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Green Revolution G REEN R EVOLUTION A GRICULTURAL AND S OCIAL C HANGE IN A N ORTH I NDIAN V ILLAGE Stanley A. Freed Curator Emeritus, Department of Anthropology American Museum of Natural History Ruth S. Freed Research Associate, Department of Anthropology American Museum of Natural History A NTHROPOLOGICAL PAPERS OF T HE A MERICAN M USEUM OF N ATURAL H ISTORY NUMBER 85, 312 PAGES, 63 FIGURES, 6 TABLES ISSUED DECEMBER 2002 ABSTRACT In the mid-1960s, rural India passed through a period of rapid technological and social change known as the Green Revolution. It was the transition from basically subsistence peasant farming at a low technological level to expen- sive commercial farming with modern technology. Five major sociotechno- logical innovations were basic to the Green Revolution: the development of high-yielding varieties of food grains, especially wheat and rice; land consoli- dation; private tubewell irrigation; mechanization; and the use of factory fer- tilizers and pesticides. New sources of energy, electricity and the internal com- bustion engine, which replaced bullock power, and the financial infrastructure that enabled farmers to buy the new equipment—tractors, tubewells, and threshers—represented a fundamental change. If the Green Revolution is taken in its broadest sense to include much higher educational levels and new employment opportunities in modern occupations, then the economy of Shanti Nagar, whose principal component is still agriculture, has been transformed. This work is the 11th in a series of monographs, all published in the Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History, devoted to the description and analysis of life in Shanti Nagar (a pseudonym), a village in the Union Territory of Delhi. Our research is based on holistic fieldwork carried out in the village in 1957–1959 and 1977–1978, dates which make it possible to compare the village just before and after the Green Revolution. The most visible results of the Green Revolution were substantially increased pro- duction of the new high-yielding varieties of grain and increased prosperity for farmers, and indeed for almost all villagers. Because of the Green Revolution and associated developments in education and employment, the villagers of Shanti Nagar now lead a modern style of rural life supplemented by urban employment. These changes have also had the effect of enhancing equality, one of India’s greatly desired social goals. COVER ILLUSTRATION Women winnowing wheat in 1958, before the Green Revolution of the mid- 1960s. Copyright © American Museum of Natural History 2002 ISSN 0065-9452 CONTENTS L ISTS OF TABLES AND I LLUSTRATIONS v P REFACE vii I NTRODUCTION 1 Shanti Nagar: An Overview 1 Fieldwork, 1957–1959 8 Return to Shanti Nagar 13 The Green Revolution 19 1: LAND AND M ODES OF C ULTIVATION 31 Area and Ownership by Caste 31 Consolidation 35 Comparison with Land Consolidation in Peyrane, France 48 Transfer of Title and Mortgage 64 Modes of Cultivation, Land, and Labor: 1950s 82 Modes of Cultivation, Land, and Labor: 1970s 91 2: AGRICULTURE, KHARIF S EASON 101 Sugarcane 103 Tomatoes versus Sugarcane 115 Tomato Cultivation 117 Delhi Vegetable Market 125 Finance 130 Jowar 133 Bajra 135 Paddy 138 Maize 145 Cotton 146 San, Sani, and Daincha 148 Gowar and Lobiya 151 3: AGRICULTURE: FLOWERS, FRUIT, AND T REES 152 4: AGRICULTURE, RABI S EASON 161 Wheat 161 Wheat, 1958, from Plowing to Harvest 165 Wheat, 1977–1978, from Plowing to Harvest 175 Wheat, 1958, from Harvest to Storage and Sale 194 Wheat, 1978, from Harvest to Storage and Sale 200 Barley 219 iv CONTENTS Clover (Berseem) and Oats 219 Peas 220 Additional (zaid) Rabi 221 5: DOMESTIC A NIMALS 226 Bullocks 228 Male Water Buffalo 230 Zebu and Buffalo Cows 234 6: THE S ECOND G REEN R EVOLUTION: G ENETICALLY M ODIFIED O RGANISMS 250 7: SUMMARY AND C ONCLUSION 263 A PPENDIX 269 Transcription of Hindi Words and Nomenclature 269 Money and Measures 270 N OTES 272 R EFERENCES 281 I NDEX AND G LOSSARY 287 TABLES 1. Population of Shanti Nagar by Caste in 1958–1959 and 1977–1978. 7 2. Education (Years) by Gender, Caste, and Age, 1958–1959 and 1977–1978. 18 3. Land Transfers. 65 4. Families Renting in Land (in bighas) and Their Landlords, 1977–1978. 86–87 5. Cattle in Shanti Nagar by Date of Study. 169 6. Cultivating Families by Number of Bullocks and Average Amount of Land Cultivated. 229 ILLUSTRATIONS 1. Map of Shanti Nagar. 2 2. Sketch map of Shanti Nagar, 1958–1959. 4 3. Sketch map of Shanti Nagar, 1977–1978. 5 4. Cartoon, Charles explains land consolidation. 50 5. Cartoon, French policy of developing the countryside. 53 6. Delhi urban agglomeration. 62 7. Tea shop. 97 8. Planting sugarcane. 104 9. Standard wooden plow. 105 10. Cultivating and weeding sugarcane. 108 11. Sugarcane crusher. 109 12. Making gur. 111 13. Sugarcane crusher, cooling tray, and hut. 112 14. Saving tomato seeds. 118 15. Picking tomatoes. 122 16. Sorting and packing tomatoes. 123 17. Loading tomatoes into cart. 126 18. Opening baskets of tomatoes at the vegetable market. 127 19. Sales agent settling accounts. 130 20. Farmer on platform driving away birds. 136 21. Farmer on ground hurling pellets with a sling. 136 22. Threshing bajra. 137 23. Watering rice seedlings. 140 24. Woman drawing water for rice seedlings. 141 25. Threshing paddy with baskets. 142 26. Threshing paddy with low earthen mound. 143 27. Spinning cotton. 147 v vi TABLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS 28. Transplanting onions. 156 29. Transplanting tobacco. 157 30. Cooking bread. 159 31. Bullocks plowing. 165 32. Camel plowing. 166 33. Leveling a field. 167 34. Women carrying headloads of grass. 168 35. Sowing gochni. 172 36. Sowing wheat. 173 37. Tractor rigged for plowing. 175 38. Smoothing a plowed field. 176 39. Irrigating a wheat field. 180 40. Tractor rigged for making bunds. 181 41. Broadcasting fertilizer. 188 42. Wheat seeder. 189 43. Sowing a wheat field. 189 44. Women harvesting wheat. 194 45. Gleaning in a wheat field. 195 46. Threshing wheat with bullocks and no drag. 196 47. Threshing wheat with a drag of brush. 196 48. Threshing wheat with a stone roller. 197 49. Women winnowing wheat. 198 50. Wheat chaff stored outdoors. 199 51. Woman harvesting wheat, 1978. 201 52. Paying the harvesters. 204 53. Loading wheat sheaves onto a trolley. 207 54. Feeding wheat sheaves into a thresher. 208 55. Threshing mustard with a stick. 213 56. Sohan Lal’s partially dismantled chaff pile. 216 57. Manually operated fodder cutter. 239 58. Powered fodder cutter. 239 59. Woman loading dung onto a tray. 240 60. Making thin dungcakes. 241 61. Large dungcakes drying on the ground. 242 62. Girl milking a water buffalo. 243 63. Woman churning buffalo milk. 245 PREFACE W ITH A POPULATION that recently passed the one billion mark, India will soon become the most populous nation on earth. India is still predominantly rural; about 75% of her people live in some 560,000 villages spread over more than three million square kilometers of variegated terrain. So many villages spread over such a vast ter- ritory means that there can be no typical Indian village. On the other hand, every vil- lage is in some ways typical of India. Believing that India could best be understood by studying life in one of her many villages, we settled in Shanti Nagar in 1958 to begin fieldwork that was ultimately to extend over two decades. When analysis and writing are taken into account, we have devoted the better part of 45 years to trying to explain why this small place is worthy of notice. One reason is our belief that life in Shanti Nagar is generally typical of a large populous and prosperous rural region that extends from Punjab and Haryana to west- ern Uttar Pradesh. The north Indian plain is one of the world’s great agricultural regions. One of today’s major global problems is managing the complex relations of sustainable food production and secure access of every person to basic nutritional requirements while population increases and the natural resource base may be impaired, for example, by “mining” the soil and/or by lowering the water table. Daily and her colleagues argued that the problem has to be studied at the local level. “The influence of household decisions is felt through local interactions . and thence upward globally.... Fine-tuning a system as complex as the food system . will require much more detailed local information than is typically available today” (Daily et al., 1998: 1292). A reliable, practical understanding of the social and environmen- tal milieu of food production needs the local perspective in the form of comprehen- sive village studies. The study of Shanti Nagar is important for another reason. From the 1950s to the 1970s, rural life in North India was marked by rapid social and technological change. In this regard, Shanti Nagar probably represents many, if not most, villages of the region. Although many aspects of village life were strongly affected during the period—for example, education, employment, and intercaste relations—change in agriculture, the economic base of village life, has attracted the most attention. Even the term, “Green Revolution”, as the recent agricultural change is called, has a dra- matic air and compels interest. vii viii PREFACE At the heart of the Green Revolution was the development of high-yielding hybrid varieties of wheat and rice, the basic food grains. Other features of the Green Revolution, such as land consolidation or mechanization, can to some extent be seen as enabling developments that permitted the full exploitation of the new high-yielding varieties. But whatever may be the connection of the new varieties and another devel- opment, such as the large-scale introduction of tractors, either of them could have taken place without the other.
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