempt to recreate the reported events faithfully, certainly can not be captured by direct natural photography. While special effects can produce images beyond natural appearance, a question remains whether these unusual portrayals capture the unusual original

phenomenon well. For example, in Song ofBernadette (1943) or Miracle of Our Lady ofFatima

(1952), the Madonna was portrayed by direct shots of an actress bathed in a spotlight. The impression left was not very supernatural. Similarly, Urban Nagle's 1948 stage play about Fatima suggested the use of colored spot lights for the 'miracle of the sun', hardly effective in recreating

a phenomenon which struck mortal terror into thousands of observers in 1917.

By contrast, the apophatic approach has also been tried. In discussing 'Life of

Christ/Mary' films, we saw that angelic visitations have been portrayed indirectly in some more recent films. Similarly, Delannoy's 1988 Bernadette also limited its portrayal ofMary's presence to the use of wind and light. The audience was not allowed a glimpse into the seer's vision. Of

course, this corresponds to a factual aspect of apparitions: not everyone present during an apparition witnesses a supernatural manifestation.

A number of these apparition films have been animated. Perhaps, this medium provides a useful tertium quid between direct photography and apophatic suggestions. No matter how

precisely drawn, animated characters naturally convey a non-mundane aspect which may be useful in suggesting supernatural presence. Further, animated features can often portray supernatural

events more strikingly, and at less expense, than photographic special effects. Even so, we must

221 accept that recreations of supernatural phenomena will always have limitations. The transcendent

is precisely that which differs from anything in the mundane order.

The class of 'Marian films' in which Mary does not appear directly but is alluded to via a

symbolic representation includes 209 titles. Of these, 145 used a concrete image or verbal

statement to reference the person of Mary. From the frequency of examples over time and across

national boundaries, it appears that certain implications have become conventional for the use of these brief, but explicit Marian signifiers: indicator of death or possible death~ comparative

standard for measuring the virtue or vice of a character~ opponent of the demons~ analogue of the

female romantic lead~ dea ex machina~ and Catholic or ethnic artifact.

Pastoral implications of films presenting Mary

The existence of these cultural stereotypes has significant pastoral implications. They

inform us of shared beliefs held by a large segment of the populace, facts immediately useful for

preparing various ministry programs. These Marian conventions form the foundation from which

additional doctrinal formation may proceed most easily. In some cases, they represent obstacles

which catechists should take special care to correct.

An example is the use of the Marian symbol in association with miraculous positive

resolutions of difficult situations, denoted by the phrase dea ex machina. On the plus side, this

phenomenon shows a widespread acceptance of the notion of spiritual helpers, a notion readily

compatible with Christian teaching on the intercessory power of Mary and the saints. However,

this perspective could easily be distorted into an overconfidence in beneficial providence which

treats prayers like magic incantations. The titles in our database are slanted toward the latter

pole. As with the deus ex machina of early Greek drama, miraculous Marian interventions usually

222 manifest an unimaginative and unrealistic plot device for positively resolving an otherwise irremediable sequence of events.

The convention associating Mary with death is also a double-edged sword. Catholic teaching, as is clearly seen in the current form of the 'Hail Mary', affirms the value of intercessory prayer when death is proximate. The conventional cinematic association of Mary with death is compatible with this point of doctrine. However, it is clearly unhealthy for this association to be emphasized over others. Mary's life provides an example relevant to birth, marriage, child­ rearing, friendly solidarity, religious commitment and many other vibrant activities beyond the sorrowful acceptance of death exemplified by the Addolorata.

The Christian perspective that rejects death as an absolute end to personal existence should also be noted. The database includes examples in which Mary was invoked by characters in danger of dying. In these cases, the benefit hoped from Mary was the protection of physical life. However, Marian symbols were also shown surrounding the death beds of characters in several films. In these cases, the benefit expected from the Vrrgin is quite different than the mere prolongation of physical life~ it is aid in preparing for the next world. Explicitly, these symbols signify the proximity of physical death. Implicitly though, they suggest a desire to provide for the spiritual welfare of the deceased.

The motif of Mary as the opponent of demons could simply be seen as dramatic illustration of an opinion long expressed by Catholic -yvriters. This popular convention may be particularly valuable at the present time in which many reject traditional Christian doctrine on the existence and influence of evil spirits. The fact that this theme- appears often in our database of titles, as well in many other popular films, suggests that the aforementioned skeptics form a

223 minority of the audience population. The contrasting extreme suggests that caution be used to

avoid overemphasizing the activity of demons to an extent that minimizes God's beneficial

providence or the responsibility of human persons endowed with free will.

Using Marian symbols to signify a character's virtue by affinity, or vice by contrast, is

acceptable only in the general sense. The technique could certainly be effective based on the

aforementioned theoretical research ofKuleshov on 'linkages'. 4711 Problems arise when one

extends the parallel into too many specific details. For example, a soldier shown carrying a rosary

might convey the impression of being a good man. However, viewers should not overdo the implication. This Marian symbol should not suggest that this good man is also a good soldier

since Mary's life had no military associations. Examples in which a particular Marian virtue is focused upon are rather rare, for example, Desdemona's protests of chastity in the opera, Otello.

In this area, the vast majority of titles use the Marian symbol as a vague sign of'goodness' in general. In cinematic convention, Mary has been more an ideal than a model.

The use of the Marian symbol as an ethnic artifact reflects the sociological fact that certain cultures have more overt Marian devotions than others. Within the milieu of cinematic

stereotypes, characters shown with Marian artifacts are usually Hispanic, Irish or Italian. 479 One

problem to be avoided is the implication that Marian devotion is an ethnic phenomenon rather

4711 Cf p. 182.

479 "That Italian Catholics attribute to their saints the power to heal will come as no surprise to most North American readers. After all, Hollywood has given us a great many movies that patronize Latin Catholics by portraying them as having a naive recourse to the Madonna or to some saint in the midst of their troubles." p. 37 in Michael P. Carroll'sMadonnas That Maim: Popular Catholicism in Italy since the Fifteenth Century (Baltimore: The John's Hopkins University Press. 1992).

224 than an important part of universal Christianicy. The same problem arises when Marian symbols

are used as Catholic artifacts. Mary is entitled to respect and devotion by all Christians,

essentially in virtue of the importance of her Son. While this parochial attitude toward Marian

devotion is regrettable, it has some basis in real sociological facts. Vatican II desired that Marian teaching and devotion be both better balanced and more universally accepted. As this occurs, we

may expect to see changes in these Hollywood stereotypes over time.

Finally, let us note the interesting paradox of associating Marian symbols with female

romantic leads. Were the parallel complete, we would expect symbolic Marian figures to live as

consecrated virgins, or perhaps in virginal espousal. However, a number of films first link female

heroines to the figure of Mary and later conclude with typically romantic Hollywood marriages.

In general terms, there is warrant in Christian Tradition to speak of Mary as ideal woman,

exemplary wife, pre-eminent mother, Eve renewed, symbol of human beauty, etc. However, in the particular station of her earthly life, Mary remained virginal in all respects to the end of her

days. In this case, catechists have the challenge of merging the mythic Mary discussed in glittering generalities with the historical Mary in all her human limitations. The well-tested theological notion of analogy may be of great use here. Analogy acknowledges similarities in

certain aspects between two subjects while concurrently affirming the dissimilarity of other

aspects.

Finally, we consider those films which allude to Mary indirectly with a character having one or more traits in common with Our Lady. The aforementioned concept of analogy is generally applicable in explicating these cases. These films may further be divided between those

225 in which the Marian parallel was intended by the author480 and those in which it derives primarily from audience perception.481

Considering the first group, the most common of these Marian parallels involves the concept of virginal conception. The first film drawing this Marian parallel was Rossellini's II

Miraco/o (1948). However, this theme has been treated many times since, up through the 1990s.

As we saw in regard to the existence of demons, this cinematic convention may suggest, even today, that those who dismiss the reality of Jesus' virginal origins as attested in Scripture comprise a minority of the population. Of course, there is a difference between people's comfort level with a cinematic motif and their rational belief structure. For example, 'action heroes' routinely accomplish feats and overcome obstacles, to the delight of audiences, which are beyond what may reasonably be expected in real life situations.

Another frequent aspect used to make comparisons with Mary is 'Mother of the Messiah', sometimes via an antithetical typology in regard to the antichrist. A less frequent motif is Mary as

'ideal Mother' in affinity to an exemplary maternal character or in contrast to a poor mother.

The remaining group of 34 titles is harder to define since, by definition, it excludes those films in which a Marian reference is direct and explicit. These films, or any mass-release films for that matter, can shed light on broad attitudes held by large segments of the populace. Such insights may often by utilized as praeambu/a fidei for further presentation of similar Gospel themes.

For example, the popularity of The Wizard of Oz testifies to the audience's acceptance of

480 29 titles

411 34 titles

226 many of its underlying motifs. Essentially the story is a 'coming of age' tale involving a life pilgrimage undertaken at the request of supernatural messengers. In Christian terms, it is a

'vocation call' story. Stated in these broad terms, parallels to Mary's story are apparent. In the previous chapter, we saw that other stories in which parallels might be seen may also be presented. For those familiar and comfortable with certain films, these parallels might be used to initiate neophytes into the story of Mary of Nazareth and into the Gospel story as a whole.

In this case, and with any films used for this purpose, one should be cautious not to draw parallels at too detailed a level. While Mary did, indeed, set off on her life pilgrimage after receiving a supernatural message, Scripture does not tell us that she, for example, owned a dog, or that she could sing as well as Judy Garland. Using films in which Marian symbolism is implicit at best, for catechesis will be more an art than a science. Still, this technique offers a potentially useful technique for the evangelization of that large segment of contemporary Western society which knows and loves motion pictures better than the canonical Scriptures.

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