1. Theory and Method

1. 2. Theory and method

2.1 Classical Attic grave stelai and funerary practice

2.1.1 Family plots and grave markers Attic cemeteries of the Classical period were situated around the main roads, either outside the Athenian city walls or near settlements in the coun- tryside. Various types of mortuary treatment were practiced in Classical Attica, including inhumations in plain, tile-lined or slab-lined shafts, or clay sarcophagi, and cremations in clay or metal ash-urns, sometimes placed within larger stone or wooden contain- ers. Offerings, in the grave or in special offering pits, consisted typically of pots such as lekythoi and pyxides, strigils, mirrors and toys (Kurtz and Boardman 1970: 90-100). With the exception of infants (special infant cemeteries) and warriors who died in battle (polyandria) individuals were buried in family plots. Most plots included less than six burials (Humphreys 1980: 116), a fact suggesting that they belonged to the im- mediate family, the oikos, rather than the extended genos; this fact is related to the close link between the respons- ibility for construction and maintenance of the family plot and the right to inher- it, restricted among relatives only to cousins and their children, but including adopted children (Alexiou 1974: 20- CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

22; Humphreys 1980: 98-99). Classical The arrangement of the monuments family plots were demarcated by a fronting the roadside, the exploita- rectangular enclosure of dressed stone tion of height for dramatic effect, or clay, lining the main roads going the use of intimidating symbols of through the cemetery. Such funerary strength and power (lions, dogs, periboloi were often decorated by stelai archers, etc.), combined with the bearing a relief representation, and fact that when Demetrios of Phaler- also by plain, tall ‘name stelai’ lacking on terminated the series, his meas- a relief, marble funerary vases with or ure came as part of a comprehens- without a relief, and, occasionally, free- ive strategy designed to curb unne- standing funerary sculptures; a cata- cessary private spending, all seem logue of preserved periboloi, with asso- to indicate that a peribolos was ciated memorials, has been compiled above all a status-symbol, both by Garland (1982). Sumptuous peri- suited for and intended to display boloi typically displayed a tall name wealth to maximum effect (Garland stele flanked by wider relief stelai, and 1982: 132). funerary vases on the corners of the Excluding the initial construction of front side of the enclosure, built of the funerary enclosure, an important dressed stone; stelai were always used part of the funerary expenditure was as grave markers, but many stone represented by the cost of the optional vases may have been mere boundary marker. Apart from stelai set within the stones (Óroi mn»matoj). Stelai showing family plot over specific burials relief funerary vases decorated with (Schlörb-Vierneisel 1964: 90, fig. 1-2; ribbons (‘vase stelai’) may represent Kurtz and Boardman 1970: 98), burials abridged representations of a family were set in the family plot behind the plot; they do not, however, display monumental facade, and were thus dis- stelai, and they are too few to be gen- sociated from stelai. Name inscriptions eric “peribolos substitutes” for the less identified one or more family members well-off (as in Garland 1982: 130-131). as deceased, and occasionally an indi- Conspicuous expenditure was institu- vidual was commemorated by more tionalised in Classical Athens in the than one marker (e.g., C109, Demetria form of liturgies; the necessity for the and Pamphile, Garland 1982: 140). The sumptuary legislation of Demetrios of regular reuse of stelai and their com- Phaleron and the literary references to mon unified appearance on the front the high cost of building a grave side of the enclosure suggests that (Schmaltz 1983: 140-142) demonstrate their cost, visibility and luxury was that the funerary programme was a linked not only with the identity of com- prime domain of conspicuous expendit- memorated individuals, but also with ure as well. The frequent secondary the wealth and status of the oikos at cremation, connected with elaborate the time when they were erected. ritual at the pyre, was more costly than inhumation (Humphreys 1980: 100). 2.1.2 Relief stele representations However, with the restrictions in funer- Most relief representations on Clas- al form and number of mourners and sical Attic stelai display one or more in- the appearance of Classical monument- dividuals in quiet compositions. Al- al periboloi, burial process became less though it has been suggested that both important as conspicuous expenditure chthonic deities and the deceased are than the appearance of the grave: a represented on these reliefs (Couchoud sharp decrease in the number of 1923), there is now general agreement cremations was noted in Athenian that these reliefs show exclusively hu- cemeteries during the fourth century mans; many figures are named by in- BC (Kurtz and Boardman 1970: 96), scriptions set over the image, and after sculptured grave markers became there is no strong differentiation in the popular. In sum: appearance of some figures that would

2 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI allow their interpretation as deities scenes, treaty reliefs) confirms solidar- (Devambez 1930: 213, 218). One- ity as the primary meaning of the ges- figured reliefs have been interpreted as ture. In this light, grave stelai are bet- “idealized visualizations of the dead, as ter regarded as generalized representa- they were when still alive” (Johansen tions of family unity, “which the inter- 1951: 16). On the other hand, alternat- vention of death has failed to sunder” ive interpretations of two- or more- (Johansen 1951: 151; Humphreys 1980: figured compositions have been ad- 113). vanced, identifying them as, (a), tomb It is likely that the representations of cult scenes, representing an apparition Classical Attic stelai, with a few excep- of the dead in front of survivors coming tions such as the stele of Ampharete to administer funerary rites in the (Clairmont 1970: pl. 11), were made to cemetery, in analogy with scenes on order. The tectonic form of small monu- white lekythoi (Schefold 1952, 1970; ments, such as metopic stelai, was Thimme 1964; Schiering 1974), (b), re- probably prepared in advance, but the union scenes, representing the de- small image in the panel could have ceased ancestors welcoming the newly been added in only a short time, after dead in the Underworld (Furtwängler the stele was bought; the great variab- 1883/1887; Devambez 1930), or, (c), ility in specific motifs, objects and ges- farewell scenes, representing the de- tures may have reflected suggestions ceased in the company of members of by the customer. Costly monuments the bereaved family (Young 1936; Jo- such as naiskoi and the larger naiskos hansen 1951: 53, 56-58). stelai were probably made to order, The last two views derive occasional considering the amount of labour and support from actual examples: some the commercial risk involved in their stelai display a human figure in front of production (Schmaltz 1983: 136-138). a clearly funerary monument (e.g., Reworking of the relief, occurring in stele of Hagnostrate, Diepolder 1931: several cases (Schmaltz 1979), is not pl. 32.1), other stelai were, according an argument in favour of the ready- to the epigram, erected after all repres- made production of reliefs: no work- ented figures were deceased (e.g., shop would produce a finished, labour- stele of Andron, Clairmont 1970: pl. costly naiskos stele if it was possible 18). In the majority of cases, however, that the purchaser would request only one figure was designated by equally labour-costly alterations. It is name inscription as deceased when the more likely that alterations in the icon- stele was first erected. ography coincide with a reuse of these The handshake that frequently links monuments to commemorate further the main figures of the representation members of the original or another argues against the ‘cemetery cult’ in- family. terpretation, and has been interpreted If it is assumed that stelai were as a gesture of greeting (in the Under- bought from stock, a range of grave-re- world) or farewell (from the family). liefs must have been available to the Both these “novellistic” identifications purchaser; the representation on the of a specific narrative content in the stele must, therefore have reflected a handshake have been rejected by Jo- conscious choice of the family. This is a hansen, in his attempt to present a uni- fortiori true, if it is accepted, for the fied interpretation of stele iconography, reasons advanced in the last para- but were recently restated by Davies graph, that relief representations were (1985: 629-30). However, there is no made to order. The reliefs were, there- evidence that the handshake had been fore, conscious representations of the used to signify greeting or farewell be- family as it visualized itself in a solemn fore the first Industrial Revolution (Mor- context, stressing traits and qualities ris 1979: 117-118), and other Classical that were considered appropriate and iconography noted by Davies (marriage important, at the expense of those con-

3 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS sidered inappropriate or unimportant. on sculptured stelai, identified with one of the figures; alternatively, the name 2.1.3 Human figures on Classical of the deceased could be added to one Attic stelai of the markers already adorning the family plot (secondary inscription), pos- Name inscriptions were often en- sibly corresponding to a relief figure; in graved over figures on Classical Attic some cases, such as the death of in- stelai, usually on the architrave of fants, the name was not recorded at naiskoi, naiskos stelai and large frame- all. The mode of commemoration de- less stelai, or on the shaft of oblong pended on the identity of the de- metopic or frameless stelai; their one- ceased, the availability of a stele of ap- to-one correspondence to relief figures propriate form (e.g., a name stele for suggests that they were intended to the male head of the family) with ad- identify representations of the named equate space for the name, the avail- individuals. The frequent mention of ability of an appropriate sculptured fig- patronymic name allows often the iden- ure to be identified as her/his repres- tification of kinship relationships. Ex- entation, and financial constraints. cluding a large number of single name inscriptions, most names identify indi- If an individual was commemorated viduals, and therefore sculptured fig- by a new relief representation, the figures, belonging to the same nuclear ure identified by name inscription as family: husband and wife, possibly with the primary deceased of the stele a child or children; a parent, usually the would correspond closely with the indi- father, with a child or children; brothers vidual’s social identity, as perceived by and sisters (Humphreys 1980: 116- the close family circle; in addition, she 117). or he would in all probability be one of, if not the main figure in the composi- Oblong stelai on which there is insuf- tion. If the deceased was commemor- ficient space for side-by-side inscrip- ated by an already erected relief, the tions sometimes show names inscribed relevant sculptured figure would be se- below one another. Assuming that the lected from those still nameless on the figures were conceived as representa- basis of its compositional importance tions of individuals, as shown by the and appropriateness in expressing the similar compositions on stelai with perceived identity of the deceased. The side-by-side name inscriptions, the fre- correspondence of the appearance of a quency of stelai where the name is not figure with the perceived identity of the self-evidently related to a figure sug- deceased was obviously closer when gests that the iconographic traits of the the stele was first erected, and de- figures themselves, including their cos- creased with subsequent use restricting tume, would have provided the ancient the range of possible figure selections. spectator with the key for their identi- However, certain further identifications fication. Other stelai, lacking an inscrip- would be almost predictable from the tion, are iconographically similar to time of the original purchase of the those displaying inscribed names, a stele: a man ordering a stele for his de- fact suggesting that they had the same ceased wife would probably select a function; names may have been origin- composition that would be appropriate ally painted, a method that would facil- for his future death as well. Moreover, itate the reuse of figures for the repres- reworking the traits of sculptured fig- entation of additional, subsequently de- ures, noted above, was apparently ceased individuals. aimed at bringing their appearance to When a member of the family died, line with the identity of the deceased. burial took place in the family plot. A The frequency of erecting a new new stele could be erected for the oc- stele when not all figures of the already casion, and the deceased commemor- existing representation had been ated by primary name inscription, and, named is shown by the existence of

4 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI nameless figures; these include, apart discussion thus includes not only dress, from compositionally secondary and “the process of covering the body”, but iconographically distinct figures that also adornment, that is, the “aesthetic are never named (therefore, represent- aspects of altering the body” (Roach ing accessory social stereotypes such and Eicher 1965: 1). as slaves), figures resembling named In a systematization of earlier de- figures on other stelai. This argument is bate on the origins of dress, it has been based on the assumptions that figures suggested that its three functions are belonging to stelai with proper in- the protection of the body from harm, scribed names did not originally have the concealment (or, conversely, the painted names that are now lost, and display) of parts of the body, and the that these stelai were not the last to be differentiation of one individual or erected in their respective family plots; group from another (Bush and London both assumptions are reasonably real- 1960); according to the emphasis on istic, considering that all advantages of practicality or communication, costume painted names are lost if they are not in general may be seen either as an ob- used for the main figures of the relief, ject (e.g., having a protective function) and that, had there been figures appro- or as a sign (Bogatyrev 1982: 125-130). priate for identification on the last stele However, although costume on Classic- to be erected, they would not have al Attic stelai is an object, related to been unused after the sumptuary legis- certain processes of production lation of 317 BC. Thus, according to the (carving of drapery etc.), like all visual arguments presented here, named fig- or written representations it can only ures on stelai correspond with the iden- function as a pure sign, which “ne sert tity of the deceased as it was perceived plus à proteger, à couvrir ou à parer, by the bereaved family; nameless fig- mais tout au plus à signifier la protec- ures, where inscriptions name others tion, la pudeur ou la parure” (Barthes on the stele, were either not realized 1967b: 18). instances of identification (e.g., a daughter who was subsequently mar- It has been suggested that “in order ried, and was therefore not buried with to grasp the social function of cos- her kin) or representations of accessory tumes we must learn to read them as social stereotypes. signs in the same way we learn to read and understand different languages” (Bogatyrev 1982: 128). In his rigorous attempt to study fashion as a sign sys- 2.2 Costume on stelai and so- tem, Barthes (1967a) makes the dis- cial signification tinction between costume, the code in the system of dress, and clothing, a 2.2.1 Costume as a system of signs specific occurrence of dress, in a similar way to that of language and speech Costume traits of human figure rep- (utterance). The code consists of “the resentations on Classical Attic stelai in- opposition of pieces, parts of garment clude the length and arrangement of and ‘details’, the variation of which en- the hair, the treatment of male facial tails a change of meaning”, known as hair, the combination and arrangement the paradigmatic axis, and of “the rules of clothing items covering the body, or- which govern the association of pieces naments such as earrings, and foot- among themselves”, that is, the syn- gear. Some, such as hair length, relate tagmatic axis (Barthes 1967a: 27). Es- to a more permanent property of the pèces, types of clothing items, are dis- individual represented than other traits, tinguished from variants, specific traits such as footgear. However, theories of of these clothing items; a genre is the costume do not differentiate between set of interchangeable clothing items, strictly bodily traits and the presence which exclude each other from a struc- and form of clothing items (Polhemus tural position (Barthes 1967b: 102- 1978: 149). Costume in the following

5 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

103). transmet un certain sens (Barthes According to this formulation, in- 1967b: 266-267). stances of costume on stelai may be While the empirical relevance of the regarded as structured sets of element- actual categories employed by Barthes ary costume traits, some primary (de- is assured, since they are derived from scribing the presence of costume written descriptions of costume in fash- items) and some conditional and sec- ion magazines (1967b), costume on ondary (describing the qualities of Classical Attic stelai consists of iconic these costume items). The meaning of forms that require explicit categoriza- each costume trait is dependent on its tion; as often in archaeological situ- opposition with other traits, which it ex- ations, neither the appropriate level of cludes, and on its articulation with all resolution or detail, nor the relevant other present traits. The importance of sets of interchangeable costume traits the articulation with other costume are available from external evidence. traits is shown by the example of the Occasional literary references to cos- male medium hair: in combination with tume give conflicting evidence on its a stephane, and a forearm, shoulder or terminology; it has been noted, for ex- bunched himation it signifies childhood ample, that “the word ‘peplos’ is usu- or early adolescence, while in combina- ally reserved for the Doric dress wheth- tion with a lap or armpit himation and er open or closed, the word ‘chiton’ for staff it signifies seniority (medium- the Ionic, though the latter is fre- haired male adults appear to be older quently applied to the Doric, and is in- than their short-haired counterparts). variably used of the under-dress, when Besides, the certain absence of a cos- the two styles became confused” (Ab- tume trait is as significant as its pres- rahams 1908: 46). The conflicting ence: the fact that most adult females definition of major costume items do not exhibit medium hair or a falling made it difficult to agree on the cat- plait conveys more information about egorization of intermediate costume their age than their actual hairstyle. forms, occurring often on stelai; the The validity of the analogy between costume of C803.1 may, thus, be de- costume and language is based on the scribed either as a Doric tunic with fact that, although costume may have pseudo-sleeves (“everything is still been originally the product of practical Doric, the overfold giving the predom- needs, as soon as it is defined as a cat- inating character to the garment”, egory, it is related to other aspects of Barker 1922: 417-8), or, alternatively, human experience, such as the identity as a heavy Ionic tunic (Bieber 1928: of the wearer, occupation or activity, 47). The contradictory use of costume taste, ethnicity, social attitudes, etc.: terms, probably due to temporal and geographical semantic shift, and the Pour retrouver des objets purement scarcity of specific descriptive refer- fonctionnels, if faut imaginer des ences, argue against expecting literary objets improvisés: c’etait le cas de evidence to provide the basis for the la vague couverture que les soldats categorization of costume on stelai. romains jetaient sur leurs épaules pour se proteger de la pluie; mais Before discussing the significance of des que ce vêtement spontané a costume on Classical Attic stelai, it is été fabriqué, et, si l’on peut dire, necessary to examine the relation of institutionalisé sous le nom de represented dress to actual costume. pénule, la fonction protectrice s’est Bieber has argued, on the basis of ex- trouvée saisie dans un système periments with a human model, that social de communication; la pénule the dress types represented in Greek, s’est opposée à d’autres vêtements in contrast to Roman art, were taken et elle a renvoyé à l’idée même de from actual usage: son usage, tout comme un signe There are an inexhaustible number s’oppose à d’autres signes et of possible ways to drape Greek

6 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

dress, despite its simple basic form; in costume may thus be explained on the Greek artists of the Classical the grounds of subject-matter, rather and Hellenistic period accordingly than technique. The popularity of com- never had to invent motifs, but plex dresses on stelai may be due to could choose them from the many the fact that they represent more form- possibilities to suit their artistic inal, festive arrangements than their tentions. In their work, the cos- counterparts in everyday scenes on tumes are as organically rendered vase-painting; on the other hand, the as the bodies. There are no mis- rarity of fine, transparent female tunics takes in depicting any part of the in comparison with both vase-painting dress (Bieber 1977: 12). and major sculpture, is probably re- The basic type of dress in stelai related to the solemnity imposed by fu- flects indeed actual clothing arrange- nerary function. ments; however, of all possible ar- Barthes’ concept of “réserve de rangements, only some occur on stelai. mode” is relevant at this point: actual A comparison of different kinds of rep- fashion represents a subset of all pos- resentations (sculpture in-the-round, sible combinations of costume traits, grave stelai, red figure vase-painting), the set of which constitutes a “réserve has shown that the frequency of forms de mode”; combinations not permitted both of tunic (Barker 1922: 412-413, in a year’s fashion are nevertheless table) and mantle (Oehler 1961: 9), present in the memory of both design- varies considerably. Barker advanced ers and users, and their absence con- the “obvious suggestion” that differen- stitutes the identity of the current fash- tiation in dress usage be attributed to ion (Barthes 1967b: 185-186). Costume “stylistic and technical requirements”, forms occurring in Classical art or in adding that “the more complex cos- real life may have constituted a similar tumes of the grave-reliefs are quite in “réserve”, with which both sculptor of keeping with the genre spirit and smal- stelai and spectator would have been ler scale of their setting” (1922: 410). familiar. Although the subject will not But, unless Barker’s argument is circu- be pursued in this study, since it would lar, one is entitled to ask why the require a full comparative examination “genre” element is more appropriate, of contemporary figurative art, the fact in terms of subject-matter, to stelai that some only of these costume forms than to vase-painting, where composite were used on grave stelai is an import- dresses are uncommon. Besides, the ant aspect of the definition of costume reason why the small scale should fa- on stelai. vour composite dress, advanced by There is also disagreement about the Barker is unsatisfactory; if tunic form is extent to which details of form reflect affected only by style, it is not clear actual costume usage. Morizot rejects why the elaborate, composite tunics Gullberg and Åström’s contention should be less common on monument- (1970: 9) that factual conclusions about al free-standing sculptures than on rel- the texture of Greek clothing can be atively less conspicuous grave stelai. drawn from artistic representations: Variety in the use of dress forms in “Comment peut-on, d’autre part, ra- different types of Classical art may be valer l’artiste au rang d’un habile tech- paralleled to “situational variability” in nicien? C’est de lui, autant où plus que actual dress usage (Roach and Eicher des sujets, que naît le style” (Morizot 1965): it is reasonable to expect indi- 1974: 120); she stresses the variation viduals to wear a different costume in in the rendering in different artistic me- the solemn context of funerary sculp- dia of the vertical edges of peplos and ture from that of everyday scenes in himation, and the contrived character vase-painting; monumental sculpture, of the bunched folds of the himation in on the other hand, represents mainly marble sculpture, and concludes that figures of gods and heroes. Differences “il est impossible de connaître le cos-

7 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS tume grec, sinon d’une manière ap- to assume social roles, that regulate proximative, en se fondant sur les their mutual rights and obligations monuments de l’art. Le degré et l’e- (Goodenough 1965: 3-4). According to sprit de la stylisation varient, mais il y role theory, each individual may be a toujours stylisation” (Morizot 1974: characterized by a number of social 125-131). identities or roles: Since costume on stelai probably re- A composite of several social iden- flects only the basic form but not the tities selected as appropriate to a detail, of actual clothing arrangements, given interaction is referred to as a it is worth recalling that some informa- “social persona.” A social persona is tion on costume is, in any case, lost (by linguistic analogy) “a grammat- through representation. Barthes has ically possible composite entity” decided to study written descriptions of (Goodenough, ibid.:7). It must con- costume in fashion magazines primarily form to syntactic principles govern- because they suffer neither from the ing: “plasticity” of dress in image, which (1) arrangement of social identities acts to confuse its signifying function, one to the other in identity relation- nor from individual variation (which vi- ships; olates the established signification system) and the presence of a “parasite”, (2) association of identities with oc- practical function, affecting the form of casions, in our case, death and dis- real dress (Barthes 1967b: 17-19). Cos- posal; tume on stelai is characterized by an (3) compatibility of social identities aesthetic function related to ‘plasticity’, as features of a coherent social per- which accounts for the stylization in the sona. (This also implies the incom- depiction of drapery referred to by Mo- patibility of other identities and per- rizot, but the effects of style are fo- sona.) cused on the rendering of detail, rather Thus, in addition to reflecting ego’s than general costume form. Since it is nodal position in a web of social re- a mere sign, costume in representa- lationships, a set of social personae tions does not show the kind of free (in their syntactic principles) also variation in choice and arrangement of reflect the organizing principles of garments which would be observed in the larger social structure (Saxe the streets of Classical Athens. Exactly 1970: 7). because of the absence of practical Social identities on Classical Attic functionality and the limited nature of stelai are related to the major aspects individual free variation, costume on of social differentiation: the realization stelai is, therefore, an appropriate rep- of specific roles such as ‘athlete’, resentation of how members of an ‘maiden’ or ‘wet-nurse’ depends on the oikos would be visualized by their so- sex, age or social rank and status of cial milieu. the individual. Sex and age differentiate individuals in an intrinsic, appar- 2.2.2 Role theory and mortuary ently ‘natural’ manner (“four years is practice not forty, male is not female”, Pader Goodenough’s role theory (1965) has 1982: 16), but the concrete social iden- been introduced as a framework for the tities that they constitute are the archaeological analysis of mortuary product of social categorization pro- practices by Binford (1971), having cesses. In ancient Greek thought, as in already been systematized in an ethno- many other societies, the polarity of graphic context by Saxe (1970). It is male:female is related to other import- based on the assumption that, apart ant oppositions, such as right:left, from personal identity, i.e., the traits of light:dark, white:black, east:west and persons that do not affect their social earth:sky (Lloyd 1973: 170); the sexes relationships, individuals are required are also strongly differentiated in Greek

8 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI mythology, with women blamed for the Binford 1971) confirmed that in most evil and disease associated with the societies the disposal of the dead is re- decline of men from the golden age lated to sex, age, social rank and social (Kirk 1970: 198). Besides, age is not affiliation. It should be noted, however, conceived as a biological continuum, that important factors, such as multiple but as a set of socially constituted age burial, ritual and attitudes towards grades, each regulated by its own death, interfere with the formation of rights and obligations (below: sections the funerary record, and complicate its 2.1.4, 2.1.5 and 2.1.6); law or custom relationship with the social identity of determine which social identities are the deceased (Hodder 1982: 10; Pader possible for members of each age 1982: 54-62). grade. For instance, among male Athenians, the role of a citizen may be 2.2.3 Social significance of costume assumed only by adults, while that of In a review of studies on the soci- an athlete is customarily assumed by ology of dress, it was noted that, in all adolescents. human societies, role differentiation Aspects of social differentiation that based on sex and age is reflected in cannot lay claim to ‘naturality’ include: costume (Roach and Eicher 1965: 57). (1), horizontal differentiation, such as In a study of American boys’ dress dur- deme and phratry membership, and ing the 1930s, Bush and London (1965) (2), vertical differentiation such as had concluded that “differences in census group membership, related dir- modes of dress within a particular soci- ectly with social rank, that is, the indi- ety are indicative of differences in so- vidual’s inherited position within the cial roles and self-concepts of members social hierarchy. The occupation, cit- of that society”. The corollary of this izen/metic status, administration of a proposition, stating that “the less im- priesthood or liturgy, and servile status portant it is to differentiate people define identities that are associated to along a particular [social] dimension, a great extent with social rank. These the less likely clothing will be the are mostly ascribed social roles, and means of doing it”, is notable, because may be contrasted with achieved iden- it implies that, by examining the effect tities such as ‘warrior killed in battle’, of social variables such as age, sex and which are open to all individuals of a rank on costume variability, it is pos- certain sex/age description. sible to determine their relative import- Although funerary evidence has ance for social categorization. How- been frequently used to answer ques- ever, since more than one social di- tions about aspects of society such as mension may be reflected in the cos- social stratification or sex/age differen- tume of an individual, this hypothesis tiation in mortuary treatment (Chap- should be modified to suggest that dif- man, Kinnes and Randsborg 1981: 2-4), ferent costumes correspond to different role theory, as systematized by Saxe composite social roles, i.e., social per- (1970), provided an explicit methodolo- sonae. gical framework for the social interpret- It should be pointed out, however, ation of mortuary variability. Saxe sug- that costume is likely to represent the gested that observable differentiation perceived, rather than “real” composite in mortuary practice is a systematic re- social identity of the wearer; in Classic- flection of social differentiation; he also al Greek art, for instance, costume contended that funerary evidence is traits (e.g., mantle forms, Oehler 1961: particularly suitable for the identifica- 11) are used indiscriminately for the tion of social structure, since “death representation of gods or humans, a calls forth a fuller representation of fact undoubtedly related to the nature ego’s various social identities than at of Greek religion, but refuting the any time during life” (Saxe 1970: 6). mechanical correspondence between Ethnographic evidence (Saxe 1970; costume form and social persona. In

9 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS fact, the identity of the figures may be signifying a particular mood (sad, denoted by iconographic traits other proud, mourning etc.). Messing found than costume (e.g., size differentiation that the same arrangement (“symbolic in Classical votive reliefs), or simply by expression 1”) was restricted to males, the context (e.g., a statue erected in a signifying different things according to temple, as against one erected in a the age of the bearer, a fact indicating cemetery). The compositions of Classic- the dependence of this aspect of mean- al Attic stelai are, of course, so stereo- ing on his basic social identity. This is typed (despite minor variation) that it relevant to the study of costume on is difficult to envisage dramatic Classical Attic stelai, since there also changes in the significance of costume the figures may be invested by a typi- from stele to stele; it is, nevertheless, fied “mood”: assuming that in some important to examine costume in con- monuments mourners are differenti- nection with other stele iconography, ated from the primary deceased, they so as to evaluate its importance for so- are more likely to express grief at her cial characterization. or his departure (Young 1936). Within Additional meanings of costume on the theoretical framework of this study, stelai include the emulation of costume costume may therefore also reflect the forms occurring in real life, in other special social identities of ‘deceased’ stelai or in contemporary art. In most and ‘mourner’. cases, this emulation simply consti- Pader recently suggested that the tutes the elementary process by which significance of costume is intrinsic, costume forms signify social identity rather than based on convention (1982: (i.e., types of individuals being repres- 18-27): Kayapo infants of the Amazon ented in the costume that they wear in wear ear-plugs to indicate that they are real life), and deserves no further com- not yet able to ‘hear’, and males after ment. But occasionally figures on stelai initiation wear lip-plugs of increasing display the same costume as repres- size, symbols of oral assertiveness and entations of gods: the bunched hi- oratorical ability (cf. Turner 1979). mation of statuary types of Hermes Without attempting to tackle the com- Psychopompos or Chthonios, such as plex issue of symbolism, it is necessary the Richelieu and the Andros-Farnese to note that a similar naturality of respectively, which is found with non- meaning (based here rather on the uni- adults in Attic stelai (e.g., C1100.2: pl. versal symbolism of the parts of the 33), cannot be dismissed as entirely body, than on that of the lip- and ear- meaningless, considering the chthonic plug) is usually lacking from costume nature of the god. However, since the traits on Classical Attic stelai. Thus, arrangement would have occurred in male nudity (with or without a bunched real life, one is bound to ask if the himation) is intrinsically related with statuary type adopted the costume the palaistra and athletic exercise, but from stelai (with its childhood-adoles- the bunched himation wrapped around cence associations) rather than the op- the forearm and drawn back to a sup- posite, or, more likely, if both statues port (below: section 5.3.2) is only con- and stelai imitated the costume ar- ventionally associated with hunt; while rangement of real life, with unknown the female tunic long overfall is func- social and psychological connotations. tionally related to shorter, non-adult Costume may also indicate the im- girls, the male himation overfold is as- portance which the wearer attaches to sociated with fully grown young adults it, his taste or his mood. The last as- and not with juveniles (below: section pect has been used by Messing (1965) 3.2.17), as would be expected had its as the key for examining the signific- function determined its significance. ance of the Ethiopian shamma, a plain It seems therefore that, except when rectangular garment draped around the a relevant link with the wider cultural body in eight main arrangements, each context can be demonstrated, most

10 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI costume traits derive their meaning the simple short hair of some female from their opposition or association maids with the elaborate hairstyles of with other costume traits. The fre- adult Athenian women. Besides, the quency of costume traits varies, sug- number of actual constitutive parts in a gesting that some are more common, costume is an index of its complexity; and others restricted to specialized by virtue of this fact, entirely nude ath- use; very different relative frequencies letes and slave boys are contrasted to may suggest vertical differentiation women wearing a multiple headband, (social rank), roughly equal frequencies earrings, a double tunic and a hi- horizontal differentiation (sex, age, so- mation, and sandals. Adapting Saxe’s cial affiliation). Important social dimen- “information content” principle to cos- sions, however, will be reflected not on tume (1970: 69), costume complexity a single costume trait, but on the entire may be regarded as a reflection of the costume configuration. complexity and status of the social per- There are, nevertheless, correlates of sona of the bearer. In applying this hy- a number of costume traits that can be pothesis, however, the danger of mis- defined universally. Body exposure, i.e., taking horizontal differentiation for the display of parts of the body, is de- rank differentiation must be taken into termined by the social definition of account (Pader 1982: 60-61; O’Shea proper and improper dress, and reflects 1984: 15-20). The costume of bearded the degree of modesty prevalent in a men with a long, ungirt tunic, for in- given society. Although, as noted by stance, is no more complex than that of Fischer (1978: 181), the parts of the non-adult boys in exomis, but, in fact, body considered to be important vary the former are reliably identified as in different cultures, the degree of per- priests, and the latter as slaves (below: mitted body exposure is in all societies section 5.3.5). In fact, a long tunic was consistently regulated. It varies not a common male garment in Archaic only with the context — “situational times; wearing an everyday garment variability”, affected by the presence of no longer in use as ritual costume finds members of the opposite sex (Roach parallels in Bogatyrev’s ethnographic and Eicher 1965: 14-15) — but also material. On the other hand, the ex- with the composite social identity of omis is a practical garment worn (with the individual. Body exposure on Clas- minor differences) indiscriminately by sical Attic stelai, and its opposite, mod- slave boys, craftsmen or warriors. esty, is highly variable: figures vary A specific case of costume complex- from entirely nude athletes, to veiled ity, determined by the form and prac- females with both arms and hands tical or ornamental value of specific wrapped in a himation. The meaning of costume traits, is ornateness: the this composite costume trait, which has double tunic with the inner fine intrinsic significance, is no doubt af- buttoned pseudo-sleeves of some adult fected by the sex and age of the figure: women signify adornment, unlike the the exposure of head and arms of girls practical, long-sleeved double tunic of in crossing bands and shoulder-back undifferentiated texture, worn by slave mantle is connected with adornment, girls. On the whole, however, although while that of mature women is probably the degree of costume complexity is simply due to reduced need for mod- significant, is not so much a direct re- esty; these, and other interpretations flection of social rank, as a property of are in fact informed by the analysis of the entire social persona, including sex, specific costume types. age and special affiliation. A second correlate of costume with possible intrinsic significance is its 2.2.4 Chronology and other prob- complexity (Pader 1982: 20). Even indi- lems vidual costume traits may be charac- Several studies have been concerned terized as simple or complex: compare with the chronology of Classical Attic

11 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS grave stelai (Diepolder 1931; Süsserott muss” (1983: 128). 1938; Dohrn 1957; Frel 1969), suggest- The problem is important to this ing that large frameless stelai and low study because one of the preconditions relief naiskos stelai with one seated fig- of role theory is that “a single set of ure or two-figured compositions (espe- cultural directives governing mortuary cially of the ‘mistress and maid’ type) treatment was in operation during the are as a rule of early date, tall metopic duration of the cemetery’s use” or frameless stelai and three-figured (O’Shea 1984: 13-14). If the represent- compositions are dated in the fourth ation of costume on stelai undergoes century, and crescent-shaped group significant changes during the Classical compositions, and, especially, large period, resulting both in the emergence naiskoi, become popular from the of new forms and in the shift of usage middle of the fourth century. Grave- of old forms, then the validity of the stones are supposed to reflect the styl- study is put under question: chronolo- istic achievements of major sculpture, gical variation in costume may be mis- but since they belong to a workshop taken for social variation. However, us- tradition, a smaller or larger time lag is ing this chronology, which depends to a postulated between major sculptural considerable extent on iconographic ‘prototypes’ and their funerary ‘adapta- and compositional evidence, to infer tions’. Although the valid analogy with temporal changes in any part of the decree reliefs, apparently belonging to iconography, such as costume, would the same workshop tradition, has been be equivalent to begging the question: used to anchor the chronology of a it is impossible to evaluate explicitly number of stelai to absolute dates the effect on costume of a chronology (Süsserott 1938), many small, unas- which is by definition dependent on suming stelai with hastily executed re- costume traits, such as nudity. Specific lief have not been assigned a date at problems affecting the social interpret- all. ation of costume will, therefore, be dis- The chronology of Classical Athenian cussed only so far as the affect the in- stelai is, with few exceptions, not based terpretation of costume; if the major on external evidence. Both minor mo- social dimensions provide a plausible tifs and broader costume traits and explanation of costume variability, the gestures have been used to link grave- chronological explanation will be stones chronologically; for example, avoided. Diepolder (1931: 43) grouped stylistic- The question of spatial variation ally four stelai displaying the motif of presents related problems. Firstly, the the himation covering the left forearm position of a funerary plot within the and hand, and dated them to the 370s cemetery, its centrality and visibility, is BC. Other aspects of stele iconography, a correlate of the social position of the such as nudity, frontality and visual family (Garland 1982: 132, n. 32). But isolation, have been seen as signs of information on the exact findspot of the stylistic lateness, reflecting cultural great majority of stelai is missing, and changes (Himmelmann 1956). The ac- a full view of the topography of Attic cepted chronology of Classical Attic cemeteries has yet to be presented. stelai, therefore, depends considerably Other correlates of social rank have on the study of postural, gestural and thus to be used instead: the dimen- costume motifs, which, as shown by sions and tectonic type of the stele, the Kaltenhäuser (1938: 52), cannot be a relief height and number of figures rep- reliable index of stylistic or chronologic- resented, the form of the finial, the al proximity. As pointed out by presence of an epigram; we have Schmaltz, iconographic similarity in already argued why conspicuous ex- motifs may imply “die inhaltliche Aus- penditure makes it likely that funerary sage... ohne dass dies z.B. eine stelai in Classical Attica reflect the rank Werkstattgemeinschaft bedeuten of the commissioning family (above:

12 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI section 1.1.1). study of geographical variation in cos- The other aspect of spatial variation tume has been attempted; however, is geographical variation; although the with rare exceptions (e.g., female chil- bias in the provenience of excavated dren with falling plait and shoulder hi- stelai reflects the building activity asso- mation, below: section 4.3.5), proveni- ciated with modern Athens, Piraeus and ence did not appear to influence the environs, Classical cemeteries have selection of costume on stelai. been found throughout Attica (Kurtz and Boardman 1971: 90-96; Garland 1982). Since many excavations remain 2.3 Method: data constitution, unpublished, quantitative evidence is typology and interpretation not available to suggest to what extent sculptured stelai were more common in Athens, or otherwise; if the cemetery at 2.3.1 A statistical approach Rhamnous is a typical example, some A methodological issue that needs to parts of Attica were no less endowed be resolved before proceeding to the with stelai than the city of Athens. discussion of specific problems of method, is that of a normative versus a The distance between demes sug- probabilistic approach. A normative ap- gests that it was sensible for grave- proach assumes that the phenomena stones to be produced locally, to avoid examined are governed by relation- both transportation overheads, and the ships of strict implication, of the kind danger of damaging the finished “all As are Bs”, the probabilistic ap- product; stylistic studies, such as Frel’s proach assumes instead only that phe- (1969), confirm the existence of local nomena are linked by weak implication, workshops. Some variation in costume as in “many (or most) As are Bs”. Al- may, therefore, be due to stylistic though the former may be seen as a choice. But Bogatyrev’s study on the special case of the latter (with a prob- costume of a traditional society (1982) ability of truth equal to 1), the two ap- suggested a wide range of geographic- proaches lead to different kinds of al variation, not only in the form but formalisation, related to logic or statist- also in the meaning of actual costume. ics respectively. Despite the apparent simplicity and uniformity of Greek costume, it could As noted by Pader in criticism of role conceivably be geographically varied in theory (1982: 16), “there is often a ‘dis- two ways: a social persona could cor- location’ between how we are taught respond to different costume configura- we ought to act and how we do actually tions in different localities, or, the same act”; pure social identities are abstrac- costume could signify different social tions, analytical categories used to personae. summarize often fuzzy and contradictory individual behaviour. In the field of Both types of variation are possible mortuary analysis, it is no accident that in actual, everyday costume of Classic- normative applications of role theory al Attica, but, considering the degree of have been more successful with ethno- contact implied by the political integra- graphic evidence, that tends by its tion of Attica, they are unlikely to have nature to provide a purified, conceptu- had a great effect. The ‘permanent’ alized view of social differentiation, nature of stele representations and than with archaeological evidence, that their visibility on the roadsides of Attica tends to represent unaccounted for, in- indicates that the use of a costume dividual variation as much as that due type in one part of Attica was bound to to social constraints. The dependence take into account its significance in oth- of archaeological research on a normat- er parts, especially in the main ive, cause-and-effect model, is, there- cemeteries around the Athenian walls. fore, not justified (O’Shea 1984: 20-21). Because indications of provenience are often missing or vague, no systematic A relationship of strict implication

13 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS between social persona and form of this assertion was supported by a dis- costume is also improbable, so far as cussion of the function and use of stelai Classical Attic stelai are concerned. Un- in Classical Attic cemeteries. Other like societies where the permitted cos- minor premises on the nature of costume for different social groups is legis- tume on the one hand, and of relevant lated upon, becoming effectively social social correlates on the other, have uniform, Athenian costume is regulated also been presented. The aim of the by custom, which did not exercise ab- study becomes, therefore, to determine solute constraint on individual dress. the systematic effect of social dimen- This explains the great amount of sions such as sex, age, social rank and minor variation characterizing costume group affiliation on the costume of fig- on stelai; it could be caused by specific ures represented on stelai. If such a factors, such as style or personal whim systematic effect is found to exist, the of the sculptor, but in the framework of validity of this theoretical framework studying the major dimensions of cos- for the study of costume on stelai will tume it may be treated as random vari- have been broadly confirmed; in addi- ation. tion, the relative importance, frequency The nature of archaeological data in- and compatibility of social identities, as dicates that archaeological proposi- represented on stelai, may then be tions, like those of other social discip- used as valid evidence about certain lines, are probabilistic rather than aspects of Attic role system and funer- normative. A statistical approach, rel- ary ideology. evant to archaeological phenomena A preliminary step in the study of the (Clarke 1978: 16-17), requires explicit significance of costume on Classical At- data constitution, a clear definition of tic stelai is data constitution: the selec- research questions in terms of the data tion of representative cases, and the available, and an informed selection of selection and coding of appropriate at- appropriate methods of analysis. A tributes. Next, it is necessary to estab- handbook intended for archaeologists lish, from the almost infinite range of and anthropologists (Thomas 1976), individual variation, distinctive costume presents the classical basic statistical types, that summarize well the variabil- theory; an alternative view, taking into ity of costume, and that enable the use account the specific problems of ar- of the concepts of the social persona chaeological research, is presented by on the one hand, and of social dimen- Doran and Hodson under the heading sions on the other. Finally, a procedure of data analysis (1975). The reader is for the evaluation of the effect of social referred to one of these books for clari- correlates both on each separate cos- fication of basic concepts (Thomas tume trait and on female and male cos- 1976: chapters 1-5; Doran and Hodson tume types must be put forward, ac- 1975: 30-58). counting for their possible interdepend- ence and combinability. A discussion of 2.3.2 Methodological outline methodological problems relevant to these questions is presented in the fol- The theoretical framework presented lowing pages. in the previous sections has served to refine the originally stated aim of this study, namely, the examination of the 2.3.3 Selection of cases significance of costume represented on The empirical evidence for this study Classical Attic stelai. As a result of the consists of relief stelai erected in link between role theory and a semiotic Athens and Attica during the fifth and theory of dress and adornment, it was fourth centuries BC. A historical acci- asserted that costumes on stelai are dent, according to which Classical Attic stereotyped representations of the stelai are bound between two periods composite social identities of the indi- of prohibition (Robertson 1975: 363-4; viduals represented; the plausibility of Schmaltz 1983: 197-200), starkly differ-

14 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI ing in style and iconography from their true random sample, we can restrict Archaic and Hellenistic counterparts, the set of the cases used for data con- makes it possible to identify clearly stitution, so that various types of bias which stelai of known Attic provenience are minimized. belonged to the Classical series. A ma- Firstly, there is bias linked to the jor problem of archaeological data con- availability of information on stelai, stitution (Doran and Hodson 1975: 95) both in exhibition and in publication; is therefore removed. stelai of large dimensions, quality of However, not all Classical Attic style, and iconographic rarity, complex- gravestones are relevant to this study. ity and interest tend to be more often Firstly, memorials lacking figural rep- selected for exhibition or publication resentations were obviously excluded. than small, poor style or commonplace Secondly, funerary vases were also ex- memorials; this cultural bias, reflecting cluded, since they are compositionally the past and current interests of Clas- distinct from stelai, since they may rep- sical archaeology, affects all archaeolo- resent boundary-markers rather than gical publication, including even the il- grave markers, and since their form, lustration of stelai in short preliminary style and iconography has been already excavation reports. To avoid this type of extensively studied (Schmaltz 1970; bias, only the corpus of Attic grave- Kokula 1974). Thirdly, reliefs with a nar- stones published by Conze rative theme, such as battle-scenes, fu- (1893/1900), consisting of all Attic nerary banquet reliefs, and representa- stelai known to archaeology until that tions of women falling on a couch time, will be examined. (probably to indicate that they died in Another type of bias concerns the childbirth, Johansen 1951: 50) are also pattern of discovery of stelai, driven by excluded; apart from the apparently the need for rescue excavation linked strong influence of public memorials on with building expansion of modern At- the battle-scenes, the needs of the nar- tica, and by the tendency to concen- rative may have affected the nature of trate on areas that have already yiel- the representations in all three categor- ded important finds. This could be alle- ies. viated by means such as stratified Even after the preceding qualifica- sampling from the material presented tions of the subject of this study, it is by Conze (1893/1900). Considering, necessary to distinguish between the however, the limited total number of domain about which conclusions are to stelai available, sampling would result be drawn (“target population”), and the in a great decrease of the number of domain from which evidence can be ex- cases used as primary evidence, a fea- tracted (“sampled population”, Doran ture that was considered undesirable. and Hodson 1975: 95; Thomas 1976: In addition, the status of such a 34-36). According to the theoretical sample, drawn from a collection of un- framework presented in previous sec- known sampling properties, will be tions, social dimensions are reflected questionable (Doran and Hodson 1975: on the costume of all stelai with quiet 56-57). Thus, all stelai presented by compositions erected in Attica during Conze are considered. Since it was as- the Classical period. On the other hand, sumed that geographical variation did evidence can be drawn only from stelai not have a major effect on the icono- preserved for archaeological study. In a graphy of costume (above: section statistical approach, it is legitimate to 1.2.4), the effect of this bias should not use preserved stelai to make inferences be very important. With these cautions, about all stelai only if the former can although not a true random sample, be reasonably regarded as an un- Classical Attic stelai with quiet compos- biased, representative sample of the ition included in Conze (1893/1900) will latter. Although the nature of the evid- be taken to be a fairly representative ence makes it impossible to obtain a subset of the entire production of such

15 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS stelai in Classical Athens. the representation of costume, i.e., the Considering stele production, it is lo- descriptive matrix: each row of the gical to define each stele included in matrix may represent a figure, and the corpus as a case (unit, observation) each column may represent a relevant for further analysis, since the entire (a notion that requires further discus- representation was the effect of a sion) costume attribute, with the ob- single, albeit complex, design decision. served attribute value shown in the But considering semiotic function, row/column intersection. cases may equally be defined at the An alternative structure, implicitly level of the entire funerary plot, its used in most textual description of cos- stele representations signifying collect- tume (e.g., Conze 1893/1900), repres- ively the typified role composition of ents costume as an aggregate of traits the family. Plot associations, however, taken from an unstructured pool, a are known for a very small number of thesaurus, without usually distinguish- stelai, listed by Garland (1982), so that ing the uncertainty about the presence this level of case definition is unusable of a trait from its ascertained absence. for statistical purposes. Because the matrix representation con- Alternatively, a case may be defined sists of categories that are both ex- as a sculptured figure, corresponding to haustive and mutually exclusive, it has a composite social identity; both considerable methodological advant- named figures, identified as individuals ages over the thesaurus, since it per- with real social personae, and name- mits to use the semiotic framework for less figures, identified as social stereo- data retrieval, numerical classification types, are included in this definition. and statistical analysis (Everitt 1977: 2- This decision, simplifies considerably 3). the practical aspects of the analysis, Other desiderata for the coding of at- and will be generally adhered to in con- tributes concern the entire attribute sidering the typology and meaning of set: attributes should (1) be “analytic- costume. It is not suitable, however, for ally useful” for the investigation of the one specific question, namely, the ex- problem in hand, (2) they should ac- amination of the general structure of count as fully as possible for relevant stele-wide attributes (e.g., dimensions, variation in the data, (3) they should be tectonic type, relief depth etc.), since it defined in such a way as to “equate introduces a bias in favour of multi- roughly at the same broad level of im- figured stelai; in that case only, each plied behaviour complexity”, (4) they stele will be treated as a separate case. should not be logically correlated to each other, and, (5) they should not be 2.3.4 Selection of attributes totally constant throughout the data set (Sokal and Sneath 1973: 103-106; The complement to the selection of Doran and Hodson 1975: 99-102; cases in data constitution is the selec- Clarke 1978: 152-157). Some of these tion of appropriate descriptive categor- points deserve a brief further com- ies, known as attributes or variables, ment. and consisting of attribute states or values (Doran and Hodson 1975: 99; The need for “analytical usefulness” Thomas 1976: 19). Genre, as used by of attributes highlights the important Barthes, may be recognized as a syn- role of theory for data constitution; in- onym to the archaeological attribute, deed the selection of an appropriate “a logically irreducible character of two level of descriptive resolution should or more states, acting as an independ- take into account the purpose of the ent variable within a specific frame of study. If the principle of logical irredu- reference” (Clarke 1978: 156); the es- cibility is followed uncritically, and cos- pèce is equivalent to the attribute state tume of stelai is described to the finest or value. The adoption of this termino- detail possible, recording, for instance, logy provides a general structure for the exact form of folds in each segment

16 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI of the himation, or, even more ex- ant, are distinguished from those sec- tremely, the marks of tools used within ondary (above: section 1.2.1). Second- each fold, these attributes will consti- ary attributes are typically conditional tute useful data for the stylistic history on the presence of a specific costume of Classical gravestones, e.g., in item, for instance those describing Diepolder (1931), or for the technical mantle form: when a mantle is not processes of Classical sculpture, as in present, these attributes are coded for Adam (1966), but they are bound to normal data analysis purposes as ‘not confuse rather than elucidate the study applicable’ (Doran and Hodson 1975: of the social significance of costume. 104). The level of recording chosen is, there- Attribute values have been defined fore, that of broad costume motifs that according to the degree of morpholo- would be reasonably expected to be af- gical distinction that could be applied fected by the social factors already dis- to a sufficiently large number of fig- cussed. ures; minute variations, not recorded in The definition of specific attributes most actual stelai, have been sub- used to describe costume is dealt with sumed under more general divisions. in chapter 4, and the constitution of so- For instance, the hair of a large number cial attributes from iconographic and of female figures has been coded as an other evidence, used to represent the encircling plait, disregarding distinc- social dimensions of age, social rank tions in the exact arrangement, since it etc., is discussed in chapter 3. Accord- appears on most small stelai as a uni- ing to the nature of the traits that they form, ring-shaped mass of hair. The ra- describe attributes are defined on one tionale behind this decision is that the of four levels of measurement: nominal distinctions that were relevant for the and ordinal, both known as discrete, communication of social meaning and interval and ratio, both known as would have been made visible in the continuous or numeric (Thomas 1976: majority of cases; this argument has 18-28). The distinction is important, also been used to exclude attributes since the scope and power of appropri- unrecorded in most stelai, such as the ate statistical methods increases as texture and material of garments. Be- one proceeds from nominal to ordinal, sides, nominal traits are coded as and from ordinal to numeric data multistate attributes of the type ‘hair- (Thomas 1976: 29). style’, rather than as a series of pres- Most costume attributes, such as ence/absence attributes of the type mantle arrangement, are defined on ‘short hair’, ‘medium-length hair’, ‘fall- the nominal scale, since there is no ing plait’ etc. Apart from the import- natural order between the attribute val- ance of distinguishing between opposit- ues by which they are constituted. An ive and combinable elements implied example of ordinal attribute is figure by semiotic theory, methodological frontality, consisting of the naturally reasons argue for this form of coding, ordered attribute values of ‘frontal’, since mutually exclusive binary attrib- ‘slightly turned’, ‘oblique’ and ‘profile’; utes are logically correlated to each note that the magnitude of difference other, an undesirable feature. between successive values is not spe- A final problem concerns traits such cified. Finally, a numeric attribute is as beard; these are continuous in stele width, defined on the ratio scale, nature, but have been coded as dis- since it is possible to determine not crete attributes. Some subjectivity is in- only the difference (interval) between volved in deciding when a figure is to two widths, but also their ratio. be described as unshaved, short-, me- By analogy to the semiotic distinc- dium- or long-bearded. Beard length tion between espèces and variants, could alternatively be seen as a con- primary attributes, used to denote cos- tinuous variable, and expressed by a tume categories that are always relev- numeric index, perhaps related to the

17 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS ratio of its length to figure height. But a demonstrably complementary. theoretical and a practical argument Typology is a constant practice in ar- may be presented in support of coding chaeology, necessary to derive mean- in distinct levels: firstly, it may be ar- ingful pattern from the seemingly ran- gued with Spaulding that “the makers dom variation of the archaeological re- and users of archaeological artifacts cord. It is implicit in most stylistic stud- characteristically operated in the nom- ies on Classical Attic stelai, presenting inal mode” (1982: 5-6); consequently, in the main text a number of monu- the length of beard, tunic overfall etc. ments (types in the sense of ‘typical was not conceived as a continuous example’), linked in the footnotes with variable, but as a categorized trait with associated, less important monuments distinct levels. Secondly, because of (types in the sense of ‘essentially uni- differences in orientation and stance, form class’), and discussing the import- degree of preservation and bodily pro- ant aspects of stylistic variation (types portions, it is not possible to define in the sense ‘set of constitutive traits’). these attributes on some continuous By analogy with this implicit typological scale without large errors of measure- process, costume type could be identi- ment. Their expression in distinct levels fied by using prior archaeological opin- sacrifices some analytical power, but ion about the subject to select initial conforms both to our theoretical frame- figures whose costume seems intuit- work of costume categorization and the ively to be typical of social stereotypes. practical possibility of measurement; The dress of further figures could then on the other hand, coding on the ordin- be examined, and linked with the ori- al scale preserves the importance of ginally selected costumes in an ag- the order between the levels. glomerative process; finally, conclusions could be drawn on the basis of 2.3.5 Typology of costume the established types-classes of similar The special conditions under which costumes, both on the association and costume acts as a social sign, and the on the significance of specific costume occasional deviations from the system traits. of signification, cooperate to create in There are, however, major methodo- practice a very wide variety of costume logical flaws in this procedure. The se- configurations. In order to be able to lection of different original typical fig- relate costume with a small number of ures, that is in this approach subject- meaningful composite social identities, ively made, would lead to different it is necessary to devise a mechanism types-classes, and different types-at- for separating relevant from trivial mor- tribute sets, even if there existed an phological variation, and reducing the objective procedure for the incorpora- data to fewer, representative costume tion of further figures. Therefore, since combinations. This process, and the the method lacks a unique solution, the resulting reduced data configuration, only evidence for the validity of its res- may be defined as typology. In this con- ults rests upon their compatibility with text, the concept of costume type may the substantive propositions on which be used to mean (a), the class of cos- the intuitive selection of the original tume configurations sharing “essential” point of departure was based in the traits, (b), the most typical costume first place. The practice of evaluating configuration, representing other mem- the significance of such subjectively bers of the class and, (c) the traits defined types by means of sophistic- characterizing all or most members of ated numerical methods has been the class, or differentiating them from justly equated by Clarke to attempting members of other classes; despite their to build “sound structures from shoddy subtle difference of meaning (cf. Doran components” (1978: 206). If, therefore, and Hodson 1975: 164-166), the three the significance of costume on stelai is aspects of the definition of a type are to be statistically examined, the typo-

18 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI logy itself must be based on more tunic type, mantle type, hairstyle and stable ground. footgear type, but the order of these di- Typology, in a stricter sense, is con- visions will again be arbitrary. Thirdly, nected with the explicit partition of a costumes that differ in one of the first set of observations into distinct attributes used for the classification classes, on the basis of their perceived (such as tunic overfall), will be presen- affinities and differences; this proced- ted as very different, even if they share ure, attempting to uncover the struc- most other attributes; thus, the con- ture of the data, is called classification ceptual ‘position’ of costumes within (Gordon 1981: 1-6). In order to determ- this classification may represent very ine the desirable properties of such an poorly their perceived affinities. explicit typology, it is useful to examine Since it is based on successive divi- Bieber’s study of costume in Greek art sions of the data on the basis of a (1928); here, separate classifications single attribute at each step, and pro- are put forward for each clothing item duces classes of objects sharing every (peplos, chiton, mantle, hairstyle etc.), single attribute, Bieber’s study (1928) based on successive divisions of pos- may be categorized as a monothetic di- sible costume forms on the basis of a visive classification (Clarke 1978: 35- single attribute. Actual figures are as- 36). On this account, it resembles signed to a class in each level of parti- Saxe’s componential analysis of mortu- tion, according to the form of the relev- ary practice (1970), in which actual dis- ant clothing item. Thus, the feminine posal forms were successively divided peplos (clothing item I.) is divided to according to aspects of mortuary prac- class i. with long, and ii. with short tice (components), each resulting set of overfall; these are subdivided to A) un- components corresponding to a social girdled, and B) girdled; the latter are persona. But Saxe’s normative ap- distinguished into those having the proach is, as we already discussed girdle a) over the long overfall, and b) (above: section 1.3.1), inappropriate for under the short overfall; peploi may be the study of Greek costume. If the partly or (especially Bb) fully sewn at monothetic divisive method is used the sides, A) and Bb) may have the within a probabilistic framework, e.g., back part of the overfall brought over by ignoring combinations occurring less the head as a veil, B) may have a often than a certain limit, the method is pouch formed by the girdle. The pro- not guaranteed to produce the same fi- cess of dividing costumes for typologic- nal types, provided that the order in al purposes by the value of a single at- which the attributes are used to divide tribute is followed by other studies on the data is altered. Automatic Greek costume (Barker 1922; Oehler monothetic divisive classification meth- 1961; Bieber 1977). ods, attempting to overcome these ob- Three disadvantages are associated jections by determining the order in with Bieber’s typology. Firstly, what which the attributes are used according should be one of the results of the ana- to some objective criterion (Sneath and lysis, namely, to determine the relative Sokal 1973: 203-204; Tainter 1975: 9- importance of costume attributes, be- 14) are best suited to binary, rather comes its precondition: the order by than multistate nominal attributes, and which attributes are used for classifica- lead typically to only two or three suc- tion is based on prior subjective de- cessive divisions (e.g., O’Shea 1984), cision on their relative importance. being unsuitable for a large number of Secondly, the system does not provide attributes; in addition, the substantive a unique typology, taking into account importance of the few attributes selec- the interaction between the form of dif- ted is not guaranteed. ferent costume items, such as tunic, Since it is accepted that social vari- mantle or footgear; it is, of course, pos- ables operate on the entire costume of sible to divide costumes succesively by figures on Classical Attic stelai, the de-

19 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS sired classification should be based on share a consistently recurrent range of all relevant costume attributes. Pader attribute states within a given polythet- presents convincing arguments why a ic set” (Clarke 1978: 209). In a poly- separate analysis of the two sexes is thetic classification, all values of attrib- desirable in mortuary studies, noting utes considered contribute to the as- that the way other social differentiation signment of an object to a type, but is signified may vary considerably each single attribute value on its own is among the sexes; if evidence on male not a necessary condition for group and female burial is mixed, she argues, membership. then one sex may be incorrectly The polythetic methodological “deemed ‘richer’ than the other by ref- framework has been used extensively erence to artifact count, quality and for numerical classification of biological type, without considering that perhaps and prehistoric archaeological data. the grave inclusions ‘mean’ differently Two approaches to typology can be dis- for each sex”, for instance because of tinguished, known as R- and Q-mode “the females being buried in costumes analysis. The former consists of the which included jewellery while the study of the association between attrib- males were not” (Pader 1982: 59-60). utes, ranging from simple descriptive Since male and female figures consti- statistics to sophisticated multivariate tute, with the exception of infants in methods, such as factor analysis; the swaddling clothes, two clearly estab- significance of specific traits is thus dir- lished populations, and since we know ectly evaluated. The latter consists of that they had quite different roles in the study of the similarity between Athenian society, a separate classifica- units or objects (i.e., observations), and tion of female and male costume will leads to direct classificatory results; the be sought; in the light of Pader’s argu- importance of the attributes, however, ments, this will present a clearer view has to be evaluated after the analysis. of the significance of costume among Under the same assumptions about the the sexes. nature of the data, the two approaches often lead to similar results (Gordon 2.3.6 Similarity, classification and 1981: 87-88), although their relative identification merits in highlighting finer variation are A notable criticism of monothetic disputed (Spaulding 1982; Hodson classifications is that they assume a 1982). But the Q-mode analysis (classi- property that costume on Classical At- fication of objects) is more appropriate tic stelai may simply lack: namely, that for the study of costume on stelai, be- significance is attached to individual at- cause of the large number of attributes tributes. However, in the light of the involved (Sokal and Sneath 1973: 258; view of costume and mortuary practice cf. Cowgill 1982: 47-48). presented above, it may be reasonably Classification implies judgement expected that important social dimen- about the degree of resemblance sions will be reflected in more than one between objects, according to a set of costume attribute. In fact, the degree attributes; numerical polythetic classi- to which attributes vary together may fication is often based on evaluating a be related to their importance for the matrix of quantitative indices of simil- communication of social meaning, and arity between objects, in order to es- attributes that vary on their own may tablish their relationships. The simplest be more likely the product of unac- similarity index for binary attributes is countable individual variation than of the simple matching coefficient (Sokal social constraint. This view leads to an and Sneath 1973: 131-134; Doran and alternative formulation of typology to Hodson 1975: 140-141); extended to the monothetic approach, according to the multistate nominal case, this coeffi- which a type is defined as “an homo- cient takes values between zero and geneous population of artefacts which unity, and is equal to the ratio of the

20 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI number of matches to the sum of recoded also as an attribute of hi- matches and mismatches of attribute mation form, independent from head values for each pair of observations. In cover. Finally, the beard, an five-state cases of presence/absence attributes, ordinal attribute, will be transformed this coefficient gives equal weight to into four binary attributes by means of positive and to negative matches; al- additive coding (Gordon 1981: 20), so though measures exist that differenti- that a long-bearded man will display a ate between the two, favouring positive higher similarity index to a medium- matches (Doran and Hodson 1975: bearded than to a beardless male, con- 141-142), the simple matching coeffi- forming to intuitive judgment. cient is preferred here because of the A practical problem in numerical following considerations: it is simple classification is that of missing attrib- and thus easy to interpret, it is a more ute values, occurring frequently with objective measure of similarity since it costume on stelai, either because of does not depend on the semantics of bad or fragmentary preservation, or be- presence and absence, and, further- cause an adequate illustration could more, it conforms with the semiotic not be consulted. The computation of view, that the significance of an attrib- the simple matching coefficient ex- ute value for role differentiation lies in cludes by definition attributes missing its opposition to other attribute values from either of the two figures com- rather than in intrinsic meaning pared. If the number of missing values (Sneath and Sokal 1973: 146-147; is large, the simple matching coeffi- above: section 1.2.1). cient becomes an unreliable index of Some male and female costume at- real similarity, and the magnitudes of tributes need to be coded in a specific indices computed on the basis of en- way before they can be used with the tirely different attributes are not com- simple matching coefficient. Firstly, parable; furthermore, the statistical sig- there are attributes that are constant nificance of such differences varies among figures of one sex, such as the with the number of valid comparisons supporting chest bands, not en- on the basis of which the coefficients countered with males in the data set, have been computed (Sneath and Sokal and logically irrelevant attributes, such 1973: 180-181). This is an important as the presence of beard for female fig- drawback, since it may not only lead to ures; despite their importance for es- the negligible mistaken assignment of tablishing differences between male one figure, but also to the wrong defini- and female costume, such attributes tion of types and their relationships. shall be excluded from the data sets A measure of the proportion of miss- used for classification. Secondly, attrib- ing values, applicable both to a single utes will be coded to reflect the fact unit, a single attribute, or a pair of that two figures wearing a himation are units or attributes, is known in taxo- more similar to each other than to one nomic literature as relevance (Sneath lacking a mantle, regardless of differ- and Sokal 1973: 181-182). To avoid the ences in himation form; other condi- problems associated with missing val- tional attributes describing tunic form ues in the computation of the similarity will be coded similarly (Gordon 1981: matrix, only figures with a high unit 17). Thirdly, complex traits will be ‘relevance’ will be included in the male broken into two simple attributes: sep- and female costume classification data arate attributes will therefore be used sets; no attributes will be excluded, for the presence and position of a staff however, on account of low attribute respectively (so that two men holding a ‘relevance’, since this would obscure a staff in different positions will, ceteris possibly valuable aspect of costume paribus, have a higher similarity to variability. each other than to a man lacking a staff altogether) and female veil will be Experiments in biological taxonomy have shown that replacement of data

21 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS by missing values starts affecting signi- algorithm were in general satisfactory. ficantly the correlation of the resulting similarity matrix with that computed 2.3.7 Selection of a classification from the original full data only when method more than one third of all entries have been replaced (Sneath and Sokal 1973: Unlike dissection, which aims at the 181). Since the behaviour of archaeolo- unconditional division of a group of ob- gical data in this matter has not been jects into sectors possessing certain studied, especially those on the se- specified properties, classification aims mantic domain, it is wise to aim for a at uncovering the underlying structure lower proportion of missing values, im- of the data, assuming that they truly plied here by a minimum ‘relevance’ of consist of more than one group. In or- 0.75. Figures not satisfying this require- der to consider a partition into groups ment will be excluded from the process as a true classification, the criteria of of classification. internal cohesion and external isolation must therefore be satisfied: costumes Having established classes of well- of the same type must be very similar preserved figures on the basis of their to each other, and as dissimilar as pos- costume, further figures may be as- sible to costumes classified in other signed to these classes, without danger types (Gordon 1981: 4-5). Although this of major distortion of the classification. is a general desideratum of a classifica- This process is called assignment, iden- tion, it assumes special importance tification or pattern recognition rather when methods of automatic classifica- than classification, since its purpose is tion are used, based on the representa- not to establish a typology, but just to tion of costume by a set of attributes, assign or identify objects to one of a or on the representation of relation- number of known classes (Doran and ships between instances of costume by Hodson 1975: 159; Gordon 1981: 3-4). a similarity matrix; such methods are Considering that all evidence on cos- collectively known by the name of tume may be potentially valuable, it is cluster analysis (Doran and Hodson essential that as many figures as pos- 1975: 173-186). Several cluster analys- sible be assigned to a male or female is methods have been used in archae- costume type. Figures with ‘relevance’ ology; the applicability of the most higher than 0.25 were, therefore, as- common methods has been tested on a signed to the already established variety of archaeological material, in- types. Sophisticated mathematical cluding repeated studies on a group of methods, such as discriminant and ca- La Tène fibulae from the Iron Age nonical variate analysis, exist for identi- cemetery of Münsingen (Hodson 1969, fication (Doran and Hodson 1975: 209- 1970; Doran and Hodson 1975: 218- 213). However, for reasons of simplicity 236). and methodological uniformity, instead of these sophisticated methods, a These studies concentrate either on simple algorithm, based on evaluating the general classificatory implications a matrix of simple matching similarity of specific cluster analysis methods, or coefficients of all figures originally clas- on the validity of the specific archae- sified to types with all unclassified fig- ological results that they produce, ures, was used for type identification; a without attempting to relate the selec- figure was assigned to a type if its av- tion of the method to the nature of the erage similarity to the figures of the data. However, the desideratum of an type was (a) at least as high as the av- “objective” solution to the question of erage between the original members of costume typology, a strong argument the type, and, (b), at least 0.05 higher for using numerical rather than intuit- than its similarity with any other type. ive classification, would be surely viol- Although misclassifications did occur, ated if all possible clustering methods the results of identification using this were applied, until one of them ap- peared to yield suitable results; in con-

22 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI trast to many prehistoric studies, a suf- not realistic to assume that costume ficiently detailed body of theory about types on stelai, and thus social per- the nature and significance of costume sonae, occurred equally often; in con- on Classical Attic stelai is available, so trast, some composite social identities that an appropriate clustering method would certainly be expected to be more may be selected on substantive common than others as a result of ver- grounds. This selection may be tical social differentiation. For these achieved by a process of elimination, in reasons, the use of K-means clustering the following manner. was considered inappropriate for our There are clustering methods allow- purpose. ing an object to belong to more than Having rejected the sum-of-squares one clusters (“clumps”, Gordon 1981: method, of particular importance are 54-58; cf. Doran and Hodson 1975: two methods leading to hierarchical 177, fig. 9.10), but since the costume non-overlapping classifications, starting types derived from the analysis are as- from individual units, and progressively sumed to be representations of social joining them into wider divisions in an personae, and since personae are by agglomerative fashion. Although hier- definition mutually exclusive, the de- archical methods are known to distort sired clusters of male and female cos- the original relationships in the similar- tume must be non-overlapping. Be- ity matrix more than their non-hier- sides, the polythetic definition of types archical or overlapping counterparts, (above: section 1.3.6) rules out formal they provide a better summarization of monothetic divisive methods of numer- the overall structure of the data: since ical classification (Sneath and Sokal they may be shown as a dendrogram or 1973: 203-204). tree diagram (e.g., fig. 95), represent- Three non-overlapping methods ing a hierarchy of nested partitions, re- have been used in almost three quar- lationships both between and within ters of all studies in archaeology and clusters can be explored. This is espe- natural science (Gordon 1981: 34); on cially important in the study of female account of their proven record, we shall and male costume on stelai, since the restrict further discussion to these number of socially relevant costume methods. The K-means method is types is not known from the outset. based on partitioning the objects into a Of the two methods, single link specified number of non-overlapping cluster analysis has desirable mathem- clusters, so that a clustering criterion atical characteristics, but has not been expressed in numerical form is maxim- found useful in practical taxonomy, ized; the algorithm is described in de- since it tends to create elongated, tail by Hodson (1970: 311-315). The straggly clusters, chaining together dis- method, however, is not guaranteed to similar objects (Sokal and Sneath 1973: produce the best solution, since its res- 223). But it may be assumed that actu- ults are dependent on (random or sub- al male and female costume clusters jective) selection of initial cluster seeds should consist of figures showing a and on the order in which observations roughly similar amount of individual are evaluated; besides, even if figures variation from a typical, ‘pure’ repres- fall into groups so that all pairwise entation of social personae; since within-group similarities are larger than minor costume variability is seen as all between-groups similarities, it has the product of style or personal whim been noted that K-means is not guaran- of the sculptor, there is no reason why teed to distinguish the groups correctly some types should by definition be less (Gordon 1981: table 6.2). Moreover, the cohesive than others. This, and the dis- method tends to respond well only to appointing results of the method in ar- the discovery of clusters of roughly chaeology (Hodson 1970: 305), argue equal size; but, in the light of the theor- against its use for costume typology. etical framework presented so far, it is A common method satisfying this as-

23 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS sumption of “spherical” clusters of erage linkage, will impose the ‘best’ di- roughly equal variance is arithmetic av- vision of figures into classes, even if erage linkage cluster analysis posed distinct types do not really exist. As a sketches of typical examples (fig. 101); first step towards examining the exist- the latter are usually the figures known ential claims of clusters, the matrix of as centrotypes, that is, those displaying similarity indices between- and within- the greatest average similarity with clusters may be analysed (e.g., fig. 96). other figures in their cluster. This kind The mean within-group similarity index of diagram is suggested here as an ef- is a measure of internal cohesion, while fective way of summarizing information the between-groups similarity indices about the frequency, characteristic ap- indicate the degree of external isolation pearance and taxonomic relationships of the cluster. Of particular interest is between types. the between-groups similarity index The chi-squared test is normally with the closest cluster; its difference used to determine the statistical signi- from the within-group similarity index ficance of the association between two is a measure of how well the particular logically independent attributes; a good cluster satisfies simultaneously both introduction to hypothesis testing, con- criteria of internal cohesion and extern- tingency tables and the chi-squared al isolation, similar to the graphical test is given by Thomas (1976: 264- evaluation of “moat” (above: section 284). Although the assumptions of the 1.3.7). test do not apply to the relationship of Despite their initial usefulness, these costume type with single costume at- indices do not provide an overall view tributes, since the former is by defini- of the taxonomic structure, and, more tion not independent from the latter, a importantly, are based on the prior pseudo-chi-squared test may be used definition of the clusters; if these do in an exploratory fashion, to determine not represent real types, the similarity which attribute values are especially indices between them are artificial con- connected with specific costume types. structs without intrinsic significance. An The analysis of residuals of a contin- alternative examination of taxonomic gency table (Everitt 1977: 46-48) is structure is provided by geometric, also used to find which attribute value com- known as ordination, methods, which binations account for a significant chi- attempt to reduce a multivariate attrib- squared value. In this light, costume ute set to a small number of compon- traits connected with each type are dis- ents, losing as little of the information tinguished into those occurring in a about the relationship between objects high proportion of type members, and as possible; the resulting configuration those occurring much more often than of points in a (normally two- or three- expected within the type. The former, dimensional) conceptual space, so that conventionally those occurring in more similar objects will be shown close to- than 1/2 of cases, may be used for the gether, and vice versa (fig. 98) may morphological definition of the type; then be spatially represented and visu- the latter may be used for its differenti- ally examined (Gordon 1981: 80-81). ation from other types. Both categories Two major ordination methods have of attributes taken together, represent been used in archaeology: principal co- different aspects of the polythetic set ordinate analysis, and (non-metric) that characterizes male and female multidimensional scaling. The former costume types; they therefore play an assumes that the pairwise similarity in- important part in type description dices between objects are numeric (chapters 4-5). measures of their distances in the original, high-dimensional attribute space; 2.3.8 Assessment of costume clas- the latter assumes that just the order sification of similarity indices is the reverse of All clustering methods, including av- the order of distances, and results in

24 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI different geometric configurations ac- this study, is to examine the effect of a cording to the number of dimensions number of important social variables selected. PC analysis has been found to on the typologies derived from costume represent better the gross structure of attributes of male and female figures the data, while the distortion imposed by means of numerical classification. In by non-metric scaling is spread evenly order to ensure that all available evid- between high and low similarity values ence is exploited, the data set used for (Gordon 1981: 80-101). Both methods interpretation consists not only of fig- are accompanied by a numeric measures used for classification, but also of ure of how well they represent the ori- all figures with unit ‘relevance’ higher ginal, high-dimensional variability in a than 0.25 that have been subsequently reduced, low-dimensional space. In PC assigned to a type. Although some real- analysis, this measure is the proportion location was performed in individual of total variability expressed by each discussion of the types, all statistical principal coordinate; a ‘scree’ plot of procedures described in this section the variance values provides a means were performed on the raw data, as of selecting an appropriate number of they were provided by cluster analysis coordinates, i.e., one more than the PC and automatic identification; indeed, it showing an “elbow” (Doran and Hod- is not clear what would be left to be son 1975: 191, pl. 8.3; below: fig. 97). “tested” after changes were made to An indication that a small number of di- the classification, subsequent to the mensions represents a high percentage study of the form and meaning of spe- of the original variance suggests that cific types. Only results that were stat- the geometric representation will not istically significant at the 5% level were seriously distort the overall structure. discussed, except where explicitly de- An equivalent measure, ‘stress’, exists clared otherwise; although repeated for non-metric scaling. tests of a specific hypothesis using the The metric assumption of PC analys- same data were avoided, it should still is on similarity indices makes it particu- be noted that, as implied by the 5% larly appropriate for the study of fe- significance level, roughly 1/20 of tests male and male costume typology. It has performed in this study will be thought been noted that the presence of two to show meaningful association, while modes in the distributions of the simil- in fact the pattern they exhibit is arity indices of each object to all other simply the effect of chance. objects is important evidence about in- To facilitate understanding, results ternal cohesion and external isolation, were presented, where possible, in and thus of the “existence” of real graphical form: according to the nature types (Cowgill 1982: 35, fig. 3.4); it is of the data in each case, simple and especially this information that is dis- subgrouped bar charts, cumulative fre- carded by the transformation of similar- quency plots relative frequency area ity values into ranks by non-metric charts, and box-and-whisker plots were scaling. For this reason, and also be- used. The cumulative frequency plots cause of its low computation cost and (ogives, Doran and Hodson 1975: 124, its advantage in representing the broad fig. 5.11; below: fig. 51) are especially taxonomic structure, PC analysis will be suitable in comparatively showing the used to control the results of clustering “profiles” of groups defined at the nom- of male and female costume, by ex- inal level across a numeric or ordinal amining the visual separation of cos- attribute, such as apparent age, even if tume types in the three-dimensional the data are not very smooth. The rel- representations. ative frequency area chart, which ex- amines the contribution of each class 2.3.9 Interpretation methods of a nominal attribute within consecut- ive levels of a numeric or ordinal vari- The purpose of interpretation, ac- able, is more affected by local fluctu- cording to the theoretical framework of

25 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS ations, but is easier to interpret than squared width of the stele representing the cumulative frequency plot. Finally, expenditure (below: section 2.2.1), is comparative box-and-whisker plots tested by appropriate Wilcoxon two- present a summary of the distribution sample test (and its multi-sample ex- of a numeric attribute such as stele tension, the Kruskal-Wallis test) and size within each level of a discrete at- analysis-of-variance F statistics (Sokal tribute: apart from the median and and Rohlf 1981: 242-262, 429-435; mean values of the distribution, the Thomas 1976: 307-322). All these ana- box records the middle half of observa- lyses are preceded by separate tests tions (interquartile range), and outliers, for each costume attribute, and there- larger or smaller than one or two in- fore the effect of interaction between terquartile ranges from the first (25%) costume traits on their social signific- and third (75%) quartiles respectively, ance may be evaluated. are plotted as individual points. While these measures are useful for The frequency of types is an import- exploratory analysis, the multivariate ant aspect of the typology; more fre- nature of the interaction between social quent types may be expected to corres- correlates and costume type suggests pond to more common social personae, the necessity of additional analysis. In- while very rare types and singletons deed, there is no reason to suppose probably correspond to less common, that social correlates are independent or even atypical personae. Besides, the of each other, so that it may not be val- correspondence of the frequency distri- id to ignore their interactions. The use bution of costume types to the demo- of sophisticated methods backed by graphic and social structure, as known strong statistical theory, such as log- from external evidence, is also import- linear models (Everitt 1977: 63) to ex- ant. To examine the effect of social cor- amine the effect of age, rank, special relates such as age, rank and group types of group affiliation etc. on cos- membership status, these variables are tume type is precluded because of the defined in the nominal scale, and tabu- small number of observations without lated against costume type; the value missing values for these social factors. of the chi-squared statistic is used to But an alternative way to examine the determine if association exists between combined effect of social dimensions each social correlate and costume type. on male and female costume consists Despite the frequent occurrence of of the evaluation of the principal co- small expected values, due to the small ordinate analysis results. size of some of the clusters, categories Since principal co-ordinates repres- were not pooled, since this would affect ent in an unbiased way decreasing the randomness of the test; although amounts of costume variability, it is some recent opinion (Everitt 1977: 40) useful for our purpose to examine the suggests that the chi-squared test is effect of all relevant social variables, quite robust against small expected fre- and the contribution of specific cos- quencies, its result in this study is tume traits, on the first few PCs, start- taken as a suggestion, rather than ing from that representing the greatest definitive confirmation, of interesting variance percentage. By definition, associations in the data. Besides, an scores for each principal coordinate analysis of residuals (Everitt 1977: 46- across all observations have a mean of 48) is used to identify which combina- zero (Gordon 1981: 80). The associ- tions of attribute values contribute sig- ation of each attribute value (costume nificantly to departures from independ- or otherwise) with positive or negative ence. PC scores may be thus determined us- Moreover, the significance of the ef- ing a two-tailed T test, examining the fect on costume type of correlates hypothesis that the mean PC score of defined on the ordinal scale, such as observations possessing the attribute age, or on a numeric scale, such as the value differs significantly from zero

26 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

(Thomas 1975: 230-233; cf. Pader 1982: 105). While the result of the test provides an indication of the significance only, and not the strength of this association, the mean represents nevertheless the typical PC score for that attribute value. Despite the fact that the assumption of normality is frequently violated by the way PC scores are distributed, the results of the T tests are useful as means of screening out spurious associations. It should be noted, of course, that T-tests have no strict statistical significance for costume traits, since the PCs are bound by definition to be associated with costume. Apart from T-tests, however, the strength of association of each PC with social variables that can be expressed as ordinal or numeric (such as apparent age), may be measured by means of the Kendall tau-b correlation coefficient, which is free of the parametric assumptions of the T-test (Thomas 1976: 406-412). This analysis results in a list of social correlates with positive or negative associations to each of the first few principal coordinates; specific attribute values are represented by their mean scores, the correlation with the main social dimensions by Kendall’s tau-b correlation coefficients. In sum, the results of PC analysis are used in chapter 6 to determine which social variables affect costume most, and how exactly they interact in their common influence over costume with other iconographic and stele traits.

27 3. 4. The social identity of figures on Classical Attic stelai

4.1 Sex and age The sex of most figures on Classical Attic stelai is determined from the obvious anatomic and physiognomic differences between male and female; the few exceptions, mostly babies or poorly preserved examples, do not justify a special discussion of criteria for sex determination. Considering the sharp changes in physiognomic, bodily and iconographic traits between infancy, childhood, adolescence and adulthood, it is no surprise that the broad age of female and male figures is also routinely identified in studies on Clas- sical Attic stelai. Following Conze (1893/1900) in cases where an illustration has not been available, 791 (out of 799) females, 593 (out of 600) males and a negligible number of figures of unknown sex have been identified in this study as infants, children, adolescent or adult. In the absence of explicit criteria, the age determination of some marginal cases is open to criticism. But, in general, we may be reasonably confident that the results reflect well the general trends of sex and age representation on Classical Attic stelai. Ex- cluding the very small number of infants, mostly of unidentified sex (below: 2.1.4), adults are shown on stelai in a proportion of 3:1 to non-adults; besides, while representations of boys are more common than those of girls, there are considerably more adolescent and adult females than males (fig. 1). THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

Unlike sex, which constitutes a fun- tute admittedly rare, but valuable evid- damental dichotomy running across ence for the relationship of apparent cultural frontiers, the four-fold distinc- age groups with chronological age; all tion of broad age is based on modern examples are listed by Clairmont “common sense” about age categoriza- (1970), but specific references will be tion. The multiplicity of Classical made where appropriate. The height of Athenian age terms suggests, however, non-adult figures relative to adults is that broad age may fail to reveal im- also a useful measure of their chronolo- portant differences within each group gical age. However, relative figure (e.g., young adulthood to maturity), height is also affected by the intended and may also hide similarities between status of the figures (below: section transitional cases assigned to contigu- 2.3.2); besides, it is sometimes difficult ous groups. To overcome this problem, to calculate the true relative height it is necessary to make finer age dis- when the taller figure is not standing, tinctions. In the virtual absence of dir- or is not certainly adult. ect external evidence for chronological Apparent age reflects by definition age on Classical Attic stelai (as, for in- the continuum of biological age; the stance, on Roman funerary discontinuity of the ranking is due to inscriptions), specific traits of bodily the technical impossibility of making and facial characterization will be used very fine age distinctions between the to establish a ranking of figures accord- figures classified. But the way age is ing to their relative age. represented in terms of anatomy and The resulting ordinal attribute, called physiognomy and its tectonic and icon- here the apparent age, is a reflection ographic associations depends on the of the figures’ biological age, “meas- way it was conceived by ancient ured by the senescence of the organ- Athenians. From Solon’s elegy defining ism” (Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970: 102- the ten ages of mankind, separated by 104). However, while the same biolo- seven-yearly intervals (Eleg. Fr. gical age may, because of variations of 19(27)), to the Periclean reference to growth or senility between individuals, the three generations of Athenians correspond to a range of chronological (Thuc. 2.44), age is understood as a set ages, the stereotyped nature of stele of discrete categories, rather than as a representations implies that the an- biological continuum. The rarity of ab- cient spectator would assign figures solute chronological age references in with similar facial and bodily traits to Classical funerary epigrams, matched the same age group; the problem of by frequent reference to the qualities, stylistic variation has already been actions and circumstances of the denoted (above: section 1.2.4). However, ceased, providing indirect information the chronological age corresponding to for the determination of age, confirms each group cannot be determined this fact. simply by intuition; ageing patterns Universal natural events, such as pu- may have been different in antiquity, berty and female menopause form a especially biological senility, which basis for age categorization. Natural used to set in “earlier than at the lower age landmarks are especially import- limit of old age defined chronologically ant, since they are iconographically vis- today” (Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970: ible: the appearance of anatomic traits, 103). such as female breasts or male pubic The exact age of the commemorated hair and beard, may be used to link ap- individual is sometimes epigraphically parent age to specific chronological recorded on Greek stelai; several ex- ranges with relative certainty. amples are collected by Verilhac Moreover, the social integration (1978). Attic inscriptions of the Classic- through education, a system of initial period providing the absolute chro- ation rites, military service and mar- nological age of figures on stelai consti- riage constitutes an important frame-

29 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS work for the social identity of figures. The same procedural rules were fol- Literary evidence often provides indica- lowed for both main and control rank- tions about the chronological age asso- ing. In order to guard against bias in ciations of these and other events. The the ranking process, a set of explicit occurrence of age-related, non-costume criteria, dealing exclusively with iconographic traits will be used, togeth- physiognomic and anatomical age-re- er with epigraphic evidence, to inter- lated traits, was first defined for each pret the apparent age of figures, and to sex; iconographic criteria such as the qualify the connection of apparent age presence of age-related attributes, and ranks with chronological age ranges. even the relative figure height, were In sum, the following sections explicitly excluded from consideration. present the exact procedure observed Pairs of figures were originally put in for the determination of apparent age, the order suggested by the greater and the respective ranking of female number of criteria; then, figures were and male figures. The remaining dis- freely rearranged to ensure that suc- cussion deals both with age categoriza- cessive ranks were both different to tion, and with establishing, by using all each other, and internally homogen- available evidence, the chronological eous. A large number of figures whose and social associations of apparent age the age rank could not be determined ranks. Early childhood is presented in was rejected from the analysis. common for both sexes, since infant The amount of anatomical and girls and boys have similar social and physiognomic information available for iconographic associations. Females and each figure varies with relief depth, di- males of older age ranks, where sex mensions and the technical quality of patterning seems to be important for the stele. In addition, the availability of age categorization, are, however, dis- anatomic surface detail varies with the cussed separately. Finally, the repres- degree of bodily exposure; only a few entation of sex and age on Classical At- well-preserved nude figures permit as tic stelai is discussed on the basis of all detailed a study of the anatomy as has evidence except costume; the age dis- been advocated by Kurtz (1983: 18). It tribution of figures of each sex on stelai is obviously possible to assign figures is related to additional evidence. with more detailed age characterization to finer ranks than less-detailed ex- 4.1.1 Apparent age ranking amples. In the interest of striking a bal- ance between precision and efficiency, Establishing which of two figures on a minimum of ten groups, enabling a Classical Attic stelai is older appears in- substantially finer classification than tuitively to be considerably easier than broad age, was requested for each speculating directly on their chronolo- ranking, but the assignment criteria gical age. The methodological assump- were adjusted so as to be applicable to tion underlying apparent age ranking as many figures as possible. The exact on the basis of universal, facial and number of groups was left at the dis- bodily traits, is that different classifiers cretion of the judges, to be determined would reach roughly the same conclu- during the ranking process. sions on the relative age of pairs of figures. To test the validity of this proposi- Figures were ranked on the basis of tion, the female and male figures were photographs or small sketches. In most ordered according to their age by the cases, apart from large, high quality author (main ranking), and by two in- monuments with detailed age charac- dependent judges not familiar with the terization, sketches show adequately iconography of Classical Attic stelai, the simplified facial and bodily traits of working in cooperation (control rank- figures; this is shown by comparing ing); Kendall’s tau-b was used as an in- sketches and photographs of the same dex of concordance between the two stele, such as C95 (Conze 1893/1900: rankings. pl. 37 = Clairmont 1970: pl. 13) and

30 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

C340 (Conze 1893/1900: pl. 84 = Clair- ferences of bodily proportions, sharing mont 1970: pl. 25). The unavoidable er- a flat chest and similar facial traits. Age ror and reduction of anatomic and group 1 consists of little girls with physiognomic information resulting plump bodies, fleshy arms and round from including sketches is far out- faces; typical examples are C827.1, weighed by the large number of figures with a very chubby frontal face accen- represented, that would otherwise have tuated by the flat, pointed nose with been inaccessible. wide wings, and C840.1 (pl. 20). Girls in group 2 have less plump bodily pro- 4.1.2 Female relative apparent age portions (e.g., C815.1); C878.2 fits better with this group, although she ap- There are several universal natural pears slightly younger. Girls in group 3 changes, visible in stele representa- are generally more slender (e.g., tions, taking place in the lifetime of fe- C1100.1: pl. 33), but the traits of some males; they are unsurprising, but es- vary: the extremely slender C831.1 sential for the determination of relative could be older if it were not for the very apparent age. Especially during child- chubby face, while only the face differ- hood, the head becomes progressively entiates C818.1 from group 2 girls. smaller in proportion to the body. In adolescence, the pelvis becomes wider, The next two groups consist of girls and the bust fuller. Additional traits, al- apparently up to the advent of puberty. though not universal to natural human Age group 4 contains two distinct types growth, characterize changes in female of figures, the age order of which could age on Classical Attic stelai. During not be determined. One is character- childhood the shape of the face is ized by flat chests, slender bodies or transformed from round and chubby to limbs, and childlike but not chubby oval, the limbs become leaner, and the faces (e.g., C115.2: pl. 4). The other silhouette more slender. In adulthood, consists of girls with bodies almost as the bodily proportions become pro- plump as group 3, but displaying slight gressively heavier, and horizontal signs of development of the bust (e.g., wrinkles on the front of the neck, C875.1). On the other hand, most girls known as Venus rings, make their ap- in group 5 display a combination of a pearance. Old age is characterized by a slightly bulging bust and more slender thin and stooping bodily frame, and a bodily proportions than groups 1-3 bony, wrinkled face with deep-set eyes. (e.g., C410.1: pl. 15; C896.2); the unusual C819.1 is also assigned here des- These criteria have been used by the pite the apparent lack of bust develop- author to assign 184 females, shown ment, on account of her excessively on Classical Attic stelai, to twelve age small head and apparently broader pel- groups. Employing the same criteria, vis. eleven groups, of 167 females in all, were distinguished by the independent Adolescent girls are assigned to the judges. According to Kendall’s tau-b of sixth, seventh and eighth age group; 0.82, the main ranking has a high, al- discrimination between these groups is beit not perfect, degree of concordance difficult, and criteria often conflict. Age to the control ranking (fig. 2); we, group 6 includes both girls with an al- therefore, assume that it is not seri- most full bust but childlike facial char- ously affected by our iconographic or acterization (e.g., C875), and girls with conceptual bias. The main characterist- only slightly bulging chest, lacking the ics of the relative age groups construc- childlike traits (e.g., C310.2: pl. 10). ted by the ranking are briefly summar- Group 7 includes mostly taller figures, ized in fig. 3, and explained, pointing separated from group 6 either by the out illustrative examples and specific bust (e.g., C888.2) or the facial traits problems, in the following paragraphs. (e.g., C887.1). Finally, group 8 consists of females with adult bodily propor- The first three groups show just dif- tions; some, however, have distinctly

31 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS youthful facial traits (e.g., C755.4: pl. cially of the trunk and upper arms; this 17), while others have a not yet fully change is no doubt related with the developed bust with an apparently Athenian athletic ideal, reflected also adult face (e.g., C871.2). on iconography (below: section 2.1.6). The remaining groups consist of The process is reversed in adulthood, adult females, differentiated from with bodily forms becoming heavier younger figures by an adult face and and muscles less firm; the inferior broad pelvis. Group 9 consists of wo- boundary of the pectorals is set lower men with often idealized, young adult and the abdomen gets fuller again. faces, lacking any positive sign of age- While ageneioi are non-adult by ing (e.g., C69.2: pl. 2). The few women definition, adult men are always assigned to group 10 either display bearded, since shaving was considered Venus rings but relatively firm bodily in Classical Athens a sign of effeminacy forms (e.g., C297.2), or a youthful face (Ehrenberg 1951: 105). Beard length is combined with a heavier body (C290.3; used as an age determination criterion pl. 9). because of its importance for facial The distinctive trait of group 11 fe- characterization, in the knowledge that, males, is, apart from heavier bodily having also been defined as a costume proportions, that they lack the ideal- trait (above: section 1.3.4), it intro- ized, firm physiognomic traits of young- duces an element of circularity to our er women: faces are often fuller, chins argument; in practice, it is often associ- more pronounced, eye-sockets deeper ated with bodily age-related traits. Fi- (e.g., C337.2: pl. 12). Several group 11 nally, as with women, old age is associ- women are shown in the company of ated with stooping, thin bodily frame females with the “idealized” traits typ- and emaciated, wrinkled face with ical of earlier groups (e.g., C70; C465; deep-set eyes; an additional sign of C896), to dispel the view that female male old age is the presence of balding physiognomic realism on Classical Attic or thinned out hair. stelai is merely the result of late chro- According to these criteria, I have as- nology, suggesting instead that it is signed 190 males to thirteen age used consistently for mature age char- groups, compared with 217 males as- acterization. Finally, unlike women in signed also to thirteen groups by the group 11, the three old females as- independent judges; Kendall’s tau-b signed to group 12 display a thin, albeit measuring the concordance of main to not stooping bodily frame; their face is control ranking is 0.82, with misclassi- emaciated, with pronounced features fications mostly extending to just one and wrinkles under the chin or the group, suggesting that this is a relat- deep-set eyes (e.g., C95.1). ively reliable way of determining relative male age (fig. 4). The main traits of 4.1.3 Male relative apparent age age groups, discussed briefly below, are summarized in fig. 5. Like females, male young children have plump limbs and bodily forms, Boys in group 1 display a very plump and large heads with round, chubby body with fleshy limbs and a large faces. The frequent exposure of the head; several have thin, barely visible body, however, allows more detailed hair connected with infancy, for ex- age determination. Young children with ample, C887.2, who has deep folds of full abdomen and frequent folds of the flesh visible in the groins, in the bend flesh give way to leaner and more of the knee and the ankle, and around slender older boys; they display a cor- the chin; on the basis of facial traits respondingly smaller head, but not yet and narrow shoulders C1044.2 also be- major changes in musculature. At a longs here, despite his more solid bod- second stage, males develop a wider ily frame. Group 2 consists of slightly chest and more detailed muscles, espe- more slender figures. Oblique or profile examples display a full abdomen (e.g.,

32 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

C64.2); despite his wide nose and pro- not very muscular body (e.g., C935.1; nounced lips associating him with older C157.2: pl. 5). The heads of the boys, C290.2 (pl. 9), whose body is hid- clavicles are now often denoted, the di- den, has a full face and a plump and vision of the thighs from the groins featureless visible upper arm, suggest- marked by clear, almost straight fur- ing that he also belongs here. Group 3 rows, and frontal loins are slightly bul- boys share with younger figures the ging. Several non-nude youths are as- round shape of the face and the full ab- signed to this group of the basis of fa- domen, but usually have leaner limbs cial traits or general bodily form (e.g., and smaller heads, without a fleshy C1062.2: pl. 31). Youths in group 8 chin or chubby cheeks (e.g., C1100.1: have similar proportions, but a more pl. 33). They lack defined musculature, solid body with stronger thighs and with two exceptions: C978.1, displaying wide chest, and more developed a slightly bulging biceps and shallow S- muscles: a clearly demarcated biceps, shaped flank-line, but also full abdo- a deep S-shaped depression at the line men and cheeks and a fleshy chin sep- of the groin, more detailed muscles of arated by a furrow, and C964.1, with the flank and the rectus abdominis clearly delineated pectorals countered (e.g., C929.1: pl. 24). by very squat bodily proportions. Boys Group 9 consists of males with a in group 4 have more slender bodily fully developed body: solid thighs and proportions, often without a full abdo- buttocks, a wide upper torso, a men, but still display fleshy faces and markedly bulging anterior superior iliac soft, undefined muscles (e.g., C967.1: spine, and fully developed - albeit re- pl. 25). Despite the bulging belly of laxed - musculature. Several figures C977.1, his slightly arcing depression display a thin, growing beard (e.g., denoting the costal margin on the one C676.1: pl. 16), suggesting that they hand, and his undefined muscles on are at the point of transition to adult- the other, suggest that he is rightly as- hood; some beardless youths are also signed to this group (cf. Kurtz 1983: assigned to this group, because of their 24). anatomic similarity with nude youths Group 5 figures have a smaller head, growing a beard (C1054.3: pl. 30), to a leaner body, lacking the full abdomen whom they may also be stylistically re- of younger examples and displaying lated (Himmelmann 1956: 27, n. 112). some anatomical detail: the linea alba, Adult men have usually only the an S-shaped line of the groin with a chest and arms exposed, so that de- bulging anterior superior iliac spine, or termining their relative age is less se- a slightly bulging biceps (e.g., cure than that of children and youths. C1044.1). Boys in group 6 also display Group 10 consists of young men, with these anatomical traits, with the regu- an upright posture (either standing or lar addition of the lower border of the seated), firm bodily forms and a relat- pectorals, sometimes extended later- ively youthful face; they have a flat ab- ally over the armpits. They have, how- domen and high lower pectoral lines, ever, more developed bodily propor- and a short or medium-length beard tions, especially so far as the head-to- (e.g., C410.4: pl. 15). Group 11 in- body ratio is concerned, with two vari- cludes upright, mature men with less- ations: slender boys with narrow upper defined musculature than group 10 fig- trunk (e.g., C953), or squatter boys ures; many have a long beard, full ab- with fairly developed chest and a bul- domen or sagging lower pectoral mar- ging biceps (C1036.1: pl. 29); which of gin (e.g., C384.2: pl. 13). Despite his the two variations consists of younger firm musculature, C1084.1 is assigned boys cannot be determined. to this group because of his long beard, Group 7 is characterized by stylized, deep-set eyes and furrowed cheeks; on oval-shaped faces without the childlike the other hand, C741.3 is assigned traits of earlier groups, and a fit, but here on account of his thinned-out hair

33 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS and apparently receding forehead line, days, when they would have been re- despite his short, rounded beard. ceived by the father (Plato, Theaet., Finally, the last two groups consist of 160E), but, on account of their relative old men. Figures assigned to group 12 height, many would not yet have been display long beard, balding forehead registered in the phratry at the yearly associated with medium-length beard, feast of the Apatouria. Two figures, also or thinned-out, wavy hair (e.g., C755.5: held in the arms, identified as females pl. 17); the face is often furrowed, es- by inscription (C310.3: pl. 10) or by the pecially in combination with a thin, absence of male genitals (C280.2), are wavy beard (e.g., C462.1). Many group larger than babies of unidentified sex, 12, long-bearded men show a convex, the latter being probably of similar age stooping back, accentuated by - but not to reclining, crouching or kneeling in- due only to - their leaning forward on a fants of uncertain sex (e.g., C888.1). All staff. Group 13 men combine these in all, fourteen babies held in the arms traits to produce an even stronger im- of females, and four other infants have pression of old age: stooping body, been recorded; their height is always long beard, thinned-out hair, and an less than half that of adults, and, there- emaciated, wrinkled face with deep-set fore, none should have been older than eyes (e.g., C1013.1: pl. 26; C1055.3). ‘2-3 years’ of age. The death of an infant whom fate 4.1.4 Infants on Classical Attic has claimed “¢pÕ mastoà mhtrÕj” is stelai commemorated by an Eretrian fourth- century epigram (Verilhac 1978: 39, no. The youngest figures on stelai are 22). This theme is associated with that those of babies held in the arms, usu- of the baby held in the arms, since the ally wrapped in swaddling bands (e.g., holding female apparently represents C274.2: pl. 7). They display either a the mother or wet-nurse; terracotta fig- pointed cap or uncovered head; their urines of seated women holding a baby sex cannot be determined, either by have been found in Attic infant burials this difference in head cover (it lacks (Kurtz and Boardman 1971: 100). How- other iconographic associations), or by ever, no certain Attic stelai erected for external evidence. The lack of obvious a baby are known; a figureless Attic sex differentiation conforms with the stele commemorating “tÕn d' œti similarity in the treatment of boys and papta…nont' ™pˆ goÚnasi pa‹da”, dating girls after birth: anointment with oil to the third century BC, probably does and water, a public appearance (am- not refer to a baby being held on the phidromia) combined with a purifica- knees (Verilhac (1978: 129-30, no. 82), tion or consecration rite, a naming ce- but to an older boy not yet able to walk remony (genethlia) on the seventh or (e.g., C887.2). Stelai with a baby held tenth day (Girard 1891: 65f.; Hoorn in the arms may commemorate a wo- 1909: 2-6). But the different attributes man who died in childbirth, but whose hung outside the door of the oikos, a baby has survived. The subsidiary com- woollen ribbon (alluding to domestic la- positional role and namelessness of the bour: Aristoph., Lys., 567-86) for girls, newly-born infants means, in any case, an olive wreath (alluding to sport?) for that they were not the primary de- boys, find no parallels in Classical Attic ceased; the stele of Ampharete (Clair- stele representations of infants. mont 1970: no. 23, pl. 11), in which The height of infants is in most cases both grandmother and baby are desig- a small fraction of that of the adults nated as deceased, is a probably holding them, suggesting that they are bought-off-the-shelf exception. newly-born, or, at any rate, consider- However, a large number of deaths ably younger than the little children of must have occurred in infancy, espe- identified sex included in apparent age cially during or shortly after labour; ac- ranking. All may be older than five cording to Aristotle (Hist.An. 7, 588a),

34 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

“t¦ ple‹sta d' ¢naire‹tai prÕ tÁj ˜bdÒmhj”. child care. In fact, children of all ages Life table evidence from Roman funer- are under-represented on stelai as sur- ary data, compatible with Angel’s gen- vivors. Even assuming that Attic eral outline of Greek demography, sug- oratory is not reliable evidence (large gests that 1/5 of infants died before families were more likely to fall into in- their first birthday (Acsádi and heritance problems), on demographic Nemeskéri 1970: 289-96, tables 121-3; grounds the average Athenian family cf. Angel 1972: table 1). In the light of could not have comprised less than two the high infant mortality, the extreme children (Gomme 1933: 78-81, and 81 rarity of figured stelai commemorating n. 1); an anthropological study of the infants may be explained by their low pubic symphysis of Greek female skel- status in Classical Athens, shown also etons suggested, allowing for infant by the fact that they were accorded mortality, a mean value of 2.7 children simple pot burials at special infant per family (Angel 1972: pl. 28). How- cemeteries rather than in the family ever, excluding standing females that plot (Kurtz and Boardman 1971: 97). could have been unmarried, of 438 Babies were not considered full mem- stelai with a (probably married) seated bers of the family, and “the distinction woman, only 26 display a non-adult between exposure of the newborn and male, 37 a non-adult female (excluding late abortion was blurred” (Pomeroy those in sakkos and long-sleeved tunic, 1975: 69). The legitimacy enjoyed by since they represent slaves, below: exposure confirms the very low status section $), and 16 an infant. In this of infants, despite its rarity due to the light, the view that Classical Attic stelai high natural mortality (Gomme 1933: display the deceased in the context of 79 and 81-82; Euben 1980/1981: 14, her or his typical family is not entirely n.31). The absence of sculptured stelai accurate. intended for infants means that their The importance of the festival of An- low status was maintained not only for thesteria for juvenile age categorization the first week, when the newborn was is shown by its direct use for the indica- received by the father, or the first year, tion of age: “how old is he? three when the registration to the phratry Choes or four?” (Aristoph. Thesm. 746). took place in the Apatouria, but at least Children older than three years of age until ‘2-3 years’ of age. Although girls participated in the festival, especially in may have been more often subjected the choes, the procession and ceremo- to exposure (Pomeroy 1975: 69; Euben nial meal of the second day; they were 1980/1981: 17), the evidence of stelai adorned with flowers, and they made a suggests that both sexes were accor- dedication to the altar of Eurysakes, ded equally minimal funerary attention son of Aias, to commemorate his sacri- in infancy. fice to Dionysus. In the initiation cere- In the life tables assumed above to mony (parastasis), children were admit- be broadly representative of Greek ted to the Attic religious community demography, infants younger than (Hoorn 1951: 17-19). A type of squat three years of age represent 8% of the oinochoe found often in children’s stationary population. This age range graves, the chous, is often decorated constitutes, however, only about 2% of with “scenes of mirth and play” related all figures that were meant to represent to the Anthesteria, showing children, survivors at the original use of Classical often gesturing, crouching, kneeling, or Attic stelai. It should be noted that the playing with toys and pet animals (Hoo- heavy under-representation of infancy rn 1951: 44-49; Green 1971). is a different fact to the lack of stelai Female and male figures assigned to commemorating infants; while the lat- age group 1 of the respective ranking ter is related to the status of infants are also associated with motifs of play. themselves, the former points out the The majority of figures hold a little bird, low status accorded to maternity and and several are accompanied by a

35 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS leaping pet-dog; a few hold a ball, or stance, degree of contact, gestures and gesture vividly with raised arms to- attached attributes is recorded in figs. wards older figures. Group 1 boys are 7-10. The relative figure height is not- sometimes crouching or kneeling, or ably uncorrelated with apparent age, hold a pole attached to a wheel toy. Al- possibly because non-adult maidens though these motifs occur also with are often shown in the company of a older children (below: 2.1.6), the half-size slave girl, while adult women strong similarity between group 1 girls are often shown seated. and boys and those shown on choes The existence of a system of four fe- suggests that they may be ‘3 years’ old male initiation grades, from the age of or slightly older; this connection is seven to marriage, is suggested by a strengthened by the fact that the much-discussed Aristophanic passage height of examples where comparison (Lys. 641-647); although the passage is can be made is about 1/2 of adult spoken by the chorus of the Athenian height or slightly more, if allowance is women, its historical validity has been made for the effect of stance. The fact doubted: aletrides and kanephoroi that most belong to single-figured com- were mere sacral functions, without ini- positions, and thus represent the tiatory significance, in a variety of primary deceased, means that a sub- cults, e.g., in the Panathenaic proces- stantial change in status takes place at sion (Sourvinou 1971a: 342); the arrhe- the age of ‘3 years’, probably related to phoria was in the Classical period re- the religious initiation of Athenian chil- stricted to two or four girls each year, dren at the feast of Anthesteria. We despite its probable initiatory origin shall return to the status-related as- (Burkert 1976: 39; Loraux 1980/1: 135 pects of age after discussing the links n. 74); arrhephoroi and aletrides, con- of female and male ranking with abso- nected with the cult of Athena Polias, lute age, in the context of Athenian age may be mere allusions to the identity categorization. of the probable satirical target of Lys- istrata, a priestess of the goddess at 4.1.5 Female age categories 411 BC., Lysimache (Lewis 1955: 6; The following discussion is con- Loraux 1980/1: 147-149); finally, the cerned with the association of female whole passage may be a mockery of age groups with absolute age ranges, male initiation, spoken “as if the wo- and their relation with Athenian age men of Athens were in fact the categories. The fit between the appar- citizens” (Vidal-Naquet 1981b: 179). ent age ranking and the broad age dis- Unlike the three stages referred to tinction between children, adolescent above, arkteia was a pre-marriage con- and adult suggests convenient break- secration rite at the sanctuary of points. Flat-chested figures are obvi- Artemis at Brauron or Mounychia (Har- ously still children; the slightly bulging pokr. s.v. arkteusai; Schol. Aristoph. bust characterizing all group 5 figures Lys. 645), probably practised by all would be expected shortly after ‘10 Athenian girls in turn; in the ceremony, years’ of age, signalling the beginning attributes of childhood, such as toys, of adolescence; finally, the fully-de- dolls and infantile dress, were offered veloped bust of group 8 females sug- to Artemis (Brelich 1969: 274-275). gests that they are adult, probably hav- Other evidence, relating to costume, is ing reached ‘18 years’ of age. The de- discussed in chapter 6. termination of finer age ranges follows According to the Aristophanic pas- this general division, taking into ac- sage, the arrhephoria took place at the count demographic and historical evid- age of seven. The reference to ten ence; the iconographic traits that are years must refer to aletrides and not to significantly correlated with female ap- arktoi, since it is improbable that parent age are summarized in fig. 6. In Artemis, rather than Athena, would be addition, the relative popularity of called archegetis in Attica (Vidal-

36 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

Naquet 1981b: 178, n. 28); the connec- plane; they represent, as a rule, action of dekateuein with arkteia cessory figures, and are better dealt (Sourvinou 1971a: 341) is not sufficient with separately (below: 2.3.2). The evidence to the contrary, since it may little bird held by younger girls contin- refer to an offering, rather than to age ues to be common in adolescence, until (Harpokr. s.v. dekateuein). The arkteia, the age of ‘17 years’; there are some thus, may coincide with coming of age, figures lacking an attribute, but the the transition from childhood to pu- majority still display at least one item berty that is noted in Attic texts as (fig. 10). Transitional, ‘11-12 years’ old hora (maturity) or helikia (age; e.g., girls, showing the first anatomic signs Isaeus II, 3-4). Menarche, typically ap- of puberty, are frequently frontal or pearing at 13-14 years, is the obvious slightly turned, and may hold a doll or natural landmark; however, puberty lift the mantle at thigh height. Although may be associated with the slightly the doll is found, apart from children, earlier development of the bust. also with ‘15-17 years’ old, and this According to the age ranges associ- particular form of lifting the mantle oc- ated with groups 1-4, except for C310.3 curs less often with other females from (pl. 10), held in the arms of a standing ‘7-17’ years, the association of both figure, the majority of females between traits here with frontality suggests that ‘3-7 years’ old are standing and frontal an unusual degree of attention is inten- or looking to the side in one-figured ded here. Costume evidence reinforces compositions (figs. 7-8), and display a the view that the transition to puberty, small or large bird and often a leaping connected with the arkteia, is archae- pet-dog; unlike the small bird, pet-dogs ologically visible on Classical Attic and large birds occur rarely with ad- stelai (below: section 6.2). olescent or adult females. A ball is Although little girls are, in Attic shown only with two of the youngest oratory, given in marriage at a very girls, ‘3-5 years’ old (C827.1; C829.1), early age by means of the engye, the and a doll is held out by some ‘6-7 legal contract of betrothal, the consum- years’ old, as well as some older girls mation of the marriage, marked sym- (fig. 10); the doll held by C815.1 is a bolically by the gamelia feast and the “canting badge” for her name, Plangon subsequent phratry registration at the (Ritti 1973/1974). The motif of the Apatouria (Ehrenberg 1951: 194; Vidal- raised, gesturing arms occurs some- Naquet 1981: 180; Redfield 1982: 191), times with the youngest girls, espe- took place later. Conservative morality cially in connection with tactile contact may have exerted pressure for early (e.g., C310.3: pl. 10; fig. 8). Females marriage (Lacey 1968: 107; Pomeroy with two or more attributive items are 1975: 64); epikleroi came to legally in most cases ‘3-7 years’ old, reaching possess their property at fourteen, the up to five attributes in C815.1. C1100.1 average age of menarche, and this is (pl. 33) is exceptional for her age of ‘7 the age of marriage witnessed by Xeno- years’, both in displaying a handshake phon (Oec. VI, 5). But the actual age of and in lifting her garment at thigh first marriage must have varied, and, if height, a gesture common with older the Spartan norm advocated by Plato girls. After the age of ‘7 years’ there is was followed, could certainly be as late a decrease in the number of attributes as eighteen years. held by or accompanying the figure, es- New traits appear sometimes pecially balls and pet-dogs; it is notable between ‘13-17 years’ of age: the that ‘3-7 years’ old females also share handshake at ‘13 years’, and the ges- similar physiognomic traits. ture of lifting the mantle at shoulder A pyxis occurs with a small but not height somewhat later (figs. 8-9). How- insignificant number of females, mostly ever, all females of this age are still ranging from ‘8-19 years’ old, and fre- standing; in addition, figures occasion- quently shown on the background ally hold a little bird or a doll, attributes

37 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS associated with younger age, and sug- onysia, is problematical. Despite the gesting unmarried status (fig. 10). The observation that a break on the left iconography of females with a fully-de- “might possibly be connected with the veloped bust, of ‘18’ years of age or head of a second figure”, a one-figured older, undergoes an important change. composition of the type of C803 is Firstly, adult females lack as a rule at- eventually assumed by that author. The tributive items, most of the exceptions suggestion of the epigram that “tÒnde being pyxis-carriers. Secondly, they are t£fon kosme‹ sÕj pÒsij 'Ant…f[ilo]j’”is frequently shown in handshake, the brushed aside thus: “Antiphilos was gesture of lifting the himation at hardly represented in the relief as he shoulder height, or both; the “speak- could not have been smaller than his ing” gesture, the extended index, and wife, unless he was seated, which is bringing the hand to the cheek or chin, unlikely with the main figure standing are also found with adult females. frontally” (Clairmont 1970: 88). Despite Thirdly, they are shown seated, occa- the apparent awkwardness of this inter- sionally at first, but in the majority of pretation, this is a rare case where no cases after ‘20 years’ of age (fig. 7); comment is offered by Daux’s careful the absence of seated non-adult fe- review (1972: 528). males indicates that this stance may The stele is not necessarily one- have been confined to married women. figured, as Clairmont implies. The ratio The absolute age of adult women is of the height of the woman’s face (from more difficult to determine. Of two in- the top of the forehead to the chin), to stances of inscriptions denoting abso- stele width (derived from the almost lute age, C565, of a married woman fully preserved pediment half-width), is with tunic and himation, designated as 1/6. It therefore resembles both the ex- twenty years old, is unfortunately unac- ceptionally wide single-figured C803 counted for today (Clairmont 1970: (1/5.4), and several three-figured 125). Twenty-four year old C450.1 is as- naiskos stelai, such as C450 (1/6.5) or signed to apparent age group 10, on C454 (1/6.8). The possibility of C858 account of the Venus rings. The inscrip- being a similar three-figured relief is tion suggests that wrinkles of this kind strengthened by the clearly visible appear as early as the middle twenties, traces at the break of the stele on the rather than in maturity; the association left that Clairmont also reported. These of age group 10 with ‘25-34 years’ of indicate the head of a seated figure, age is based on this evidence. probably to be identified with the de- The epigram of C858 suggests that ceased; we should expect her the deceased Dionysia has died during physiognomic and bodily traits to be her youth (hebe) and prime of age (he- those of age group 9 (’20-24 years’). likia). A fragmentary frontal female On the right, her husband was probably (C858.1) who has “the physiognomy of shown standing, as indicated by the a mature rather than a young woman”, epigram. C858.1, standing in the back- is, despite the epigram, identified by ground, may be the mother or another Clairmont as the deceased, the contra- older relative (cf. C718.2). diction between image and epigram Few iconographic differences have being attributed to purchase off-the- been found between adult women of shelf. But if a young female could con- different apparent age: mature women ceivably be represented in a large tend to be more often standing than monument by a figure so clearly char- those young, are frequently frontal or acterized as mature as C858.1, as- simply gaze at another figure, and, signed to age group 11 (’35-59 with the exception of the amplified years’!), then the basic assumptions of handshake, display fewer gestures. age ranking would be indefensible. Special iconographic attention is, there- However, Clairmont’s reconstruction fore, given to young, rather than ma- of the stele, identifying C858.1 as Di- ture women. Moreover, it is notable

38 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI that very few women are distinctly childhood to adolescence, and of the characterized as old. This may be a re- beard, related to the advent of adult- flection of the low status accorded to hood. But the age association of pubic women after menopause, related to the hair on stelai is not always clear-cut: it fact that their main purpose in life was may be demarcated by a horizontal in- reproduction: old women became bear- cision in C978.1 (group 3) and C977.1 ers of messages or midwives, and took (group 4) and is certainly sculpturally part in the family funerals (Lacey 1968: defined in C894.2 (group 5), while it is 175). According to the epigram, C95.1, barely indicated in the clearly older assigned to age group 12 (’over 60 C1036.1 (pl. 29) and C937.1 (group 6). years’) on account of her thin bodily On the other hand, despite its use as a frame and wrinkled face, has died hav- ranking criterion (above: section 2.1.3), ing seen her children’s children. The the exclusive appearance of a thin, characterization of C95.1 as eudaimon growing beard within group 9 suggests recalls epigrams commemorating very that beard is consistently associated old men. The exceptional erection of with other age criteria. In determining stelai commemorating old women is broad age, the beard is used extens- supported by the fact that, in this case, ively to separate adult from adolescent C95.1 was a priestess of Kybele, escap- males, but general bodily appearance, ing the usual anonymity of her age in rather than pubic hair, is used to separ- Classical Athens. ate adolescent from children; the first five apparent age groups are, there- 4.1.6 Male age categories fore, designated as children, and groups 6-8 as adolescent. In order to link male apparent age groups with absolute age, epigraphic Both traits, however, are subject to and iconographic evidence from stelai social categorization. According to So- will be used in conjunction with inform- lon (Eleg., 19(27)), permanent teeth ation about Athenian male age categor- appear at the age of seven, puberty at ization; unlike females, the initiation of or before fourteen, and the beard at or males is linked to a formal system of before twenty-one. In the Classical peri- education, followed by clearly differen- od, male age categories before adult- tiated age categories, in terms of rights hood, describing stages of education, and obligations, during adulthood. The are often defined by multiples of seven connection of stance, degree of con- years. Boys younger than six or seven tact, gestures and attached attributes years, known as paidia, stayed at of the figures with age groups is shown home. The education of paides, from by area charts (figs. 12-15). Besides, seven to 13-14 years of age or to pu- the overall association of apparent age berty, concentrated on music and let- with iconographic attributes other than ters: the two activities are shown to- costume is summarized in fig. 11; the gether in vase-painting. From puberty lack of significant correlation with the to the age of twenty-one, the physical relative figure height is due to the fact aspect of education predominated, that this trait is affected by the stance geared towards the military training of of both figures, and by the sex and age the meirakia (Girard 1891: 127; Marrou of the taller figure, so that it is prefer- 1948: 157; Flacelière 1979: 130). It able to discuss individual cases than to should be noted, however, that in post- attempt a more rigorous analysis. Fi- Classical sources other terms are used nally the biological age of a skeleton to designate non-adult males, such as associated with a male figure on a stele anebos, twelve years old, or mellopais, representation is used as external evid- older than ten, and some of the terms ence on the age of similar figures. mentioned above (e.g., pais) have other meanings, or are also used in a gen- Changes connected with male abso- eric, non-technical manner (Brelich lute age include the appearance of pu- 1969: 214). bic hair, marking the transition from

39 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

On stelai the youngest age groups height index is predictably shown by are characterized by their association crouching and kneeling examples. But with crouching and kneeling (fig. 12), if compensation is made for the stance tactile contact (fig. 2-13), the gesture of, for example, the half-kneeling ‘3-4 of raising the arm or arms towards an years’ old C887.2, his relative size in- older figure (fig. 2-14), and holding in dex becomes 0.61; considering that the left hand a pole attached to a C887.1 is an adolescent female, the ra- wheel toy (fig. 2-15). Unlike other com- tio to an adult male should be approx- mon attached attributes generic to imately 0.5, in line with the average non-adult figures, such as pet dogs height of ‘3-4 years’ old males in real and, especially, birds, these traits do life. If allowance is made for the ad- not occur with males older than ‘12 olescent age of the accompanying fig- years’ of age. Moreover, at least one of ures, the relative height of the ‘5-6 these traits occurs with all ‘3-4 years’ years’ old C891.2 and the ‘7-8 years’ old, and the majority of ‘5-6 years’ old old C1036.2 (pl. 29) and C1040.1 boys. The stance of the unstable, half- should be similar. The height of young kneeling C887.2, and the crouching boys shown with seated women corres- C1052.1 and C1053.1, supported with ponds also with ratios below 0.6 in rela- the hand on a ball set on the ground, tion to adult male height. probably indicates inability to stand; In several cases, ‘7-8 years’ old boys these are the youngest age-ranked accompany older, non-adult males males. The stance of the older C1054.3 (hence the frequency of visual contact, (pl. 30) and C1055.1, crouching on the fig. 13), and have the hands clasped to- steps of a relief stele with the head gether (fig. 14; C1036.2: pl. 29) or leaning on their arms, may, however, holding a strigil (fig. 15; C1033.1). be related to their social status (below: Their young age is confirmed by section 2.3.2). The raised arms gesture Philostratos (Clairmont 1970: 83-85, (e.g., C887.2, C891.2) implies, apart no. 17, pl. 9); his nickname Neollarion from pleading, the intention of an em- is a metaphor for meaningless speech brace. Except for the ‘11-12 years’ old or greed, related to the Greek name for C894.2, holding the arm of a standing a gull (laros, cf. Aristoph. Knights, 956; woman, and the ‘3-4 years’ old Clouds 591), but apart for the generic C1044.2, caressing the head of a “little babbler” (Clairmont) or “chatter- minuscule male, tactile contact con- box” (Humphreys 1980: 114), it prob- sists usually of leaning against the ably means a boy who has only re- knees of a seated woman (e.g., C290: cently started to speak. A nickname pl. 9); the intimacy of this variant of would, of course, be used for some the trait and the possible connotation time, but apparently not as long as of a difficulty to walk, confirm the suggested by Clairmont (1970: 84: ‘8- young age of the ‘5-8 years’ old males 10 years’). with whom it occurs. Choes, representing young children at the Anthesteria, Two iconographic elements running often show little boys crouching, raising across male childhood and adolescence their arms or holding a wheel toy (Hoo- are a little bird, held out by the figure, rn 1951: figs. 291-293, 460). The con- and a pet dog, often leaping towards nection of the wheel toy with the age the figure; the former is sometimes re- preceding athletic education is shown cognized as a pigeon (e.g., C938.1), by its non-occurrence on stelai with and the latter is a Maltese on account sport requisites. of small size, curly hair and twisted tail. By virtue of the rarity of other attached The high variability shown by the rel- attributes, the combination of bird and ative height of ‘3-8 years’ old boys is pet dog is particularly important for ‘9- explained by their stance, and the 10 years’ old males (fig. 15); unlike stance, sex and age of the accompany- several younger secondary figures, ing older figures. The lowest relative they are never shown without an at-

40 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI tached attribute. It is unfortunate that years’ of age (Girard 1891: 194) sug- a boy who has seen “enneeteis kykli- gests that children could not have been ous horas eniauton” (Verilhac 1978: allowed in the palaistra much earlier. 243, no. 169) has no relief preserved, Most figures younger than ‘12 years’, and that all these boys belong to one- holding a strigil or oil flask, are accom- figured stelai, so that relative height panying a larger non-adult male, to cannot be used to confirm their abso- whom the palaistra requisites appar- lute age. ently belong; but several exceptions Apart from two figures shown with a exist (e.g., ‘5-6 years’ old C64.2; ‘7-8 standing female (C893.2 and C894.2), years’ old C964.1), suggesting that ‘11-12 years’ old boys are half-size, merely holding palaistra requisites is a shown with a mostly non-adult male. generic symbol of the athletic ideal, The difference between the relative without age significance. The frequency height of boys shown with a female is of a strigil or oil-flask as an attached due to the fact that C894.1 is adult, attribute of adolescents (fig. 15) con- while C893.1 is a young adolescent; firms the view that neoi are apt for their relative height index compared to sport in the same way as adult men are adult men is likely to be around 0.65- apt for war (Loraux 1975: 2 n. 8). Un- 0.70, connected with ‘11-12 years’ of like the general age associations of pal- age. Figures accompanying a non-adult aistra requisites, the depiction of a boy male display often mere visual contact actually scraping himself with a strigil (fig. 13), the gesture of right arm flexed is mostly confined to age group 6, con- to the left shoulder (fig. 14), and a stri- nected with ‘13-15 years’ of age; other gil or oil flask. Their excessively small males in that group appear in scenes of relative height is illustrated by athletic activity, involving a hoop C1044.1, who is only 0.6 as high as (C1062.1: pl. 31) or ball (C953.1 and C1044.2, despite the fact that the latter C1046.2). Additional evidence on the is ‘3-4 years’ old; since this cannot be absolute age of these males is provided explained by age alone, its interpreta- by Eupheros, whose skeletal dimen- tion must be sought in status differenti- sions of 135 cm suggest that he died ation (below: section 2.3.2). ‘15 years’ old (Schlörb-Vierneisel 1964: 90, pl. 51). Despite social differences that restricted the advanced teaching of the A support appears repeatedly with sophists to the offspring of the elite, ‘13-15 years’ old males: apart from a “toÝj gennaiot£touj kaˆ plousiwt£touj palaistra pillar (C1046.2) and a tree- tîn nšwn” (Plato, Prot. 326C), the major- trunk (C938.1), a stele is shown twice, ity of Athenians after the fifth century together with a hare (C937.1 and learnt how to read and write (Flacelière C1036.1: pl. 29), a theme known also 1979: 129). However, the iconographic from stelai not included to this study. continuity from ‘3-12 years’ of age sug- Phyrkias, of age similar to males ex- gests that the start of Athenian educa- amined here, offers a hare as a love tion at ‘7 years’ did not affect signific- present (Clairmont 1970: 102-104); the antly the perceived social persona of hare is a popular pet with children of boys. In fact, Classical Attic stelai very both sexes (e.g., Hoorn 1951: 49, figs. rarely allude to the literary and music- 340f.). The slightly older youth of the al, first phase of education, and when Knöchelspieler relief (Schefold 1970: they do, it is always in connection with 103, pl. 50.1) is about to throw a stone older males than those examined here at a hare, a motif represented on a (Polemon, Clairmont 1970: 111-112, white lekythos, with the hare on an ap- no. 35, pl. 18; Phyrkias, ibid.: 102-104, parently funerary stele (Kurtz 1975: no. 29, pl. 14, 17; C622.1, probably 211, pl. 32.3); another white lekythos, non-Attic, Möbius 1966: 139). more similar to C1036 (ibid.: 216, pl. 39.1), confirms that representations of The admission of non-adult compet- hare and stele were intended as funer- itors at the Panathenaia only after ‘12

41 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS ary, but were also specifically connec- armed epheboi are connected with ted with male adolescence. fighting alone at the eschatiai of Attica, Epigraphic references to helikia, the during darkness, using cunning and prime of age, occur with the short- trickery; the costume of the ephebos bearded Aristokles (Clairmont 1970: resembles that of the hunter, and hunt- 93-95, no. 24, pl. 12), who is similar to ing is the ephebic activity par excel- the group of ‘20-24 years’ old figures, lence (Vidal-Naquet 1981a). the beardless Euthykritos, apparently Apart from the representations of younger at ‘18-19 years’, with the sur- hares listed above (especially the ‘18 prising addition that he had reached years’ Knöchelspieler), several youths “p£shj ¢retÁj ™pˆ tšrma” (ibid.: 109-110, display attached attributes denoting no. 33, pl. 17), and the even younger that they are hunters: the hound, which Phyrkias, similar to ‘13-17 years’ old supplants the accompanying pet dog males (ibid.: 102, no. 29, pl. 14). The from the age of ‘16-17 years’ and con- age characterization of [Phil]etairo[s] tinues being represented up to adult- (C625), known to have died at twenty- hood (rarely ‘25-34 years’: C1111.2), two, cannot, unfortunately, be determ- and the lagobolon, the hunter’s ined, because his figure was erased knobbed club, that appears with ‘18-24 during the reuse of the monument. The years’ old males (e.g., C1055.2). A epigraphic evidence suggests that the stele or other monument (C928.1: fu- transition to adulthood, as witnessed nerary loutrophoros amphora) is intim- by stele representations, may have ately linked with these attached attrib- taken place in more than one stages. utes of hunt, reinforcing the interpreta- It is known that at the age of six- tion of the hare, also connected with a teen, Athenian males were accepted to stele, as game rather than a pet. The the phratry (Pollux VIII, 107, s.v. gestures of the hand brought to the phratores), consecrating their hair on cheek and of the extended index (inter- the Koureotis day of the Apatouria. Be- preted as a mere mannerism by Ka- fore or at the age of eighteen (it is un- rouzou 1926) are especially common known if the period between the seven- between ‘17-24 years’ (fig. 14); these teenth birthday and the official doki- gestures of grief performed by the de- masia counted as a full year or as a va- ceased suggest that the stele may rep- cuum, Davies 1971: 125) they were en- resent his grave marker. But symbols of rolled in the demotic lists and began hunt are conflated not only with gener- the two-year military training as eph- ic non-adult attached attributes, such eboi or neoteroi, (Gomme 1933: 8, n.3; as a little bird, but also frequently with Marrou 1948: 161-164). Two closely re- strigil and oil flask, suggesting that a lated initiatory structures therefore ex- double identity of hunter and athlete is isted, one connected with registration intended; the fact that males shown into the phratry, the other with enroll- with a stele are exclusively youths sug- ment in the demotic lists and military gests that these may equally represent training (Brelich 1969: 208-228; palaistra stones. In any case, the im- Sourvinou-Inwood 1971a: 174). Despite portance of hunt in these representa- the fact that registration both in the tions shows that Vidal-Naquet’s mytho- phratry and in the demotic lists pre- logical analysis on the significance of cedes the military ephebeia, and that the ephebeia (1981a) is not only in- epheboi are presented to the city at the genious, but also relevant to real end of the first year of service, the initi- Athenian conceptions of age. atory nature of the second year is The two elements constituting a demonstrated by its connection with young citizen’s definitive admission to the story of Melanthos and Xanthos, the city were marriage, and entry into the aetiological myth of the Apatouria. the hoplitic phalanx. The ideal age of In opposition to the hoplitic ideal of col- marriage was 30-35 years (Solon, Eleg., lective battle in the phalanx, the lightly 19(27), v. 9-10; Xen., Oec., 7, 5), but in

42 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI practice it varied from the early twen- apeiria up to 35 years of age (ibid.: 14, ties to over 40 years, according to pros- n. 55). The andres are the bulk of the opographic evidence (Lacey 1968: 107; army, “Ð polÝj Ómiloj kaˆ stratièthj” Davies 1971: 336-337). On the other (Thuc. VI 24, 3), and are characterized hand, Athenians resumed full citizen- in the funerary speeches not only by ship after military training, at the age military virtue, but, in opposition to the of 20 years. The change in male status neoi, also by the sophrosyne befitting after that age is apparent in stele icon- an Athenian citizen (Loraux 1975: 5); ography. Despite occurring sometimes the normal army excluded the presby- with youths (and, exceptionally, with teroi, usually (but not always: Gomme the child C1100.1), the handshake pre- 1933: 5, 15) older than 50 years, who dominates among males older than ‘20 constituted the reserve. Finally, those years’; since it remains popular within over 60 years became “Øp ﾝ r toà age groups 9-12, it is a trait of adult- katalÒgou”, and after a year of service hood in general (fig. 13). Some of the as arbitrators, were practically ex- youngest adult males, designated as cluded from public life (Lacey 1968: ‘20-24 years’ old, are iconographically 116-118). In Thucydides’ time, the only connected with adolescents; C646.1, preoccupation of these presbytatoi however, is shown seated, a stance not should be to live their few remaining encountered with non-adults, and years thinking of the past, cheered by C718.1 holds a sword sheath compat- the fame of the departed warriors ible with his costume of hoplite. On the (Thuc., II, 44). other hand, most bearded adult males This tripartite categorization is re- belong to age groups 10-13; unlike flected by the assignment of most adult youths and children, adult men are males on stelai to three age groups. rarely shown holding objects, or other- The first includes ‘25-34 years’ old, wise characterized by attached attrib- standing figures, showing occasionally utes (fig. 15); the little bird occasionally attached attributes appropriate to held by adult men is always related younger males, such as a strigil, oil with other, non-adult figures in the rep- flask (C410.4, pl. 15) or hound; icono- resentation (e.g., C697.3). graphic motifs connected with war, Despite the evidence of Old Comedy, such as a helmet (C158.2), horse or suggesting that “the Greeks had no sword, seem to be more common with word for middle-aged people of either these than with older men. On the oth- sex” (Ehrenberg 1951: 208-211), due to er hand, 1/3 of men older than ‘35 the polar opposition between a remote, years’ are shown seated (fig. 12), a fact glorious past and a present character- reflecting the higher respect accorded ized by the decline of soldierly spirit to this age group. Fewer figures are (ibid.: 303-304), or to the private con- shown holding any attached attribute, flict between father and son, two age a downward trend continuing through- categories including men of hoplite age out adulthood; these include the may be identified, e.g., in the persons unidentified tool and finished disc of a of Nikias and Alkibiades (ibid.: 310; metalworker (C618.1) and a hoplite’s Davies 1971: 18, 404). A study of fu- helmet (C1023.1: pl. 27). Both the act- nerary speeches confirms that three, ive occupation implied by the former rather than two categories of adult and the status of Athenian hoplite im- males were recognized in Classical plied by the latter confirm that mature Athens (Loraux 1975: 1-9). The neoi men in group 11 are not older than ‘59 served in the army, but were excluded years’ old. from public office until 30 years of age Yet older men include proportionally (ibid.: 7-8, n.31); the legal limit is a more instances of the “speaking” ges- rough indication of the underlying age ture (C237.1), the hand brought to the differentiation, and young men were cheek or chin (C193.2) and the ampli- considered to be characterized by fied handshake, performed with both

43 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS hands (C634.1), perhaps related to the the need for advertisement of social helplessness of their age; it may be re- position varied with its ability to sustain called that only the last of these traits the high cost involved in the erection of is connected with female old age, and funerary monuments, which, after the that, on the contrary, the ‘speaking’ original construction of the funerary en- gesture occurs with young women. The closure, must have represented a large only object shown with these men, who part of the burial expenditure. As are probably ‘60-69 years’ old, is a shown in the following paragraphs, the priest’s knife (C920.1, pl. 22). Finally, a cost of funerary monuments must have few very old males, most standing and been highly variable; particular aspects all lacking any attached attributes, are of stele form provide information about designated as ‘over 70 years’ old. its cost that may be interpreted using The seated Chairion of a stele not in- external evidence. cluded in this study, identified by epi- Firstly, it is self-evident that ex- gram as ‘90 years’ old (Clairmont 1970: penditure must have been correlated 136, no. 58, pl. 26-27), is similar to our with the dimensions of the stele. ‘60-69 years’ old men. However, rather Schmaltz notes from epigraphic evid- than be taken as typical evidence on ence that the purchase of the material, Attic life span that would make a non- transport and general preparation and sense of the age structure of stele rep- smoothing of the stone represented a resentations, this should be set togeth- large part of the cost of decree reliefs. er with other epigrams presenting the The effort involved in quarrying and topos of the celebration of longevity transport should have varied with the (Humphreys 1980: 114), with possibly weight of the stone, and smoothing exaggerated statements about age at with its overall surface, so that this death (100 years: Clairmont 1970: 133, cost component could be expected to no. 55b); the phenomenon, known as increase drastically with stele dimen- age accumulation, occurs also in Ro- sions (Schmaltz 1983: 143-144). man epitaphs, and in census data of On the other hand, the amount of modern pre-industrial societies (Acsádi sculptural labour required must have and Nemeskéri 1970: 68-70). It is, of varied systematically with the number course, possible that Chairion indeed of relief figures, the dimensions of the died at such an old age; ancient au- image, and relief depth; that is, leaving thors frequently exceeded 70 years of aside other sculptural elements, such age, as, for instance, Plato, Aischines as a siren, animal or relief anthemion and Theophrastos, but again this evid- crown, that should also have added to ence is probably not representative of the cost. According to the Erechtheion the entire population. The bodily and building inscriptions, sculptural work on facial appearance of group 12 males the frieze was paid by the figure: hu- suggests an age of ‘60-69 years’, and mans or horses were paid a standard even this estimate may be optimistic, sixty drachmas apiece, a half-size fig- considering the earlier advent of senil- ure twenty drachmas, and the relief of ity in ancient societies. a pillar seven drachmas (Paton 1927: 388-389; IG 17 col. I). Leaving aside the actual prices, it is reasonable to as- 4.2 Stele cost, age-related sume that the cost of grave reliefs was status and social rank also linked to the number of full-size figures represented (Schmaltz 1983: The permanent nature and visibility 145). of figured stelai in the Classical Attic cemeteries made them social state- Apart from the number of figures, re- ments, not only of the identity of the lief cost must have varied with the re- deceased, but also of family status. The lief depth and the size of the image; ability of the family to correspond to both are affected by the overall measurements of the stele, but the latter is

44 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI determined to great extent by its tec- antae with often protruding relief capit- tonic type. The image of fully-blown als; finally, naiskoi are narrow porches naiskoi, naiskos stelai, pseudo-naiskos enclosing the figures and made of sev- stelai and several frameless stelai oc- eral pieces of stone. This categorization cupies most of the front face of the is similar, but not identical, to those monument; in these cases, the relief used by other authors (Dohrn 1957: cost varied directly with stele dimen- 182, 186; Clairmont 1970: 46-48). sions and relief depth. But in metopic Stele cost is a function of several stelai and low-relief frameless stelai tectonic attributes, accounting for ma- featuring a ground-line, the image terial and transport, shaping and measures roughly from 20 to 35 cm in smoothing, and, finally, sculptural each dimension regardless of overall work. The dimensions of the stele have stele size; here the relief cost must differential effect on cost: wide stelai have been more or less fixed, depend- are more often sculptured on higher re- ing on the number of figures. lief than narrow ones, and are also The major cost of stelai would be re- deeper and, therefore, heavier, while flected in the correlations between the tall stelai may well be of the thin, low tectonic attributes referred to above relief metopic type, without clear cost and with additional traits on which we implications; the area of the front face have no prior knowledge. In order to in- of the stele is therefore inappropriate crease the size of the effective sample, as a measure of stele cost, since it fails stele height and width were recorded to differentiate between the two dimen- using approximate measurements for sions. The table of correlations (fig. 16) stelai that were almost fully preserved; easily confirms that stele width is the stele thickness was not known for most single attribute that best represents stelai, and was therefore omitted. For other important tectonic traits with cost similar reasons, relief depth was recor- implications: the stele height, complex- ded as an ordinal attribute with five ity of the frame, and relief depth; it is possible values, ranging from incised to less strongly correlated with the num- very high relief; the number of figures ber of figures shown, but so are all oth- was simply coded as numeric. Several er tectonic attributes. In addition, the traits, such as anthemion crown, pedi- full stele width is known for a greater ment crown, crown with akroteria cor- number of stelai included in this study nice, mourning or musical siren finial, than any other trait: stele height is less mythological or real animal crown, pair well correlated with both frame com- of rosettes, and the Pentelic or Hymet- plexity and relief depth; indeed, low-re- tan provenience of the marble as recor- lief metopic stelai have frequently very ded by Conze (1893/1900), were coded slender proportions; frame type does as binary attributes. not take into account the important For the purposes of correlation, tec- variance in stele dimensions, especially tonic type was broken into two attrib- among metopic stelai, and ignores utes: the first records the presence or frameless stelai altogether; the various absence of antae (frame), reflecting crown or finial forms seem to be re- Brückner’s original categorization of lated to frame complexity, but not to stelai (1886: 58f.), and need not have the dimensions of the stele; finally, the cost implications; the other, a condi- marble provenience appears to be un- tional attribute, records the complexity related to the dimensions, tectonic type of the frame on the ordinal scale, and and, thus, stele cost. should be expected to affect stele cost The contradictory evidence on the significantly: metopic stelai have an im- remuneration of craftsmen in Classical age in a small sunken panel similar to a Greece, and the lack of experimental metope; pseudo-naiskos stelai display research on the labour required for rep- a large panel, occupying most of the resentative examples of relief sculpture stele; naiskos stelai have, in addition, (the recent rescaling of the Erechtheion

45 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS sculptors’ wages by Wesenberg (1985; cost of any given monument cannot be contra, Himmelmann 1979) is based on closely assessed against the wide vari- their number and their obligation to ation in attested figures, but mainly be- honour the contract within one year, cause such monuments reflect not only but its feasibility is not demonstrated) economic position but also a scale of means that any attempt to attach price taste, fashions, and values which tags on actual stelai would be unwar- seems to have been changing rapidly ranted. But rough indications of relative in the years after 340” (Davies 1971: cost, assuming stability in quoted xix; cf. Schmaltz 1983: 139). Additional prices, are provided by Schmaltz (1983: objections may be added. Firstly, that 137-145): the low relief of small metop- the cost of the monument may also ic stelai may have cost between 30 and vary according to the age of the de- 50 drachmas, on the evidence of deceased, apart from family status. cree reliefs, of which about 15-20 Secondly, that the single stele is only drachmas would cover preparation part of the archaeologically visible fu- costs; stelai like C68 may have cost nerary programme: several monu- 300-400 drachmas, assuming a tenfold ments may have been erected in a increase of the quarrying, transport and family plot, family rank being reflected smoothing cost of decree reliefs, and in overall peribolos expenditure. relief prices similar to those quoted for Thirdly, that many figures may have the smaller, but almost free-standing been commemorated on the same Erechtheion frieze figures (Schmaltz stele by multiple inscriptions, a multi- 1983: 145). figured monument being in fact a cost- Using the squared stele width (in- effective solution. stead of the product of width by height, However, apart from the circularity that would fail to differentiate an ob- of the chronological argument, all these long metopic stele from a squatter objections do not in fact deny the effect naiskos stele) as an approximate index of social rank on stele expenditure, but of relative cost, a proportion of 1:7 is only introduce additional factors for found between a typical metopic stele cost variability. The different financial (80 x 36 cm) and C68 (149 x 95 cm); a means of Athenians and the pressure rough estimate of the average cost and for conspicuous expenditure would be labour of tectonic types, assuming that expected to create a social pattern of the typical metopic stele would cost 40 stele cost resilient to distortions from drachmas, appear in fig. 17. The cost of extraneous factors. Assuming that pseudo-naiskos stelai is justifiably sim- stelai were erected on the occasion of a ilar to that of taller metopic stelai, death, their cost should have been since the image of the latter is confined mainly affected by the social persona to a small panel; according to this of the deceased, and the status of the measure, large naiskoi such as C109 family. However, before social status (215 x 145 cm) should have cost in- can be determined, it is necessary to deed as much as a small house examine the effect of the age of the (Schmaltz 1983: 145). The distribution primary deceased on stele expenditure. of squared width values of stelai ex- The apparent age of female and es- amined in this study confirms the relat- pecially male primary deceased figures ive cost associations of these tectonic is correlated with several stele attrib- types; its marked skewness indicates utes (figs. 19-20). Of those unrelated to that stele cost was related to social cost, the association of the rosettes, rank, fewer families being able to af- anthemion crown and the full name in- ford large monuments (fig. 18). scription (including patronymic and The use of archaeological evidence demotic or ethnic name) with male on the cost of the monuments for the adulthood and of the siren finial with identification of rank has been criti- young male age, are the most note- cized as unreliable, “partly because the worthy. But both sexes also show

46 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI strong associations of apparent age the average within the age category of with cost-related traits: the older de- the deceased; in order to have more re- ceased are shown on taller stelai, with liable estimates, we shall sacrifice dif- many additional figures. Older females ferences between apparent age groups, are also commemorated on wider using averages from the broad age stelai, but monuments with fuller antae ranges. The great variability within (e.g., naiskos stelai) and a high-relief each age range cannot be accidental; image more often commemorate the rank index, calculated as the re- younger males. sidual from the mean squared width of Although apparent age is more stelai commemorating an individual of strongly correlated with stele height, it the same sex and broad age, should re- is necessary to examine its effect on flect, among other factors, the social width, which more closely reflects stele and economic rank of the family, and cost (Kendall’s tau-b coefficient has by may be used, together with icono- definition the same value for simple as graphic and compositional evidence, to for squared width). The width of stelai determine family status. commemorating female children is Since the purpose of studying the di- small; stelai of intermediate width are mensions and tectonic form of the stele used for ‘15-19 years’ old females, but is to determine the social and econom- those commemorating young adult wo- ic rank of the family, it would be inter- men between ‘20-34 years’ of age are esting to examine the traits of stelai significantly larger (fig. 21). The stele belonging to families included in Dav- width associations of all female figures ies’ register of the liturgical class are similar (fig. 22); ‘13-14 years’ old (1971). But very few of the individuals females shown on larger stelai are of- attested in Davies (1971) are identified ten slave girls, normally accompanying with any certainty on figured grave adult women. The higher status of fe- stelai. C68 may commemorate the male young adulthood, suggested by daughter of Proxenos of the Gephyraioi, these results, is related to marriage notable in Athenian public life (ibid.: and motherhood. Except for C887, 478-479); the dates fit, and the stele is erected for a ‘3-4 years’ old, the stelai considerably larger than the average of male children are also small until ‘15 for adult women, but, with the demotic years’ of age, when they show a slight missing (a common trait of early chro- increase; the largest monuments, how- nology) the filiation has to remain ever, commemorate ‘20-24 years’ old open. Python I, son of Pythodoros ek males, at the age of transition from Kedon, and his son Python II, attested ephebeia to adulthood (fig. 23); this in the single-figured C923, are in all measurement is based only on two probability members of a wealthy oikos cases of ‘20-24 years’ old youths posit- of the late fifth and fourth century ively identified as primary deceased, (ibid.: 485); their stele is moderately but is supported by several large stelai larger than those of other mature men. displaying males of similar age, who However, other monuments connec- probably represent the deceased as ted with the liturgical class do not show well; the very old men (’over 70 years’) increased stele expenditure. C153 com- shown on large stelai are accompany- memorates the daughter of a fourth ing youths of the transitional age (fig. century naval family (ibid.: 276), on a 24). stele smaller than average; the metop- The major differentiation in stele ic stele associated with the family of cost appears, therefore, to separate Sostratos (C763; ibid.: 499) is of aver- children and adolescents on the one age dimensions, compared to stelai of hand, from (especially young) adult fig- both male and female adults. The stele ures on the other. The effect of age on of the girl Mnesiptoleme is also of aver- stele cost may be removed by measur- age size, despite her liturgical class ing the difference of stele width with connection (C827; ibid.: 482); the same

47 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS is true of the youth C946.1, who be- them would not have brought their longed to a naval family (ibid.: 443). families to Athens, in analogy with On these grounds, it should be con- modern short-term immigration. Unlike cluded that no association was found fourth century immigrants, metics in or between liturgical class affiliation and before the fifth century were mainly increased stele expenditure. It should Greek. Their economic position must be noted, however, that a fraction only have varied in analogy with Athenians, of the members of the liturgical class is from the very rich members of the litur- known (Davies 1971: xxix-xxx), and gical class to the very poor thetes probably that the stelai examined rep- (Gomme 1933: 25-27; Ehrenberg 1951: resent also a small part of those origin- 161-162; Austin and Vidal-Naquet ally erected. A full examination of this 1977: 104-105). problem would require a study of all fu- Evidence on the metic status of indi- nerary monuments, including the fig- viduals commemorated by stelai is ureless anthemion ‘name stelai’ used provided by their ethnic names in fu- for the commemoration of the pater fa- nerary inscriptions. Conversely, the milias and apparently found often in demotic name, combined with proper Davies’ register (Schmaltz 1983: 146 n. name and patronymic, identifies 345); such an examination, however, is Athenians; the name and demotic in beyond the limits of this study. genitive, accompanying female names, identify the male guardian, who may be either the father or husband, the situ- 4.3 Other aspects of social ation being unclear when the relationship is expressed solely by the genitive differentiation case (Humphreys 1980: 116 n. 47). The exceptional direct reference to a wo- 4.3.1 Athenian citizens and metics man’s demotic, as in Nikippe Phrearria Metics, immigrants resident in (C37) and possibly in Myrtia Kephisia Athens or Attica, were treated as a spe- (C67) is puzzling; women had no polit- cial legal category, paying special ical rights, and, while they could ad- taxes, and, until the late fourth cen- minister the affairs of an oikos when tury, having to be represented in court the male head of family was away for a by an Athenian prostates. Since they limited period (kyria), even widows had could not own agricultural land, they to be under the protection of a guardi- were involved in a major way with com- an (Lacey 1968: 15f.); perhaps, the merce, manufacture and banking (Aus- demotic is here a misnomer for resid- tin and Vidal-Naquet 1977: 99-101); ence in the respective deme, that does metics, identified by their ethnic name, not clarify whether these women were appear in the Erechtheion building in- metic or Athenian. scriptions, but, in comedy, traders are Foreigners in the majority of cases in most cases Athenian citizens, a fact lack a patronymic name; most excep- suggesting that Athenians were still the tions concern males of the second gen- predominant power in trade and manu- eration, such as Pamphilos, son of Kalli- facture (Ehrenberg 1951: 160). Despite as from Sikyon (C658), the father being their lower legal status, metics were identified just with the ethnic, or wo- accepted to serve in the Athenian army men, such as Symmachia and Theo- (Thuc. VII, 63). Gomme’s calculations phile, wife and daughter of Symmachos suggest that they represented from one from Mende (C413). With the exception fifth in 425 BC to nearly two fifths in of Eirene from Byzantion, probably of 313 BC of the free adult male popula- Phoenician descent on account of the tion (1933: 19-20, table 1). These are bilingual inscription, most figures in- conservative estimates, since they are cluded in this study appear to have based on the number of adult males been Greek; this is due to the better in- under the assumption that many of tegration of Greek metics into Athenian

48 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI society, non-Greeks such as Antipatros tified by name inscription. of Askalon maintaining their own cults, funerary customs and sepulchral icono- 4.3.2 Slaves, servants and special graphy (Clairmont 1970: 114-117). categories Proveniences occurring several times are Plataiai, Olynthos, Herakleia in Estimates on the number of slaves in Thessaly, Kythera and Elis; proper Classical Athens are almost entirely hy- names such as Kypria (C47), Asia (C58) pothetical. Gomme suggests, on or Doris (C122) may also be ethnic grounds of financial viability, that nicknames, and will be taken to identify Athens could support a maximum of non-Athenians on stelai. The metic 115.000 slaves, half of them, all men, status of individuals is not recorded in engaged in industry, and the other half funerary inscriptions, except when they being domestic servants in a ratio of are isoteleis, granted equal taxation one male and one female to each free status to Athenian citizens (C634); it is, adult (1933: 20-24); but the “quite un- however, reasonable to accept that in- certain number of slave children” (ibid.: dividuals identified by inscription as 27) should increase this ratio consider- foreigners were actually metics, rather ably, even assuming a consistent prac- than slaves (below: section 2.3.2). tice of infant exposure, in line with dra- Since stelai are family monuments, ex- matic evidence suggesting that “num- cept for clearly secondary slaves, fig- bers varying from three to twelve were ures in a composition are taken to rep- normal in most houses” (1951: 168). resent either Athenians or metics, as No evidence for servile status is the case may be. provided by name inscriptions on sculp- Of 137 stelai bearing an ethnic or tured Classical stelai; this is to be ex- demotic name, 26 commemorate for- pected, since servility was hardly ap- eigners and 111 commemorate Atheni- propriate for social advertisement, and ans. The ratio (1:4) falls within it is also apparent in the Erechtheion Gomme’s actual population estimates building inscriptions, where the rela- for metics and Athenian citizens. On tionship of non-Greek slaves (identified the assumption that the demographic as such by their name) to their owners estimates are correct, this suggests is indicated by a simple genitive. that there was the same chance of Moreover, despite Clairmont’s view, sculptured stele commemoration for based on a confusion of isoteles with metics as for citizens. The ratio of male apeleutheros (1971: no. 25; Daux to female figures among metic stelai 1972: 532-535), no freedmen are iden- (28:21) is slightly higher than that of tified among 241 cases of preserved in- Athenians (122:125); this, however, is scriptions on sculptured stelai. probably due to the fact that male It could be argued that slaves are adult Athenians were often commemor- commemorated in Classical stelai ated by figureless ‘name stelai’. The without reference to their position, be- Kendall’s tau-b correlations have shown cause of the low status involved; their that the effect of provenience on the status would then have to be denoted iconography is minimal, and based on by more subtle means. Robertson single occurrences: a female holding a (1975: 365-366) has suggested that the baby (C274.1: pl. 7) is metic, as is also lack of patronymic and demotic in a a youth shown leaning on a loutro- name inscription is a strong indication phoros amphora (C928.1). On the other of servile, or at least not citizen, status; hand, no significant correlations the small, unassuming C696 and C38 between provenience and tectonic form are suggested as probable representa- of stele have been found. The evalu- tions of slaves; the short hair of C38.1 ation of the effect of citizen or metic is interpreted as a sign of servile status status on costume will, therefore, be as well. studied only on the basis of cases iden- The simple, ‘name only’ inscription is

49 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS indeed connected with small stele di- demotic. Besides, non-adult figures are mensions. However, of 341 stelai bear- clearly favoured on stelai with simple ing a name inscription, 158 (46%) dis- name inscription, a fact suggesting an play only a proper name. Robertson’s alternative interpretation for their small provision for an additional epigram cost, related to the social identity of bearing patronymic or demotic names, figures represented (below: section suggested for the case of the stele of 6.2). Chairedemos and Lykeas (1977: 369) In the absence of external evidence, cannot hold true for all these stelai, iconographic criteria may be applied many of which are fully preserved: epi- for the identification of slaves on stelai. grams are rare, and, when they occur, Himmelmann has suggested a frame- the patronymic and ethnic or demotic work for the Attic representations of names appear on the name inscription, slavery (1971). He has advanced the rather than the epigram (e.g., C96). If view that physiognomic, racial charac- all simple names identified slaves or terization, based on the perceived metics, taking into account the further traits of “barbarians” (ungroomed hair, number of metics identified by ethnic uncouth face, wrinkled forehead etc.), name, only 37% of stelai would com- is rare in Classical stelai, because “die memorate Athenians, a clearly unac- heroische oder quasiheroische Them- ceptable conclusion. On the other atik... war mit der physiognomischen hand, avoiding the difficulty by arguing Sklavendarstellung aesthetisch schwer that only some of the ‘name only’ fig- zu vereinen” (ibid.: 21). However, ures are slaves removes entirely the physiognomic information of this kind possibility of discriminating slaves from is often difficult to assess and separate Athenians or metics by this means. from emotional characterization or at- Even when names allude to foreign ori- tempt at portraiture, with only indirect gin, there is no way to know that they access to the racial stereotypes of an- identify slaves and not metics. In fact, cient Athenians. the only certain slave commemorated by a sculptured stele is Pyraichme, the Himmelmann has also noted that Thracian titte (a misspelling alluding to height differentiation was used in Clas- a foreign accent, Karouzou 1957b), sical art to distinguish slaves from free whose name echoes slave names like people, in analogy to the similar differ- Xanthias, recorded in Old Comedy entiation of gods from humans, and hu- (Ehrenberg 1951: 171-173), and whose mans from animals. Height differenti- long-sleeved tunic has been connected ation was, in his view, combined with in further analysis with slavery (below: facial idealization, that resulted in section 4.3.7). slaves being shown younger than in reality, e.g., paides improbably accom- Stelai with simple name inscriptions panying warriors on stelai (Himmel- stood often in periboloi near other mann 1971: 26). This view provides a monuments identifying the provenience convenient explanation for a large part of the family; such is the case of the of the discordance between relative fig- stele of Demostrate in the family plot ure size and apparent age, shown by of Hierokles at Rhamnous, and of the several half-size male figures such as relief of Phanias and Philoumene in the the ‘7-8 years’ old C1036.2 (pl. 29), peribolos of Nikodemos at Dekeleia ‘11-12 years’ old C1060.1, and, espe- (Garland 1983: 165-167). The lack of cially, C1040.1, accompanying young- patronymic and ethnic or demotic is, er, but taller boys. These figures prob- nevertheless, associated with repres- ably represent height-differentiated entations of female figures; to 152 wo- slaves. Although differences are slight- men on these stelai correspond only er, a similar tendency exists to favour 100 men, while the two sexes are isokephalia of females identified by equally often represented (187:181) in their costume as slaves with a seated stelai with either patronymic, ethnic or woman.

50 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

Besides, iconographic attributes ity, not commemorated by a sculptured have been suggested by Himmelmann stele at all. Standing females holding a as indices of servile status: crouching, baby in swaddling clothes, excluding a naive, childish stance unjustified for seated women that probably represent free children that were able to stand, the mother (e.g., C59.1) are probably and connected also with representa- representations of titthai, shown in a tions of banausoi (Himmelmann 1971: secondary role. 27-28, 36); the male gesture of the The identification of female figures right arm bent across to the left as chrestai alludes to usefulness in the shoulder (ibid.: 33-34). Moreover, that domestic sphere, as indicated by the author has connected frontality with form “crhst¾ kaˆ ™rg£tij” encountered deceased or servile status; but his in the epigram of C129 (Clairmont definition of frontality as a trait that 1970: 126, no. 49). Of 12 chreste in- “den seelisch oder körperlich Belast- scriptions, two are also titthai. In three eten characterisieren kann” (Himmel- cases, their names suggest possible mann 1971: 33) seems, despite its in- foreign origin: Melita (C45.1) from genuity, artificial, and the trait cannot Malta or the Illyrian island of Melite be used on its own to identify either (unless it is a misspelling for Melitta), status, as shown by the many ex- Doris (C122.1) the homonymous region amples of background, frontal mourn- of Greece; Magadis, the mother of ers. Malthake chreste (C155.2), appears to A small group of female figures on be a non-Greek, eastern name. Their stelai are identified by inscription as overlap with wet-nurses suggests that titthai. It is commonly assumed that these figures were also servants, wet-nurses identified on these reliefs mostly of foreign origin. were slaves, enjoying a privileged rela- The third group of evidence consists tionship of love and attachment with an of name inscriptions identifying figures Athenian oikos (Himmelmann 1971: by their proper name and by the 44). However, of six titthai examined in mother’s name, instead of the usual this study, C130.1 was, according to patronymic; ten such cases are found, the epigram, the daughter of an most of them commemorating a female isoteles, a metic given equal taxation figure. In two cases (C155 and C854) status to an Athenian citizen, and the woman is also designated as C866.1 was from the island of Kythera, chreste, suggesting a link in the social which was under Athenian control dur- status of the two groups. The mother’s ing the 390s, thus probably a metic as name sometimes alludes to ethnic ori- well. On account of its genital allusion, gin, as Persis (C124.1) and Syro it has been suggested that Choirine is a (C189.1), or also to servile status, as common name for hetairai (Thimme Mania (C114; cf. Ehrenberg 1951: 171). 1967: 200); the wet-nurse C333.1, The absence of a patronymic suggests however, need not be one, since the that these figures may have been ille- child Choiridion (C842.1) clearly is not. gitimate children, possibly of hetairai. In fact, the only titthe with a figured stele certainly identified as a slave is The name inscription “DHMHTRIOS Pyraichme (above: section 2.3.2), not QEODO-THS” of C191 has been thought included in this study. In this light, it is by Clairmont to identify a primary and possible that the titthai examined here a secondary deceased male. According are metics, or even poor Athenians to the epigram, the stele was erected (Girard 1891: 74), commemorated by Erxis, “ISON STERXAS OISI TEK[EESI]” either in the funerary plot of the host for Demetrios; Clairmont reads ster- family (C340.1), or with their own fam- xasa, and identifies Erxis as Demetrios’ ily, when shown in handshake with a wife, who “cared for him as much as man (C186.1); the large number of for her own children” (1970: 120-121). slave wet-nurses were, in all probabil- But a wife would be expected to philein her husband, rather than stergein for

51 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS him, and the analogy between husband at the original and final use of the stele and children is not convincing. has been recorded in several cases: of Moreover, unlike the common Theodo- 432 inscribed stelai, 241 are one- tos (several entries in KirchPA), the figured reliefs, 44 name all figures de- masculine Theodotes is not, to my picted, 53 identify only one of the fig- knowledge, attested. In this light, the ures represented, and 94 include more name is best interpreted as a met- than one named and at least one ronymic, identifying Demetrios as the nameless figure. This epigraphic evid- illegitimate son of a Theodote before ence may be used to determine the ef- her marriage to Erxis, the latter name fect of deceased/mourner status on being masculine. A renowned hetaira stele iconography. On account of their named Theodote is in fact mentioned difference in meaning, the original and by Xenophon (Mem. 3.11.1-4) as a con- final status will be examined separ- temporary of Socrates; her possible ately, excluding costume attributes in identification as Demetrios’ mother order to avoid circularity in further dis- confirms the connection of the met- cussion. ronymic name inscriptions with illegit- The general relation of iconographic imacy. traits with the primary deceased or Chreste inscriptions are significantly mourners, as identified epigraphically, associated with narrow, low-cost stelai has been analysed separately for fe- with simple, mostly metopic, frame and male and male figures (figs. 26-27). Al- painted anthemion crown (fig. 25); oth- though figures in one-figured stelai er correlations are based on single oc- lacking a name inscription surely rep- currences, and may therefore be of resent the primary deceased as well, minor importance. Similar, albeit stat- they were excluded from this analysis, istically not significant correlations with because they would introduce a bias small cost are shown by stelai of wet- towards this particular type of composi- nurses and illegitimate figures with tion. The presence and number of at- metronymic name. This, and the con- tached attributes, centrality in the com- siderable overlap between the three position, holding a bird or being shown special categories appear to confirm in the company of a pet-dog are con- that they are all related to low social nected with the representation of the rank. On the other hand, the small primary deceased of both sexes; be- number of these stelai indicates that sides, the seated stance, the represent- they are less likely to be the memorials ation of a large bird (duck, goose etc.) of the numerous wet-nurses and ser- and the gesture of the pointed index vants of servile status, or illegitimate are characteristic of primary dead fe- children of female slaves, than those of males (fig. 26). The attached attributes very poor metics, and, occasionally, connected with the primary deceased Athenians. are, notably, also associated with childhood and adolescence (cf. figs. 6, 11); this may be due to the frequency of 4.4 The identification of the non-adults in one-figured compositions. On the other hand, both female and deceased male mourners are often shown simply Figures on Classical Attic stelai are gazing at the primary deceased (who is differentiated into those representing often shown facing frontally, or looking the primary deceased for whom the down), a trait connected with female monument was erected, those repres- childhood and adolescence; besides, enting members of the family who died non-adult female mourners frequently after the erection of the stele, and hold a pyxis. In addition, male mourn- those representing stereotypes of ers at the original use of the stele are mourners (above: section 1.1.3). The more often shown in the right side of deceased or mourner status of figures the composition, and vice versa.

52 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

It has been argued that stelai “gel- are also non-significant; more evidence ten in den Regel nur einem Toten, der is necessary in order to examine the in der Darstellung durch die Komposi- underlying hypothesis that composition, durch Attribute, Gesten oder Blick- tions of more than one full-size stand- richtung oder durch all diese Mittel als ing figures may commemorate males. Hauptperson characterisiert ist” In stelai containing a seated figure, (Schmaltz 1979: 85); indeed, the icono- the primary deceased tends to be graphic similarity of multiply inscribed seated, and mourners tend to be shown stelai with those having one name, in- in the background, and gazing at the dicates that the “successive” method primary deceased (fig. 29). The correla- of inscription has been used in most tion with broad age reflects the fact stelai (Garland 1982: 130). However, that the primary dead in such composi- the iconographic traits connected with tions are normally adults; so are also, female or male primary deceased however, many of the mourners. The status, discussed above, are not neces- handshake obviously occurs both with sarily those discriminating between the the primary deceased and another fig- primary deceased and mourners in a ure, but further figures are mourners. given composition. Because the The tendency of the primary dead to be primary dead is known by definition in set on the left side of the composition, one-figured stelai, the nature of these facing right in profile, reflects the asso- “idealized visualisations of the dead” ciations of the seated stance (since it may have dictated a different use of was not found among stelai with stand- iconographic conventions from other ing figures), without an independent stelai, where there is real intercourse meaning. between mourners and the deceased (cf. Johansen 1951: 53-55). Moreover, On account of multiple inscriptions, in many stelai, the question is to de- “it is reasonable to regard [stelai] as termine the status of figures of both communal monuments and to consider sexes. In this light, separate correlation those whom we see represented as coefficients have been obtained for two members of the family who died at dif- compositional types, regardless of fig- ferent times” (Kurtz and Boardman ure sex: (a), two or more standing fig- 1971: 138); name inscriptions, after re- ures, and (b) a seated and at least one use, may be used to separate these standing figure. specific members of the family from stereotypes of mourners. Among fe- In compositions without a seated fig- males, the strong correlation of the ure, the primary deceased have a seated stance and handshake with rep- greater number of attached attributes, resentations of the dead (fig. 30) is not often hold a small bird, and are taller surprising: stereotyped mourners are than mourners (fig. 28); these are obvi- never shown seated, or in handshake. ous iconographic correlations, connec- The absence of similar correlations for ted with stelai of non-adult males or female figures is due to the fact that males shown in the company of a half- seated males are rare anyway, and that size figure, representing either a slave several standing men in handshake are or a free child. Full-size standing figures not identified as deceased at all (fig. are, however, not differentiated, al- 31). The connection of higher apparent though the non-significant associations age with dead females is related to the of the foreground plane and centrality non-adult age of most female slaves with the primary dead, and of the hand (below: section 4.3.7); on the other brought to the head, cheek or chin with hand, males of small relative height are mourners, appear to be common very rarely identified as one of the de- sense. The correlations of the primary ceased, since in most cases they rep- deceased with a relief stele, horse or resent slaves (above: section 2.3.2). hare, and of mourners with the gesture of lifting the himation at the shoulder, Stereotyped mourners in compositions of only standing figures are dis-

53 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS criminated from the dead by the ges- most age-ranked figures is not known ture of bringing the hand to the cheek from external evidence, and the exist- or chin, especially females (fig. 32). ence of alternative means of commem- The weaker correlation of relative fig- oration (e.g., ‘name stelai’ for adult ure height with final, compared to ori- men), indicate that evidence discussed ginal status, suggests that, apart from in this chapter is relevant to the per- slave mourners, other half-size figures ceived nature of social roles in a funer- in these compositions represent sec- ary context, rather than to the demo- ondary, rather than the primary dead. graphic and social reality of Classical Although the strigil and oil-flask are of- Athens. ten held by the deceased in one-figured stelai, it is notable that they are associated with slave boys — mourners by definition — in compositions of two or more standing figures, who often have also their hands clasped together. In stelai with a seated figure, the handshake is more strongly correlated with figures identified as dead after reuse (fig. 33); indeed, nameless stereotypes of mourners, such as slaves, are as a rule shown in isolation, often in the background, gazing at the deceased. Females holding a pyxis are, not surprisingly, identified as stereotyped mourners, carrying the jewels of a deceased seated woman. Similarly, non-adult figures, the youngest often raising their arms, should be stereotyped representations of “children of the family”, since they are as a rule nameless. In most cases, however, iconographic traits connected with deceased status (both original and final) show tendencies, rather than hard-and- fast rules. Figures in Classical Attic stelai represent individuals of different inherited social position, ethnic affiliation and social class, and deceased or mourner status. Fundamentally, however, they reflect the demographic dimensions of sex and age, with a bias towards the representation of females, and of non- adults among males (above: section 2.1, fig. 1); the distribution of figures of both sexes according to apparent age, smoothed by the method of moving averages (fig. 34; cf. Acsádi and Nemeskéri 1970: 71), indicates also that, in contrast to the mostly young adult females, there is a large number of mature old males. However, the fact that the deceased or mourner status of

54 5. Frequency and social associations of costume traits

5.1 Procedure and overview According to the methodological discussion of chapter 1, before the classification of Classical Attic costume and its interpretation, it is necessary to examine single costume attributes and their associations with important social correlates. The following aspects of each costume attribute will be studied: firstly, the effect of the sex of the figure; secondly, the relative frequency of different attribute values for figures of either sex; and, thirdly, the association of each attribute with age, stele expenditure, and deceased or mourner status of the figure. Standard statistical tests (above: section 1.3.9), assuming a null hypothesis of independence, will be used. Age is represented by the apparent age rank derived from the anatomical and physiognomic examination of the figures (above: section 2.1); the continuous effect of age on a costume attribute (Kruskal-Wallis test), and the association of attribute values with discrete age categories (chi-squared test) will be examined. The results of statistically significant associations is presented in the form of cumulative frequency plots, giving the age “profile” of different costume traits (above: section 1.3.9). CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

by the full stele height, related to the conspicuity of the monument, but by the squared stele width, which reflects in a more balanced way the effect of material costs, relief depth and number of figures (above: section 2.2); its variance according to the value of each costume attribute is examined by means of F tests, and significant associations are presented in the form of box-and-whisker plots (above: section 1.3.9). Stele expenditure, of course, may be connected as much to different status accorded to different ages, as to social and economic rank; since this issue involves a view on the probable function of specific costume configurations, it will be resolved in later discussion, taking into account the multivariate effect of social variables on costume. The fact that the distributions observed in the box-and-whisker plots are frequently skew is related to the vertical, rank aspect of cost differentiation: the larger a stele becomes, the fewer the families that can afford it. Finally, whether a figure represents the deceased or a mourner is established by the presence or absence of name inscriptions; it is necessary to examine the association of costume attributes to the deceased/mourner status of figures (chi-squared tests) as it was determined both in the original and the final use of the stele. The differentiation in original use is predominantly related to the perception of the deceased versus all mourners, including socially important, free members of the oikos; on the other hand, the differentiation after extensive reuse separates all figures that could represent members of the family, from those representing social stereotypes of mourners, such as slaves. According to the selection criteria advanced in Chapter 1 (above: section 1.3.4), twenty-three attributes were used to describe the costume of figures on stelai; five pertain to the head and ornaments, six to worn garments, nine to draped garments, and one to footgear. The results of statistical tests on Stele expenditure is not represented the association of these attributes with

56 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI sex, and, for figures of either sex, with that the ends are not visible (C40.1: pl. apparent age examined both on the 1). Together with its rarer variant, the nominal and ordinal scale, stele ex- forehead encircling plait, where the penditure, represented by its squared plait is tied up over the forehead width (and, additionally, stele height) (C290.3: pl. 9), it occurs in 1/3 of fe- and deceased or mourner status (ori- males examined. The hair is parted in ginal and final use) are summarized in the middle of the forehead and tied fig. 35. It is notable that most costume back inwards, probably under an invis- attributes contribute to the differenti- ible band, in such a way as to create a ation between male and female figures, side aspect similar to the encircling but that increasingly smaller numbers plait, rather than a uniform surface, is of such attributes are used to differenti- described as drawn back; it occurs ate young from old, high from low stele with almost one fifth of females, some expenditure, and mourners from the of which may in fact have other hair- deceased; this fact relates to the de- styles, difficult to identify because of gree of redundancy by which each so- their often frontal view or associated cial trait is signified by costume, but veil (C901.3: pl. 21). The hair in a bun not to the strength or certainty of this occurs in 1/10 of cases. Other complex signification. Since the relation of im- hairstyles are less common: the single portant social factors and all costume falling plait — falling on the back of traits will be examined in a systematic the neck or over the shoulder (C775.1: way, some, but not all associations pl. 17); the “melon” hairstyle, with found are predictably unsurprising; the hair divided in radial strands run- nevertheless, for reasons of complete- ning back from the forehead; and, the ness, such associations will be briefly krobylos, a knot over the nape of the noted. It is also worth pointing out that neck with the hair forming free strands a specific costume attribute often will (C887.1). Overall, four out of five fe- not show the same statistically signific- males show complex hairstyles, with ant association for male as for female most of the remaining cases being figures; this demonstrates that the short-haired (C310.2: pl. 10), or, meaning and relative importance of when they display locks falling on but costume traits is affected by sex not entirely covering the neck, medi- (above: section 1.3.5), and, therefore, um-haired (C840.1: pl. 20). that the decision to examine age, ex- On the other hand, the vast majority penditure and deceased status separ- of male figures have simple hair: al- ately for male and female figures is a most two out of three are short-haired sensible one. (C410.4: pl. 15), with a sizeable number of medium-haired (C967.1: pl. 25) and some balding examples (C1013.1: 5.2 Analysis and discussion pl. 26); the actual length of male hair is roughly similar to the equivalent fe- 5.2.1 Hairstyle male hairstyles. Apart from exceptional cases, the only recurrent complex hair- The highly significant association of style shown with men is the encircling the basic arrangement of the hair with plait, with exceptional occurrences of the sex of the figure, found by the ana- the krobylos and the hair in a bun. In lysis, is not surprising (fig. 36): most fe- sum, apart from the definite associ- male figures display a complex hair- ation of complex hairstyles with female style, while males show mostly simple sex. female hair is more varied than hair. The most common female ar- that of males. Variety of hairstyle is rangement is the encircling plait, a thus combined with adornment, and hairstyle of Peloponnesian origin both traits connote femininity. (Bieber 1928: 25) consisting of a hair plait drawn around the head in the Female hairstyle is highly signific- form of a wide band and tied back, so antly associated with age; arrange-

57 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS ments may be divided in four groups adulthood, especially until the age of according to their specific age associ- ‘35 years’, while the encircling plait oc- ations (fig. 51). Firstly, medium hair is curs equally often with middle-aged as strongly connected with childhood, oc- with young males, and the medium curring in four out of five cases with hair, apart from its noted connection girls younger than ‘8 years’ old; in fact, with childhood, is common with mature it only occurs once after ‘12 years’ of and old men. age, being thus an almost diagnostic The association of female hairstyle trait of childhood. Secondly, two form- with squared stele width, taken as an ally related arrangements, the krobylos index of stele expenditure, is also and the falling plait, belong to adoles- highly significant, although the distribu- cence, confirming earlier archaeological tions are largely overlapping (fig. 72). opinion (Schmaltz 1979: 24); in our Medium hair is consistently associated analysis, the falling plait actually oc- with small stele expenditure, as is also curs with a slightly wider age range, the hair in a bun, the falling plait, and from ‘8 to 19 years’ old. Thirdly, the somewhat less the krobylos, with most encircling plait, short hair, “melon” hair cases having a squared width smaller and hair in a bun, representing togeth- than 0.35 squared metres. The small er more than half of cases examined, stele cost connected with the medium occur both with adult and non-adult fe- hair, falling plait and krobylos is prob- males; short hair is more common not ably related to non-adult age. The very only with females younger than ‘25 common encircling plait and the short years’, but also with old women, an as- hair occur in about 3/4 of cases with sociation already noted by Bieber stelai almost as small as those connec- (1928: 24); from the few cases avail- ted with the three previous hairstyles; able, it appears that the “melon” hair- however, many of the remaining 1/4 style occurs often with middle-aged are shown on considerably more costly women. Fourthly, the parted, drawn monuments, shown as individual data back hair and the forehead encircling points on the box-and-whisker plot (fig. plait become common only in adult- 72), and measuring between 0.5-1 hood, especially before ‘25 years’; the squared metre. On account of the fact occurrence of the encircling plait tied that the distribution of all squared over the forehead (unlike the more width values is also skew, reflecting the common variant tied at the back) is fact that few families were capable of notable only after adolescence. sustaining the cost of large monu- Male hairstyle shows also a highly ments, these hairstyles appear to be significant association with age (fig. used right across the social ladder. Fi- 52). This is mainly due to the natural nally, the forehead plait, ‘melon’ hair- association of maturity with balding style and drawn back hair are consist- hair; it sets in from the age of ‘35 ently related to large monuments; the years’, but four out of five cases are in drawn back hair, in particular, is in the fact older than ‘60 years’. More than majority of cases shown on stelai larger two fifths of medium-haired males are than 0.5 squared metres, probably in- children younger than ‘twelve years’ dicating higher social rank. old, suggesting an important connec- A statistically significant association tion of this hairstyle with male child- between male hairstyle and squared hood as well; the encircling plait be- stele width has also been found (fig. comes common in early adolescence, 73). The encircling plait and, excluding and the short hair is the only hairstyle some large outliers, medium hair occur found with ‘16-19 years’ old males. The mainly on small stelai, in most cases transition from medium to short hair is showing a squared width smaller than doubtless connected with the koureion 0.25 squared metres; it is not clear how (below: section 6.2); but short-haired much of this is due to figure age, since men are also common throughout neither hairstyle is restricted to repres-

58 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI enting a specific age. On the other metal ornament, with narrow sides be- hand, balding and short hair show a coming broad and pointed over the skew distribution, being shown on both forehead, known as stephane (C967.1: small and large stelai; short-haired pl. 25); a rare convex type of female men, in particular, are frequently headgear resembling the stephane in shown on stelai of squared width form (C339.4) may be a piece of cloth around 1 squared metre, probably rep- covering an underlying tied-up plait, resenting males of high family rank. rather than metal. Finally, a multiple It has been asserted that, in Classic- headband radiating two, three or al costume in general, short female more times around the head from the hair is associated with sorrow and nape of the neck, possibly to be identi- servile status (Bieber 1928: 24). Some fied as a strophion (Bieber 1928: 86, pl. indication of this was found in the ana- 60.2), is confined to a few female fig- lysis of name inscriptions: both in the ures (C289.1: pl. 8). original and final use of the stelai, The different forms of head orna- slightly more short-haired females than ment display similar age associations expected were found to represent with figures of both sexes (figs. 53-54). mourners; in addition, the falling plait The stephane is a common head orna- was more common than expected with ment with children of young age on females originally designated as de- choes representations (Hoorn 1951: fig. ceased. Similar weak associations were 142, 181, 188 and 313); all instances of found among males: short hair with ori- this ornament on our stelai occur with ginal mourners, medium hair with the girls younger than ‘8 years’ old or with original deceased; besides, all males boys younger than ‘11 years’ old, sug- with encircling plait were eventually gesting that it is diagnostic of child- designated as deceased. However, all hood regardless of sex. The narrow these associations have no statistical headband takes on from the age when support, as they were found to be non- the stephane disappears, especially significant even at the 10% level. On among females, where no cases young- this evidence, the question of a univer- er than ‘eight years’ old were recorded. sal meaning of specific hairstyles re- The male headband is worn to roughly lated to deceased or mourner status the same extent throughout adulthood, has to remain open. with a slight decrease in old age, probably related to the appearance of bald- 5.2.2 Head ornament ing hair. On the other hand, the frequency of female headband is in- This attribute designates headgear creased between ‘15 and 19 years’ of not covering the hair of figures, with age; besides, most cases of the more the exception of invisible knots or elaborate multiple headband (with the brooches, such as used to tie a exception of an old woman) occur with krobylos or hair in a bun; its statistic- young figures between ‘17 and 24 ally significant social associations are years’. The transition to full woman- summarized in fig. 35. Three quarters hood is therefore related to increased of females and a slightly smaller pro- adornment of the head. portion of males display no head ornament (fig. 37). But the common But stelai showing females wearing a narrow headband, often apparent multiple headband appear to be larger only as a slight circular depression of than those showing females without the hair, occurs relatively more often head ornament, a difference in with male figures (C1035.1), although it headgear that would be appropriate for remains still the most common social rank differentiation, but which headgear for females, mainly by virtue was not statistically confirmed. The of those having parted, drawn back stephane, on the other hand, occurs in hair. Also more common with men than considerably smaller stelai; this con- women is a less frequent, apparently nection receives support from the fact

59 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS that the stephane of males is also re- taking off the veil in Greek art to signify stricted to small, unassuming stelai, a the hieros gamos, and marriage in gen- statistically significant association (fig. eral (Karouzos 1966, with list of repres- 74). The small stele expenditure con- entations). The remaining female fig- nected to the stephane is probably due ures, about 1/10 of the total, wear a to the comparatively low status of snood enclosing their hair; snoods were childhood, of which this ornament is a worn by Athenian women at home and diagnostic trait. On the other hand, the during the night, but also by servants male narrow headband appears to be (Bieber 1928: 26). The common simple related to smaller stele expenditure snood covering the greatest part of the than its absence, a surprising fact, hair will be called here a sakkos, while echoed by a similar (albeit non-signific- the rare ornamental snood or net cov- ant) mean cost difference between fe- ering part of the hair will be called a males with and without a headband. kekryphalos. The distinction between Although failing the 5% significance the two forms using conventional terms level, the association of the form of reflects common usage, without pre- headgear with deceased or mourner judging the issue of their significance; status, especially as intended in origin- it should be noted, however, that the al stele use, deserves a brief comment. sakkos is, by its mere form, more sug- The male stephane and the female gestive of modesty than the multiple headband occur only with fig- kekryphalos. ures originally designating the de- On the other hand, male head cover ceased, while the female narrow head- (representing in total 1/20 of examined band is also associated with the dead. cases) consists usually of a helmet, While caution is necessary in interpret- actually worn or held; this is frequently ing a non-significant result, this ap- of the crested Attic variety (C1005.1), pears to suggest that figures originally but the Chalcidian form also occurs designated as dead display increased (C1023.1: pl. 27; cf. Snodgrass 1967: head adornment (with the exception of 69-70, fig. 49). A less frequent type of male headband) in comparison to those protective head cover, probably made intended as survivors. It is interesting of leather, is the conic pilos. It occurs that there is less statistical support for as often as the petasos (C1062.2: pl. the relation of headgear with the final 31), a broad-brimmed hat of Thessalian deceased/mourner status, despite the origin worn by travellers and horsemen larger number of observations in- for protection against sun and rain (Ab- volved. rahams 1908: 111). While the male helmet, pilos and petasos refer to special 5.2.3 Head cover social identities, the number of preserved examples is small to confirm as- While most males have their head sociations with age, stele expenditure uncovered, more than 1/3 of females and deceased or mourner status. The display a head cover; in addition, cloth- following discussion, therefore, refers ing items covering the head of females only to female head cover. are entirely different from those worn by males, both facts being unsurprising Female head cover is highly signific- (fig. 38). The veil, occurring with more antly associated with both nominal and than 1/4 of females, consists of part of ordinal age (fig. 55). The kekryphalos the mantle drawn over the head appears with both non-adult and young (C901.3: pl. 21), rather than a separate adult figures, a non-conclusive result kredemnon (Bieber 1928: 24) or a veil- based just on three observations. It is ing tunic overfall (ibid.: 34, pl. 3.2). certain, however, that the sakkos is Whatever its form, the fact that the veil connected with late childhood and covers the head and makes the face early adolescence, since more than 3/4 less visible suggests that it intrinsically of cases are younger than ‘17 years’; signifies modesty; hence the use of two equally likely age ranges may in

60 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI fact be distinguished, one consisting of ented on larger stelai, acting as status ‘8-12 years’ old girls in sakkos, and the symbols. other consisting of ‘15-24 years’ old The head cover affects the identifica- young women in sakkos. Of the remain- tion of a female figure as deceased or a ing two arrangements, the uncovered mourner. The fact that the association head occurs from early childhood to old is statistically highly significant only at age; by virtue of its frequency, it dom- the final use of the stele (fig. 88) is inates the representations of females probably due to the lower number of younger than ‘17 years’. cases with identified original status. In Himmelmann’s view, “die Tracht The uncovered head occurs indiscrimin- des schleierartig über den Kopf gezo- ately with deceased and mourners, genen Mantels trifft nun fast nur bei re- both in original and final use. The con- iferen, verheirateten Frauen, ist viel- nection of the veil with the deceased leicht eine prägnante Bezeichnung für (Stupperich 1977: 108) is supported by diese” (1956: 25); this view is only in our analysis, since the deceased rep- part supported by our analysis. While resent 2/3 of veiled females in original no veiled females younger than ‘17 use and 9/10 in final use; but the exist- years’ have been recorded, compared ence of veiled mourners, argues to the uncovered head, the veil is more against Thimme, who believes in a common during young adulthood than normative symbolic meaning of the in old age (fig. 55): roughly equal num- trait: “Die Darstellung der Verstorbenen bers of women older than ‘18 years’ of im Mantelschleier ihrer Characterisier- age display an uncovered head and a ung als Braut des Todes galt.” (1967: veil, but almost 3/4 of the veiled wo- 20). All forms of snood occur both with men are younger than ‘25 years’ old, mourners and the deceased; icono- compared to less than 3/5 of adult wo- graphic evidence (below: section 4.3.7) men lacking a veil. Taking into account suggests that a large number of the confinement of young Athenian fe- unidentified sakkos figures are slave males compared to the relative free- mourners, a fact that is not apparent dom of movement of older women, the here, using only external evidence. veil appears to be a sign of modesty, Despite this servile association, the naturally more appropriate to young configuration of costume traits argues brides, rather than of seniority connec- that deceased females in sakkos are in ted with matron status. fact free women, and not slaves (be- But female head cover is also highly low: section 4.3.1). significantly associated with squared stele width (fig. 75). All forms of head 5.2.4 Earrings and jewellery cover are represented on average on On account of their total absence larger stelai than the uncovered head. with males, the obvious association This difference in expenditure is most between earrings or other forms of jew- noticeable with stelai representing ellery and figure sex is highly signific- veiled women, which include many ex- ant. Earrings are worn by 1/10 of fe- 2 ceeding a squared width of 1 m ; some males. They usually are disc-shaped, females with uncovered head are also supported directly on the lobe of the represented on large stelai, but their ear (C157.1: pl. 5), but occasionally it is number is negligible compared to un- only a hole on the lobe that indicates veiled females on small stelai. Although the original presence of an inlaid met- stele size of sakkos representations is al earring of unknown form (C290.3: pl. less varied than that of veil, that type 9). Other ornaments are very rare, con- of snood is also connected with higher sisting of a simple loop necklace and expenditure than the uncovered head; bracelet worn on the left forearm of this may be partly due to the fact that Eukoline (C1131.3); a heavier crescent- female servants, several of whom wear shaped object (C94.2) and a now lost, a sakkos, are more likely to be repres- perhaps originally painted item (C68.2),

61 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS held out by standing female figures to be shorter or longer than average. may also represent jewellery, the The presence and length of beard is former a necklace, the latter a ring or strongly correlated with apparent age earring. (Kendall’s tau-b: 0.79); it should be Despite the lack of statistical signi- noted, however, that beard is one of ficance, it is worth noting that most several traits taken into account in the earrings are worn by young women, identification of apparent age, so that between the age of ‘17 and 25 years’. some degree of circularity is involved. The only figure wearing other orna- Nevertheless, the result appears to ments, however, is non-adult suggest that this attribute is consistent (C1131.3); her wearing earrings as well with other age-related traits. Apart suggests that they are not restricted to from the obvious absence of bearded adult women. Females wearing earrings non-adult males, men with fully de- or other ornaments occur on stelai of veloped musculature are only rarely larger dimensions than those without, shaved, and then they appear to be but the difference is not statistically very young; this confirms the com- significant. This is also the case with monly held view that shaving did not the effect of earrings on the deceased become common until Hellenistic times or mourner status. Despite the fact that (Bieber 1928: 25). A thin, unshaved the few recorded cases (four and seven beard seems to display youths at the respectively) were deceased, both in transition to full adulthood; it is notable primary and secondary use of the stele, that pubic hair is already standard with some figures wearing earrings are iden- considerably younger adolescent males tified by other costume traits as slaves (above: section 2.1.6). Trimming the (e.g., C284.1). beard is normal with young men, but becomes rare with age. 5.2.5 Beard Beard is also highly significantly as- The presence and length of a beard sociated with the original deceased or is an attribute pertinent to males only. mourner status of the figure (fig. 89). While it is recognized that there is an Beardless males are in 2/3 of cases infinite variety of beard length, be- identified as deceased, while bearded cause of the difficulty of exact meas- males, regardless of beard size, repres- urement and the anticipation that it ent more often than not a mourner. would not yield notably greater inform- Taking into account the strong age as- ation, beard has been coded as an or- sociations of beard, it appears that dinal attribute. In addition, beard shape mourners are not often shown as non- has not been recorded, although it var- adult males, and that the male dead ies from pointed to rounded, since this are by a ratio of 4:1 non-adult; note was considered to be a stylistic, rather however that non-adult dead have than socially determinable attribute. been easier to identify, since they often Beardless males represent more than belong to single-figured stelai. With this 2/5 of the total (C929.1: pl. 24); a very caution, this result supports the view small proportion have been coded as that non-adult males tended to be com- unshaved (C1054.1: pl. 30), since they memorated by the erection of a sculp- have traces of growing beard that does tured stele more often than men. On not alter the shape of the chin; accord- the other hand, the lack of significant ing to beard length, the remaining association between beard and final cases have been classified in 1/3 of deceased or mourner status suggests cases as medium-bearded (C410.4: that adult men, apart from ‘name pl. 15), when they have a beard cover- stelai’, were often commemorated by ing the front of the neck, and short- adding a name inscription to an already bearded (C927.1: pl. 23) or slightly erected relief (above: section 1.1.3). more often long-bearded (C1023.1: pl. 27), when the beard length seems

62 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI 5.2.6 Main tunic larger proportion of tunicked males Greek dress may be categorized as than that of females. But the majority an endyma, intended to be worn, or as of short-tunicked males, and even more a periblema, draped around the body long-tunicked females display short (cf. Bieber 1928: 2). This section is con- sleeves. Most male examples have cerned with the basic description of the been identified as true short sleeves, former category. Its existence and form being tightly sewn around the upper is naturally strongly affected by the sex arms; they comprise all long tunics, of the figure (fig. 39). In all recorded and the majority of short chitons, in the cases females wear a long tunic; fur- latter case often displaying a v-shaped ther attributes are used to identify its cut at the hem. Only a small proportion exact form. On the contrary, only a of females display this variety of short minute proportion of males wear a long sleeves, most identified cases being tunic. More than 9/10 actually have no loose pseudo-sleeves, formed by the tunic at all. Most of the remaining lateral parts of the open upper side of cases wear a short chiton, reaching to the tunic buttoned on the upper arm by the height of the knees (C1062.2: pl. three brooches. The pseudo-sleeves ac- 31); this consists sometimes just of a tually identify the most common vari- girdled piece of cloth permanently ety of tunic on stelai, an Ionic chiton, fastened on the shoulders with while the absence of sleeves contrib- brooches. A male garment of similar utes to its identification as the Doric length, rarely encountered on stelai ex- peplos. amined in this study, is the exomis, Females in a long-sleeved tunic are consisting either of a short chiton hav- ‘8 to 17 years’ old (fig. 56); on this ac- ing the right shoulder brooch un- count, they are connected with younger fastened, or of a tailored garment of age in general than those in either similar form (C1033.1). short-sleeved or sleeveless dress. From The possible association of male tu- the few examples available, it appears nic with ordinal age involves a child in that sleeveless tunics are used until the exomis, two old men in long tunic, and age of ‘34 years’, while short-sleeved a mixed number of children and young tunics are uniformly spread between fe- adults in short chiton. On the other males of all ages. On the other hand, hand, male tunic is not significantly as- pseudo-sleeves and true short sleeves sociated with stele expenditure, as of female tunic appear to be connected shown by squared stele width (fig. 76). with larger stele cost than those simply Despite the lack of significant associ- identified as short sleeves; this is a ation, however, the small squared spurious result, due to the fact that the width of stelai representing males in exact sleeve form is more easily de- long tunic is notable. Short-tunicked termined on large reliefs. However, males, on the other hand, tend to be while sleeveless tunics belong on aver- represented on considerably taller (but age to stelai of similar squared width not broader) stelai than other figures; as the combined forms of short-sleeved this association is related to the tecton- tunics, the long sleeves are connected ic type of these stelai. with considerably higher stele expenditure, shown by a mean squared width exceeding 0.5 m2. (fig. 77). 5.2.7 Tunic sleeves The association of sleeve form with On account of their relation with deceased status is not supported by main tunic form, sleeves are obviously the statistical test, but it is worth not- associated with figure sex (fig. 40). The ing the connection of long sleeves with vast majority of long sleeves belong mourners. A long-sleeved tunic is in to females wearing a long chiton; the fact a sign of servility (Himmelmann sleeves and the sides of the chiton are 1971: 16), since, because of its Eastern sewn. A sleeveless tunic occurs with a origin, it was worn in Classical times by

63 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS non-Greek servants. The associated tunic is thus frequently matched by a high stele expenditure is explained by large stele expenditure. Besides, the the more frequent inclusion of ser- single tunic occurs more often than ex- vants, functioning as status symbols, pected with women identified as on large reliefs. The age connections of mourners, and the double tunic occurs long sleeves are similar to those of the as a rule with the deceased; this asso- sakkos, suggesting that non-Greek ciation, based on figure status at the fi- slaves were customarily represented in nal use of the stele, is statistically sig- late childhood or adolescence. nificant (fig. 90). The fact that even when the stele was first erected most 5.2.8 Additional garment females in double tunic represented the deceased (14/15) means that the fe- As shown in fig. 41, more than 1/2 of male additional garment is not involved females and 3/4 of tunicked males dis- just in separating main from secondary play no additional garment over the figures, but also in identifying the tunic (C289.1: pl. 8). In the remaining primary dead from the mostly single- cases, females and males wear differ- tunicked mourners. ent forms of an additional garment. The former wear often a sleeveless long The sample size of tunicked males tunic, in some cases recognizable as does not permit us to confirm the asso- the woollen Doric peplos, over the typ- ciation of a cuirass with specific age ically fine short-sleeved Ionic chiton un- ranges, except for its predictable con- derneath (C79.1: pl. 1). The additional nection with adulthood in general. garment differentiates simple from Apart from the association of tunicked composite forms of the tunic, as males with higher than average stele defined by Barker (1922); but types of expenditure, men in cuirass appear, on tunic are configurations of more than account of squared stele width, on one tunic attribute, and are best dis- even larger stelai (fig. 79); in fact, large cussed in the context of costume types. stelai representing a simple short A shorter garment with long, short or chiton is of similar size as the smallest no sleeves, a chitonion or diploidion, stelai with a cuirass representation. forms occasionally an overfall over the This is an important difference, affect- main tunic (C79.2: pl. 1; cf. Karouzou ing the interpretation of the relevant 1957: 78-79, pl. 21); it is not certain, male costume types (below: section however, that this is truly a second gar- 5.3.4). ment, since it may well have been sewn to the inner tunic. A rare knee- 5.2.9 Tunic girdle and overfall length long-sleeved coat, identified as The presence and form of a girdle is the Persian kandys (Kingsley 1974), affected by figure sex (fig. 42). A small may suggest that the deceased Myttion proportion of females but more than (C919.1) was of Eastern ethnic origin. 1/3 of males display an ungirdled tu- On the other hand, only a small propor- nic (C820.1: pl. 18). The long tunic of tion of the few tunicked males wear an men is the orthostadios chiton of additional cuirass over their short priests, since it is always ungirdled chiton (C1023.1: pl. 27), identifying (C920.1: pl. 22; cf. Bieber 1928: 21). them as hoplites (below: section 5.3.4). But the majority of recorded cases, in- The frequency of an additional tunic cluding all remaining males, wear a vis- is not affected by female age. On the ible girdle over the tunic at waist other hand, the average squared stele height (C840.1: pl. 20); it should be width connected with the double tunic noted that the presence of a girdle can- is significantly higher than that connec- not be verified for a large number of fe- ted with single tunic (fig. 78). Almost males, whose waist is covered by a 1/4 of double tunics occur on stelai lar- mantle. A very small number of cases ger than 1 m2.; the increased complex- display a tunic forming a pouch over ity of costume implied by the additional the girdle, so that the girdle is invis-

64 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI ible; the pouch usually just covers the of a heavy Doric peplos, and fastening girdle at the waist (C1062.2: pl. 31), it at the shoulders (C310.2: pl. 10), but but sometimes falls as low as the sometimes consists of a separate or thighs (C310.2: pl. 10). sewn chitonion worn over a tailored tu- While the small sample size does not nic (C410.1: pl. 15; cf. Bieber 1928: permit any secure conclusions about 20). the male girdle apart from its non-oc- The same difficulties as with the currence with the long tunic, the fe- girdle have been encountered in re- male girdle is significantly associated cording the presence of a tunic overfall with age (fig. 57). Both the ungirdled with females wearing a himation. Since tunic and the girdle over the tunic oc- they affect mostly adult women (below: cur from early childhood, but most section 3.2.11), the age associations of cases of the former are confined tunic overfall indicated in fig. 58 should between ‘8-16 years’ of age, while the be treated with caution; there may be a latter continues to be popular in adult- larger number of adult females lacking hood. The girdle over the tunic is there- an overfall (or with a long overfall) than fore the standard form, frequent with suggested by the recorded data. On the females of all ages. The age associ- other hand, enough figures of younger ations of ungirdled dress, deriving from females are available to permit the fol- the Laconian maiden costume, may be lowing observations: firstly, that non- explained by the fact that, physically adult females up to the age of ‘20 and symbolically, it does not impede years’ are equally likely to lack an over- growth connected with adolescence fall; secondly, that figures with long (Bieber 1928: 18; eadem 1977: 86). overfall are popular in childhood and, The pouch covering the girdle appears particularly, between ‘11-14 years’ of with girls older than ‘13 years’ old, but age; and thirdly, so far as the small also with adult women; its popularity sample is representative, that, while with the former is explained by the fact the short overfall occurs with figures of that the pouch is an effective way of all ages, the medium overfall is associ- adjusting the length of a full-size Doric ated with late adolescence from ‘15-19 peplos brooched at the shoulders for years’ old. The frequency of tunic over- use with non-adult females, especially fall with non-adult figures and the de- in combination with an overfall. crease of its size from long in early ad- Slightly less than 1/2 of 49 recorded olescence to medium in late adoles- female figures display a tunic overfall; cence confirms that it is used to regu- an unaccountable proportion of the relate the length of a full-length tunic in maining cases, coded as having no different stages of bodily growth overfall may in fact have an invisible (Bieber 1977: 85). overfall, turned inwards (Bieber 1928: 18, type I.B.b.1). Although there is con- 5.2.10 Supporting bands siderable degree of variation, a distinc- The tunic of all male and 6/7 of fe- tion may be made between three vis- male figures display no supporting ible overfall forms. A short overfall, bands. Of the 27 remaining females falling to above the waist, or medium examined, 19 display shoulder overfall, falling to slightly below the bands, passing under the armpits in waist, occurs with 1/8 and 1/12 of the front and, presumably, crossing in the total respectively; the overfall is back; they probably constitute an formed by turning over part of the tu- anamaschalister such as that of the nic, which is fastened with brooches at Delphi charioteer, their function being the shoulders (C40.1: pl. 1). A long to support the habitual short pseudo- overfall, on the other hand, falling to sleeves (C1100.1: pl. 33; Barker 1922: thigh-height, occurs with more than 1/3 415). The remaining eight females dis- of all recorded females. It is often play crossing bands, intersecting at formed by turning over the upper part the chest, and tied on the girdle at the

65 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS sides of the waist and on the brooches cloth 1.8 by 2.8 metres, drawn from the normally attached on the shoulders; left shoulder back and around the most of these have a round medallion, torso, so that it covers at least the similar or somewhat larger than the lower body, and possibly also part of shoulder brooches, set at the crossing the head, arms, shoulders and chest point (C840.1: pl. 20). (Bieber 1928: 21; 1977: 118). In most On account of its high frequency, a cases it is draped long, but occasionally tunic without supporting bands occurs it falls just to knee-height (C384.3: pl. with females of all ages, with a propor- 13). Other generic mantle types are tional increase in use from late adoles- strongly sex-determined. The cence (fig. 59); it is possible that some shoulder-back mantle is a rectangu- cases of supporting bands, especially lar cloth folded in two and attached on the shoulder form, may have been hid- brooches at the shoulders, falling back den by the dense folds of a fine tunic, (Bieber 1977: 104-107). It is predict- but this should not affect the current ably used mostly with females wearing discussion, assuming that such a gar- a heavy long tunic brooched at the ment would have been spread between shoulders (C896.2), but occurs also different ages. All forms of supporting rarely with males wearing a similarly bands are associated with childhood arranged short chiton (C158.2). On the and early adolescence, but crossing other hand, the bunched himation, bands are restricted to girls younger sometimes also folded in the middle, than ‘14 years’, while there are also set in various ways on the shoulders, adult women displaying shoulder arms or around the body of the figure bands. Girls younger than ‘7 years’ and without actually covering it, occurs with those between ‘13-14 years’ have often 1/10 of males (C1035.2: pl. 28) but crossing bands with medallion or only exceptionally with females. The shoulder bands; the ornamental value size of this garment, except rarely of the medallion should be taken into where it is not folded in two (C938.1), consideration in these age associations suggests that it is indeed a himation (below: section 4.3.8). In this connec- rather than a smaller unbrooched tion, it should also be noted that, des- cloak. A chlamys, a cloak of Thessalian pite the lack of statistical significance, origin associated with ephebes, all girls wearing crossing bands were hoplites and horsemen, fastened identified as deceased at the original around the neck on the right shoulder use of the stele; besides, they are rep- or in front, occurs only with males resented on stelai of smaller average (C1098.1). It is a rare garment, as is size than those showing females also the folded himation, differenti- without supporting bands, a fact prob- ated from the bunched himation in that ably related to their age. it is carefully stacked together across the long rather than the short dimension (C1040.1); unlike the bunched hi- 5.2.11 Mantle mation, the folded himation, seen on a The statistical significance of the so- pillar in C1046, appears to be carried cial associations of a periblema, a rather than draped. draped Greek garment, is summarized The occurrence and generic form of in fig. 35. About 1/7 of females and a mantle has interesting associations slightly smaller proportion of males dis- with female age (fig. 60). Although a hi- play no mantle (fig. 43); these fe- mation occurs with females of all ages, males are always tunicked, but the it is common only from the age of ‘10 males are in most cases nude (C927.1: years’, and becomes almost mandatory pl. 23). The standard mantle is the hi- after ‘17 years’; in fact, all adult fe- mation, worn by more than 4/5 of females older than ‘25 years’ wear a hi- males and about 3/4 of males (C322: mation. On the other hand, a costume pl. 11, all figures). It consists of a rect- lacking a mantle enjoys continuous angular garment, typically a woollen

66 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI popularity from early childhood to late younger than ‘9 years’ old, and be- adolescence, becoming rare after ‘17 comes almost standard after ‘25 years’ years’ of age. The two recorded fe- of age. Recorded males in chlamys are males in bunched himation are younger an adolescent and two adults, also than ‘8 years’. Most figures in shoulder- older than ‘25 years’. A male in back mantle are between ‘8-14 years’; shoulder-back mantle is adult, and two unlike bunched himation, the sample is males carrying a folded himation are large enough to suggest a definite as- children. Like females, males without a sociation of this mantle form with a mantle are in most cases children or transitional period between childhood adolescent, especially up to ‘15 years’. and adolescence (below: section The bunched himation is equally re- 4.3.8). Besides, despite the lack of lated with childhood and adolescence, overall statistical association between but is more common either with chil- mantle and squared stele width, it is dren younger than ‘7 years’, or with worth noting that the shoulder-back youths and young men between ‘16 mantle and the bunched himation are and 24 years’ of age. Older males in a connected with stelai of smaller size bunched himation or lacking a mantle than those showing a female in hi- occur rarely (cf. the exceptional nude mation or no mantle, in proportion to mature man in bunched himation, the younger age of the figures repres- Diepolder 1931: pl. 49.2), but in our ented; the lack of stele size differenti- sample they always wear a short or ation between females in no mantle long tunic, so that they are not nude. and those in himation must be sought The squared stele width associated in the attributive status of many ex- with males in bunched himation or no amples of the former. mantle is, despite their usually young The female mantle is also connected age, somewhat larger than that of oth- with the deceased or mourner status of er mantle forms, suggesting that nudity the figures, as determined at the final may be connected with high stele ex- stage when the stele was used (fig. penditure; however, because of the 91), but not when it was first erected. lack of statistical confirmation, the The lack of differentiation in original meaning of nudity is better discussed use, however, is due to the fact that on in the context of specific costume many one-figured stelai, the non-adult types, taking into account social correl- deceased lacks a mantle; on the con- ates other than stele cost. trary, adult figures, often shown on The association of male mantle with stelai with two or more figures, do as a deceased or mourner status is statistic- rule wear a himation. The connection of ally significant both in final and, partic- final deceased status with himation fe- ularly, original use of the stele (figs. males, and of the absence of the 92-93). The absence of a mantle has no mantle with secondary figures, is due effect on the probability of a male be- to the adult age of most female sec- ing the deceased or a mourner, al- ondary deceased. On the other hand, though other iconographic traits may where known, all females in shoulder- be used to distinguish clearly between back mantle or bunched himation were the two (below: section 5.3.1). In the designated as dead from the time the light of the few cases available, the fol- stele was erected; while the number of ded himation is carried only by male recorded cases is too small to confirm a mourners. Most male mourners wear a normative relation, it seems that these proper himation, a stronger association mantle forms are strongly associated at the time when the stele was first with the deceased. erected; many males in himation are The form of male mantle is also designated as dead, especially in sec- largely affected by age (fig. 61). The ondary use. On the other hand, the proper himation occurs with males of bunched himation, chlamys and all ages, but is less common with boys shoulder-back mantle are associated

67 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS with representations of the deceased. females in shoulder-back mantle (C896.2) than males either in shoulder- 5.2.12 Mantle arrangement back mantle or in a chlamys brooched at the front of the neck, generic mantle This attribute records the specific ar- forms with which this arrangement oc- rangement of the mantle, which is to a curs. great extent (but not entirely) determined by its generic type; in the case of But all arrangements specific to the the proper himation, it describes the bunched himation occur only with position of the “free end” of the gar- males: spread on the left side of the ment, as it is drawn counter-clockwise figure, so that it covers the shoulder from the left shoulder around the body. and upper arm (C932.1), an arrange- Apart from the sex associations due to ment often occurring also with a the generic mantle type, a more de- chlamys; bunched on the left fore- tailed pattern has emerged, especially arm, leaving shoulder and upper arm differentiating between arrangements exposed (C1036.1: pl. 29); falling from of the normal himation (fig. 44). The the left shoulder back to the lap himation, drawn from the left ground, usually folded in two so that it shoulder back, around the body, and forms a pouch on the shoulder falling on the lap, is intimately linked (C1035.2: pl. 28); its more complex with seated figures (C69.2: pl. 2); variant, falling from the left shoulder hence it occurs seven times as often back to the left forearm (C1100.2: with females as with males, so that pl. 33); falling from the left forearm about 1/2 of all female figures display to a support on which the male is this arrangement, while the relevant leaning (C1054.1: pl. 30); passed from proportion of males is very small. The the left to the right forearm relatively rare shoulder himation, (C1023.1: pl. 27); or, once, falling from drawn around the body, across the the left shoulder across to the right chest and over the left shoulder to the forearm (C700.4). Finally, the folded back, is also more common with fe- himation is always carried on the left males than with males, albeit not as shoulder, falling symmetrically to markedly as the lap himation (C755.1: front and back (C1040.1). pl. 17). The forearm himation, of Female mantle arrangement is asso- which the free end is drawn over the ciated with age (fig. 62), and possibly flexed left forearm, is the most com- also with stele expenditure (fig. 35); on mon mantle form among standing fe- the other hand, there is no evidence males, including the two girls wearing a that the arrangement of the mantle is bunched himation (C840.1: pl. 20); but used to distinguish the dead from unlike previous arrangements, there mourners. The shoulder and forearm hi- are as many males in forearm himation mation are connected with younger fe- as there are females (C967.1: pl. 25). males than the lap and armpit hi- On the other hand, the armpit himation; it should be recalled, of course, mation is the most frequent form of a that an important number of non-adult proper himation worn by standing fig- females lack a mantle altogether ures, characterized by the free end of (above: section 3.2.11). In more detail, the mantle being tucked underneath females under ‘8 years’ wearing a hi- the left armpit; it occurs twice as often mation always show the forearm vari- with males as with females (C1132.3: ety; however, the forearm himation pl. 32). It differs from the rare lower continues to be common, beside other body himation, equally associated arrangements, until the age of ‘24 with males, in that in the latter the gar- years’. The shoulder himation has very ment leaves both shoulders exposed definite age associations, most figures (C384.3: pl. 13). The rare mantle on being either ‘8-12’ or ‘15-17 years’ old; the back is also associated with fe- it is not certain whether the rarity of males, due to the higher frequency of girls of intermediate age in shoulder hi-

68 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI mation is real, or the result of small older adolescents; and, the bunched hi- sample size (below: section 4.3.5). Al- mation falling on a support is worn by though it occurs in late childhood and ‘18-24 years’ old youths and young adolescence, the armpit himation be- adults. Unlike other arrangements, the comes popular only from the age of ‘17 bunched himation running from the left years’, being the standard garment of to the right forearm is connected with standing women older than ‘25 years’. adulthood, since it occurs with a cuir- Besides, the lap himation occurs with ass or a long tunic (below: section seated females from ‘17 years’ of age, 5.3.4, 5.3.6). but only becomes common with fully Despite the differences in age distri- adult women, especially ‘20-24 years’ bution (above: section 2.4), male hi- old; this arrangement, therefore, is a mation arrangements have similar age diagnostic trait of adulthood. associations to those of females (fig. The selection of female mantle ar- 63): forearm and shoulder himation are rangement is only possibly significantly also associated with younger age than connected with stele expenditure (fig. armpit and lap himation, although none 35). However, although all himation ar- so much as the bunched himation arrangements occur frequently on small rangements mentioned above. The stelai, unlike the forearm and shoulder armpit himation occurs occasionally in himation, two arrangements common late adolescence, and becomes very with non-adults, a larger proportion of popular in adulthood, especially from both lap and armpit himation cases ap- the age of ‘25 years’ on; all established pear on stelai with high squared width. cases of very old men display this ar- The differentiation in stele expenditure rangement. A lap himation is restricted appears to be commensurate with av- to the age range of ‘25-69 years’, and erage age, distinguishing non-adult is more typical of middle age; as with from adult females; but the connection females, it is a diagnostic trait of adult- of the armpit himation with high ex- hood (but cf. seated adolescent Di- penditure cannot be accounted for only onysios, Möbius 1966: pl. 77-79). How- by age, and may be due to rank differ- ever, unlike females, both adult and entiation. In addition, the mantle on non adult males wear a shoulder hi- the back (a shoulder-back mantle) is mation; besides, there are instances of connected with a higher average stele mature men in forearm himation, al- cost than himation types related with though this is the standard non-adult non-adult females (below: section himation form. Finally, the lower body 4.3.8). himation is worn both by very young Most male mantle arrangements children and by a larger number of have strong connections with childhood adult men. and adolescence (as, it should be re- Stele expenditure relates to the oc- membered, do males without a currence of specific mantle arrange- mantle), although for some the sample ments (fig. 80). Of himation arrange- size is too small for certain conclusions ments, preserved all in sufficient num- (fig. 63). The bunched himation on the bers to enable a reliable comparison, left forearm, and that falling from the the forearm himation appears on smal- left shoulder back to the left forearm ler stelai than the shoulder and lap hi- occur generally with children and ad- mation, and especially the armpit hi- olescents, and the mantle on the left mation. While all arrangements occur side, although more common in child- freely with small stelai, larger monu- hood, occurs also in young adulthood, ments display predominantly males in on account of the chlamys. But two ar- armpit himation; high expenditure is rangements have more specific age as- therefore associated with representa- sociations: mantles falling from the left tions of standing, rather than seated shoulder back to the ground are worn men. Males in bunched himation, on by boys ‘13-15 years’ old or, less often, the other hand, are shown on small

69 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS stelai, especially those with the mantle 1/4 of figures; these include about half covering the left side or falling back of males but only a very small propor- from the shoulder to the ground. Only tion of females (fig. 45). Often the fig- few cases of a bunched himation falling ure displays a flexed left arm, holding on the forearm, from the right to the the shoulder bunch at chest height. But left forearm, from the left shoulder the standard himation with no across to the right forearm, or from the shoulder bunch occurs with most fe- forearm to a support are associated males and the remaining males: the with large stelai; this fact restricts the fixed end of the himation is tucked in- high status connotations only to those side the free end wound around the specific arrangements, and is taken body, or spread out over the left side into account in the discussion of the (C676.2: pl. 16); there are rare excep- relevant costume type (below: section tions combining a spread-out fixed end 5.3.2). The folded himation on the left with a partial bunch (C392.3: pl. 14). In shoulder is also connected, for different sum, the left shoulder bunch is strongly reasons, with relatively high stele ex- connected with male sex, since more penditure. than 4/5 of recorded cases are male. The mantle arrangement is also con- The left shoulder bunch displays a nected to the deceased or mourner possibly significant association with fe- status of male figures when the stele male nominal (but not ordinal) age; was first used (fig. 94). Apart from the however, the small proportion of fe- fact that all bunched himation forms males with left shoulder bunch, and the are worn by the deceased, and that a fact that they are spread over disparate folded himation is always carried by age ranges, three being ‘8-12 years’ mourners, a more detailed pattern has old, six ‘17-24 years’ old and one rep- emerged about specific himation ar- resenting an old woman exceeding ‘60 rangements. Most males in forearm, years’ of age, makes it impossible to shoulder and lap himation represent interpret this weak association. On the the deceased; on the other hand, the other hand, the mean squared stele majority of males in armpit himation width and the frequency of dead or sur- represent mourners. This tendency is vivors associated with the left shoulder maintained, but not reinforced, by sub- bunch is indistinguishable from that as- sequent deceased identifications. In sociated with its absence. It seems, analogy with what was found about therefore, that the female left shoulder other costume attributes, and since it is bunch has no part in differentiating fe- known that younger figures rarely rep- male age categories, high from low so- resent mourners, it should be noted cial rank (as shown by stele expendit- that the association of forearm and ure), or the dead from mourners. shoulder himation with the deceased, On the other hand, the statistical and that of armpit himation with test suggested that this trait is signific- mourners, may be age-linked. This, antly associated with male age, as however, is not the case with the lap defined on the nominal scale. Older himation, worn by seated men, which is males tend on the whole to wear more clearly used to represent deceased often a himation with left shoulder adults. bunch. More specifically, all children and early adolescent males up to the 5.2.13 Left shoulder bunch age of ‘15 years’ lack a shoulder This attribute is relevant to figures bunch; this suggests that the shoulder wearing a proper himation, and refers bunch is a diagnostic trait of late ad- to the form of the “fixed” end of the hi- olescence or adulthood. The highly sig- mation, brought forward over the left nificant association between this attrib- shoulder. A visible left shoulder ute and stele dimensions is remark- bunch, falling on the left side of the able: males lacking a shoulder bunch chest (C676.1: pl. 16) occurs with only occur on stelai of significantly lower

70 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI squared stele width than those repres- shoulder is prevalent among represent- enting late adolescent or adult men ations of young, probably married wo- with a left shoulder bunch, including men, being less apparent in adoles- several cases exceeding 1 m2. (fig. 81). cence and maturity, and rare in child- This association of the left shoulder hood. bunch with high stele expenditure can- The effect of age on male right not be due just to the few non-adult shoulder exposure is continuous, rather males without a bunch (about 1/5), and than based on associations with specif- may, therefore, be related to rank dif- ic age ranges, as with females: more ferentiation. Finally, despite a slightly younger figures have the right shoulder larger than expected number of male exposed than vice versa, from child- mourners with a left shoulder bunch hood to old age (fig. 65). Like females, and vice versa, this weak tendency is the exposed right shoulder predomin- not statistically significant. ates among non-adult figures, appear- ing more frequently with males older 5.2.14 Right shoulder expos- than ‘25 years’. But unlike females, it is ure mature and old, rather than young This attribute is also relevant to hi- men, who are more likely to wear a himation representations, describing mation covering the right shoulder. A whether the himation covers or not the different kind of modesty is therefore right shoulder. Its value was found to prevalent among the sexes: while cov- be related to the sex of the figure (fig. ering the right shoulder of females is 46). Overall, a larger number of figures related to sexuality, covering the right have the right shoulder exposed by shoulder of males is related to the de- the himation, but these include the ma- cency of old age; considering the im- jority of males (C676.1: pl. 16). On the portance of the athletic ideal in Classic- other hand, figures with the right al Athens, it may be that the body of an shoulder covered include the major- old man was not considered an appro- ity of females (C157.1: pl. 5); in fact, priate sight, especially on a permanent almost 4/5 of figures with covered right memorial. shoulder are females. While this is a notable relationship, signifying a great- 5.2.15 Exposure of the arms er degree of body exposure among The exposure of the right and left males and a corresponding greater de- arm, relevant to figures wearing all gree of modesty among females, it generic mantle types except for the should be emphasised that it consti- shoulder-back mantle and the chlamys tutes a statistical trend rather than a when fastened with a brooch at the hard and fast rule. front of the neck, describes the relation While no evidence exists to suggest of the mantle to the forearms of the fig- that the right shoulder exposure is re- ure. This attribute is affected by sex, al- lated either to stele expenditure, or to beit in slightly different ways for the deceased or mourner status of the fig- right and left arm (fig. 47-48). Firstly, ures, its association with both female while the vast majority of figures have and male age is statistically significant. the right arm exposed (C676.1: pl. Girls in himation up to the age of ‘14 16), only 1/3 of figures have the left years’ have as a rule the right shoulder arm exposed (C410.4: pl. 15). The exposed, while exposed and covered former occurs comparatively more of- right shoulder occur indiscriminately ten with males, but the latter occurs between ‘15-19 years’ and after ‘25 more often with females. Secondly, the years’ (fig. 64); as a result, a remark- arm sling is the major form of cover- ably large proportion of young women, ing the right arm: instead of being ‘20-24 years’ old, wear a himation cov- drawn under the right armpit, the free ering the right shoulder. In general, end of the himation is brought around modesty signified by the covered right the right elbow, so that it covers in

71 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS varying degrees the right forearm women. Although this is a slight tend- (C69.1: pl. 2); on the other hand, the ency, it is worth noting that two ar- left arm sling, formed by drawing the rangements suggesting modesty, the fixed end of the himation around the arm sling and the wrapped left arm, are left elbow and usually tucking it under associated with young adult women; the left armpit (C676.2: pl. 16), is one however, this result is not as clear-cut of several different arrangements of as it would be hoped, and the whole is- the himation on the left arm. Both, sue of exposure and modesty has to be however, are strongly connected with re-examined in the light of specific cos- representations of females; a rare vari- tume types. ant of the arm sling restricted to wo- Male age affects the form of the men consists in the himation held high, mantle on both arms (fig. 67-68). Both covering the flexed forearm (C79.1: pl. the right and left exposed arm are as- 3). Thirdly, the left arm is in about 1/3 sociated with younger age than the of cases covered by the falling hi- right and left arm sling respectively; as mation, often (but not only) with a among females, the covered left arm is forearm himation having a spread-out associated with young age, while the free end (C1013.2: pl. 26); this is pre- wrapped arm is connected with adult- dictably a very rare arrangement of the hood. The exposed arms occur with mantle on the right arm, since the hi- males of all ages. But most males up to mation is normally drawn around the the age of ‘25 years’ have the right body to the left side of the figure. The arm exposed; a right arm sling appears covered left arm occurs twice as often in late childhood, and becomes increas- with males than with females, being ingly popular in adulthood. Apart from thus strongly sex-linked. Fourthly, the an exposed left arm, non-adult males mantle is often wrapped around the have often the left arm covered by a left arm of both male and female fig- falling mantle, common with forearm ures; this appears to be a common way and shoulder himation (cf. the age as- of securing the fixed end of the hi- sociations of these mantle arrange- mation, instead of tucking it below the ments), especially until the age of ‘15 free end on the chest or under the years’. Non-adult examples of a armpit (C901.3: pl. 21). wrapped left forearm are mostly repres- Only left arm exposure is signific- entations of a bunched, rather than a antly associated with female age (fig. normal himation (C1054.2: pl. 30). The 66). The left arm covered by a falling remaining cases of a bunched himation himation is connected with young age, have similar age associations with the followed by both wrapped and exposed left arm sling, which appears only with left arm, and finally by the left arm adult men, being thus a diagnostic trait sling. Until ‘15 years’, females in hi- of adulthood. It is notable that, com- mation have as a rule the left arm pared with exposed arms, three traits covered; this is no doubt related to the connected with modesty, namely, the frequency of the forearm and shoulder right arm sling, left arm sling and himation types in childhood and early wrapped left arm, are particularly com- adolescence. The exposed left arm and mon with old men, exceeding ‘60 the himation wrapped around the left years’ of age; this fact confirms the as- arm are common arrangements sociation of male old age with modesty. throughout adulthood, with insignific- According to squared stele width, ant variations; they both appear occa- males with the left arm covered by the sionally with non-adult figures as well. falling himation belong, with few ex- Finally, the left arm sling is restricted to ceptions, to less costly stelai than figures older than ‘15 years’ of age, be- those with the left arm exposed, and ing thus a diagnostic trait of late ad- those that have the left arm in an arm olescence or adulthood; it is slightly sling or, especially, wrapped (fig. 83). more common with ‘25-34 years’ old The association of the covered left arm

72 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI with low stele expenditure should be associated with childhood and adoles- seen in the light of its connection with cence; although lacking statistical sig- non-adult age; the slight infrequency of nificance, the covered left hand of mourners with covered left arm is also males is also more common in child- due to this factor. But the differenti- hood and adolescence, in connection ation between the stele cost connected with the forearm and shoulder himation on one hand with the wrapped left arm types. Covered hand is, therefore, re- or the left arm sling, and on the other lated to the entire costume type, and hand the exposed arm, cannot be ex- its interpretation is connected with fe- plained by age. It seems therefore male, and possibly also male, age. probable that rank differentiation may underlie the connection of these two 5.2.17 Himation overfold ways of covering the left arm with high- About 1/8 of females and 1/5 of er stele expenditure, suggesting that males wearing a himation display a vis- modesty is a high rank correlate; this ible overfold, formed by a usually tri- trait occurs also among females with angular part of the mantle turned over apparently larger stelai than those in front of the waist (C337.4: pl. 12). showing an exposed left arm (fig. 82). The remaining figures have the surplus material of the mantle, as it is drawn in 5.2.16 Exposure of the hands front from the right to the left side, Regardless of their sex, 98% of fig- bunched together across the waist; ures wearing a mantle have their right some may, of course, have an overfold hand exposed. The covered right hand turned inwards, but since this could not is slightly more common with younger be ascertained, they were recorded as females, mourners and those shown on instances of no overfold. The associ- larger stelai, but this is an uncertain as- ation of this trait with sex, suggesting sociation, so that the meaning of this that the overfold is slightly more com- trait has to remain open. Unlike the mon among males, has just failed the right hand, the left hand is frequently 0.05 level of statistical significance (fig. covered, occurring with 1/7 of females 35); in any case, it suggests a tendency and almost 1/5 of males; this slight dif- rather than a rule. ference, that would appear to suggest A possibly significant relationship a connection of male figures with a also exists between himation overfold trait of modesty, is not statistically sig- and female age. The overfold is relat- nificant. ively more common with girls ‘9 years’ The left hand exposure was found to old girls, and adolescent females be highly significantly associated with between ‘13-17 years’; the gap female age, younger figures often tend- between the two ages may be reflecting to have their left hand covered (fig. ing the sample selected, and errors in 69). In particular, the left arm of girls our age assignment. Despite the lack of between ‘7-10 years’, wearing a hi- statistical significance, adolescent mation, is as a rule covered; but it males between ‘13-17 years’ also wear should be recalled that the majority of more often than expected a himation non-adult females lack a himation alto- with overfold, but so do also young gether (above: section 3.2.11), and men between ‘20-34 years’ of age. The thus non-adult modesty cannot be ar- association of the overfold with adoles- gued just from the occurrence of the cence suggests that it was indeed used covered left hand. This trait occurs to to enable the use of a full-size himation some extent between ‘13-17 years’ of with figures that were not yet fully de- age, and is also used with a small pro- veloped, taking care of the extra height portion of adult women. Several fe- of the garment. But again, this is a not males displaying the covered left hand a normative association, a point em- wear a forearm or, especially, shoulder phasised by the occurrence of adults himation, mantle types that are also with overfold, and in particular by its

73 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS frequency with young adult males. older than those without a staff; the Female overfold seems to be inde- type lacking a staff, by virtue of its fre- pendent of other main social correlates quency, occurs with males of all ages, but age; although few females with including some old men. Simply hold- overfold are represented on large ing a staff occurs from young adulthood stelai, this is probably due to their to extremely old age; the youngest small number, as is shown by fig. 84. men with a raised or armpit staff are The male overfold, on the other hand, ‘25-34 years’ old. But while holding a is significantly associated with stele ex- simple or raised staff seems to be used penditure, as revealed by examining with constant frequency throughout the squared stele width (fig. 85). Al- middle and old age (’35-70 years’), the though 1/2 of males with and without armpit staff is increasingly popular overfold belong to small stelai below a after ‘60 years’. On these grounds, it is squared width of 0.25 m2., the remain- legitimate to assert that, while the age ing males with overfold occur on aver- differentiation is mainly effected by the age with larger stelai than those presence or absence of the staff, the without. The greater variety of large armpit staff has even stronger associ- stele sizes connected with the overfold ations with old age than other arrange- is reflected on their much wider in- ments. terquartile range, and is responsible for Discussing the armpit staff Stup- the considerably larger mean squared perich has concluded “dass er seltener width value than that associated with den Toten selbst, als vielmehr das Ge- males in himation lacking an overfold. genüber des Toten bezeichnet” (1977: In sum, while the female overfold is 100). This view has been supported by mainly linked with adolescence, male assumptions on the status of the fig- overfold is connected with high stele ures based on iconography. However, expenditure, with secondary age asso- the relationship between supporting ciations. staff and the identification of the figure as deceased or a mourner by inscrip- 5.2.18 Supporting staff tion, both in original and final use of the stele, was not supported by our All females and 4/5 of males ex- analysis. A slightly larger number of amined have no supporting staff; men in armpit staff were originally des- the staff is thus a diagnostic trait of ignated as mourners, as against those male sex. An armpit staff, supported with a raised staff, but this tendency on part of the mantle collected under could easily have resulted by chance. the left armpit, occurs with 1/9 of On these grounds, apart from its mani- males; on account of its occurrence on fest age associations, we cannot postu- the Parthenon frieze, this arrangement late a general meaning of the staff at is conventionally known on stelai as the this stage; the problem is re-examined Phylenheroen type (C1013.1: pl. 26; in the light of costume typology (below: Stupperich 1977: 97). A few, mostly sections 5.3.10, 5.3.13 and 5.3.14). standing males are shown holding a staff, with their arm simply flexed (C1132.2: pl. 32), and slightly more, 5.2.19 Footgear mostly seated males, display a raised This attribute, recording the pres- staff (C709.2; fig. 49). ence and general form of footgear, is The unsurprising association of staff strongly correlated with sex (fig. 50). with old age is confirmed by the highly More than 1/2 of males, but only a neg- significant results of tests, both on the ligible number of females are barefoot ordinal and nominal level (fig. 70). (C1054.2: pl. 30); this attribute value is Males holding the staff in any of the recorded when the toes or the ankle three ways listed above are always bone is visible, but no sole can be adult, and on the whole considerably seen. Most remaining males and 3/5 of females wear slippers, recognized by

74 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI the usually thin sole and the fact that 3/4 of females in slippers are represen- the toes are hidden (C157.2: pl. 5). Fi- ted on stelai of squared width smaller nally, 2/5 of females and a very small than 0.5 m2. On the other hand, more proportion of males wear sandals, re- than 1/2 of females in sandals occur on cognized by the presence of both ana- stelai larger than 0.7 m2. The differ- tomical details and a usually thicker ence in means and medians suggest sole (C157.1). In most cases, the san- that sandals are strongly connected dal straps were originally indicated in with increased stele expenditure, in paint. This creates complicating possib- comparison with slippers; this is natur- ilities for cases recognized as barefoot al, since the larger stele size allowed or wearing slippers, since either might the sandals, which involved more have represented sandals by means of sculptural work than the plain slippers, painted detail; because of this, the fol- to be shown to best advantage. On ac- lowing discussion should be taken with count of the age associations of foot- some caution. gear, however, it is not possible to de- Female age, taken as an ordinal at- termine if this differentiation is due to tribute, is highly significantly associ- social rank. ated with footgear (fig. 71). The main Among males, those barefoot are distinction is between slippers and san- shown on stelai of significantly smaller dals, since there are too few barefoot squared width than those wearing females (most adolescent or young either type of footgear, who range from adult) for secure conclusions: slippers medium-sized to very large stelai (fig. are associated with younger females 87). Although there are some large than sandals. Slippers dominate child- stelai showing barefoot males, these hood and adolescence, up to the age of are usually nude, since most males in ‘17 years’, but they appear also with himation shown on large monuments young and mature adult women. Al- wear slippers; but, considering that though there are girls as young as ‘9 bare feet tend to be more common years’ old wearing sandals, they be- with non-adult males and vice versa, come common only after ‘17 years’ of the connection of slippers with high ex- age, and are particularly popular, in penditure may be due just to age. In comparison to slippers, with ‘25-35 comparison to females, it is notable years’ old women. The association of that the few sandals found are not con- sandals with adult women may be re- nected with higher stele cost than slip- lated to their adornment value; al- pers. This fact suggests that it is the though, in the light of their frequency, meaning of sandals, apart from their it is clear that footgear is unrelated to technical difficulty, which associates female modesty in young adulthood, it them with high stele expenditure is interesting that they become relat- among females. ively more common after ‘25 years’ of While the connotation of adornment age, when the social pressure concern- provides a reason for the association of ing modesty would have not been as female sandals with both adulthood great as when women were newly-mar- and increased stele expenditure, ried. On the other hand, the fact that Thimme, discussing the stele of non-adult males tend to be barefoot Hegeso, goes so far as to suggest a (lacking statistical significance) is re- much more specific association, in the lated to the frequency of nude non- following manner: “so könnte auf un- adult males with bunched himation or serer Stele Hegeso durch die hervorge- no mantle. hobenen Sandalen als Braut des Hades Both female and male footgear is as- geschmückt gedacht sein” (1964: 21- sociated with stele expenditure. The 22). However, the existence of females regular slippers and the two barefoot in sandals not representing the primary cases recorded among females (fig. 86) deceased argues against a strict, sym- belong to small stelai; in fact, almost bolic interpretation such as Thimme’s.

75 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

Besides, the deceased or mourner status of many females in sandals is unknown, and those available are not significantly connected with either status; in this light, it is not possible to argue even the weaker proposition that sandals are associated with female deceased status. Similar, statistically non- significant results have been found in connection with male footgear.

76 6. 7. Typology of female costume

7.1 Classification and type identification An average linkage cluster analysis of female costume on Classical Attic stelai was performed on 200 figures of which at least 75% of relevant costume attributes were preserved. The dendrogram summarizing the results of the analysis (fig. 95) suggests a clear-cut division of females into two broad clusters, both formed approximately at the 0.55 linkage level, but displaying only 0.3 mean similarity to each other. But there is no similar, “natural” division to a higher number of groups, which can be altered at will by selecting different cut-off levels. Three singleton and eleven proper clusters were defined by partitioning the dendrogram at the 0.7 linkage level. They are referred in further discussion as female costume types, marked by the symbols F1 through F14, in the order in which they were provided by the analysis. Smaller groups, formed at the 0.8 level, are used to determine finer pattern; they are called subtypes, and denoted by a small letter appended to the type code (i.e., F1a). The relative importance, taxonomic structure and characteristic traits of types defined at the 0.7 level are summarized by a combined frequency bar chart, dendrogram and example sketch representation (fig. 101). Although this partition at the 0.7 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS linkage level is not the only one pos- which attribute values are “signific- sible, it is satisfactory for our purpose. antly” rarer or more frequent than ex- Firstly, the number of figures of most pected within specific types (above: types is sufficient for statistical study, section 1.3.9); the results of this ana- and the number of types seems large lysis are used further on to provide a enough for enabling differentiation of definition of each costume type. To de- at least major female social categories. termine the structure of the classifica- Secondly, their internal cohesion and tion, however, it is useful to examine external isolation, both desirable prop- here which costume traits are specific erties of a classification, is shown by to each type, and which are shared the between- and within-groups simil- between taxonomically contiguous arity indices: although they were types. Attribute values positively asso- defined at the 0.7 linkage level, types ciated with a female costume type, and very often show within-group similarity shown by at least 50% of its members higher than 0.8; with the exception of (excluding undefined cases) are thus F1 and F5, this measure is at least 0.10 mapped on the dendrogram produced higher than the types’ highest by average linkage cluster analysis; the between-groups similarity (fig. 96). traits uniquely associated at this level A further number of female figures, with a costume type appear on the re- with at least 25% of relevant costume spective final branch of the tree, while attributes present, was assigned to av- those shared by taxonomically related erage linkage types by means of a types appear on intermediate nodes simple identification procedure (above: (fig. 99). section 1.3.6), so that the costume This graphic representation is self- type of 424 females in total was de- explanatory, but some comment on the termined. Most other cases remained results is necessary. Although interme- unassigned, except for 22 females that diate partitions are often based on a were found to be dissimilar from all single attribute value, the types costume types F1-F14; although not defined at the 0.7 level are truly poly- taken into account for statistical pur- thetic, suggesting that classification poses, some of these figures are linked methods that are by definition with costume types and commented monothetic were rightly avoided. At the upon, when opportunity arises. It most general level, females in F1-F10 should be noted that, since the identi- are characterized by a himation, while fication method does not take into ac- the remaining types display polythetic count prior probabilities of group mem- sets of costume traits. It is notable that bership, the proportions of figures as- F11-F14 do not share any costume signed to costume types differ from traits on higher nodes of the tree, ap- those of figures classified by average pearing to be connected more by their linkage. In particular, fewer females are difference with F1-F10 than by their assigned to types F5 and F8, and more similarity to each other, a fact shown to smaller groups, mostly without af- also by the low between-groups simil- fecting the composition of the type, arity indices of classified cases (fig. with the exception of the singleton F12, 96). On the other hand, the major parti- which is joined by 24 partially pre- tion between F1-F4, F5-F7 and F8-F10 served figures on the basis of very few is based solely upon himation attrib- shared attributes (below: section utes: forming a veil, covering the right 4.3.7). shoulder and arm with an arm sling, or Female costume types may be leaving it exposed. Although F3-F4 fe- defined by a combination of character- males are linked by a himation drawn istic costume traits. An analysis of re- over the left forearm, F8-F9 by a hi- siduals based on the contingency mation falling on the lap, and F6-F7 by tables of costume type with each cos- a mantle covering the left hand, the tume attribute is used to examine polythetic attribute set defining each

78 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI costume type in particular concerns not be taken into consideration; since they only the form of himation, but also the represent about 50% of the total vari- hairstyle, tunic and footgear. ance, and each of the remaining co- While, except for the crossing bands ordinates accounts for less than 7%, a of F13 and F14, types lacking a hi- low-dimensional geometric representa- mation show distinctive, non-overlap- tion of female figures may be taken to ping polythetic attribute sets, the same depict faithfully the broad taxonomic traits are often shared in different com- structure of female costume. binations by himation costume types The plot of female figures according belonging to different parts of the clas- to the first three principal coordinates sification: F3 and F6 are characterized (fig. 98) confirms the major taxonomic by no head cover and a himation wrap- structure found by average linkage ping the left arm, F4 and F7 by a hi- cluster analysis. The first PC is respons- mation covering the left arm and hand; ible for the sharp division between fe- F1 and F5, displaying no head cover or males in himation (F1-F10), and types bands supporting the tunic, short consisting of females without a mantle sleeves and a short or medium tunic (F11) or wearing a shoulder-bunch overfall, an encircling hair plait, and a mantle (F14); F12 and F13 females are himation leaving the left hand exposed, set in the intermediate space between are in fact linked by a high between- these two large formations of figures, groups similarity index (fig. 96). But but since the analysis has used only these pairs of types are always separ- one and two figures respectively, their ated by a combination of important internal cohesion is not certain. F14 is a costume traits: for example, F3 shows distinct group, differentiated from F11 a narrow headband, and a forearm hi- by higher 2nd PC and, especially, much mation covering the right shoulder and lower 3rd PC scores; F11 females wear- forming a right arm sling, while F6 is ing a long-sleeved tunic (F11a) are set characterised by an encircling hair in a group with higher 3rd PC scores plait, a lap himation leaving the right than those of remaining F11 figures. Fe- shoulder exposed but covering the left males in F8-F10, characterized by a hand, and sandals. All in all, the taxo- veil, are clearly separated from other nomic structure suggested by average figures in himation by the second PC; linkage cluster analysis, based on fig- while most veiled females (F8a-F8c, ures with relatively complete costume and the singleton F10) have very small description, fits well with the variability 1st PC scores, those with exposed right in costume attributes, resulting after shoulder (F8e and F9) are set closer to the identification of the type of less females lacking a veil, the former form- well-preserved, additional figures. ing a distinct group. Finer distinctions are possible, but not entirely certain from the representation. 7.2 Geometric representation On the other hand, although most fe- of costume variability males with covered right shoulder and right arm sling (F1, F2 and F3) have In order to examine whether female consistently smaller second PC scores costume types defined by the average than two types with exposed right linkage method are indeed distinct, a shoulder and uncovered head (F5 and principal coordinate analysis was ap- F7), these groups are not clearly separ- plied to the same data set. The vari- ated, and finer partitions are different ance plot (fig. 97) shows the relative from those indicated by average link- importance of successive principal co- age. Several females of various cos- ordinates in representing overall costume types, displaying short or drawn tume variability: an “elbow” is apparent back hair and right arm sling, form a at the second principal coordinate (PC), slightly separate group with small 2nd suggesting that the first three should PC scores; women with a sakkos or

79 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS kekryphalos (F2, a few F1) have even also assigned to it on the basis of mean smaller 2nd PC scores. Although the similarity. There is no single costume singleton F2 is situated towards veiled trait that differentiates F1 figures from women, and F6 and F4 figures are dis- all other females. The definition of the persed (the latter with lower 1st PC type is thus provided by a polythetic scores), the geometric representation set of costume traits, with which it is of females lacking a veil corresponds to “significantly” associated according to the broad structure suggested by aver- an analysis of residuals: the vast major- age linkage. However, the overlap ity of F1 females lack head cover or or- between F5 and F7 on the one hand, nament, wear a short-sleeved tunic and F1-F4 on the other, suggests that without supporting bands and a hi- several types defined at the 0.7 linkage mation without overfold, covering the level are best regarded as mere analyt- right shoulder but leaving the left hand ical devices, whose significance ulti- exposed. More than 2/3 also display an mately rests upon their possible social encircling hair plait, exposed left fore- associations. arm and slippers, and 1/2 have a right These results are confirmed by ex- arm sling. Apart from the obvious com- amining the within- and between- plementary negative associations, it is groups similarity indices (fig. 96). F14, notable that no ungirt tunic, and relat- with the highest within-group similarity ively few forearm himation cases occur (0.86) and low between-groups similar- within F1. ities, is both coherent and distinct in The himation of F1 females often the geometric representation. F8 and hides important details of the tunic. In F11 are relatively well-isolated, as sug- some cases, neither upper arm is vis- gested by their low between-groups ible, so that the presence of sleeves similarity indices; however, their with- can only be surmised by analogy. When in-group similarity is rather low (0.79 the sleeves are clearly visible, they of- and 0.78 respectively), showing that ten belong to the buttoned, pseudo- they may be appropriately subdivided sleeved variety. The folds of both the to internally cohesive subtypes. On the single, and the thick outer garment of other hand, the popular F1 and F5 have the double tunic suggest that it was high within-group similarity indices girdled. In most cases, it is not clear if (0.82 and 0.80 respectively), but are the sleeveless overgarment of the very similar with other types and, as double tunic formed a girdled overfall, noted above, with each other; this fact since the lower body is entirely covered accounts for their spatial contiguity. by the himation; the only F1 figure Types and subtypes displaying both ex- whose himation leaves the lower body ternal isolation and internal cohesion exposed (C803.1) shows an overfall of are shown as nodes of the dendrogram medium length over a girdle forming a in fig. 100; regardless of their possible pouch. social associations, these morphologic- Females classified to type F1 by av- al entities are useful summaries of fe- erage linkage are distinguished into male costume variability. five subtypes (fig. 102). F1a consists of seated females, wearing a lap himation without left shoulder bunch, leaving the 7.3 Female costume types left forearm exposed. It is the most common F1 subtype, occurring in 1/2 of 7.3.1 Types F1 and F2: veilless fe- cases. A typical example of an F1 females in himation with covered male in lap himation is C384.1 (pl. 13), right shoulder and right arm sling which, however, lacks the right arm sling and information about the expos- Thirty females are classified to type ure of the left arm and hand; she wears F1 by average linkage cluster analysis, double tunic, shown by the now faint and 31 less well-preserved figures are traces of fine short sleeves, and slip-

80 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI pers. On the other hand, C322.1 (pl. dog under the seat (C384.1: pl. 13), 11) displaying the himation traits typic- and a probably funerary stele (C803.1) al of this subtype, shows a single tunic, are worth mentioning. Being adult, the sandals, earrings, and, unusually, has majority of F1 women are seated, a the hair parted and drawn back by a fact accounting for their usually profile narrow headband, perhaps forming an position, and are shown in handshake; invisible bun. but subtype F1d consists of several Subtypes F1b and F1d include the adult females standing frontally in the standing counterparts of F1a females, background, lacking the handshake. usually wearing an armpit himation. Compositional types associated with F1 The former is characterized by an en- are the two-figured, ‘seated and a circling hair plait, a right arm sling, and standing figure’ type, its three-figured the rare left shoulder himation bunch variant with a central background fig- (C821.1: pl. 19; C69.1: pl. 2) or a left ure, and similar group compositions. arm sling (fig. 102). The latter consists According to name inscriptions, F1 is of females with exposed right forearm, used to represent either mourners or slippers, and drawn back hair (C410.3: the deceased; apart from the back- pl. 15); other hairstyles, such as an en- ground, compositionally secondary fe- circling plait tied over the forehead, males of subtype F1d, who in all likeli- hair in a bun, or the rare “melon” hair- hood are mourners despite the lack of style (C392.2: pl. 14) also occur. The epigraphic evidence, both standing and traits of subtype F1c, consisting just of seated F1 females may be identified as C103.1, are identical to those of F1d, the primary deceased. except for the snood partially covering The “speaking” gesture, the left the head; this is categorized here with hand brought to the head, and, particu- other ornamental snoods and nets larly, lifting the himation at the left (kekryphalos), but is probably identifi- shoulder occur often with F1 females. able as an opisthosphendone (Bieber The last gesture is common in adult- 1928: 87, pl. LXI 3-4), on account of its hood, but its special popularity with greater width at the back. Finally, the this type is related to the right orienta- seated C157.1 (pl. 5), classified as sub- tion of most (51/56) F1 women, and type F1e, is separated from other F1 fe- their setting on the left of the image. males by a simple sakkos over the hair; The frequency of the right orientation a similar standing female assigned to may be due to the ease of recording if F1 is C1132.1 (pl. 32). On account of the right shoulder is covered by the hi- this very distinctive trait, both figures mation, a constitutive trait of type F1; are best discussed in association with but other associations of the type show F2 females in sakkos. that it is not a mere artifice of the re- F1 figures are adult, with the excep- cording conditions. tion of two standing figures, the ‘11-12 Two F1 figures are simply identified years’ old C821.1 (pl. 19), holding a as wet-nurses, and two further F1 wo- large bird, and the ‘15-17 years’ old men are characterized as chrestai by C891.1, holding out a little bird towards the epigram; of the latter, C122.1 is a little boy, like other adolescent girls called Doris, a possible indication of (e.g., C887.1). Several, like C69.1 (pl. non-Athenian origin (above: section 2), are young, but, in comparison to 2.3.1). In all certainly attested cases, other female costume types, F1 be- however, F1 females belong to Atheni- comes proportionally more important an families. Despite this fact, the cost after ‘25 years’ of age, and includes of stelai representing F1 females, as the definitely old C42.1 (fig. 110). The shown by their squared stele width association of F1 with adulthood ac- (above: section 2.2), is relatively low counts for the fact that only 1/6 of fig- (fig. 111); this is surprising, considering ures show any attached attributes: a that adult females are usually shown spindle and wool basket (C38.1), a pet on larger monuments. In fact, the

81 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS squared width of stelai representing F1 (below: section 4.3.7) cannot be sup- females either as deceased or mourn- ported, since the mandatory female ers is consistently smaller than that of mistress is here missing. other stelai commemorating figures of Seated females in sakkos, similar to the same sex and age (fig. 112). Since C78.1, wear a lap himation either cov- the effect of the age of the deceased ering the right shoulder (C157.1: pl. 5), on stele expenditure has been re- or leaving the right (C453.3) or both moved, this result may be explained, shoulders exposed (C245.2). They are among other possible factors, by the repeatedly shown shaking hands with a fact that type F1 was used to represent standing male, and, in most stelai free adult females belonging to families where a name inscription is available, of relatively low social rank, a view they are identified as the primary de- supported by the wet-nurse and ceased. C43.1, and possibly the ‘35-59 chreste inscriptions referred to above. years’ old chreste C453.3, are figures The association of the type with low re- of wet-nurses, unless the latter was a lief depth, metopic stele type (espe- non-servile housemaid; the former is cially with seated F1 females) and a shown alone, the latter shaking hands simple, relief or painted pediment with a standing man, probably her hus- crown without free-standing akroteria, band, like C192.1. But C78.1, shown reinforces this view. with a background F11 type slave, is, The singleton figure classified to F2, on account of stele dimensions, an C78.1, wears a himation similar to that Athenian woman of higher status; the of F1b, but is differentiated from most ‘20-24 years’ old C157.1, wearing ear- F1 females by a sakkos, covering the rings, double tunic and sandals apart entire hair which is apparently tied from sakkos and lap himation, and back; the stele is very weather-worn, so holding a mirror that connotes adorn- that it is not possible to determine if ment, is also unlikely to represent a the tunic is short-sleeved or sleeveless, wet-nurse. With the exception of C1132 but it appears to be single and ungirt. (pl. 32) and C78, stelai showing a wo- Seven further cases have been as- man in sakkos and himation should, on signed to type F2, but only two display the basis of their squared width, have the distinctive sakkos; since the re- been less costly than other stelai com- maining share very few common attrib- memorating figures of corresponding utes with C78.1, it is preferable to dis- sex and age; this is confirmed by the cuss here only females in sakkos and frequency of metopic or pseudo- himation, bearing in mind the strong naiskos examples, having a plain semi- association of the sakkos with female circular or triangular crown. In sum, fe- servants lacking a mantle. males in sakkos and himation are con- The two standing examples, C825.1 nected by stele cost with similarly low and C1132.1 (pl. 32) show young wo- social rank as F1 women with un- men, ‘15-17’ and ‘18-19’ years old re- covered head and a himation covering spectively. On account of the name in- the right shoulder. scriptions, both stelai commemorate Athenians. The former figure is repres- 7.3.2 Types F3 and F4: females ented alone, like other adolescent girls with forearm himation, covered holding a bird, and must thus be the right shoulder, and narrow head- deceased. The latter, accompanying band or overfold two men shaking hands, is no doubt Costume type F3 consists of five fe- the Timariste of the name inscription, males classified by average linkage probably the wife of one of the men cluster analysis, and seven further fig- (since she has different patronymic and ures assigned according to mean simil- demotic names); the view that she arity. It is defined by a combination of a might represent a female servant, by narrow headband, a girdled tunic and a analogy with F11a figures in sakkos

82 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI himation covering the right shoulder, pl. 21). Two equally common subtypes forming a right arm sling, but leaving may be distinguished. In F4a, the left both hands exposed (fig. 103); the hi- forearm is wrapped in the himation, re- mation is usually wrapped around the sembling type F3, and normally leaving left forearm, and, with the exception of the left hand exposed. In F4b, the left a barefoot figure (C306.1), apparently forearm and hand are both covered by suggesting indoor setting, the footgear the falling himation (C1083.2, fig. 103); consists always of slippers. Various C925.1, discussed in connection with hairstyles, including an encircling plait, F2 because of her sakkos, belongs to hair drawn back or forming a bun over F4b. Females of both subtypes display the back of the neck (C692.1), melon often an encircling plait, but also short hairstyle, and often short hair, occur hair, hair in a bun, or drawn back; the with F3 females; a female with a falling tunic is often double, showing the hair plait and shoulder himation buttoned pseudo-sleeves of the inner (C1097.1), although assigned here, is garment. better considered with other figures of The age of F4 females is on average type F7, displaying these traits. Apart younger than that of F3, including two from the seated, short-haired C50.1, ‘15-17 years’ old, one of them holding displaying earrings and a lap himation a small bird and a ‘18-19 years’ old (subtype F3a), figures of this type are (fig. 110). The connection of the hi- standing, wearing a forearm, or occa- mation overfold with F4 is not surpris- sionally, armpit himation (subtype 3b; ing, considering that it represents the C290.1: pl. 9). overturned, extra fabric of a full-size hi- Type F3 consists of young adult fig- mation, worn by figures that are not ures; the seated C50.1 is ‘18-19 years’ yet fully adult. The stele cost associ- old, while three standing, forearm hi- ated with F4 females is considerably mation examples are ‘20-24 years’ old. smaller than that of F3 (fig. 111); half They are represented on stelai of relat- of the stelai representing a type F4 fe- ively high cost, as shown by their male are metopic, the remaining half squared stele width (fig. 111). In fact, a being frameless, pseudo-naiskos or F3 female may be represented either naiskos stelai rather than full naiskoi. on small stelai, often with a relief pedi- Although adolescent females are asso- ment without fully-sculptured akroteria, ciated with smaller stele dimensions or, more often, a larger, high relief than adults, age alone cannot account naiskos stele or even full naiskos (e.g., for this difference in stele expenditure; C306); this differentiation in two groups unlike those connected with F3, stelai is related to the mourner or deceased representing F4 females tend to be of status of the figure. Due to the latter more or less similar cost to other stelai category, even after taking into ac- commemorating figures of the same count the sex and broad or apparent sex and age (fig. 112). It appears, age of the deceased, F3 females are on therefore, that stelai representing F4 average associated with stele expendit- females belonged to families of lower ure suggesting high family rank (fig. social rank than those showing F3 wo- 112). men. The four females classified to type Compared to other adult figures, F3 F4 by average linkage were joined by and F4 females do not show a hand- subsequent assignment with ten less shake often, and, with the exception of well-preserved figures. Like F3, they C901.2, lack entirely the gesture of lift- show a girdled tunic and mostly a fore- ing the himation at the shoulder, al- arm or, occasionally, armpit himation though in the majority of cases they covering the right shoulder and forming face right, especially F4. Instead, they a right arm sling; but they may lack the exhibit in most cases visual contact or narrow headband, and, more notably, a speaking gesture towards a seated they show a himation overfold (C901.2: figure, or raise the hand to the cheek;

83 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS these traits often characterise mourn- only certain category of servants to be ers. Despite their adult age, F3 figures commemorated by sculptured stelai. hold attached attributes as often as the Deceased females identified as wet- younger F4: frequently a pyxis (C290.1: nurses are shown seated, wearing a hi- pl. 9), a necklace (C90.2) or a baby in mation, without any iconographic refer- swaddling clothes (C274.1: pl. 7). In all ences to their occupation; stelai show- these examples, the attached attribute ing standing females holding a baby is presented by the subsidiary F3-F4 fe- lack a discriminating name inscription, male to a seated woman, the main fig- so that the identity of the deceased is ure of the composition, whose identity unknown. Although it is tempting to is mainly responsible for the high stele identify the standing C274.1 (pl. 7) as cost (below: section 4.3.6). the Phoenician deceased, the composi- Name inscriptions identify several F3 tional evidence for the identification of and F4 females as the deceased. The standing wet-nurses as mourners is former consist of the atypical seated overwhelming: they always accompany C50.1, represented alone, and the oth- a seated female, they are often in the er is C692.1, whose clenched fist sug- background (e.g., C306.2 and C406.2), gests that she may have held an ob- C281.3 displays a speaking gesture to- ject, possibly a mirror; this, with its wards the seated woman, and C277.1 strong connotation of adornment, holds out the baby towards her. With would identify the F3 woman rather the exception of a few figures without a than the accompanying standing male mantle (e.g., C275.1), standing females as the primary deceased. The latter ap- holding a baby, some of which are only parently include subtype F4b cases fragmentary and thus unassigned, (with the left arm and hand covered by could be connected with costume types the himation) often shown alone, in F3-F4 on account of the himation cov- handshake or merely in the company of ering the right shoulder, forming, as a a male rather than female figure (e.g., rule, a right arm sling, and sometimes C668.2, C1083.2). All these cases no covering the left forearm (e.g., C276- doubt represent free women, although, 278). Since these figures belong to in the absence of demotic or ethnic large, high relief monuments, and, ex- names from the preserved inscriptions, cluding very fragmentary cases, lack it is not possible to determine their the mantle overfold, they may be as- Athenian or other origin. It is notable signed to type F3 of young women, that deceased F3 and F4 females are rather than F4 which includes also fe- connected with smaller, unassuming males in their late adolescence. stelai, compared to mourners of the The pyxis, on the other hand, is a same costume types. This points out trait associated with F11 slaves, of the that their personal status is signific- same compositional role as F3 and F4 antly lower than that of the seated fe- females. On this account, figures in hi- male, whom they often accompany. mation holding a pyxis (e.g., C70.1), However, the iconographic evidence many of which display the covered presented above indicates clearly that right shoulder and arm sling typical of most F3 and F4a females (himation F3 and F4, have in the past been identi- wrapped around the left forearm) rep- fied as slaves (Dohrn 1957: 69, but cf. resent young female mourners, rather 89; Stupperich 1977: 106). However, than the deceased. On account of their the very distinctive costume of F11a subsidiary role in the composition, makes it unlikely for a parallel type, those holding a baby obviously cannot such as F3-F4, to be used to represent be the mothers themselves; they may indiscriminately both free Athenian or therefore represent wet-nurses. The metic women, and female slaves in a stark differentiation of their costume subsidiary position. Unlike F11a fe- from that of other servants is related to males holding a pyxis, servants in hi- their higher status, since they are the mation never show racial physiognomic

84 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI characterisation traits, or height differ- leaving the right shoulder exposed, ex- entiation that could be explained by cluding females with wrapped left fore- servile status (above: section 2.3.2). arm and hand (type F6) or with These facts support Dohrn’s conviction shoulder himation covering the left that slaves were always shown on forearm and, often, hand (type F7). stelai without a himation (1957: 89, Although the majority of F5 females 167). are adult, this is the only himation type Despite its frequency with F11a used regularly to represent non-adult slaves, the pyxis was therefore just a females of all ages (fig. 110). This trinket box, occasionally held by partly explains the predominance of Athenian women themselves (e.g., C74, the left orientation (45/65), shown also C76, C306), rather than a definite by non-adult females of other types. servile status symbol. But of standing But adult F5 females are also often females in himation holding a pyxis, shown facing left, and, unlike F1, they only the veiled C1131.2 has a name in- only rarely display the gesture of lifting scription identifying her as a sub- the himation at the shoulder. Despite sequently deceased member of the their mixed age, they are shown in family (the lettering is smaller than handshake proportionally more often that of the primary deceased C1131.3, than the predominantly adult F1 but all names lack a patronymic and (37/63); this is due to the fact that type demotic). The rarity of standing named F5 represents one of the main figures females with himation and pyxis, and in the composition, shown on the fore- the analogy of wet-nurses of the same ground plane (20/22). However, accord- costume types, holding a baby, suggest ing to the name inscriptions, type F5 in that they are more likely to represent not significantly connected with the poor free women working as house- primary deceased. The relatively high maids, than relatives. Their own death proportion of attached attributes (0.33 would not be commemorated on the per figure) is not only due to non-adult same monument as those of their em- cases, accounting for the frequency of ployers but on separate stelai, possibly a small bird or pet-dog, but also to the those designating the deceased seated secondary status of a few standing F5 woman as chreste, but not as a wet- women, occasionally holding a pyxis nurse (above: section 2.3.2). (C317.1) or raising the hand to the cheek (C1099.2). 7.3.3 Type F5: veilless females in Stelai representing F5 figures display himation with exposed right on average similar squared width, and shoulder and arm thus cost, to those representing F1 fe- Type F5 consists of 59 figures classi- males (fig. 111); almost half are metop- fied by average linkage cluster analys- ic (29/66), sculptured in low relief, of- is, and 17 less well-preserved figures, ten displaying a semicircular crown assigned at a later stage. Figures be- with a painted anthemion. A major longing to F5 lack a head cover, and factor for the low stele cost associated wear a short-sleeved tunic without sup- with F5, however, is that several are porting bands, a himation mostly leav- primary deceased non-adults, that ing the right shoulder and arm and the would be expected to be accorded left hand exposed, and often sandals lower stele expenditure. The rank in- (e.g., C216.2: pl. 6). Although the left dex, with the sex and age of the de- forearm is occasionally wrapped in the ceased removed from the squared stele himation, the body and limbs of the fig- width measurements, suggests that, ure are consistently more exposed than unlike the low rank F1, this type is as- those of types discussed so far; in fact, sociated with more or less average type F5 consists of the less “modest” non-age related rank (fig. 112). costume combinations of a himation The partition of type F5 at the 0.8 linkage level provides six subtypes (fig.

85 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

104), divided into two groups with dif- are classified to subtypes F5d-F5f. F5d ferent social associations. The first figures wear a forearm himation, three (F5a-F5c) include mostly seated spread over the left forearm and some- adult females in profile, showing the times also the hand (C1111.3: fig. 104); gesture of lifting the himation at the the relief depth is usually low, and the shoulder, albeit less often than their F1 commonly frameless or pseudo-naiskos counterparts with a covered right stele is of unassuming dimensions. shoulder. Subtype F5a consists of three C887.1, of subtype F5e (fig. 104) has seated women with an encircling hair the hair caught back in a krobylos, the plait, a sleeveless tunic, lap himation himation partly covering the right leaving the arms and hands exposed, shoulder, and belongs to a large frame- and slippers. The tunic of the ‘20-24 less stele, but is otherwise very similar years’ old C40.1, representing the de- to F5d females. Finally, F5f consists of ceased, displays a short overfall over a short-haired females wearing a forearm girdle forming a pouch (pl. 1); the other or armpit himation with overfold two F5a figures, showing a simple (C115.2: pl. 4). girdled tunic, are mourners. Subtype On account of these costume traits, F5b is defined by the combination of F5d-F5f figures are formally similar to hair in a bun, a narrow headband, a lap F4 females with covered right shoulder, himation and slippers; it occurs on right arm sling and overfold; F5d fig- small, low-relief frameless or metopic ures, in particular, correspond to F4b stelai, mostly with a semicircular an- females with covered left forearm and themion crown, identified with adult hand. Their age varies from older chil- women, from the young C1089.1 to the dren to several adult women such as ‘35-59 years’ old C434.2. the ‘20-24 years’ old C1131.1; the non- F5c is the most common subtype, adult figures often wear a single tunic, occurring in about 1/2 of type F5 cases. supported by shoulder bands (e.g., It consists of females with an encircling C893.1). However, unlike F4 women, plait or short hair, a short-sleeved, of- F5d-F5f females do not hold a pyxis or ten double tunic, and a lap or some- a baby that would point to a secondary times armpit himation, often forming a status. Those non-adult are often left arm sling; the majority wear san- shown alone, thus identified as the dals. These figures are also strongly as- primary deceased; their attached at- sociated with left orientation; in fact, all tributes are those of childhood and ad- seated F5c females are set on the right olescence, such as a small bird of the composition, facing left. In ac- (C115.2: pl. 4, traces under the left cordance with the general association hand), or a larger bird and a chous (’7 of sandals with higher stele expendit- years’ old C811.1). Adult F5d-F5f fe- ure (above: section 3.2.19), F5c figures males, on the other hand, are always are often shown on naiskos or metopic one of the main figures in the composi- stelai, sculptured in high relief, more tion, shown as a rule in handshake with costly than those showing F5b figures. a standing man or seated figure, and The age of F5a-F5c females is related frequently identified as one of the de- to their stance: seated figures are al- ceased. ways adult, ranging from ‘20-24 years’ (C239.2) to ‘35-59 years’ of age 7.3.4 Type F6: veilless females in (C73.2), while the few standing figures lap himation, wrapped around the vary from ‘9 years’ of age (C697.1) to left arm and hand, and sandals young adulthood (C805.1), with several adolescent examples. The seven females classified to F6, and 10 females subsequently assigned Most veilless standing females with a to the type display a combination of an himation leaving the right shoulder and encircling hair plait, a girdled tunic, and arm exposed, with the exception of a himation usually falling on the lap those in shoulder himation (type F7),

86 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI and leaving the right shoulder exposed; plane differentiation, they are shown in their distinctive trait, however, is that the foreground, and in 12/16 cases the left forearm and hand is wrapped they show a handshake; the frequency within the part of the himation falling of the profile position is related to their over the left shoulder. Examples of the seated stance. Although gestures are two subtypes distinguished by average predictably rare, the fact that only the linkage cluster analysis are presented generic lifting of the himation occurs, in fig. 104. Subtype F6a is the most rather than the “speaking” gesture or common of the two, consisting mostly the hand to the cheek connected with of seated females, with the wrapped survivors, is worth noting. The name in- left forearm leaning on the lap, and scriptions of the two standing F6 wo- characterised by sandals; when the fig- men suggest that they were the secure lifts the himation at the right ondary, rather than primary deceased, shoulder, the left hand is hidden under but seated F6 women, may rather be the flexed right elbow (C69.2: pl. 2), the primary deceased, considering the but in other cases the left hand is associations of the seated stance with clearly covered by the part of the hi- females. If Lysistrate was the original mation wrapped around the left fore- inscription of C454, on account of its arm. wider spacing than the cramped lateral Among the less well-preserved fe- names, then it is more plausible to males assigned to F6, there are two identify the seated F6 woman as the standing exceptions (C123.2, C714.3), primary deceased than the background wearing an armpit himation wrapping female raising the right arm to the the left arm, which is extended down- cheek, who is now connected with the wards, and whose footgear is unidenti- name. fied. The second subtype, F6b, also Type F6 females belong to equal consists just of two atypical pieces: numbers of metopic and naiskos stelai, C327.1 displays hair in a bun, and occupying a continuous range of stele probably slippers; the wrapped left arm dimensions, mostly representing two- and hand appears here to be a manner- or three- figured compositions. The ism, applied to the background male squared stele width distribution sug- C327.2, and almost to the foreground gests that their cost was similar to that veiled female C327.3 as well. C339.4 of stelai representing other veilless wears a sakkos, possibly some other seated females, e.g., of types F1 and hair attachment, slippers, and a hi- F5 (fig. 111); however, after taking into mation forming a left arm sling, with account the effect of the sex and age of the left hand is covered under the the deceased, known from epigraphic bunched himation brought around the evidence, on stele expenditure, it ap- right side of the body to the lap. pears than F6 females are connected All F6 figures are adult, and associ- with slightly smaller social rank than ated with mature age (fig. 110). This average (fig. 112). Assuming, when ex- connection is based on only six figures ternal evidence is missing, that adult used in apparent age ranking: two F6 females are the deceased, produces young adults, one ‘25-34 years’ old a similar result; although there are sev- (C454.3), and three ‘35-59 years’ old eral naiskos stelai of relatively high women (e.g., C348.2); F6 figures, how- cost, such as C69, small metopic stelai ever, lack any attached attributes, a with F6 females (e.g., 327.1: fig. 104), fact reinforcing their association with have on average lower squared width maturity. than those representing other female costume types. Besides, in all cases where positive evidence exists, F6 females represent one of the deceased figures; their compositional importance is shown by the fact that, in all 5 cases where there is

87 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS 7.3.5 Type F7: females with falling long. The combination of the shoulder hair plait, and shoulder himation, himation with a shorter krobylos, sug- covering the left arm and hand gested by Schmaltz as an alternative to the falling plait (1979: 24), is not, to Six originally classified and nine sub- my knowledge, attested on Classical sequently assigned figures belong to Attic stelai. type F7, characterised by a shoulder himation, leaving the right shoulder and In 1/3 of the cases, the himation is arm exposed but covering the left arm drawn diagonally over the left shoulder, and often the hand, a normally single forming an often visible bunch behind tunic with short buttoned pseudo- the back of the figure (C755.1: pl. 17); sleeves, and hair tied by a narrow however, only in C124.2 is the left arm headband, in more than 1/2 of the of the figure exposed, since it is mostly cases falling back in a plait; with the covered by the other side of the gar- exception of C322.3 (pl. 11) they wear ment. More frequently, the himation is slippers. Considering the overall rarity spread over the left shoulder and flexed of either trait, the falling plait hairstyle left arm, so that it often covers the left is in this type strongly associated with hand as well; a rare alternative is that the shoulder himation arrangement; of the akimbo left arm, having the hand the combination also occurs in a few covered by the himation (C480.2). Most similar figures not assigned to this figures with a spread-out shoulder hi- type, either because of lack of evidence mation face left, and display a falling or because of other costume associ- hair plait. ations (e.g., C821.1 of F1b, pl. 19, on On account of its formal distinctness, account of the covered right shoulder, this type has been extensively com- right arm sling and left shoulder mented upon in the past from a stylist- bunch); overall, an important part of fe- ic viewpoint. The free falling hair of males in shoulder himation show also C1178.1, lacking a mantle, has been the falling plait, and vice versa (fig. associated with the Eleusinian relief 105). (Diepolder 1931: 9); the falling plait The hairstyle and the presence of has been used to date C888.2 in mid- supporting shoulder bands separate fourth century BC (Dohrn 1957: 180); a most F7 females from C1084.2 (sub- few specific stelai displaying a shoulder type F7b, fig. 104), who has the hair himation spread over the left arm and drawn tightly to an invisible knot at the hand were repeatedly presented as a top of the head. The front part of their stylistic group (Diepolder 1931: 43; hair is mostly tied with a narrow head- Dohrn 1957: 180) although the mantle band, and the back part consists usu- arrangement has been recognised ally of a woven plait, falling to the back throughout the Classical period, includ- or on the shoulder (e.g., C880.2). Vari- ing the fifth century BC (Diepolder ations include the combination of a 1931: 13; Stupperich 1977: 106, 111; thick plait tied around the head with a Schmaltz 1979: 24-26). thin plait falling back, almost to waist- Type F7, however, has distinct social height (C755.1: pl. 17); a shorter, associations, which indicate that it can- broad, carefully woven plait falling back not be a simple artifice of style. Since it from the entire head width, similar to almost monopolises its constituent the central braid of the Caryatids traits, especially the falling plait and (C856.1; cf. Bieber 1928: 87, pl. LXI, 1); shoulder himation, the type naturally free long hair, falling in locks to the reflects their associations with late back (C67.1; cf. C863.1); and, a simple childhood and adolescence; in parallel encircling plait or hair in a bun, suppor- with the stylistic arguments, F7 has in ted by a narrow headband (C322.3: pl. fact been recognised in the past as a 11). Regardless of the actual arrange- “Typus des Mädchens” (Dohrn 1957: ment, the hair of F7 and similar fe- 180; Schmaltz 1979: 24). The connec- males in shoulder himation is naturally tion with non-adulthood is indicated by

88 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI the occurrence of a small bird (e.g., interquartile range, suggest that they C888.2) or, frequently, a doll (C814.1, are not entirely restricted to the better- C817.1, C880.2), and the absence of off families, a fact confirmed by the oc- the seated stance and of gestures con- currence of a chreste and metronymic nected with adulthood, such as lifting name inscription (C856). the himation at the shoulder. The hand- The significantly smaller relative size shake, occurring with C322.3 (pl. 11), is of F7 children is related to their tend- also relatively rare, compared to simple ency to represent compositionally sec- visual contact, or to isolation in an one- ondary figures, sometimes shown ges- figured composition. turing with raised arms towards an F7 appears to be more important adult figure (C1061a.2). The icono- between ‘8-10’ and ‘15-19 years’ of graphy of F7 figures between ‘10-15 age (fig. 110), a fact that led Stup- years’ of age indicates that they also perich to treat the two groups of figures do not represent the primary deceased: separately, suggesting that the former C67.1 is in the background and holds a was connected with a late fifth century pyxis, C480.2 is behind the central BC workshop at Piraeus (1977: 111, seated woman, in a position often oc- 107); an early chronological association cupied by servants. Epigraphic evid- or local idiom would explain the difference, where available (C340; C696; ences in relative height and icono- C755: pl. 17), confirms the connection graphy, and cannot therefore be ex- of younger F7 girls with representations cluded. But, the two age ranges are not of mourners. Those between ‘15-19 consistently differentiated in hairstyle, years’, on the other hand, are often mantle arrangement, left arm and hand shown on their own, accompanied by a exposure or any other costume traits, small child, or in handshake. In the first although the relative height of younger two cases, including younger figures figures is around 0.6, significantly such as the ‘11-12 years’ old C814.1, smaller than expected for their appar- they doubtless represent the primary ent age of ‘8-10 years’; moreover, they deceased. When shown in handshake, are bridged by C755.1 (pl. 17) and they may, on epigraphic grounds, be C1021.2, two figures of intermediate either the primary (C1097.1) or second- age and relative size that could be as- ary deceased (C1110.3). Besides, ad- signed to F7, despite the fact that they olescent F7 females rarely accompany were not included to it by automatic seated figures; the composition of C322 identification. The small frequency of (pl. 11), where the F7 female is gazed the ‘10-14 years’ old F7 girls may be at by both remaining figures, suggests due to the small size of the sample not that she may have been the primary reflecting a real dichotomy in the age dead as well. In sum, in contrast to associations of the type, but evidence younger F7 girls, who often represent on this matter is inconclusive. mourners, older adolescent F7 females Type F7 occurs with stelai of varying are often identified as the primary de- cost, ranging from a large true naiskos ceased. (C1084) to modest frameless stelai (C1020, C856). The mean squared 7.3.6 Types F8, F9 and F10: fe- width of stelai representing F7 figures males wearing a tunic, and lap or suggests that the type is related with armpit himation forming a veil higher than average stele cost (fig. Forty eight females were classified 111); this result is maintained after the by average linkage to type F8. Together effect of the sex and age of the de- with 22 subsequently assigned figures, ceased is removed, pointing to a con- they represent the major type of veiled nection with high rank, unrelated with females; the short sleeves of the tunic the broad age of the figure (fig. 112). differentiate them from type F9, and However, the variability in the rank in- exposed left hand from F10. They are dex of these figures, shown by its wide

89 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS more often than expected seated, thus ently ungirt tunic with loose buttoned wearing a lap himation. It is notable, pseudo-sleeves, displaying a low neck however, that they very often display and clinging tightly on the breasts, and hair parted in the middle and drawn sandals (C68.2, C310.1: pl. 10, C74.1, back, a double tunic, and sandals; the C103.2); in C289.1 (pl. 8), the multiple simple encircling plait, despite being headband is replaced by a fine, woven the most common female hairstyle, is plait of hair. This F8 variant occurs in represented only in 1/10 of F8. Stand- most cases in all-female compositions, ing veiled females usually wear a hi- set in the gynaikonitis. Except for mation drawn under the left armpit, a C429.2, the tunic of females shown in fact complemented by the absence of the company of males is heavier, often the shoulder and rarity of forearm hi- consisting of a sleeveless, heavy mation arrangements. girdled tunic with long overfall over a Eight F8 subtypes are defined at the finer short-sleeved undergarment; the 0.8 linkage level (fig. 106). Except for fastening brooches at the shoulders are F8e, occurring in almost 1/4 of cases hidden under a double thickness of the and including many seated (lap hi- garment, indicating the existence of a mation) and some standing (armpit hi- long, overgirt overfall. mation) females, the himation is al- F8 veiled females are always adult, ways shown covering the right shoulder ranging from the ‘18-19 years’ old of the figure. F8a-F8c consist entirely of C755.2 (pl. 17) to the ‘35-59 years’ old seated females, having the hair parted C337.2 (pl. 12), with approximately 2/5 in the middle and drawn back, possibly of young and middle-aged women be- to an invisible bun; F8b is characterised longing to this type (fig. 110); this re- by exposed left forearm (C310.1: pl. flects the generic association of the veil 10), F8c shows consistently a combina- with adulthood, excluding old women tion of double tunic (C337.2: pl. 12) or (above: section 3.2.3). Apart from the one supported by shoulder bands predominance of the seated stance, (C410.2: pl. 15), a himation forming a more than 1/2 of cases exhibit a hand- left arm sling, and sandals, while the shake or lift the himation at the singleton F8a (C39.1) resembles both shoulder, both gestures connected with these subtypes. F5d consists of mostly adulthood. The relative frequency of standing figures in single tunic, typic- tactile contact within F8 is due either to ally armpit himation covering the right an accompanying child (C284, C895, shoulder, sometimes forming a right C289: pl. 8), or to an embrace between arm sling, and slippers (C755.2: pl. 17). adult females, familiar from the Subtypes F8e-F8h show seated or “farewell stele” (C320, C150); the lat- standing figures, often with a mass of ter, occurring with standing F8 females, hair tied high over the forehead (C79.1: is really an extension of the amplified pl. 3), a simple plait around the head, handshake, common with seated F8 or short hair; the two figures of F8f women (C398.1, C411.1, C337.2: pl. (C411.1; C901.3: pl. 21) display, in ad- 12). dition, earrings. Attached attributes are predictably As indicated by their short “moat” in rare (0.14 per figure), and are connec- the dendrogram, subtypes within F8 ted with female adornment: a pyxis, are not taxonomically separated in a occurring as often with seated as with clear-cut way; apart from the attribute standing F8 females (C75.1, C80.1), a combination defining F8, some less chest (C74.1), a mirror (C310.1: pl. 10) common costume traits run across sub- or a jewel (C68.2). The stark facial types: the multiple headband, consist- frontality of some seated (C79.1: pl. 3, ing of two or more encircling turns of a C109.2) or standing (C755.2: pl. 17) F8 narrow headband from behind the ears females is also related to the theme of to the top of the head, is often linked adornment. The association with the with earrings, a very fine, single, appar- foreground plane (31/40 cases), setting

90 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI on the left of the composition and right dals, F8e women in a himation leaving orientation (39/64), and seated stance, the right shoulder exposed and F8f-F8h in combination with the iconography of females with a forehead plait or “mel- adornment, suggest that this type is on” hairstyle are often shown on large, used to represent the deceased. In fact, multi-figured naiskoi, unlike F8d stand- seated F8 females are always identified ing and F8a-F8b seated females, often by a name inscription as one of the de- wearing a single tunic or slippers. ceased. The stele commemorates F8 Moreover, the former consist often of figures, always when they are shown mature adult females, ‘35-59 years’ alone, or with standing females or chil- old, while the latter represent in most dren frequently shown in the back- cases young adult women, ‘18-24 ground (e.g., C79: pl. 3, C297, C284), years’ old. Subtypes F8c and F8f-h, and often when they are shown in showing mostly a double tunic, sandals handshake with a foreground or back- and a lap himation covering the right ground standing male (C242, C411); shoulder, are still connected with high- according to name inscriptions, only er stele expenditure, and thus social C241.1 is the secondary, rather than rank, than equivalent veilless costume primary deceased, since her name, set types; it is important to note that the underneath the rosettes unlike that of eight name inscriptions preserving in- the accompanying male, appears to formation about provenience identify have been an afterthought. This is an these females as Athenian. Other F8 important association of this type, in subtypes, on the other hand, are shown relation to F1 and F5 veilless seated fe- on stelai of similar squared width to males. On the other hand, standing those of F1-F5 veilless females; the two veiled females, mostly belonging to name inscriptions of F8a-F8b females subtype F8d, may represent either the available identify them as metics, a deceased (C1087.1; C894.1) or, espe- possible explanation for the smaller cially when shown in the background, size of these stelai. On this account, it mourners (C755.2: pl. 17; C409.2). appears that the veil does not have Stelai representing F8 females are high social rank connotations of its typically larger than those showing oth- own, unrelated to tunic form and foot- er costume types; this is shown not gear. only by a comparison of squared stele Type F9 is distinguished from F10 by widths (fig. 111), but also by the fre- the presence of a single, sleeveless tu- quency of naiskoi and naiskos stelai, nic (C115.1: pl. 4); excluding several full pediment crowns, and multi- misclassifications, nine figures without figured, high relief representations. The tunic sleeves belong to the type, cor- high stele expenditure is not due just to responding to the seated veilless ex- the fact that stelai showing the type amples of subtype F5a. The exposed commemorate as a rule adult females, right shoulder and frequent left orienta- the sex/age combination accorded on tion may be due to the ease in record- average the highest stele expenditure: ing the absence of sleeves in these such monuments are also considerably cases; the association of the two traits larger than those lacking the F8 figure, may, therefore, be spurious. F9 females after the effect of the sex and broad are adult, shown mostly in profile, in age of the deceased is removed (fig. the foreground plane, shaking hands; 112). Thus, veiled F8 women may be C71.2 reaches out to a pyxis, held by associated with higher family rank than the accompanying standing female. their F1 and F5 veilless equivalent. There is no epigraphic evidence on Subtypes within F8 are, however, as- their deceased or mourner identity, sociated with different levels of stele but, considering their iconographic sim- expenditure, connected with differ- ilarities with F8, they may also repres- ences in apparent age. F8c females in ent often the primary deceased; C115.1 double tunic, left arm sling and san- (pl. 4), however, may be the mother of

91 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS the standing deceased, since her name However, despite their dissimilarity to is mentioned in the epigram. If it is in- other figures, F11 females are very di- tended for the non-adult C115.2, this is verse, both in actual costume (fig. 107) a larger-than-average monument; in and in iconographic and social associ- other cases, the type is connected with ations; several costume traits connec- small, low relief metopic stelai, with re- ted with F11, such as long sleeves, lief pediment crown. The small number sakkos, a girdleless tunic, shoulder of these figures, combined with the fact bands, medium hair or stephane, char- that, apart from the tunic sleeves, they acterise in fact only specific partitions share all other F8 costume traits, sug- of the type. The two distinct formations gests that they are better seen as a of F11 females observed in the three- variation of F8 than as a separate type. dimensional principal co-ordinate rep- The singleton C274.2 (pl. 7), display- resentation (fig. 98; above: section 4.2) ing a veil, and lap himation covering are differentiated by the presence or the right shoulder and wrapped around absence of long sleeves, and, on ac- the left arm and hand, was classified as count of their different form and func- type F10, and joined by 11 less-well tion, will be examined separately in the preserved, seated and standing figures; following pages. the wrapped left arm and hand, the Subtype F11a consists of about 1/3 only distinctive traits of this type in re- of F11 figures (e.g., C79.12: pl. 3). They lation to F8, occur in 6 and 2 cases re- display exceptionally a krobylos spectively. These figures are the veiled (C71.1), sometimes plain short hair counterparts of type F6; unlike those, without any head ornament (e.g., however, there is little to separate F10 C419.4), or, four times as often, a females from the much more frequent sakkos enclosing long hair; alternative F8, except for the fact that they are of- hairstyles underneath the sakkos, indic- ten set on the right of the composition, ated by the shape of the head, are hair facing left. The few figures with in a bun (C284.1), and volumeless, ap- wrapped left arm included to F10 are parently short or medium hair with the young (C97.2), often lifting the hi- front of the sakkos turned over mation at the shoulder, and represen- (C901.1: pl. 21). Their long-sleeved tu- ted on high relief, costly naiskos stelai, nic is of heavy material, probably wool. and on a fragmentary naiskos (C574.1). Two main variants exist, apparent in Their age and stele cost associations the dendrogram of fig. 107. Firstly, a link them correctly with F8, and not single tunic without overfall, occasion- with F6, with which they share the ally supported by shoulder bands wrapped left arm; their small number, (C79.2: pl. 3); the single tunic is ungirt however, does not allow any further (C901.1: pl. 21) or, more often, girdled comments on their interpretation. (C875.1). Very frequently, the position of the arms in front of the waist of the 7.3.7 Types F11, F12 and F13: fig- figure does not allow the identification ures wearing a single tunic, slippers of a girdle; the tightness of the woollen and a bunched himation or no tunic, rather than a girdle, may be the reason why the garment follows the mantle contours of the hips (C300.3). The The 34 figures classified by average short-haired C819.1, the only F11a fe- linkage cluster analysis to type F11, male on a one-figured stele (therefore and the 51 less well-preserved figures the primary deceased), wears a long- subsequently assigned to the type, are sleeved coat over the single, ungirt tu- sharply distinguished from types dis- nic; this has been identified as the Per- cussed so far, because they lack a hi- sian kandys, that was supposedly intro- mation; more than 9/10 of F11 females duced to Classical Athens as a product wear slippers, and approximately 4/5 of fashion (Barker 1922: 414; Bieber wear a single, rather than double tunic. 1928: 20, 46), but it is here a probable

92 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI sign of the girl’s origin. Secondly, a suggested that this contained tomb of- double tunic is worn, albeit different ferings, such as funerary ribbons often than that of females in himation, men- carried to the tomb in larger baskets on tioned in connection with F1-F10: it is white lekythoi (Thimme 1964: 19-20); either a short, long-sleeved chitonion on stelai, however, it appears to be worn over a long tunic (C410.1: pl. 15), similar to the trinket box occurring in a similar short tunic worn under a long gynaikonitis scenes in contemporary tunic (C71.1), or a sleeveless short gar- vase-painting. C901.1 (pl. 21) is shown ment, with brooches on the shoulders, fastening the laces of the sandals of a worn over a long, long-sleeved understanding, veiled female, and the back- garment (C79.2: pl. 3); in the first and ground C881.2 arranging the cushion last case, the second garment looks as on the chest shown behind a fore- if it were the long overfall of the tunic. ground maiden. Analogy with these two Two distinct apparent age ranges are adornment motifs favours the trinket connected with F11a: ‘8-12 years’ old box, rather than funerary offering inter- children (C875.1, C877.1) and, slightly pretation of the pyxis, and thus the less often, ‘15-17 years’ old adolescent identification of F11a females as ser- girls (C68.1); the only figure of interme- vants. diate age is C462.3. With one excep- The small relative size of several tion, F11a females are shown always in F11a figures can be interpreted either the company of another female: ‘8-12 as the result of social differentiation years’ old children are often half-size, (Dohrn 1957: 90-91), or, equally well as displaced to the edge of the represent- of differentiation between deceased ation by a standing adolescent girl, and and mourners (Thimme 1964: 23-24, n. ‘15-17 years’ old are set, often front- 44 and 45); with the exception of the ally, in the background of a composi- diminutive, short-haired C878.1, who is tion including at least a seated fore- clearly an afterthought carved out of ground female. Moreover, in stelai with the anta, the size differentiation is nev- two or more figures, a name inscription er as strong as to suggest a real ana- never identifies a F11a female as one logy with the Archaic “heroisation” re- of the deceased. Both epigraphic and liefs, as Thimme presupposes. In fact, compositional evidence therefore sug- size differentiation affects mostly the gest that this subtype is used to repres- ‘9-12 years’ old F11a females, accom- ent secondary figures of mourners. panying standing females on smaller Two alternative interpretations of the compositions, rather than the large social identity of F11a females have naiskos stelai representing adolescent been suggested. According to the first, F11a females. In addition, the facial the non-Greek origin of the long traits of F11a females of both age sleeves, the household associations of ranges, consisting typically of broad the sakkos, and the short hair are signs cheeks and thin lips, are repeatedly dif- of servility (Stupperich 1977: 108-109). ferentiated from the Attic “ideal” char- According to the second, the oriental acterising other costume types origin of the costume points to mytho- (C882.1; C410.1: pl. 15); the case for logical connections with the Eleusinian possible racial characterisation of non- religion, while the sakkos, short hair Greeks in Classical art has been argued and long sleeves are seen as signs of by Himmelmann (1971), and other modesty connected with mourning, and iconographic evidence here leaves no the long-sleeved tunic as a possible doubt that the physiognomic details of dress of free females, known to have these girls are indeed meant to denote been dedicated to the sanctuary of race. If these are figures of slaves, Artemis in Brauron (Thimme 1967: 204- holding a pyxis, then all other similarly 5). dressed F11a females are likely to be slaves too, even if they are not racially Regardless of age, most F11a figures characterised as such. are shown holding a pyxis. It has been

93 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

Except for the small stele commem- pyxis and mirror, while C280.1 and orating C819.1, a slave by analogy with C310.2 (pl. 10), wearing a sleeveless other F11a girls, the stele expenditure thick tunic that can be identified as a connected with representations of F11a peplos, fastened at the shoulders, hold figures is larger than that of other a baby. Although these adolescent girls monuments; this is shown both by the are secondary, C310.2 is named as one consistently high squared stele width of the deceased; on this evidence, and (with a mean of 0.41 squared metres), because of the peplos, these figures and the frequency of F11a females on may in fact represent younger mem- high relief naiskos stelai and multi- bers of the family, rather than ser- figured compositions. This connection vants. The ‘6 years’ old C696.3 (fig. with high stele cost becomes even 107) is also a secondary figure, gestur- more apparent if compensation is made ing with raised arms towards a seated for the age of the usually adolescent or man, who embraces her; but since the adult female deceased. It indicates that main figure is male, and because of her F11a figures, being slaves, are consid- young apparent age, C696.3 probably erably more often used as symbols of represents a free girl rather than a social position by families of high rank, slave, in analogy with the older C696.2 than by the less well-off. classified in type F7. On similar In contrast to F11a, subtypes F11b- grounds, the secondary C338.2 must F11e display a single tunic with short or also represent a free child. no sleeves. F11b, consisting of ten fig- Excluding these figures of secondary ures classified by average linkage, is compositional role, the remaining F11b- characterised by a combination of F11c and all F11d-F11e females are short, uncovered hair, short-sleeved or shown on one-figured low relief repres- sleeveless tunic, a girdle sometimes entations, with two exceptions: of forming a pouch, an overfall, and in these, C878.2 was originally the only most cases no bands; the five F11c fe- figure in the composition, since C878.1 males display a tunic with overfall and is an obvious afterthought; the ‘7 supporting bands; F11d consists of four years’ old C1100.1 (pl. 33), a mourner, figures with medium hair, stephane is very peculiar, since she is shown in a and a girdled tunic, three of which also handshake with a little boy as if they display a long overfall, which was ap- were both adult, and, in addition, lifts parently turned over and sewn at the the tunic overfall at thigh-height as if it shoulders; finally, F11e includes three were a shoulder-back mantle, a unique figures wearing a sleeveless tunic motif in the stelai examined. without overfall. All remaining F11c-F11e figures be- The majority of F11b females and a long to one-figured compositions, and F11c girl (C95.2: fig. 107), all appar- are thus the deceased. With the excep- ently adolescent, are compositionally tion of the ‘13-14 years’ old C824.1, similar to F11a servants, shown with a who has her hair collected in a seated female on relatively large, krobylos, a hairstyle connected with sometimes multi-figured stelai. On adolescence (e.g., C71.1, C887.2), all compositional and iconographic F11c-F11e figures are children, ‘3-10 grounds, some clearly represent years’ old. Regardless of exact cos- mourners: C429.3 and C320.1 are in tume, the majority hold a little bird in the background and bring the hand to the right hand (C820.1: pl. 18), and are the cheek, the former also displaying a often accompanied by a pet dog; three “speaking” gesture, and C95.2, wear- ‘6-7 years’ old girls (C815.1: fig. 107) ing a sakkos, holds the drum of the display a doll, and even younger girls seated C95.1, identified as a priestess hold repeatedly a ball (e.g., C827.1) or of Kybele. Of three short-haired figures a rattle; one of the peculiar objects on wearing a girdled tunic with a pouch the background of C814 may be an and overfall, the barefoot C74.2 holds oversized astragal bag, the other pos-

94 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI sibly a rattle. The sleeveless tunic of emphasising that the himation for F11e appears to be associated with the seated females is almost universal. slightly higher age of ‘7-10 years’, Two females, similar to F11 girls in compared to ‘3-7 years’ of F11c and, having medium hair and a short- especially, F11d; the distinctive com- sleeved tunic with a long overfall, are bination of medium hair, stephane and classified in type F13; their identifying long girdled overfall or shoulder bands trait, not found among the three frag- is, therefore, associated with young mentary figures subsequently assigned childhood. to the type, is a bunched himation, Unlike F11a servants and secondary brought from the left shoulder back, F11b-F11c adolescent females, girls around the right side of the body, and lacking a mantle and representing the over the flexed left forearm, as if it deceased are as a rule shown on small were a proper himation (fig. 108). In metopic or pseudo-naiskos stelai, with the case of C831.1, comparable to a relief or painted pediment crown. The F11d figures, it is combined with medi- average squared width of these stelai um hair and stephane, and its end is (0.16 m^2) indicates low stele ex- entirely wrapped around the left fore- penditure; this fact, however, is not re- arm (unless this lack of a falling end is lated to the family rank of these fig- just an accident of relief preparation), ures, but to the low stele expenditure while in C840.1 (pl. 20) it is combined connected with childhood in general. with a double tunic, displaying the This is not surprising, considering that crossing bands with medallion typical subtypes F11c-F11e represent the of F14. great majority of young and a consider- Both figures have been identified as able proportion of older deceased chil- deceased children, ‘7’ and ‘3-5 years’ dren. The small cost accorded to these old respectively; they are shown alone, figures corresponds to the simplicity of facing entirely frontally, the former with their single tunic and slippers; the di- a little bird and pet dog, the latter with mensions of stelai representing F11d a large bird. The metopic C831 and the girls in stephane are similar to those of small naiskos stele C840 are of average other subtypes. The low age-related size in comparison with stelai com- status of female children, as far as memorating F11 girls; type F13, there- stele expenditure was concerned, ex- fore, seems to be used very occasion- plains the similarity of their main cos- ally, for the representation of deceased tume type to that of servants. children of the same age as F11c-d fig- Type F11 is linked to two further ures. Considering the strong associ- types, both rather exceptional in their ation of proper himation with adulthood definition. Type F12, as defined in the and adolescence, it is clear from these average linkage cluster analysis by a examples that the age-related signific- combination of medium hair and nar- ance of the himation resides in its ar- row headband, a tunic with a girdle rangement, rather than its material. forming a pouch and a short overfall, Besides, it should be noted that the and no mantle, occurs only in C151.1 youngest female in a proper himation, (fig. 108). This is one of very few adult the ‘7 years’ old C811.1 of subtype females showing the simple medium F4d, also shows the forearm himation hair usually connected with childhood, arrangement, and displays similar com- rather than one of the more elaborate positional traits. hairstyles. Many less well-preserved figures were in fact wrongly assigned to 7.3.8 Type F14: females wearing a F12, since they all display a himation; double tunic with long girdled over- to correct this anomaly, these figures fall, crossing bands and a shoulder- have been incorporated, where appro- back mantle priate, into other figure types, especially F1 and F5. In this light, it is worth Six female figures are classified to

95 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

F14 by average linkage, six sub- shown with a large bird on the ground sequently assigned by mean similarity, (C851.1). Despite their standing and two further figures may be associ- stance, F14 figures are as a rule the ated with the type on the basis of its primary deceased, as is shown by distinctive costume trait, the presence name inscription or, more often, icono- of a shoulder-back mantle fastened by graphic evidence. Apart from one- brooches on the shoulders. Apart from figured compositions (4/10), they are the shoulder-back mantle, F14 figures regularly shown in the company of a wear in most cases a double tunic with small, subsidiary servant holding a pyx- long overgirt overfall, crossing bands is (e.g., C875.2), or, in C881, set in the with medallion or, alternatively, background. The displacement of the shoulder bands, and in 1/2 of cases a inscribed name from the centre of the falling hair plait (e.g., C332.3), a hair- architrave identifies C896.2 as the style shared with F7. With two excep- primary dead. Besides, C1131.3 is tions (C87.2, C136.2), apart from the identified as the primary deceased by thick, sleeveless overgarment fastened occupying the centre of a group repres- at the shoulders with large brooches, entation where a seated woman would the tunic consists of a fine, short- be normally expected, by the compar- sleeved undergarment. Except for atively wide spacing of the inscribed C1131.3, which has sewn, v-cut short name corresponding to her, and by the sleeves (as does also C1131.1, sug- leaping pet dog. On the other hand, gesting that this is a stylistic trait), all when the F14 figure is shown in hand- other F14 figures have buttoned shake with a seated woman (e.g., pseudo-sleeves. All figures examined C332.3), the identity of the primary lift the shoulder-back mantle at thigh- dead is unknown. height, with the left and sometimes The iconography of F14 females of- also the right hand, so that it forms ten connotes to adornment. Apart from sweeping decorative folds. the intrinsic ornamental value of the Variants of type F14 are presented in crossing bands and the medallion, the fig. 109. Most figures (subtype F14a) sweeping folds, the gesture of lifting are divided into those with crossing the shoulder-back mantle, and the fre- bands, fastened at the girdle and at the quent representation of a servant with shoulder brooches and displaying a pyxis, most figures are shown either large medallion at the chest (C875.2), frontal, or slightly turned to the left; the and those wearing shoulder bands left orientation may be due to the act- (C896.2) or no bands at all (C906.3); in ive right hand, since it predominates the cases examined, the former variant even within one-figured compositions. has sandals, while the latter has slip- The large chest on which the back- pers; the two variants, of which the ground C881.2 places a cushion may former is twice as common as the lat- be a reference to the girl’s dowry, and ter, seem thus to differ in degree of ad- thus to adornment and marriage. Fi- ornment. Moreover, C1131.3 is separ- nally, in C896, C906 and, possibly, ated from other F14 females by the C898 (where only heads, one with fall- very ornate combination of a “melon” ing plait, are preserved), an adult fe- hairstyle with a finely woven plait en- male in himation is shown apparently circling the head, earrings and a brace- checking the appearance of an F14 girl, let (subtype F14b). an unmistakable theme of adornment. Except for the ‘15-17 years’ old The mean squared width of stelai C881.1 and the ‘8-10 years’ old representing figures of this type is not C1131.3, all F14 females are ‘11-14 particularly large (fig. 111); only years’ old adolescents. Only two figures C881.1 is shown on a true naiskos, and display the combination of a small bird the bulk of F14 girls appears in naiskos and pet dog popular with younger chil- stelai of average size; the relative fre- dren (C832.2, C1131.3), and one is quency of an akroteria cornice crown

96 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

(C875) and of a siren finial (C875) is notable. However, the fact that these stelai in most cases commemorate non-adult figures, that are bound to be accorded smaller stele expenditure, should be considered before concluding on the rank associations of the type. If the effect of the age and sex of the deceased is removed from squared stele width, it is apparent that F14 females are shown on much larger stelai than other comparable figures, such as those in subtypes F11c-e and F13 (fig. 112). This result may indicate high family rank, or, on the grounds of the strong age association, a special social identity of high status, connected with the transition from childhood to adolescence. This question is tackled in chapter 6, where the effect of Athenian age categorisation on female and male costume is examined.

97 8. 9. Typology of male costume

9.1 Classification and type identification A classification of male costume on Classical Attic stelai was obtained by means of average linkage cluster analysis; the analysis, whose raw results are summarised in fig. 126, was based on 187 males, with more than 75% of their costume attributes preserved. They are separated into two clearly distinct groups of different size, showing a between-groups similarity index of only 0.36. Both are subdivided into two wide groups each, the larger at the 0.52 linkage level, the smaller at the slightly higher 0.57. The “moat” of these four groups exceeds 0.10, suggesting that they are both internally cohesive and externally isolated; this is not surprising, since, as is discussed further on, they consist of nude non-adults, males wearing a tunic, beardless, and bearded figures in himation respectively. Since this partition is too wide to allow the identification of specific social identities through costume, fifteen types (M1-M15), of which three were singletons, were defined at the 0.75 linkage level. The within-groups similarity indices of these types are, with the exception of M12 and, especially, M10, at least 0.1 higher than their highest respective similarity index to other types (fig. 127); this fact indicates that they exhibit the desirable properties of THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI internal cohesion and external isola- actual himation arrangement differs tion. To allow more detailed study, between the two types. In general, it is male costume types were subdivided at remarkable how few costume traits ap- the 0.85 linkage level to 41 subtypes; pear in intermediate nodes of the tree moreover, especially in specific discus- (fig. 130), although the costume types sion of non-adult male types, it has themselves display a wide-ranging been necessary also to distinguish combination of characteristic costume between variants of these subtypes. traits. This fact indicates that, apart The structure of the classification, num- from the obvious general divisions ber of figures classified into each type, based on the presence of a tunic or and representative examples are proper himation, the nature of male presented in fig. 132. As with female costume is essentially polythetic. costume, a further number of males The occurrence of between-groups were assigned to costume types after similarity values higher than 0.75, the the classification, on account of their linkage level of type definition, indic- mean similarity with classified type ates that in these cases the hierarchic- members. A refinement of type defini- al structure distorts the true relation- tion and repeated reallocation was ship between types. In fact, specific needed only in M3-M7, probably be- costume traits run across types: mostly cause of the idiosyncratic nature and medium beard and slippers between small number of figures on which these M12 and M14, medium beard and the types were originally formed. Overall, absence of a supporting staff between however, the assignment of less well- M10 and M12; both these violations of preserved figures was satisfactory, al- the hierarchy are connected with M12, lowing the use of 409 males of known the largest group in the classification. type for further analysis. Moreover, nude males (M1 and M2), The taxonomic structure of costume those in exomis (M5), and a large pro- traits that occurred more often than ex- portion of figures in forearm or pected according to an analysis of re- shoulder himation (M8) are as a rule siduals in the majority of type mem- beardless, despite their taxonomic sep- bers are presented in the dendrogram aration. Similarly, types M8 and M10 of fig. 130. The most general bisection share important himation traits, such of the population is between figures in as the forearm himation which lacks a himation and no tunic (with the excep- left shoulder bunch and covers the left tion of the singleton M9), and those in forearm; M11 and M13 males display a other costumes, without a proper hi- himation wrapped around the left fore- mation. Apart from the fact that M1 arm, and are supported by a staff. Fur- and M2 consist of beardless and bare- ther pairs of costume types, that will foot males without a supporting staff, it not be listed here to exhaustion, may should be stressed that the body of fig- be joined in the light of their specific hi- ures in both types is essentially nude. mation traits, as presented in fig. 130. Their linkage with M3-M7 males in tunic These departures from the hierarchical appears to be more the product of their structure serve to underline the com- mutual dissimilarity with the remaining plexity of male himation, rather than figures in himation, than that of real af- suggest that the typology is entirely finity. Himation figures, on the other meaningless: firstly, each type is hand, are mostly differentiated at defined by a fairly comprehensive num- broader levels of the classification ber of costume traits; secondly, the firstly by the presence of a beard, and presence of the beard, the supporting secondly by himation traits or the pres- staff and the himation arrangement, ence of a supporting staff (M14-M15). connecting types within the tree struc- M10 and M11 are joined by the fact ture are all important traits of costume that their left forearm is rarely ex- variability. posed; this is a negative trait, since the

99 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS 9.2 Geometric representation ures with folded himation, as well as of costume variability variants of M2 according to the exact arrangement of the bunched himation, In order to control the results of av- are not distinguished by the principal erage linkage cluster analysis of male co-ordinate representation. The only costume, male figures were subjected figures situated at some distance from to a principal co-ordinate analysis. Ex- the centroids of both types are C1054.3 cluding the sharp decrease after the (pl. 30, M2c), growing a beard, and es- first and second principal co-ordinate, pecially the short-bearded C927.1 (pl. the absence of further “elbows” in the 23, M1c). The latter is situated in the plot of the amount of variance ex- three-dimensional space near bearded plained by each PC (fig. 128) indicates tunicked figures: of these, only bearded that there is no natural division males with a cuirass or a bunched hi- between clearly important and clearly mation (M7) are taxonomically distinct, unimportant principal co-ordinates. while those in M3, M4 and M6 are not However, the first PC accounts for more clearly separated; considering the than one third, and the first three co- small number of these figures, no con- ordinates represent together more than clusions can be drawn about their over- half of the total variation; the remain- lap. ing co-ordinates, especially after the Secondly, two formations of himation sixth PC, contribute gradually less to males can be distinguished on the the costume variability, falling below basis of the first two principal co-ordin- 1% after the eighteenth PC. In this ates (fig. 129). The smaller, with negat- light, it is possible to represent the ma- ive 2nd PC scores, and small positive jor aspects of costume variability, and 1st PC scores, consists of M8 beardless examine the distinctness of types de- males in himation; the medium-haired rived by average linkage, on the basis boys in forearm or shoulder himation of only the first few co-ordinates. (M8a) form a tight group with strongly A three-dimensional representation negative 2nd PC scores, while short- of figures according to the first three haired boys and youths, sometimes principal co-ordinates, accounting to- with an overfold, a right arm sling or a gether for 56% of the costume variabil- narrow headband (M8b-M8c) form a ity (fig. 129), represents well the broad looser group. The larger, an oblong structure revealed by average linkage. space of varying density characterised The first PC in is bimodal, presenting by positive 2nd PC and large positive two large groups of figures separated 1st PC scores, includes all remaining, by a wide gap; as in average linkage bearded himation males, classified to clustering, males in himation but types M10-M15. Between the two form- without a tunic, classified to M8-M15, ations lie a few transitional figures: are here separated from other figures, M8d-M8e males in armpit or lap hi- classified to M1-M7, with a mean mation, especially those with a growing between-groups similarity of only 0.37. beard (C356.2, C384.3: pl. 13, and The second PC scores reflect well the C676.1: pl. 16), and short-bearded M10 divisions between non-himation cos- men in forearm himation (C1088.2 and tume types. M5 beardless figures in C161.2). short tunic or exomis are separated Not all internal divisions between both from nude males, and from bearded himation types suggested by bearded tunicked figures. M2 males average linkage clustering are apparent with a bunched himation also occupy a in the three-dimensional PCA repres- distinct space from type M1 nude fig- entation. But careful examination of the ures. The peculiar C935.1 (M1b), with a plot suggests that about 1/2 of M10 brooched chlamys on the left shoulder males, mostly short-haired, bearded and arm, is set in an intermediate men in forearm himation (M10a) with space between M1 and M2. M1a2 fig- negative 2nd PC scores, form a small

100 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI tight group. In addition, subtype M13b types, since it also consists mainly of figures (with covered right shoulder, beardless figures. The tight group of right arm sling and staff) form a dis- M13b males (fig. 129) belongs to a tinct group with very high 2nd PC and wider formation characterised by raised very low 3rd PC scores. On the other or armpit staff, including also most M11 hand, about 2/3 of M12 men, wearing and M15 figures; this relationship, not an armpit himation often with an over- reflected in the average linkage fold, but without an arm sling (M12a, dendrogram, is apparent in the M12b and M12d), populate a distinct between-groups similarity indices. The oblong space with high 3rd PC scores. low within-group similarity index of A very dense subgroup within this ob- M12 is explained by the wide overlap, long space is characterised by positive especially of subtypes M12c and M12e, 2nd PC scores, and consists of most with other bearded himation types; M12d males (long-bearded, or balding) however, the distinctness of the major- and of the medium-bearded figures ity of M12 males in the three-dimen- within subtype M12a. sional representation indicates that the The remaining types of bearded type was correctly defined by average males in himation are not clearly distin- linkage clustering. The costume traits guished by means of the first three of types and subtypes distinguished by principal co-ordinates. The taxonomic means of the first three principal co-or- representation according to the fourth, dinates (fig. 131) summarise the struc- fifth and sixth principal co-ordinates ture of costume variability that was has also failed to distinguish between found by both PC and cluster analysis. these costume types. This suggests that only some of the costume forms of bearded males in himation suggested 9.3 Male costume types by average linkage represent “real”, clear-cut types. It appears that the re- 9.3.1 Type M1: short-haired, bare- maining clusters, namely M14, M15 foot males lacking a mantle, or car- and some subdivisions of M10-M13, rying a folded himation represent the best possible dissection of the data, and, like the specific ar- Average linkage cluster analysis has rangements of bunched himation (M2 classified 23 males to type M1, charac- variants) have only analytical value; terised, according to an analysis of re- their validity as analytical tools thus siduals, by short hair, and lacking a depends on their associations with the beard, a mantle, supporting staff and social traits of the figures represented, footgear; the majority of M1 males are rather than on their formal distinctness. entirely nude (e.g., C1062.1: pl. 31), but some carry a himation, folded In general, examination of the res- across the short side and placed, usu- ults of PC analysis of male figures con- ally symmetricallly, over the left firms that the broad structure sugges- shoulder. Most M1 males are classified, ted by average linkage corresponds to, at the 0.85 linkage level, into subtype and is not forced upon, male costume M1a, divided in two variants according typology, with the four wide average to the presence or absence of a folded linkage groups of nude, tunicked, himation (fig. 133). Singleton subtype beardless and bearded himation males M1c consists of the only bearded nude clearly separated in the three-dimen- male found in our corpus (C927.1: pl. sional space. The intermediate position 23). On the other hand, C935.1, classi- of M10 between other bearded males fied into M1b, shows a rare arrange- (M11-M15) and beardless figures in ment of a brooched chlamys set simply forearm himation (M8) is also pointed on his left shoulder, in a similar way to out by its between-groups similarity in- a bunched himation; since he shows dices (fig. 127). M8 is set closer to the similarity indices exceeding 0.8 with nude M1 and M2 than other himation

101 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS several males classified in other types compositions of one and of two stand- (e.g., C932.1, C939.1), he is probably a ing figures, although examples with a misclassification. Further, less well-pre- seated figure also exist. Since the role served males were assigned to this of the nude M1 male changes only in type on the basis of mean similarity, part with costume details, but interacts bringing the total count to 28 entirely to a great extent with the presence of nude males, and 11 carrying a folded iconographic motifs and the interpreta- himation. tion of the type, compositional and Type M1 figures occur with stelai of thematic variants will be dealt with all tectonic types, from fully-fledged separately. naiskoi (C1023: pl. 27) to frameless About 3/10 of M1 males apparently and small pseudo-naiskos stelai represent adolescents in scenes con- (C1044, C1046); C1022 and C1062 (pl. nected with sport. The ‘13-15 years’ 31) are ‘vase stelai’. Many of these old nude C1062.1, running with a hoop monuments are sculptured in high re- on the side lekythos of a ‘vase stele’, lief. A rectangular crown, frequently probably represents the same youth as decorated with akroteria cornice, and a the short-tunicked C1062.2. The ad- siren finial (e.g., C1035: pl. 28) occurs olescent C1046.2 also depicts athletic often with M1 males. Because of the activity, with the nude main figure bal- wide variation in stele dimensions and ancing a ball on the raised right knee, tectonic form, the mean squared width supported only on the slightly bent left of stelai representing M1 males (0.33 leg; the fact that he has the arms tied m2.; fig. 139) suggests that, in compar- behind his back suggests that this may ison with other male costume types, be an exhibition of skill, or even allude M1 is connected with roughly average to a competition. A little, also nude boy stele expenditure. The rank index asso- on the left holds oil-flask and strigil ciated with the type points out, how- (C1046.1), while the garment bunched ever, that if the frequently male sex and folded on the palaistra stone on and non-adult age of the deceased is the right (Stupperich 1977: 116) is taken into account, M1 males are without doubt a himation. shown on average on more costly stelai In several one- or two-figured com- than would be expected under a hypo- positions, a standing M1a1 (entirely thesis of independence (fig. 140). nude) male, usually ‘13-15 years’ old, Two out of three nude figures are except for the older C929.1 (pl. 24), is shown in two-figured compositions, shown scraping himself with a strigil. It most remaining cases representing is worth noting that in two-figured three or more figures. There are no cases the entirely nude male figure has seated nude males, most figures being a considerable height difference with standing, but the type includes a high the M1a2 smaller boy accompanying proportion of other stances, such as him, who is shown with a himation fol- crouching (C1055.1), kneeling ded on the left shoulder. In addition to (C887.2), and three males in motion the half-size M1a2 slave, C1060.3 is (C927.1, C1046.2 and C1062.1), in rep- also accompanied by his old, bearded resentations associated with sport. It father, identified by inscription. Instead has been suggested that the short- of scraping himself with the strigil, the bearded C927.1 represents a wrestler ‘17-18 years’ old youth holds a small (Karouzou 1967: 84) or ball player bird in his raised right hand, and is ac- (Clairmont 1970: 86 n. 55), but his pos- companied by a hound. This icono- ture, similar to that encountered on the graphic complexity, absent from other late Archaic Poulopoulos base, indic- type M1 representations, finds parallels ates that he may be a jumper; the in type M2 youths, wearing a bunched jumping weights are missing, but may himation, and shown also in the com- have been originally indicated in paint. pany of a seated old man (C700) or a Type M1 is associated with the full-size hound (C1006).

102 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

In sum, a total of eleven entirely occurs in other contexts (Silen, Him- nude figures belong to this thematic melmann 1971: 33-34), with M1a2 variant. When not shown on their own, boys it has the function of supporting they are accompanied by smaller boys, the folded himation, a fact suggesting a strongly differentiated in height; in possible origin for the servile connec- stelai with plane differentiation, they tions on the motif. The clasped hands are always in the foreground, and they appear repeatedly with M1 slaves, are often identified by name inscrip- sometimes in connection with crossed tions. This evidence suggests that legs, in compositions without seated these figures are representations of de- figures (above: section 2.4); but the ceased, ‘13-17 years’ old youths. Ex- gesture does not have an universal cept for C1060.3, the setting of the meaning independent of composition, composition is the palaistra. The folded as shown by Ktesileos (Diepolder 1931: himation often carried by the accessory pl. 22). None of these M1 males are figure should be the garment of the identified by name inscription; in M1a1 adolescent; his complete nudity C1036 (pl. 29) and C1060, the position may thus be understood as a conveni- of the inscription points out that they ence associated with sport, merely are mourners, a fact that confirms that identifying him as an athlete (Stup- they represent slaves. perich 1977: 117). The apparent age of The frontal, isolated boy of the Sala- these athlete figures corresponds mis stele (C1032.1) deserves a brief closely with the actual age at which comment. Unlike other half-size type they could be expected to frequent the M1 males, he has medium length hair; palaistra, before the beginning of the this has been used by Stupperich to ephebeia at the age of eighteen. support his identification as the brother of C1032.2, based on the little bird held Height differentiation not account- by the latter (1977: 110). However, the able by apparent age allows the identi- medium hair of C1032.1 is certainly fication of more than 1/2 of M1 males shorter that that of confirmed Athenian as slaves (above: section 2.3.2), includ- boys, such as C977.1; besides, one ing all cases of a folded himation. En- need not look further than C1060 to tirely nude, M1a1 half-size standing see that it is possible for a youth to males typically occur in two-figured hold a small bird, even in the company compositions as complements to of a slave boy. The interpretation of males, who, except for C1046.2 (where C1032.1 as a slave is supported by the the himation is folded on the palaistra fact that his relative height is only stone) wear either a normal or a about 0.59, despite his apparent age of bunched himation. Conversely, M1a2 ‘11-12 years’. slaves carrying a himation folded on Nude slave boys, belonging to M1, the left shoulder accompany M1a1, en- are ‘7-12 years’ old. A few are shown in tirely nude non-adult males. Both those the company of hunters (C1031: sword with and without the folded himation sheath or lagobolon; C1034: dead often carry strigil and oil flask, probably hare), or even hoplites (C1023: pl. 27). also belonging to the accompanying However, it is unlikely that children of athlete. Their position at the left of the such a young age would accompany image, facing right, appears to be com- their masters to hunt or battle, if only plementary to that of the main figure. because they would not be able to keep Iconographic criteria also identify up with them. Thus, a degree of age half-size M1 boys as slaves: two are idealisation may be involved here, al- crouching and compositionally isolated though it is possible that the scenes of (e.g., C1055.1), and several, some- warriors or hunters are set in the do- times having their legs crossed, show mestic context, where the presence of the right arm flexed across to the left a young pais would be feasible; in shoulder; although the latter gesture either case, the preference for repres-

103 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS enting slaves as non-adult is notable. In young child; their name inscription, most cases, however, slaves with fol- however, makes this explanation un- ded himation (M1a2) or entirely nude desirable. An alternative explanation, (M1a1) accompany an athlete, and ap- maintaining the use of name inscrip- pear to represent faithfully the real age tions only for the identification of the of a palaistra pais. deceased (“successive” method of in- Apart from adolescent athletes, and scription), is that, when the M1 male is half-size slaves, a number of M1 chil- also named, mother and child died at dren, who are shown accompanying fig- the same occasion or in short succes- ures of women; in contrast to slaves, sion; on account of the relatively small the relative height of these boys is in number of these compositions com- accord with their age, and they are all pared to other stelai commemorating shown in actual or, rarely, intended (seated) women or (standing, one- tactile contact with the female figures, figured) boys, this is a plausible explan- sometimes linked by the motif of the ation. held-out bird. In several cases, they lean against the knees of a seated wo- 9.3.2 Type M2: Males in bunched hi- man, and are sometimes set for this mation purpose in the background (e.g., All 21 males with ‘unit relevance’ C290.2: pl. 9). Two M1 boys are shown higher than 0.75 wearing only a in the company of a standing female; bunched himation on the shoulders or one of them is kneeling with raised arms, are classified by average linkage arms (C887.2), the other is embraced cluster analysis to type M2. A further by the standing woman; the latter, like 26 less well-preserved figures were C58.2 leaning against the knees of a also subsequently assigned to the type. seated woman, has the shoulders The mantle is usually bunched across covered by the female’s himation. the long side, and possibly also folded Although the M1 boys are primary in half, before being put on the deceased only in the exceptional case shoulder or arm; its dimensions vary, of C887.1, they are often named by in- to some extent according to specific ar- scription, a fact suggesting that they rangement. Apart from the bunched hi- represent free children, and differenti- mation, typical M2 figures, according to ating them from M1 slaves. Besides, an analysis of residuals, are beardless, while nude adolescent athletes and barefoot, and lack a tunic or a support- slaves have identical costume, being ing staff; these males are practically distinguished by other iconographic nude, since the only garment they wear means, nude free children often show is the bunched himation, leaving the medium-length hair or an encircling body exposed. plait (C290.2: pl. 9), sometimes a Three M2 subtypes were defined by stephane (C462.2), a narrow headband the analysis at the 0.85 linkage level and even slippers (C894.2). The differ- (fig. 133). Both M2b and M2c display a ent hairstyle conforms with the young- bunched himation brought over the er age of these boys, who are typically right or left forearm and then collected ‘3-12 years’ old. The intimacy with the back on a support (e.g., C1054.2), on accompanying female indicates that which the figure is leaning; M2c is dis- she is the mother, especially where tinguished by a growing beard, but the seated, or the sister (e.g., C887.1). M1 two subtypes show important similarit- boys are almost never the primary de- ies. On the other hand, most M2 males, ceased. Since the composition cannot which lack the support, are classified to surely have been chosen in advance to M2a. Unlike the always short-haired accommodate in reuse their death in M2b-c males, these figures show often childhood, these boys could have been medium hair, and sometimes a included in the image to show that the stephane (C978.1), unusual wide head- primary deceased was the mother of a band (C977.1), or encircling hair plait

104 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

(C983.1); apart from a headband or cept for C976.1, where its greater part stephane, C1050.1 has, surprisingly for is amassed on the forearm of the fig- a male figure, part of his hair collected ure. Apart from C891.2, where its behind in a bun. In order to distinguish length could not be established, it falls between specific bunched himation ar- down to the ground; its dimensions rangements, some of which have not- could, therefore, be those of a normal able age associations (above: section himation. Although all certain M2a4 3.2.12), M2a was subdivided at the 0.9 boys face left, their iconographic simil- linkage level; four M2a variants were arity with C1050.1, facing right in pro- thus distinguished, which reflect the file, indicates that the latter figure’s combination of the most common partly visible garment is also a bunched himation arrangements with bunched himation of this form, rather hairstyle (fig. 133). than the folded himation of M1a2 In 1/4 of all M2 cases, the bunched slaves. With the exception of ‘9-10 himation falls on the forearm (M2a1), years’ old C976.1, all medium-haired leaving the entire body exposed, and figures wearing a bunched himation on mostly combined with short hair. Al- the left side are ‘3-7 years’ old chil- though its dimensions cannot be al- dren. ways determined, the bunched hi- The most common M2 variant con- mation often falls just to knee length, a sists of the bunched himation falling fact suggesting that, even if it falls back from the left shoulder to the along the width, it may represent a ground (M2a2), combined with short considerably smaller garment than the hair, and representing almost 1/3 of the normal himation. The ‘13-15 years’ old type (C1035.2: pl. 28). The mantle is C1036.1 (pl. 29) has one end of the typically looped forward over the left mantle wrapped around the left fore- shoulder to form a pouch, and reaches arm. In most cases, however, the the ground, having the dimensions of a mantle simply falls over the left fore- normal himation; the falling mantle of arm, sometimes being spread also over C938.1 is not pouched and falls to part of the upper arm as well; most fig- knee-height, but it is difficult to be sure ures showing this arrangement are ‘3-7 if this was a smaller garment, since an years’ old children (e.g., C1044.2). But unknown mass of surplus material is C1006.2, and also C932.1 who is classi- pressed against the unusual tree trunk fied in M2a1 on account of his short on which the figure is leaning. Apart hair despite his bunched himation fall- from C947.1, who is probably younger, ing on the side, are ‘18-19 years’ old members of this variant are ‘13-19 youths. The latter also resembles years’ old adolescents. closely C935.1, misclassified to M1, A bunched himation falling back who wears a unique brooched chlamys from the left shoulder to the fore- not worn around the neck, but falling arm (M2a3) is worn by 1/5 of M2 short- on the left shoulder and upper arm; the or medium-haired figures (e.g., possibility that C935 was reworked in C1100.2: pl. 33). Its difference from the modern times (Conze) may explain the last arrangement is that the mantle, peculiarity in costume. falling behind the left shoulder, is The variant of males in bunched hi- brought from the outer side inwards mation on the left side who are not over the left forearm; C700.4 is a vari- short-haired (M2a4) occurs with 1/10 of ation, with the mantle falling back from M2 figures. The himation here is not the left shoulder across to the right strictly bunched, since part of it is forearm. Except for C939.1, the spread out over the left shoulder and bunched himation of M2a3 males is upper arm, (C976.1) and sometimes also pouched, and of apparently vari- also the forearm (C980.1), depending able length, reaching, for example, be- on the exact position of the left arm. hind the knees of C977.1, but only as The mantle is spread out evenly, ex- far as the middle of the thighs of

105 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

C978.1. In contrast to the barefoot found often, but not more than with boys of other M2 variants, some young- other costumes of children. The fre- er M2a3 figures wear slippers. Overall, quent left orientation of M2a figures this arrangement of the bunched hi- that are not entirely frontal (25:10 mation occurs with males ranging from cases) is connected with the right hand young children to ‘20-24 years’ old holding a little bird towards a leaping young, fully-developed adults pet dog at the left of the image (e.g., (C1033.2). The youngest is, according C978.1); the lack of special association to bodily form, only ‘3-5 years’ old with the pet dog is due to the fact that (C1044.2), despite the palaistra requis- is frequently replaced by an M1 slave, ites and grossly under-sized slave, who occupying the same slot in the compos- is probably an afterthought; C1100.2 is ition (C1035.1: pl. 28). also a child, ‘7-8 years’ old, despite be- M2 males are often shown on ing shown in a handshake with a stand- naiskos stelai (11/21 cases), several of ing girl, as if they both were adult. them shown in relatively high relief Subtype M2a males represent, re- (e.g., C986). Compositions are, how- gardless of actual mantle arrangement, ever, simple, and stele dimensions on the primary deceased: apart from the average small: the mean squared width fact that they are frequently named by for the type (0.33 m2.) indicates that inscription, that occasionally also iden- stele expenditure was smaller than that tifies them as Athenians (C1044.2) or connected with other male costume metic (C1035.2: pl. 28), they are in 3/4 types, but the rank index, removing the of cases either shown alone, or accom- effect of the sex and broad age of the panied by a half-size, M1 slave. In other deceased, suggests that M2 is associ- compositions, C64.2 may have been ated with high social rank almost as the primary deceased on account of much as M1 (figs. 139-140); it is not- the fact that his patronymic name is able, however, that almost 3/4 of M1a given, apparently unlike that of the ac- figures have negative rank indices, and companying seated woman. Two M2a that the positive result is the effect of males on stelai showing plane differen- only a few large stelai, such as C630, tiation are set in the background where the identity of the primary de- (C630.2, C700.4); the former lacks an ceased is not certain, and C950, a large inscription, but the latter was probably metopic stele showing an M1a1 boy the primary deceased, since one of the with a unique representation of a calf, accompanying figures (C700.3) is, emerging from the background. In this uniquely in stelai examined, named as light, the social rank of the typical M2 his mother (meter de Platonos), and, figure is between that for M1, and the according to Conze (1893/1900: I, 148- lower M8, the other two non-adult cos- 9), his name may have been inscribed tume types. first. The social associations of M2b-c, Although there are instances of pro- with a mantle falling back to a sup- file position, and visual (C1036.1) or port, are different from those of the tactile (C1044.2) contact with other fig- common bunched himation types. The ures, M2a males are often shown in fa- four M2b-c males in our sample have a cial frontality and isolation, even when bunched himation on the right or left a half-size figure is present (e.g., forearm, differentiated from M2a1 in C1040), a fact reinforcing their identi- that it is drawn back to cushion a fication as the deceased. Moreover, kioniskos (C1033), stele (C1054, they regularly have at least one at- C1055) or loutrophoros amphora tached attribute, related to their age of (C928), on which the figures are sup- childhood or adolescence; a small bird ported; on account of its dimensions, or a wheel toy occur more often than the mantle is probably a normal hi- expected with M2a boys, while palais- mation. They are barefoot, short-haired tra attributes or a leaping pet dog are and lack headgear. Unlike M2a males,

106 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI they represent ‘18-24 years’ old shoulder-back mantle (M3: 1 figure); a youths, with developed musculature petasos, medium beard, short tunic and, in the case of M2c (C1054: pl. 30), and a chlamys falling on the side (M4: a thin, growing beard, indicating trans- 1 figure); no beard, and either a ition to adulthood. The loutrophoros chlamys over a short-sleeved tunic, shown on the one-figured C928, no combined twice with a petasos (M5a: 3 doubt identifiable as the youth’s grave figures), or no headgear, no mantle marker, suggests that he may have and, once, an exomis (M5b: 2 figures); died unmarried. a long, ungirt tunic (M6: 2 figures); Despite the gesture of raising the and, a bunched himation, combined hand to the head (3/4 cases), connec- twice with a helmet and short tunic, ted in general with representations of twice with short tunic and cuirass, and mourners (above: section 2.4), all four once with a long tunic (M7: 5 figures). F2b-c males probably are the primary Except for the obvious misclassifica- deceased. On the one hand, apart from tion of the long-tunicked C922.1 in M7, the one-figured C928, C1033.2 is ac- these types seem to consist of mean- companied just by a half-size slave boy; ingful costume trait combinations. on the other, the visual isolation of the However, the small number of the ori- remaining two M2b-c males who are ginal type members, combined with the gazed at by older men, and their at- equal treatment of all attributes, sub- tached attributes of hunt and sport jects automatic assignment to the (hound, lagobolon, pais, palaistra re- danger of mistaking individual, free quisites), suggest that they are also the variation for essential type properties. primary dead. Unlike M2a figures, the Moreover, unlike other costume attrib- tectonic form (3 naiskoi) and large di- utes (e.g., himation details), some of mensions of stelai representing youths the traits used to differentiate between in a bunched himation falling back on a M3-M7 have an obvious meaning (e.g., support indicate that M2b-c are con- a cuirass), regardless of their combina- nected with high stele expenditure; tion with other traits. In the light of pri- their connection with high, not broad- or knowledge on the meaning of such age-related status is strengthened if traits, automatic assignment of less the effect of their age and sex is re- well-preserved figures was successful moved. Although high family rank can- in identifying M7 hoplites in cuirass (ex- not be excluded, the strong icono- cept for two figures left unassigned, graphic affinity (attached attributes of and the beardless C418.1, classified in hunt) and consistent age of these fig- M5), and the distinctive long-tunicked ures, in the transition between adoles- priests (below: section 5.3.6), but did cence and adulthood, suggest, how- less well in separating tunicked males ever, an alternative interpretation for without a cuirass into types M3-M5. the high stele expenditure (below: sec- In order to resolve this problem, sev- tion 6.2). eral figures were reallocated, so that all type members would show the combin- 9.3.3 Tunicked males: problems of ations of head cover, the presence of a classification beard, basic tunic and mantle form Thirteen figures have been classified which the analysis itself indicated as by average linkage to a cluster charac- important, at the expense of other at- terised by the presence of a tunic, and tributes. Since the relationship between connected with other males only at the the social identities represented by the 0.57 linkage level (fig. 134). According iconography of F3-F5a and F7 (hoplites, to tunic form, mantle type and warriors without a cuirass, hunters, headgear, it is divided at the 0.75 link- cavalrymen, ephebes) is somewhat un- age level into five types, characterised clear, it seems appropriate, after by the following sets of costume traits: presenting the main descriptive traits a pilos, short beard, short tunic and of these costume types, to discuss their

107 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS significance in parallel. However, it after the change, is here missing; should be noted at this point that, secondly, the shield appears to be of while warriors represent a very small the large, Argive type rather than the proportion of all figures on stelai, they smaller, oval variety introduced in the are often represented on funerary fourth century; thirdly, these stelai are vases and, obviously, on battle-scenes; mostly dated, on grounds of style, to the discussion that follows refers just to the end of the fifth century (Stupperich the social associations of the few warri- 1977: 166). The large shield suggests ors represented on quiet stele composi- that these figures may represent warri- tions, and does not purport to be a ors, belong to the infantry. They are all general discussion of the funerary icon- bearded, and thus fully adult: C158.2 is ography of war (cf. Stupperich 1977: ‘25-34 years’ old, and C1009.1 has a 139-182). very short beard, similar to that of ninth rank figures (20-25 years); thus, 9.3.4 Types M3-M5a and M7: males this type represents adult males of con- in short tunic, with beard, cuirass or scription age, although no confirmed a chlamys examples of mature men have been found. Type M3: warriors without a cuirass. The total absence of a cuirass is im- This type is represented in the classific- portant, since M3 males are not accom- ation by C158.2, displaying the full panied by slaves, who could carry their combination of the three traits noted gear (e.g., C742). On the other hand, above. His short chiton is sleeveless, the idealisation probably accounting for girdled and forms a pouch covering the the absence of defensive armour in girdle. A shoulder-back mantle, similar battle scenes, associated with the ideal to that worn by F14 females, is of heroic death, is absent from type M3 fastened on the shoulders, falling back; figures: these men are as a rule shown besides, C158.2 has a petasos hung be- in handshake, and the depiction of hel- hind the neck. Two additional, less well- met and shield confirms that no at- preserved figures are similar to C158.2: tempt is made at exaggerating their C1009.1, and the man on the left of bravery. When not in the battlefield, C1139, both displaying a pilos, short however, hoplites as well as auxiliary tunic and shoulder-back mantle. Des- troops may not have worn all their de- pite having been assigned to M4, fensive arms; this is the picture of C1005.2 and C1097.2 have a similar parading warriors, lacking a cuirass, costume to M3 men, consisting of the given by Xenophon in the Anabasis, al- combination of a crested helmet with a beit in an obviously non-Attic context short chiton, but lacking a mantle; (Snodgrass 1967: 108-109). The exist- C1097.2 is the only occurrence of a tu- ence, with F7, of two types of warrior nic with two girdles, one over and one costume, deserves, however, further under the tunic pouch. All M3 figures investigation. carry an Argive shield; C158.2 has also a sword, the hand guard of which is vis- Types M4-M5a: hunters and horsemen. ible under the left arm, and C1009.1 a C1111.1, a bearded man in short, spear, held diagonally in the left hand; short-sleeved chiton, a chlamys other figures may also have had an in- fastened on his right shoulder and cov- visible sword worn under the left arm ering most of his body, including his (cf. Snodgrass 1967: 97). left arm and hand, and a petasos, the Although it is known that a change Thessalian horseman’s hat, is classified towards lighter defensive gear took in M4. A part of his chlamys is collected place in early fourth century, it cannot by the left hand, so that it forms hori- account for the fact that M3 males do zontal ends, and does not display the not wear a cuirass at all: firstly, the corners of the garment in front and breast-plate of the cuirass, still in use back (Bieber 1928: 23, fig. 24b). Be-

108 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI sides, the three males constituting sub- horse, following the short chiton male, type M5a (fig. 134) are similar to and in C1111 led by an exomis slave C1111.1, but are either beardless, or boy. Although a hoplite in cuirass is have a growing beard: C1062.2 wears a shown leading a horse on a grave- sleeveless short-chiton, with a substan- lekythos (Conze 1896: no. 1024, pl. tial pouch over the girdle, and a 203), horses are not found with other petasos on the head; C468.2 wears a male costume types on stelai examined tighter chiton, a petasos and a chlamys in this study. However, other attached falling back; finally,C1099) has a attributes also occur with M4-M5a: of- brooched chlamys covering the left ten a long, vertically-held spear, occa- shoulder and arm, in the unusual man- sionally also a shorter javelin and ner of C935.1 (M1). Five less well-pre- sword suspended behind the left armpit served figures are also assigned to M4 (C1062.2: pl. 31). Cavalrymen of the or M5a. Classical period, often wearing a On account of beard, M4 males are petasos instead of a helmet, may have ‘25-34 years’ old adults, while M5a fig- carried either a long spear or two ures are adolescents. The former are javelins (Snodgrass 1967: 97, 104). But often shown in handshake with a stand- the combination of spear and javelin is ing female, probably their wife, taking also the standard gear of hunters (Hull into account the name inscription (e.g., 1964: 5-6); hounds are shown re- C1098.1, C1099.1). The latter (M5a) peatedly with M4-M5a figures, and are shown in 3/5 cases on loutrophoros C383.3 holds a curved lagobolon, simil- stelai (which are, however, common ar to that of the Munich hunter’s relief also with bearded M4 men), in the com- (Dohrn 1957: pl. VIIc). Although hare pany of a seated woman (C468.2) or a hunt was done on foot, resembling standing old man (C1062.2: pl. 31), beagling, and not on horseback (Hull probably representing their parents. In 1964: 71, 87), the combination of horse 3/4 of cases, their name inscription and hounds on C1111 indicates that consists of the proper and demotic the identities of horseman and hunter name, unlike the simple ‘name only’ in- were not incompatible: horses, obvious scription of younger boys, and the full symbols of social rank, may have been inscription (including the patronymic used for transport to the hunting site. name) of adults; M5a males are prob- In sum, the beardless M5a males are ably older than ‘16 years’, when they probably shown as hunters, a fact con- would have been registered in the necting them with the mythological al- phratry, but certainly younger than ‘20 lusions of the ephebeia (above: section years’, when they would have been re- 2.1.6), but, on the evidence discussed leased from military service (above: so far, bearded M4 males may equally section 2.1.6). In addition, beardless represent cavalrymen. M5a youths are connected with sport attributes: an M1 boy, running with a Type M7: hoplites. Type M7 is defined hoop (C1062) and a similar nude youth by the polythetic combination of a hel- using the strigil (C468) are shown on met, a cuirass and a bunched himation. secondary registers of ‘vase stelai’; be- Apart from the two males classified in sides, a pais carrying a folded himation M7 by average linkage cluster analysis is shown on C1031. However, since all (C718.3; C1023.1: pl. 27), seven fur- three figures carry a weapon, the last ther figures display a cuirass (including being also accompanied by a hound, it C463.1, who may belong to a north Ion- is obvious that sport is a complement- ic, rather than Attic stele; Blümel 1966: ary, rather than the main association of 19-20, no. 8). It is worn over a short, this costume type. short-sleeved chiton, probably ungirdled; although it cannot be seen, the Type M4-M5a is in the majority of back plate of the corselet must have cases, including all bearded examples, been worn as well as the visible chest associated with the representation of a

109 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS plate, since all examples examined the phalanx; the old age of the long-tu- have epomides. C718.3 and C1023.1 nicked C922.1 (cf. fig. 138) is explained (pl. 27) represent a ‘muscle’ corselet; by the fact that he is misclassified to the flatter material of C1058.3, with the F7. Name inscriptions identify C718.3 larger shoulder-pieces, may represent and C1005.1 as Athenian; although no leather, belonging to a composite M7 hoplites are identified as metics, corselet (Snodgrass 1967: 90-92). Rep- this may be due to the small size of the resentations of both types show the sample, since it is known that well-to- rows of leather flaps meant to protect do metics were entitled to serve as the groins. C463.1 wears a helmet, but hoplites in a rough proportion of one C1023.1 holds his, apparently ‘Chalcidi- metic to five Athenians (Gomme 1933: an’ helmet (cf. ibid.: 69-70, fig. 49), 5). Excluding misclassifications (cf. fig. with his left hand. A large Argive shield 142), in all cases where name inscrip- is held upright, leaning on the ground, tions exist, M7 males are one of the de- by several M7 figures (e.g., C1023.1). ceased, often shown in handshake with C373.2 has a diagonal spear, and a seated figure; besides, several M7 C718.3 holds a sword sheath with his males are the only full-size figures of left hand. Greaves are worn only by the their respective stelai, shown in near- possibly non-Attic C463.1, a fact sup- frontality (e.g., C1023.1: pl. 27), and porting the view that they were only an therefore represent the primary de- optional addition to the warrior’s stand- ceased. These monuments, unlike ard gear. stelai with battle scenes such as Dex- The arrangement of the bunched hi- ileos’ (Johansen 1951: 48-50), need not mation wrapped around both arms, have been the cenotaphs of warriors drawn behind the figure’s back, is con- killed in action: the role of the hoplite is fined to type M7. Most males wearing closely linked to the rights and obliga- this mantle variant (C1023.1: pl. 27; tions of Athenian citizenship (above: C718.3) are warriors; the mantle of the section 2.1.6), so that the costume of C718.3 is drawn around the waist, and type M7 may have functioned as a then over the arms. Other bunched hi- mere sign of andreia, of civic and milit- mation arrangements occur: on the ary excellence. forearm (C399.3), and falling from the left shoulder back to the left forearm Cost and status. In three cases (four (C917.1). Three F7 figures lacking a with the inclusion of the possibly non- cuirass, but wearing an Attic helmet Attic C463), M7 hoplites belong to very with crest (F7b2), have also a bunched high relief representations on large himation, that of C1005.1 falling back naiskoi; of these, the fully-preserved from the left shoulder across to the C718 is, including the base, 264 cm right forearm. However, unlike nude, high and 157 cm wide. The fragment- type M2 figures showing these mantle ary naiskos stele C339 is wider than 60 arrangements, M7 males in bunched hi- cm (squared width: 0.36 m2.), and mation are in all cases examined sculptured in high relief. Other M7 bearded; in fact, the only beardless hoplites are, however, shown on smal- male in cuirass (C418.1) lacks a mantle ler monuments, such as the tall loutro- altogether. phoros stele C1005 and the frameless C917, with rosettes over the image. Beard length affects the age associ- The mean squared width of stelai with ations of M7. The short-bearded C718.3 an M7 male (0.63 m2.) is considerably is ‘20-24 years’ old, while C1023.1 (pl. larger than average; assuming that all 27) is ‘35-59 years’ old; most other M7 F7 men are the primary deceased, this males are also adult on account of the is the male costume type associated beard. On account of the cuirass and with the highest stele cost (fig. 139). shield, they are identifiable as hoplites, ranging from ‘20-59 years’, the actual It should be noted, however, that age of the Athenian military service in only males in cuirass are connected

110 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI with high stele expenditure; despite be accounted only by their young age, their helmet, bunched himation and a fact suggesting that the type repres- shield, M7b2 males are shown often on ents slaves (above: section 2.3.2). This tall, but narrow ‘vase stelai’, sculptured is reinforced by iconographic evidence: in low relief, and pointing to consider- the crouching posture of C1054.3, des- ably smaller stele expenditure. M3 war- pite the fact that he is not an infant (cf. riors, M5a youths with attributes of above: section 2.3.2); the combination hunt and sport, and M4 horsemen are of crossed legs and right arm flexed also shown on low-cost monuments across to the left shoulder (C1045.1), (except for C1062.2), very often oblong occurring often with M1 slave boys ‘vase stelai’, rarely exceeding a (above: section 5.3.1); the direct asso- squared width of 0.15 m2. The stark ciations of the tight exomis and the differentiation to M7 hoplites indicates sewn sleeves of the short tunic with that M3 men probably represent warri- representations of slaves and banausoi ors of lower social rank, and that M4 (Bieber 1928: 21; Ehrenberg 1957: men probably represent hunters, rather 184). than high-status cavalrymen. M5b males are repeatedly shown holding palaistra attributes (e.g., 9.3.5 Subtype M5b: beardless C1054.3: pl. 20). However, in most of males in short, tunic or exomis, these cases, they accompany adoles- without a mantle cent males of higher age than type M1 The short-haired, beardless C1033.1, slaves, showing sometimes attributes classified in M5b, wears an exomis of hunt; despite holding an oil-flask, sewn on the sides, leaving the right C1074.3, like other M5b figures, wears shoulder exposed; five further figures a crested helmet, a fact suggesting wearing an exomis have been found. that sport is a secondary association of Their exomis seems to be girdled, even this costume type. In fact, most M5b if the girdle is indicated only by a slight boys accompany warriors: C742.1 car- depression of the garment around the ries a bag hung on a pole over the left waist. The crouching, short-haired shoulder, probably containing the ar- C1054.3 (pl. 30), assigned also to M5b, mour of the accompanying man in wears a short, ungirdled tunic of which pilos, and C1111.1 leads a horse to the the short left sleeve is visible; the right right by an apparently painted bridle; in shoulder is hidden, so that the possibil- several cases, M5b boys are shown ity of an exomis cannot be excluded, holding a shield, or wearing a helmet. but it appears that he wears a chiton; a In this light, subtype M5b is used, espe- similar ungirdled tunic is worn by cially on ‘vase-stelai’, to represent the 1045.1. Because of the frequent right squires of warriors, notably of the cos- orientation of M5b males, it is not cer- tume type lacking a cuirass, and asso- tain if their exomis has the short left ciated with the pilos (M3); on other sleeve connected with the tight, sewn stelai, it may also be connected with variety of the garment (Bieber 1928: the joint themes of hunt and sport. 21). With the exception of the medium- haired C1054.1 (recalling the frontal 9.3.6 Type M6: bearded males in C1032.1), M5b males are short-haired. long, ungirt tunic Age-ranked M5b males are ‘5-8 C920.1 and C921.1 were classified years’ old children. However, they are by average linkage cluster analysis, on never shown on their own, and, when a account of their long, ungirdled, short- name inscription is provided, they are sleeved tunic, to type M6; C922.1, mis- always identified as mourners. Their classified to M7 on account of his height differentiation from the main fig- bunched himation, wears a long tunic ures in the representation is exagger- and belongs with M6 males. Together ated (e.g., C1054.3: pl. 30), and cannot with similar, partially preserved cases, whose ungirt tunic should also have

111 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS been long, five males in all belong to C923 should have been slightly more this costume type. Of these, C923.1 costly than other stelai of priests; al- has medium length hair, supported by though C922 and C924 are not much a headband; C920.1 and C922.1 are narrower, the relief of C923 is consider- medium-bearded, and balding; C921.1 ably larger than those of all other is short-bearded. Despite these differ- stelai; social rank may be involved in ences, in all cases the tunic appears to this difference in stele expenditure. be single, in contrast to that of the However, seen in the context of other priest Sosias, who apparently wears a male costume types, representations of long ungirdled tunic over a short, short- priests are not connected with higher sleeved chiton similar to that worn by stele expenditure (figs. 139-140); even warriors (Bieber 1928: 51, pl. 19.1). the slightly larger C923 appears to be C920.1 and C922.1 are ‘60-69 years’ very small when compared to stelai old, a fact accounting for the old age commemorating other special social associations of the type (fig. 138), but categories, such as hoplites. The fact other M6 males may have been slightly that old men tend to be commemor- younger. All M6 figures included to this ated on smaller monuments (above: study belong to one-figured composi- section 2.2, fig. 23) may, however, be tions (but. cf. Sosias), and thus repres- involved in the low stele expenditure ent the primary deceased. The knife connected with M6 priests. held by C920.1 and C921.1 has been identified as a sacrificial knife, and the 9.3.7 Type M8: beardless males in long tunic as the orthostadios chiton, forearm or shoulder himation worn by Athena’s priest in the East without shoulder bunch Parthenon frieze; the gesture of the Thirty-five males were classified by raised right hand of C921 is interpreted average linkage analysis to type M8, by Blümel as a gesture of prayer (1966: and 43 less well-preserved figures were 24). Type M6 thus represents priests, assigned to the type on grounds of identified by name inscription (often mean similarity. This very distinct type missing the patronymic name) as consists, according to an analysis of re- Athenian. siduals, of beardless males without a It has been noted that Python tunic, wearing in the majority of cases (C923.1) belonged to a family of the a forearm or shoulder himation without liturgical class preserved (above: sec- left shoulder bunch, which leaves the tion 2.2). Apart from the name of Py- right shoulder exposed but covers the thon, known to have been a councillor left arm; the type also includes unusual in 403/2 BC, the name of his son, Py- males wearing a stephane or having a thodoros, is also inscribed on the stele, growing beard. suggesting that he took up his father’s M8 has been divided, at the 0.85 priesthood after his death. Thus, when linkage level, to three subtypes (fig. the stele was reused, the figure in long 135). Of these, M8a is the most com- tunic represented Pythodoros; the asso- mon, occurring in 3/5 of M8 figures; it ciation of this costume type with old is characterised by a himation lacking age is confirmed by the fact that Py- an overfold, and drawn over the left thodoros had died after the age of shoulder or forearm, covering the left sixty, since he is known to have acted arm. According to the combination of as arbitrator. The religious involvement himation and hairstyle details, it is sub- of this oikos, suggested by the costume divided to three variants. M8a1 con- type of C923.1, is confirmed by the in- sists of short-haired males with a fore- volvement of other members of the arm himation leaving the left hand ex- family in building the fourth century posed (C959.1); M8a1 males are mostly temple of Apollo at Delphi (Davies ‘13-19 years’ old, and their attributes 1971: 485-486). are often the strigil and oil-flask associ- On account of squared stele width,

112 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI ated with the palaistra. M8a2 consists On account of the different age asso- of ‘9-10 years’ or slightly older boys, ciations of specific subtypes and vari- characterised by a shoulder himation ants, M8 is frequent with non-adults, and uncut hair, usually medium-length but occurs also with young men, up to (C962.1), but exceptionally falling back ‘24 years’ of age (fig. 138). In fact, in a plait in C957.1. M8a3 boys show a M8a-M8c males in forearm or shoulder forearm himation often covering the himation are as a rule children or ad- left arm and hand, and in most cases olescents, while those in armpit hi- associated with medium hair (C967.1: mation (M8c) are mostly young adults. pl. 25); most are ‘7-10 years’ old, but Except for the M8e infants, the younger C963.1, showing an encircling plait, is M8 figures are shown in one-figured an adolescent, and C961.1, having a compositions, turned slightly to the left, wheel toy, is a younger child. The ges- and extending in all preserved cases ture of the pointed index is common the right hand, holding a little bird, to- with all three variants of M8a; wards a leaping pet dog on the left; moreover, the majority of M8a males sometimes, the pet dog is substituted whose origin is identified by name in- by a half-size slave (C1043.1). scription are metics. Apart from M8a, The very common left orientation of about 1/7 of M8 males show a himation these figures (fig. 143) is related to the covering the right shoulder, or forming motif of holding a bird in the extended an overfold (M8b; C157.2: pl. 5); in right hand. Besides, M8 males account most cases they are ‘13-20 years’ old for about 2/3 of all attributes attached adolescents. M8c, another rare sub- to male figures, mostly pet dogs and type, consists of slightly younger, ‘9-15 little birds shown with M8a-c boys; a years’ old boys, characterised by the few palaistra requisites are spread combination of a forearm himation cov- among all M8 subtypes, but balls, a ering the right shoulder and forming a wheel toy (C961) and an astragal bag right arm sling, and a narrow headband (C956) are restricted to either M8e (C969.1). crouching infants, or M8a-c boys in Subtype M8d comprises 1/7 of fig- forearm or shoulder himation. With all ures assigned to type M8; unlike cos- type M8 subtypes, either the one- tumes mentioned above, it is charac- figured composition, or a name inscrip- terised by an armpit, rather than a tion identified the M8 male as the forearm or shoulder himation, and by a primary deceased (fig. 141); exceptions left shoulder bunch often leaving the are half-size boys shown with seated left arm entirely exposed (C1032.2); women, who may be mourners (C63.2) some of the figures in this group have a or secondary dead (C62.2). growing beard (C676.1: pl. 16). On this M8 males shown in handshake wear account, M8d males are ‘16-24 years’ either a forearm himation with overfold old, frequently having full name inscrip- (M8b), or an armpit himation (M8d). tions that include patronymic and The relief loutrophoros amphora of demotic name; they often share with C1136.2 and C167.2 suggests that they many other adult males in armpit hi- were unmarried; C384.3 (pl. 13) is mation the gesture of holding the probably shown with his parents, and shoulder bunch with the left hand at thus should have died unmarried too. chest-height. Finally, subtype M8e con- However, the mirror of C157.1 and her sists of males in a himation leaving the young apparent age makes it unlikely left shoulder exposed: this broad defini- that she was the mother of the stand- tion encompasses several standing ad- ing M8b youth; his young age seems to olescent or young adult males (e.g., argue for betrothal, rather than mar- C384.3: pl. 13; C937.1), and a few riage, as the possible reason for nuptial crouching infants, having in fact only allusions of the representation. the lower body covered by a himation (C1052). Type M8 is associated with smaller than average stele expenditure, as

113 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS shown by a squared stele width of only occurs also in C958.1 and C1037.1, and 0.19 m2. (fig. 139). But the association possibly in the weathered C915.1. with low stele cost, implied by this fact, The preserved lower part of C1037.1 is confined to M8a-M8c males in fore- suggests that the tunic worn by the fig- arm and shoulder himation; as shown ure is short, since it is not visible under both by complete and fragmentary the himation reaching just below the cases, the armpit himation males (M8d) knees; although his head is missing, belong to considerably larger stelai. C1037.1 should be male, because he The age associations of M8a-c and M8d wears an armpit himation with left males explain the difference in stele shoulder bunch, common with males expenditure: the former are children (above: section 3.2.12), holds a strigil, and young adolescents, connected with and is accompanied by a type M1 nude low stele cost, while the latter belong pais holding an oil-flask. The pouch vis- to the transitional period between ad- ible over the flexed right elbow may be olescence and adulthood, that was just a misapprehension of the form of found to have high status associations the garment. The left hand of C1009.3 (above: section 2.2, fig. 23). The low is akimbo, and he shakes hands with a rank associations of M8a-c boys is com- gesturing female, followed by a half- plemented by their simplicity of cos- size girl with her hair in a bun. C958.1 tume: several boys wear slippers, as if is beardless, represented on his own in to emphasise the modesty associated a tunic and shoulder himation covering here with the age between nine and fif- the left arm, holding out what appears teen years, and shown also by the to be a training stick over a seated common motif of the covered left arm hound on the left. The sex of C915.1 is and hand. This is also shown by the identified by the name inscription giv- fact that their inscription is in 16/19 ing also his patronymic; he looks like a cases of the simple ‘name only’ form: non-adult, has the hands clasped to- the civic identity of these figures, most gether, and appears to be wearing both of which would not yet have been re- an endyma and a periblema, the gistered in the phratry, was therefore former visible on the chest, the latter not fully recognised. On the other hand, both around the hips and arms, and M8d males in armpit himation, and possibly falling back. standing M8e males with the left shoulder exposed were in most cases Costume type M9 is used for the rep- designated by demotic name, in agree- resentation of the deceased. Examples ment with their higher age. Besides, of most tectonic types of stelai occur, the hound, dead hare and palaistra at- but the mean squared stele width is tributes of C1034.2 indicate a connec- considerably higher than that of M8. tion with the transitional years of the C1109.1 has been ranked as ‘16-17 ephebeia (above: section 2.1.6). years’, but the fact that he is identified by a demotic and is shown in handshake with a woman suggests that he 9.3.8 Type M9: short-tunicked may be slightly older. The iconography males in himation of hunt and sport depicted in C958 and The costume of Erginos (C1009.3), a C1037 is compatible with the trans- singleton figure classified as type M9, itional age category from adolescence consists of short hair, no beard, and a to adulthood. Consequently, the tunic shoulder himation worn over a short- of C958.1 and C1109.3 should be iden- sleeved tunic, leaving the right tified with the short tunic of the young shoulder and arm exposed, and cover- horsemen and hunters of subtype M5a, ing the left arm and hand. The combin- rather than the long tunic of type M6 ation is so unusual, that C1009.3 is priests, or that of an improbable chari- very dissimilar to most male costume oteer or musician. The social identity of types, except for M8 (fig. 127). The ba- M9 figures is thus similar to that of sic combination of tunic and himation beardless, type M5a young hunters

114 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

(above: section 5.3.4) and type M2b-c cases young adult, between ‘25-34 males leaning on a support (above: years’ of age. The background C1054.1 section 5.3.2). (pl. 30), classified as a distinct subtype (M10e) because he combines a short 9.3.9 Type M10: bearded males beard and armpit himation with a with headband and forearm hi- covered right shoulder, and left arm mation and hand enclosed within an arm sling, is also ‘25-34 years’ old. The young age Eighteen males were classified to of M10a-M10c is surely due to the age type M10 by average linkage type ana- associations of the forearm himation lysis, and an equal number of less well- arrangement, discussed in chapter 3 preserved figures were subsequently (above: section 3.2.12, fig. 63), which assigned to the type. They all wear a run through the costume typology, as himation without a left shoulder bunch, shown also by its frequency among M8 covering the left forearm, and lack a boys and youths. supporting staff. M10 is also characterised in the majority of cases by a high- Apart from these standing figures, er than expected occurrence of a head- almost 1/6 of M10 consists of seated band and the forearm arrangement of men with long or medium beard, head- the himation. Although the majority of band, and himation covering the right M10 males are medium-bearded and shoulder and forming a right arm sling short-haired, there is a large number of (C755.5: pl. 17); with the exception of short-bearded, or medium-haired the singleton C700.2 who wears the hi- (sometimes in lap himation) examples. mation only around his lower body This is the least uniform male himation (M10e; fig. 136), lifting it with the right type, with a within-group similarity in- hand over the backrest, the remaining dex only just exceeding 0.8; on the oth- figures are classified to M10d. Both er hand, its between-groups similarity subtypes are associated with older age, indices (fig. 127) show that it is well- typically ‘35-69 years’, than those in isolated from other types, mainly be- forearm, armpit or shoulder himation cause of the forearm himation, uncom- leaving the right shoulder and arm ex- mon with other bearded males, and the posed. They are, however, not older generally rare headband. than other seated men, and their age seems to reflect just the generic associ- According to himation arrangement, ation of the lap himation with male ma- type M10 men classified by average turity (above: section 3.2.12, fig. 63). linkage may be divided to six subtypes (fig. 136). The most common subtype, Although there are examples of all M10a, includes 1/2 of the type mem- tectonic types of stelai containing type bers, and consists of a combination of M10 men, metopic stelai are more short hair, medium or short beard, and common than expected, occurring in al- a forearm himation covering the left most half the attested cases. Mean arm; a typical example is C161.2 (cf. stele dimensions are relatively small in C1013.2: pl. 26); M10a also contains comparison to most other adult hi- two figures in armpit himation (C413.5; mation types (100x49 cm), but there C1012.2), since they also display short seems to be no association with either hair, medium beard and covered left low or high relief, and this type occurs arm. The less common M10b and M10c more often than expected in multi- subtypes are characterised by medium figured compositions. The squared hair and headband; the former lacks an width of stelai containing M10 males, overfold and may wear a shoulder hi- representing stele expenditure in a bal- mation (C1089.2), while the latter is anced way, is similar to the average for characterised by an armpit himation all male costume types (fig. 139). The with overfold (C1082.2). Males belong- rank index of M10 figure, however, taking to M10a-M10c are in the majority of ing into account the age and sex of the deceased, suggests that M10 figures

115 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS are represented on smaller stelai than fuller epigraphic identification of the other types, and are thus related to low seated woman. The name inscription of family rank (fig. 140). Kritodemos within the metope of the Although in C161 and C755 (and, fragmentary C170 suggests that he is possibly, in the original phase of also the secondary, rather than primary C1131) a simple proper name identifies deceased. Seated, mature men of sub- the deceased, 3/4 of name inscriptions types M10d-M10e are also mourners or show a combination of proper, pat- secondary dead: in C755, only the ronymic and ethnic or demotic name. standing Lysarete is named as the de- Seven stelai are monuments of Atheni- ceased; in C700, the unusual identifica- an oikoi, and two, including the prob- tion of Demostrate as Platon’s mother able C327, of metic families; the devi- suggests that he, and not the seated ation from the population ratio between Epichares, is the primary deceased; in the two groups is not significant, and C641, it is more likely that the pre- type M10 appears to have been used served “]WN” on the architrave is the regardless of citizen or metic status. On common ending of the name of the the other hand, the seated woman ac- standing figure, rather than of a conjec- companying C168.2 is identified as tural demotic ek Kedon or ek Ker- chreste. This is a single incidence, but ameon. it conforms with the low family rank as- Background M10 males, such as sociations of M10, indicated by stele C327.3 and C1131.4 were also origin- expenditure. ally meant to represent mourners: no The frequency of each mantle ar- masculine name occurs on the arrangement within this type is related chitrave of C1131, the name of Onesi- with composition: most forearm hi- mos in the pediment field being a later mation men (M10a) are shown in hand- addition, and Delphis (C327) may have shake with a seated figure, while type been the ethnic of seated Timagora M10 men in other himation arrange- rather than a masculine proper name. ments either lack the handshake, or In both stelai, the mourner status of shake hands with a standing figure. The the M10 man at the original use of the most common compositions are two stele is shown by the gesture of the full-size standing figures, or a standing hand raised to the cheek. Besides, 4/5 and a seated figure. When the plane is of type 10 men are shown facing left, differentiated, the type M10 males tend set on the right side of the composition to be represented in the foreground (fig. 143). The left orientation is con- rather than the background; they are nected with the forearm himation ar- also often shaking hands (thirteen rangement, as shown also in the pre- cases, and an amplified handshake in dominantly left orientation of M8 boys C641), being thus in a relatively high and youths. However, the left orienta- degree of contact with other figures. tion of M10 men is also related to their On this evidence, type M10 probably setting on the right of a two- or more- represents one of the main figures in figured composition, and right position the composition. Indeed, in the major- in images showing a seated figure, ity of cases, the M10 male is identified such as those discussed here, is con- as one of the deceased, especially in nected with the representation of ori- compositions of standing figures (e.g., ginal mourners (above: section 2.4). C1082.2). On the whole, M10 is used for the However, it is significant that type representation of adult males; the few M10 rarely represents the primary de- seated examples are of mature age, ceased, at the original use of the stele but the typical standing males in fore- (fig. 141). M10 men in handshake with arm himation, lacking a left shoulder a seated figure in particular, are often bunch and having the left forearm mourners (C168, C413) or secondary covered by the himation, are in most deceased (C370.3), on account of the cases ‘25-34 years’ old. Their young

116 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI age is not surprising, considering that left shoulder exposed (M11c), 2/3 of they are more often than expected M11 males wear an armpit himation, short-bearded. Although they represent and the remaining cases show a fore- free men, either Athenian or metic, arm himation. As an alternative to the who sometimes are named in sub- frequently wrapped left forearm, some- sequent reuse of the stele, they were times the himation forms a left arm not originally meant to represent the sling leaving the hand exposed primary deceased. Besides, allowing for (C322.2: pl. 11), or is spread over the differences due to the sex and age of left forearm and hand (C1077.1). But, the primary deceased, M10 men are in contrast to M13b (below: section connected with low stele expenditure, 5.3.12), the right shoulder and arm are and therefore social rank. The forearm rarely enclosed in the himation, and and shoulder himation arrangements type M11 men are shown barefoot sig- characteristic of his type are essentially nificantly more often (3/4 of cases) non-adult costume traits; this fact may than men of other himation types. be involved in the association of M10 Thus, the left side of type M11 men both with the representation of original tends to be enclosed in the himation, mourners, and with low social rank. but their right, active side and feet are very often exposed. 9.3.10 Type M11: medium- or With the exception of M13, this is the long-bearded males in himation himation type with the strongest old with wrapped left arm and hand, age associations (fig. 138), 3/4 of fig- and an armpit staff ures being ‘35-69 years’ old. Although most lean forward because of the staff Twelve standing figures were classi- under the left armpit, C708.3 and fied by average linkage cluster analysis C1062.3 appear to be stooping because to type M11, displaying a fair degree of of age. Apart from the balding C708.3, internal cohesion and external isolation C242.1 and C247.1, the five men with (fig. 127); 28 less well-preserved fig- medium hair are on average older than ures were subsequently assigned to the the common short-haired variety. Only type on the basis of mean similarity. costume type M15 has proportionally M11 is defined by a combination of me- more long-bearded figures than M11; dium or, in 2/5 of cases, long beard, a this, and the absence of short-bearded himation without left shoulder bunch, M11 figures confirm the association of wrapped around the left arm and hand this costume type with old age. or, alternatively, forming a left arm sling, and a staff supported under the Name inscriptions identify five M11 left armpit. Type M11 males, with the men as definite mourners, and eleven exception of C1012.1 (M11d) included as one of the deceased. But only here because of his headband, are dif- C909.1 was certainly the primary dead, ferentiated from men with an armpit since he is represented alone; thus, the staff classified to type M13, by the ab- ratio of mourners to primary deceased sence of a right arm sling. is 5:1 (fig. 141). Using iconographic criteria, further cases may be added to Since the automatic identification both categories, such as C1022.1 and does not take account of prior probabil- C1048.1 who are the main figures in ities of group membership, and the the composition (primary dead), and right arm of men with armpit staff is C708.1, C434.1 and C322.2, set in a more often exposed than enclosed in peripheral or background position an arm sling (24:7), all ambiguous (mourners), without altering the strong cases such as C708.3 and C1062.3 are association of type M11 with mourners. classified to M11, rather than to M13. Although the majority of M11 men be- Except for C245.1 and C348.3, whose long to stelai with a uniform plane, the himation is drawn back from the left background position is more common upper arm around the body, leaving the than the foreground in comparison to

117 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS other male costume types. Moreover, examined here, it may explain on com- this is the male himation type least as- positional grounds the left position of sociated with a central position in the M11 men, despite their representing two- or often three-figured composi- mourners. The left position of M11 men tion. More than 2/3 of type M11 males may, however, be related also to their are shown in handshake, but this is a old age, in analogy with M13 and M15. common trait of bearded men in hi- Although a loutrophoros frequently mation in general. In most remaining commemorates M1 and M4 youths, it cases, however, M11 men are shown in occurs here both with M11 mourners, mere visual contact with other figures such as the background C390.2, and in the image. Apart from epigraphic with the deceased, such as the full-size and compositional evidence, the hand C1022.1 accompanied by an M1 slave raised to the cheek or chin, occurring boy. The composition of loutrophoros three times (e.g. C322.2, pl. 11), and stelai is different to that of normal the “speaking” gesture of C348.3 indic- stelai: excluding C1022.1 from the ate that this costume type was origin- former, and C909.1 and C1048.1 from ally meant to represent mourners. the latter, where the M11 man is the The rarity of one-figured composi- only full-size figure, all loutrophoros tions is indeed due to the association of stelai represent the M11 man in hand- M11 with mourners; but compared to shake with another, mostly standing other himation types (except for M14), male, while proper stelai show both all- M11 is associated with simple composi- male and mixed compositions, with the tions. Although all tectonic stele types great majority representing the M11 are represented, there are 18 examples man in handshake with a seated wo- of a metopic stele, and only one full man, this is a highly significant associ- naiskos (C1084); the crown is often ation. bell-shaped and decorated with an an- Type M11 men in all-male composi- themion. Stelai representing M11 men tions should often represent the father are of medium to small size (112x51 or elder brother of the deceased, as is cm) in comparison with other types of indicated not only by the same demot- standing bearded men in himation (ex- ic, but also by the common family roots cept for M10). The low relief composi- of the name inscriptions (C708, C1003, tion, and generally unassuming form C1012). In a few cases, the younger and dimensions of stelai, summarised man is identified by patronymic name by a squared width of 0.31, show that as the son of the accompanying M11 type M11 is associated with average man (e.g., C1060). In the three-figured stele expenditure (fig. 139). The rank C708, the seated Sosippos may be an index, removing the effect of the elder cousin of the two M11 men, So- sex/age of the deceased, indicates, sippos and Sosistratos, since his age is however, that M11 was connected with not differentiated from theirs (the son, lower than average social rank, al- in any case, would not be shown though not as much as M10 (fig. 140). seated in the presence of the father, Unlike the younger men of M10, and even if deceased), and it is unlikely excluding centrally placed examples, that two brothers would have the same 2/3 of M11 males are set obliquely or in name. Of cases with a name inscrip- profile on the left of the composition, tion, eleven M11 men belong to Atheni- facing right (fig. 143). In 1/4 of cases, an families, with no confirmed metics; they are shown on loutrophoros stelai; considering the small proportion of ac- in connection with this type, Stupperich tual metics, this result may be due to has suggested that right orientation is chance alone. But in eleven further preferred on stelai, while left orienta- cases only the proper name of the de- tion predominates on ‘vase stelai’ and ceased is noted, a fact setting M11 fig- funerary vases (1977: 100); although ures apart from other bearded men in this is not demonstrated by the sample himation; this may be related to the so-

118 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI cial identity of the deceased, often a 9.3.11 Type M12: Medium- male or female adolescent, whom M11 bearded males in armpit himation, men accompany. exposed right shoulder, left Two three-figured stelai representing shoulder bunch and slippers a M11 man in a peripheral or back- The most common male costume ground position are apparently dedic- type is M12. It consists of 41 figures ated to a standing young female, since classified by means of average linkage the M11 man gazes at her rather than cluster analysis, and 35 subsequently at the seated woman also represented assigned, less well-preserved figures. (C322, C348); in the latter case, the de- According to an analysis of residuals, ceased is referred to explicitly as “DIO- the type is characterised by usually GENOS QUGATHR”, a rare form of pat- medium beard, an armpit himation ronymic name, emphasising the iden- forming a left shoulder bunch leaving tity of the man with the armpit staff. In the right shoulder and left hand ex- C434, the stooping M11 man may also posed, slippers and no supporting band be the father of the deceased Diphilos, (C216.1: pl. 6). Less frequent costume despite the fact that the latter (pre- traits associated with M12 are the bald- served from the waist down, and ing or medium hair, and a himation draped in himation) is accredited by forming an overfold or leaving the left the epigram with dikaiosyne, suggest- arm exposed. Despite its frequency, ing achieved status appropriate to ma- the type shows relatively high internal ture age. In analogy with C322 and cohesion, but it resembles several oth- C348, the apparently young female of er costume types, especially M10, on C1083, C1084 and C1085 may repres- the basis of himation traits, and M14, ent the daughter, rather than the wife with which it shares the slippers, short of the M11 man. hair and, to a smaller extent, the form But these examples should not lead of the himation (fig. 127). Figures clas- one to over-emphasise the role of M11 sified to M12 are divided at the 0.85 men as mourners in cases of mors im- linkage level to five compact subtypes. matura. In 15 stelai they are shown in M12a-d, comprising mostly standing handshake with a seated woman. Of men, are separated from M12e, con- these, the seated C425.1 is likely to be sisting of seated men (fig. 137): unlike the wife of the standing M11 Aischytes, the latter, the former show as a rule a since the name of her father, Phi- left shoulder bunch. lonides, is noted in the inscription; al- M12a is the most important subtype, though external evidence is lacking, containing about 1/2 of all M12 figures. this is the most reasonable interpreta- It consists of mostly short-haired men, tion of the kinship between the figures with short or medium beard, an armpit in remaining cases. The domestic at- himation leaving the left arm in the mosphere is emphasised by the pet majority of cases exposed, and slip- dog shown with C452.1 (and possibly pers; a headband occurs in 2/5 of M12a C247.1) and the gesturing little boy of cases, and a himation overfold is not C416. The fact that the demotic name rare (1/5). Although 2/3 of M12a men of Phanis (C201) is in genitive can only have the left arm is exposed (C410.4: mean that this is a female name, prob- pl. 15), there are several occurrences of ably identifying a little girl, now lost, the himation, both with a left shoulder between the seated Nikaso and the bunch, and covering the left upper arm standing M11 father. In sum, type M11 and forearm (C392.3: pl. 14). M12b, oc- is used for the representation of old curring with 1/10 of M12 males, is mourners of medium to old social rank, closely related to M12a, since it con- in a variety of compositions. sists of short-haired, medium-bearded men in himation forming an overfold, very similar to a few short-bearded M12 men with overfold classified to

119 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

M12a (C163.2 and C169.2); however, face to the right. The connection of left the M12b C646.1 is seated, C465.1 position and, consequently, orientation wears sandals and shows a right arm of adult standing men with old age, and sling, and both figures have the right vice versa, is confirmed with other cos- shoulder covered by the himation. tume types (M13, M15); it should be M12c and M12d are associated with noted, however, that M12b-M12c men long-bearded figures. The former con- face always to the right, and M12d sists of a few men with a right arm seated men are shown facing left, de- sling, and the right shoulder covered by spite their lack of specific age associa- the himation (C384.2: pl. 13), whereas tions. the latter is more common (1/5 of Stelai representing M12 men, typi- M12), and consists of often balding cally 121x56 cm, are more often than men, with an exposed right shoulder expected metopic (36) or true naiskoi and arm (C462.1), sometimes also with (8), and less often frameless (12); the a himation overfold (C411.4). Some pediment and, especially, anthemion M12c-d men are barefoot (e.g., crown predominate, while the plain or C701.2); in contrast with the first sub- akroteria cornice crown is rare. M12 type, however, their himation tends to men are shown frequently in high re- cover the left arm. Finally, the fifth sub- lief, multi-figured representations. Their type consists of seated men with medi- mean squared width is larger than that um beard and a lap himation without associated with any other male cos- left shoulder bunch or overfold, leaving tume type, a fact indicating that type the right shoulder and arm exposed, M12 is connected with high stele ex- and wrapped around the left forearm or penditure (fig. 139); the fact that M12 forming a left arm sling (C676.2: pl. shows also the highest mean rank in- 16). dex, a measure compensating for the Type M12 usually represents young effect of sex and age of the deceased or middle-aged men: there is one ‘20- on squared stele width, indicates that it 24 years’ old, fourteen ‘25-34 years’ is connected with high social rank (fig. old, and eight each of ‘35-59 years’ 140). However, apart from the consid- and ‘60-69 years’ of age (fig. 138). But erable number of large stelai represent- subtypes consisting of standing men ing the type, accounting for its predom- (M12a-d) tend to have more specific inant rank associations, the type also age associations, since their formation occurs with many smaller stelai, con- is influenced by beard length. Ten out nected with low social rank (fig. 139). of thirteen M12a males are ‘25-34 The patronymic and demotic names years’ old, while, at the other extreme, of the deceased are denoted in 23/34 5/6 of M12d males are ‘60-69 years’ stelai representing M12 males; six of old; the association of M12 with young these commemorate metics (the to middle rather than old age, is, thus, isoteles C634.2 has been awarded cit- due to the high frequency of M12a, as- izen taxation rights), a fact suggesting sociating the left shoulder bunch with that type M12 is used both for Atheni- short or medium beard. ans and non-Athenians; also, two M12 Unlike types typically representing men accompany a woman designated older men (e.g., M11) the left-to-right as chreste, one of whom is also identi- position and orientation of M12 men is fied as a wet-nurse. Notably, stelai in- balanced, with a position on the left, tended for metics (except for the large but also left orientation, being slightly naiskos stele C429) or chrestai are more common than expected (fig. 143). smaller than other type M12 represent- However, of standing M12 figures, with ations. These facts confirm that, des- distinct age associations, the younger pite its frequent use on stelai of high M12a males are more frequently shown rank Athenians, costume type M12 is on the right of the image, facing left also represented on many stelai be- (13:7), while 4/7 of the old M12d men longing to poorer families, some of

120 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI which commemorate metics. ceased, since they belong to one- Except for two one-figured composi- figured compositions. tions (C908, C911), M12 men occur on stelai displaying from two to five fig- M12a-M12d men appear in similar ures, of which three-figured stelai are compositions, in most cases shaking the most common (2/5 of M12). In most hands with a seated woman. A maid is cases, they accompany a seated figure. more often represented (C410, pl. 15) Their frequent setting in the foreground than a male servant (C361); the sex of of the image (28:9), and the fact that the secondary figure corresponds to they are almost always shown in hand- that of the deceased, as shown often shake when they are in the company of by name inscription. In C384 and C411, other full-size figures, show the com- depicting a pet dog, the seated female positional importance of M12 males; is identified by name inscription as the their often non-central position is due primary deceased; since no children to their lateral foreground setting in are shown in these cases, the pet dog most three- or more-figured represent- probably connotes family life. It is likely ations, such as C410 (pl. 15). Standing that C419 and C462, displaying a half- M12 figures very often hold the left size child, commemorated the seated shoulder bunch with the left hand, but woman (cf. C406 with baby) as well, other gestures are rare (e.g., C440.2). since they contain a female M11a slave Unlike other male himation types, with pyxis. In four cases, M12a men (a shown predominantly in profile, 2/5 of subtype associated with young adult- M12 men are oblique, a fact related hood) are shown holding a strigil with their frequency on large, two- (C304.4 also an oil flask); despite the plane reliefs, but also reflecting the masculine attached attribute, in the prominent position given to this cos- three compositions showing also a wo- tume type in Classical Athenian stele man (seated: C304, C410; standing: representations. C755), the name inscription identifies Despite its compositional import- her as the primary deceased. Thus, ance, name inscriptions identify the with few exceptions, M12 men shaking type more often with mourners than hands with a woman represent original with the deceased at the original use of mourners. the stele (fig. 141). This fact casts doubts on the identification of the M12 A few M12 men are shown in all- man as the primary dead in 14 ambigu- male compositions, in handshake with ous cases, where a name inscription a standing or seated man; the identity identifies more than one figure; the fact of the primary deceased is in most that M21 men are often named after cases not known from external evid- subsequent reuse of the stele (fig. 142) ence. But in C714, the primary de- is a mere reflection of their being one ceased Philophron is best identified as of the main figures in the composition. the older, seated C714.1; the standing However, on iconographic grounds, M12 male (C714.2) should be his seated M12e men may represent either mourning son, Theophilos. On the other status: C742.3 should be a primary hand, the relief loutrophoros amphora mourner, on account of the attitude of C1003 suggests that the M12 young- and orientation of the half-size C742.2, er figure should have been the primary whereas C741.3 and C756.4 are prob- deceased, who had died unmarried. ably the primary deceased for similar Overall, there is no conclusive evidence reasons; since C701.1 is excluded from on the identity of the deceased in such the handshake between the standing compositions. figures, he may have been a mourner In sum, M12 is used for the repres- when the stele was erected. On the entation of adult men, especially those other hand, some long-bearded M12d young and middle-aged. In most cases, men do represent the primary de- especially when shown with a seated

121 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS woman, M12a-d men were originally type displays relatively low internal co- meant to represent mourners; their hesion in comparison with other male compositional importance, and epi- himation types, but it is well-isolated, graphic evidence (C384, C465), indic- being on average most similar to M12 ate that they represent the husband of and M14 (fig. 127). the deceased woman. On the other M13 is divided at the 0.85 linkage hand, seated M12e men may be either level to two subtypes (fig. 137). M13a mourners or the deceased. The high consists of fourteen men with short stele expenditure connected with the hair, the left arm covered by the type, after the effect of the sex and mantle but both hands exposed, mostly broad age of the deceased is removed, lacking a supporting staff (C370.1); shows that it was primarily connected apart from six seated men in lap hi- with high family rank; however, M12 mation, most M13a figures are stand- was also used on smaller stelai, some- ing and wear (except for C225.1: fore- times to represent metics and marginal arm himation), a himation drawn under social identities (e.g., relatives of poor the left armpit. On the other hand, the chrestai servants). The frequency of seven men classified in M13b (C1013.1: the type indicates that it is the stand- pl. 26) are standing, lean on a staff ard representation of relatively young usually supported under the left armpit, adult Athenian citizens, shown in the and have the left forearm and often the majority of cases in a mixed represent- hand wrapped by an armpit himation; ation of the oikos, but occasionally also because of the armpit staff, they are on their own, or in an all-male composi- linked to type M11, despite their tion. covered right shoulder and arm sling. Like M11 men, their hair is not always 9.3.12 Type M13: bearded short: C241.1 and C708.1 are medium- males with armpit himation, no haired, and C1013.1 and C1058.2 are headband, right arm sling and balding; besides, they are medium- or wrapped left arm long-bearded as well. Unlike M11 men, however, M13b males are not as a rule Type M13 consists of 12 males classi- barefoot, but wear either slippers or fied by average linkage cluster analys- sandals; the presence of slippers may is, and 10 further figures assigned on be related to the higher emphasis on the basis of mean similarity. M12 males covering the body with the mantle, typically lack a headband, and wear an shown by type M13 in comparison with armpit himation covering the right M11. shoulder, forming a right arm sling, and wrapped around the left forearm. A The apparent age of type M13 males smaller, but notable number of M13 is on average the highest among types males are short-bearded, are supported of men wearing a himation: only two on a staff set under the left armpit, or ‘25-34 years old’, five ‘35-59 years wear sandals. The right arm sling, the old’, four old men of ‘60-69 years’ and distinctive trait of the himation, associ- two stooping, balding figures ‘older ates M13 with the so-called Aischines than 70 years’ (fig. 138). The relief and Sophokles sculptural types, known loutrophoros amphora under the image from Roman copies (Bieber 1977: 129, of C660a may indicate unmarried fig. 581-582); Classical examples in status of one of the two bearded males, vase-painting and relief sculpture are despite their advanced age. It is note- listed in Polashek (1969: 16-17). How- worthy that the association with old ever, the right arm sling of several M13 age does not occur only among figures figures covers just the elbow; a sharply with staff in comparison with type M11 flexed right arm with a tight arm sling, males, but also among figures lacking a possibly combined with a shoulder hi- staff, especially in contrast to types mation similar to that of the Sophokles M10 and M12. It thus appears that the copies, occurs only in C1058.2. The staff is not the only means by which old

122 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI age is denoted, but that bodily mod- difference in name inscription complex- esty, expressed in covering the right ity identifies the seated woman of C239 shoulder and arms, also signifies old and C370 as the primary deceased, but age among adults. Except for a frontal the background C359.4 is identified as Stimmungsträger case (C359.4), most a mourner on grounds of composition. M13 men are shown in profile. Regardless of deceased status, the Although some M13 men are con- standing M13 man shown in handshake tained in group representations, includ- with a seated woman is probably her ing the seven-figured C359, most be- husband, since the father would be long to two-figured compositions. They shown seated. On the other hand, the also occur with a variety of tectonic seated Thous (C729.2), shaking hands types, of which metopic stelai are with a veiled standing woman, may be slightly more common than expected. her father; both figures are given equal Stelai are mostly of medium to large di- iconographic emphasis, accompanied mensions, not so much on account of by an exomis boy (M5b) and a maid mean height (124 cm) as of width (54 with pyxis (M11a) respectively, and cm); consequently, M13 is on average either may thus represent the de- connected with almost as high stele ceased. The old man C1020.1, shown in cost, expressed by squared stele width, amplified handshake with a standing F7 as M12 (fig. 139). The difference in girl, is also in all probability her father. stele expenditure between M13 and M13 men in all-male compositions M11 is notable, especially since M13b tend to belong to subtype M13b. The and M11 share the armpit staff, and are profile, background C1058.2 is probably differentiated only by the right arm a mourner on grounds of composition; sling and footgear of M13b (M13a and C708.1, a spectator of a handshake M13b are shown on stelai of similar di- between two other figures, should also mensions). The difference becomes be a mourner. On the other hand, the even stronger if the effect of the sex named C1061a.1 is probably the de- and broad age of the deceased on stele ceased, since the half-size F7 girl ges- expenditure is removed (fig. 140), tures towards him, rather than towards showing that, among M11 and M13 rep- the possibly nameless C1061a.3. resentations of old men, modesty in ex- Whereas C1058.2 and C1136.3 repres- posing the body may be connected ent the father, C708.1 is probably the with higher social rank. son or younger brother of the very old The importance of M13 males in the seated man, and the younger standing composition is shown by their central- men of C1061a appear to be of similar ity, and by the frequency of handshake, age. Seated M13 men shown with including an amplified handshake standing males may also represent (C1020.1). Standing M13a males often their father; this is certainly the case in accompany a seated female, whereas C629, showing the seated man in hand- those in M13b occur frequently in all- shake with a beardless M8 boy. male compositions. In all stelai pre- The view that the Sophokles and Ais- serving an inscription, the M13 male is chines types represent the old costume one of the deceased (fig. 142). Most of orators, accepted by Polashek (1969: figures of this costume type are shown 16) was rejected by Bieber (1977: 129), on the left side of the composition, nor- who argued that this is just a major mally associated with seated stance, stylistic variant of the Classical Greek facing right (fig. 143). himation, used then through the span M13 men are identified twice as the of six centuries to the Roman era, primary deceased: C210.1 is the only without further associations. Obviously, named figure, and in C241 the name of either view cannot be generally con- the seated Lysistrate was added under firmed or refuted by the study of Clas- the rosettes, after the carving of the re- sical Attic stelai alone. But costume lief, and probably its primary use. The type M13, related to the sculptural

123 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS types on account of the covered right Three M14 subtypes are distin- shoulder and right arm sling, seems to guished at the 0.85 linkage level (fig. be associated with the representation 137). C617.1, a seated man in slippers of mature and old age (hence the fre- and lap himation covering the right quency of the staff); in stelai, therefore, shoulder, holding a staff with his left it is not merely a stylistic variant. The hand, leaning on the knee, is the only stele expenditure associated with this instance of M14a. The most common costume seems to be slightly higher M14 subtype, M14b, consists of stand- than that of other costume types fre- ing figures holding a staff, mostly in quently used to represent old men, armpit himation leaving the right such as M11 and M15; the rank index shoulder exposed; a variation with distribution suggests that M13 may re- covered right shoulder is C254.1, flect the taste of a higher social rank whereas C1015.2 has a headband. Sub- than those other types. Despite the type M14c consists of seated figures in single occurrence of a loutrophoros lap himation leaving the right shoulder stele, the fact that most M13 men are and arm exposed (C618.1). They are shown in handshake with a woman, or differentiated from other M14 men in in the company of a younger figure ap- that they hold the staff in a raised posi- parently representing their son or tion; because of the raised staff, M14c daughter, suggests that they were mar- is very similar to M15. ried. Both mourners and the deceased Type M14 men range from the are shown in this costume, but M13 fig- young, short-bearded C749.1 (’20-24 ures are often set in a central position, years’ old), to the old, long-bearded or on the left side of the image often Dexitheos (C620.1, ‘60-69 years’ old). reserved for seated figures, indicating In comparison to other male costume that the social role of mature or old types, most M14 men are ‘35-59 years’ man that they represent is, regardless old (5 cases; C617.1); however, on ac- of deceased status, viewed with re- count of younger M14 figures, the age spect. associations of the type resemble those of M12 (fig. 128): despite the fact that 9.3.13 Type M14: medium- all M14 males have a staff, and 1/3 are bearded males with short hair, hi- seated, they are considerably younger mation and slippers, holding a staff than both M11 and M13 men. The lack Average linkage cluster analysis clas- of modesty in covering the body with sified six males in type M14; on the the himation, as shown by the more basis of mean similarity, they are frequently exposed right shoulder, joined by seven less well-preserved fig- arms and hands, seems therefore to be ures. The typical figure of this type is connected with the representation of short-haired, lacks a headband or other young, rather than old adulthood. head ornament, is draped in an armpit Frameless stelai and true naiskoi oc- himation without left shoulder bunch cur more often than expected with type and overfold, leaving the left shoulder M14, as is also the akroteria cornice and both arms and hands exposed, crown. The typical stele representing holds a staff in the left hand and wears an M14 man is 129 cm high by 51 cm slippers (C1061a.3). Type M14 shows wide. The mean squared width of 0.32 relatively high internal cohesion, but m2. is similar to that connected with also a relatively high degree of affinity other male costume types displaying a with other himation types, especially staff, such as M11 and M13 (fig. 139). M12 and M11 (fig. 127). Its similarity Examining the rank index associated with M12 is due to the armpit himation with M14 after the effect of sex and with the exposed right shoulder and broad age of the deceased has been re- arm, while that with M11 is due to the moved indicates that the type is, to- presence of the staff. gether with M13 and, slightly more, M12, used to represent males of high

124 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI social rank. the raised staff (fig. 127). According to Considering the rarity of seated men an analysis of residuals, M15 is charac- in Classical Athenian reliefs, it is not- terised by medium hair and narrow able that in three cases M14c men be- headband, long beard, a lap himation long to seated, one-figured composi- with left shoulder bunch, covering the tions. The connection of M14 with cent- right shoulder but leaving the left arm rality, profile position and composition- exposed, and a staff, held with raised al isolation is mainly due to these hand (C628.1); a variation, showing a single-figured representations. Apart right arm sling and an encircling hair from these men, obviously representing plait unusual with other male costume the primary deceased, C668.1, in hand- types, is C661.1. shake with a standing woman, is also M15 males are on average slightly identified by name inscription as the older than M12 or M14 figures, but primary dead; in fact, all external evid- younger than those in M11 or M13. ence indicates that type M14 repres- There is one ‘25-34 years’ old, a man ents the primary deceased (figs. 141- lacking the raised staff but associated 142). However, unidentified standing with other men in this group because of M14b figures such as C254.1 and his medium hair, narrow headband and C1090.2, may represent either the de- long beard (C692.2). Of M15 men with ceased or a mourner; moreover, a raised staff, C708.2 is ‘60-69 years’ C337.3 is more likely to be a mourner, old, and three examples are ‘35-59 on account of his background position, years’ old, showing that M15 repres- as is also C1061a.3 on account of the ents mostly middle-aged men (fig. orientation of the centrally placed half- 138). The seated stance predominates size girl. (8:3), especially in the presence of a In sum, both seated and standing raised staff, and is no doubt connected M14 figures are used to represent typ- also with the frequency of profile M15 ically young or middle-aged men, males. Besides, type M15 is almost ex- either Athenian (C617.1) or metic clusively associated with right orienta- (C618.1). Although the stele expendit- tion (fig. 143), and a setting on the left ure associated with this type is large, of the image; left orientation is rare be- compared with that of M10 (typically cause it was undesirable to show fig- young males) and M11 (old men), it is ures holding the staff in the right hand smaller than that of type M12, the ma- or in the foreground (cf. Stupperich jor costume of young to middle adult- 1977: 95), but the association with left hood. As shown by iconographic evid- position is shown also by other male ence, both mourners and the deceased costume types representing mature or are represented by standing M14b old men, and cannot be a mere stylistic men. On the other hand, seated M4c effect. men, holding mostly a raised staff such Stelai representing M15 men are as that of type M15, are in all cases ex- very small, as shown by the mean stele amined the deceased. dimensions of only 89x40 cm, and the frequency of metopic stelai with this 9.3.14 Type M15: long-bearded type. They are all carved in low relief, males with medium hair narrow consisting equally often of two or three headband, lap himation and raised figures. The examination of the squared stele width of stelai representing M15 staff men suggests that, in absolute terms, Five figures were classified by aver- type M15 is the himation type with the age linkage cluster analysis to M15, lowest mean stele cost; in fact, only M6 joined by six similar, partially pre- priests are shown on average on even served figures by means of subsequent smaller, one-figured stelai (fig. 139). assignment. This is a very uniform The strong association with low stele type, similar only to M14 on account of expenditure is maintained, even after

125 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS the effect of the sex and broad age of deceased. the primary deceased has removed In sum, type M15 is used to repres- from squared stele width (fig. 140); this ent seated males of mature age; the fact indicates that type M15 may have fact that most M15 men are shown fa- low social rank associations, despite cing right, is related to the preference the fact that the gesture of the raised for raising the staff with the back- left arm, holding the staff, recalls rep- ground, left arm, but also to their set- resentations of gods in other Classical ting on the left of the composition, sculpture (e.g., Apollo, Parthenon East which finds parallels in other costume frieze, plate VI, fig. 39). There are two types representing mature and old inscriptions identifying the M15 man as men. On account of iconographic evid- Athenian, one (C706) as a metic; on ence, M15 men appear to be used to this evidence, there is no reason to represent the primary deceased, rather suppose that the type was used more than mourners; this conclusion, how- often than expected with either popula- ever, should be taken with caution, tion. since it is not based on hard epigraphic The majority of seated M15 men, evidence. Finally, the unassuming tec- holding a raised staff, belong to com- tonic form, low relief and small dimen- positions enlarged just by a standing sions of stelai representing M15 men, figure, male (C628, C636) or female point to a connection of the type with (C661, C669); the common three- low social rank. figured composition with a background figure in the middle occurs only in C722. But in C708 and C709, the M15 man is set in the central position, between two standing foreground males and in all these cases he is shown in handshake, facts showing the compositional importance of the type. In C708, the M15 man may be the father of the two standing males, but in C661 the woman’s patronymic name shows that he was her husband. Name inscriptions always specify more than one figure as the deceased. The fact that the name of Euangelos (C661.1) is inscribed on the top of the oblong stele shows that he was the primary deceased; C628.1 may also have been the primary deceased, since the demotic of the name inscription is slightly misplaced to the left; in C708, the figures accompanying the seated M15 man belong to type M11, often used to represent mourners (above: section 5.3.6). On the other hand, the name inscription of C636, giving the name of the M15 figure in genitive, is probably a forgery; moreover, although C709.2 is identified by both proper name and ethnic, the presence of the helmeted secondary figure on the left suggests that the standing youth, Minakos, may have been the primary

126 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

10. 11.Social dimensions and the meaning of costume

11.1 The effect of major social variables on costume

11.1.1 Social associations of female costume The first three axes found by principal co-ordinate analysis may be examined to determine the major social dimensions underlying female costume variability. The 1st PC accounts for 31% of the total variance (fig. 97). The contribution of specific costume traits to this co-ordinate is summarised in fig. 117, indicating that it mainly differentiates females lacking a himation, including maids in long- sleeved tunic and sakkos (F11a, with the smallest mean value), girls with shoulder bands (F11c), stephane and medium hair (F11d) or ungirt tunic (F11e), and F14 girls with crossing-bands and shoulder- back mantle, from females in himation, especially women in lap or armpit himation forming a veil, wearing a short- sleeved (F8) or sleeveless tunic (F9) and sometimes displaying a hair plait raised over the forehead or a multiple headband. The study of Kendall’s tau-b coefficients shows that by far the greatest, highly significant correlation of the 1st PC is with age (fig. 118), a noteworthy fact, considering that age is not significantly correlated with other major principal co-ordinates. The positive correlations

127 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS of the 1st PC with profile position, stele ler, rather than larger, 1st PC scores dimensions and the number of figures in than younger women. Among adult wo- the composition, simply reflect the men, those seated display higher 1st PC strong tendency of younger females to scores than the standing; the intrinsic be represented frontal or slightly turned importance of seated posture, the veil to the side, on small, one- or two-figured and a plait raised over the forehead or a stelai. On the other hand, the relatively multiple headband, and the association strong correlation of the 1st PC with fore- with the foreground plane indicate that ground plane is due to the fact that, among adult women the 1st PC also sig- while most non-adult figures are shown nifies status differentiation. More spe- on stelai without plane differentiation, cifically, it was found that, among adults, F11a slave girls are often shown in the those originally identified by name in- background. scription as deceased have consistently The association with age is confirmed higher 1st PC scores than those repres- by examining the mean 1st PC scores of enting mourners. However, the 1st PC other traits with possible social signific- does not differentiate mourners from the ance (fig. 119). According to apparent deceased after subsequent reuse of the age means, children and adolescent girls stele, a fact indicating that small positive up to ‘17 years’ are differentiated from PC scores (armpit or forearm himation, adult women. The standing posture, the encircling plait, uncovered head) are gesture of lifting the garment at thigh connected with secondary figures that height, and, naturally, all playthings could, if necessary, be identified as the characterising free girls, have negative deceased. A slightly different pattern mean scores, in contrast to the seated was observed among non-adult females, posture, handshake, the gesture of lifting with slave girls in long-sleeved tunic, the garment at shoulder height, and oth- who are mourners by definition, display- er traits confined to adulthood. With the ing lower scores than free children and exception of ‘3-5 years’ old and ‘11-12 adolescent females. years’ old females, the 1st PC mean In sum, the 1st PC, the most import- scores reflect relatively well the specific ant component of costume variability, order of apparent age ranges before separates free females younger than ‘18 adulthood. The positive mean 1st PC years’ and slave girls, lacking a hi- scores of the metopic tectonic type and mation, from mostly adult women in hi- of the semicircular crown are due to the mation. This result reflects the fact that fact that these stelai rarely represent the social variable significantly associ- either non-adult free girls, or female ated with the greatest number of female slaves; the former are typically shown on costume attributes is age (fig. 35). Be- pseudo-naiskos, frameless or small sides, the correlation of the 1st PC with naiskos stelai, and the latter are often stele width and the number of figures part of multi-figured compositions, be- represented is due to the already estab- longing to large naiskos stelai with pedi- lished fact that adolescent females, and ment crown. The negative mean scores especially children, are shown on less of the kneeling stance, and of merely costly monuments than adult women gazing at another figure (visual contact) (above: section 2.2). Apart from age-re- reflect the association of these traits lated status, the 1st PC differentiates with F11a female slaves. On the other slave girls from free non-adult females, hand, the mean scores for adult age and seated, mostly primary deceased, ranges are very similar, with ‘35-59 from standing mourners or secondary years’ old females showing slightly smal- deceased females; thus, the differenti-

128 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI ation between primary deceased and On the other hand, the right orienta- mourners, and that between free fe- tion of many veiled females with negat- males and slaves, is an important aspect ive scores is due to the frequency of the of the 1st PC, despite the fact that it is gesture of lifting the himation at the obscured in the statistics by the co-or- shoulder, typically with the background dinate’s dominant age significance. left hand, and to the fact that F11a slaves are also shown slightly more often facing right, when not frontal; females There is a dramatic fall in the amount with positive 2nd PC scores are shown of costume variability accounted for by frequently in handshake, not only in the the remaining co-ordinates (fig. 97). The obvious comparison with non-adult or 2nd PC represents only 9% of variance. slave girls, but also in comparison with According to the mean scores of indi- himation women with negative scores. vidual costume traits (fig. 120), this co- Although apparent age is not correlated ordinate contrasts the traits of F8-F10 with the 2nd PC, it is interesting to note veiled women and F11a slave girls in that ‘20-24 years’ old women in particu- sakkos and long-sleeved tunic, with the lar are associated with negative 2nd PC shoulder or forearm arrangements of the scores (fig. 122). himation, the hairstyle of the falling plait or encircling plait, and the motif of the Excluding the sakkos and long sleeves himation covering the left arm and hand. of F11a slaves, the opposition between On this account, high positive 2nd PC the veil and covered right shoulder on scores are shown by F7 girls in shoulder one hand, and the covered or wrapped himation, F5 females with exposed right left arm and hand on the other, indicates shoulder, especially those in forearm hi- that two different forms of modesty are mation covering the left arm (F5d), and distinguished by the 2nd PC; of these, seated women in lap himation wrapping the former is associated with adornment the left arm and hand (F6). of the head, denoted by the presence of multiple headband or earrings. The com- The 2nd PC presents statistically signi- bination of head ornament and modesty, ficant Kendall’s tau-b correlations, on the associated with negative 2nd PC scores, one hand with stele width (and thus ex- is relevant to adult women, particularly penditure) and relief depth in particular, ‘20-24 years’ old; this reinforces the res- and on the other hand with the orienta- ults of the analysis on the individual cos- tion and right/left position of the figure tume traits (above: section 3.2.2). How- (fig. 121). Thus, figures with negative ever, both veiled women and slave girls 2nd PC scores tend to be shown facing with negative 2nd PC mean scores are right, set on the left of representations connected with high stele expenditure, on costly, high relief stelai, and vice reflecting family rank. The frequency of versa. The mean scores of specific tec- F11a slaves on larger stelai, despite their tonic and iconographic traits (fig. 122) low status, is easily explained by the fact confirm these associations. True naiskoi, that they are always accessory figures, the compositional type of ‘seated facing functioning as mere status attributes. background standing figure’, and its ex- The association of the veil, covered right tensions with a standing figure in the shoulder, other adorning costume traits foreground in front of, or in the back- (fig. 120) and the gesture of lifting the ground behind the seated figure, are set himation at the shoulder with increased in opposition to metopic stelai with a expenditure is important; it means that semicircular crown; these tectonic asso- this combination of modesty and adorn- ciations are obviously related to stele ment of the head was more likely to be cost.

129 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS shown by women of higher family rank, high relief on stelai that were more especially in young adulthood, than by costly, not so much because of their those less well-off. width or multi-figured composition, but of their height and, therefore, visibility in the cemetery; as shown by their negat- The third PC is of roughly equal im- ive mean 3rd PC score (fig. 125), stelai portance to the 2nd (9% of variance). with an akroteria cornice crown (usually Negative mean scores of the 3rd PC representing non-adult females) are also manifest themselves among figures with connected with costume complexity. On shoulder-back mantle or bunched hi- the other hand, simple costume (positive mation, double tunic, long tunic overfall, scores) is correlated with short stele crossing bands with medallion and, to height and low relief depth, and is partic- some extent, sandals; positive means ularly associated with frameless stelai occur with sleeveless or long-sleeved— and those with a plain, rectangular single or ungirt tunic, no overfall, short crown (fig. 125). The third PC is also pos- hair or sakkos (fig. 123). This co-ordinate itively correlated to the presence of an reflects a clear differentiation between epigram; the implied low expenditure simple and complex, ornate costume. connection may, however, be spurious, Young girls with a bunched himation since many full naiskoi and large naiskos (F13) and older girls with shoulder-back stelai are dissociated from their ar- mantle (F14) are set in contrast to slave chitraves and bases respectively, where girls (F11a), seated women in sleeveless an epigram could have been inscribed. tunic with (F9) or without a veil (F5a), and girls in shoulder himation (F7). Apart Like the form of the stele, the negat- from the notable differentiation between ive correlation of the 3rd PC with frontal- two early adolescence types, the F14 ity (fig. 124) and the negative mean girls with exposed arm, lifting their scores of directly gazing towards the mantle to gracious folds at thigh height, spectator, and of lifting the mantle at and the F7 girls having both shoulders, thigh height (type F14), imply a connec- arms, and possibly also hands enclosed tion between complex, ornate female in the himation, this co-ordinate lacks costume and intention for conspicuity. Al- the implications of modesty and body ex- though the negative correlation of the posure found in connection with the 2nd 3rd PC with the deceased (after reuse of PC. Besides, it is notable that, apart from the stele) lacks statistical significance, the slight negative association of the the positive mean scores of iconographic covered right shoulder (i.e., with com- traits such as bringing the hand to the plex costume) the 3rd PC does not affect cheek or chin, or reaching towards an- proper himation traits at all; therefore, other figure indicate that, to some ex- especially in adulthood, this co-ordinate tent, this co-ordinate represents the dis- runs across the barriers of costume tinction between female mourners in types found by average linkage cluster- simple dress, and deceased in complex, ing, separating in an almost clear-cut ornate costume. It therefore comple- way single- from double-tunicked fe- ments the compositional differentiation males. between standing mourners or secondary deceased, and primary dead, seated The 3rd PC is not correlated signific- females in lap himation and veil, indic- antly with stele width; however, it shows ated by the 1st PC. moderate negative correlations with relief depth and stele height (fig. 124). Therefore, figures with complex costume The results of statistical tests on the (negative scores) tend to be shown in association of female costume types

130 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI found by average linkage cluster analys- costume affecting the 1st and 3rd prin- is with important social variables are lis- cipal co-ordinates lack statistical signific- ted in fig. 116. Female apparent age, ance, when examined against specific represented by the first principal co-or- costume types; the only statistically sig- dinate, and stele width and right/left ori- nificant departures from independence entation, connected with the 2nd PC, are are those of type F1, consisting of veil- significantly associated with specific fe- less women in himation covering the male costume types. The average link- right shoulder, always identified as age typology confirms the main distinc- Athenian, type F6, with women in lap hi- tion between adult women in himation mation wrapped around the left forearm, and non-adult females in bunched hi- representing persons other than the mation, shoulder-back mantle or no primary deceased, and type F11, predict- mantle. In addition, however, it indicates ably connected with representations of the existence of finer pattern not re- mourners after the final use of the stele, vealed by the PC analysis, connecting on account of slave girls in long-sleeved figures in bunched himation (F13) with tunic. Unlike age and family rank, the young childhood, and separating the way in which female costume operates older children and adolescent girls in to distinguish the primary or secondary shoulder himation and falling hair plait deceased from mourners is better (F7), and the late adolescent females in demonstrated by the results of the prin- forearm himation with overfold (F4) from cipal co-ordinates analysis, since relev- other costume types, mainly represent- ant traits run across specific costume ing adult women in himation. types. Female costume typology also confirms the family rank differentiation 11.1.2 Social associations of (based on stele cost, with the effect of male costume the age of the deceased removed) The first principal co-ordinate of male between large stelai representing veiled costume accounts for 36% of the total women and smaller stelai showing fe- variance. As shown by the table of cos- males with uncovered head. It shows, tume traits significantly associated with however, that standing adolescent girls the 1st PC (fig. 145), males in himation in shoulder himation (F7), or shoulder- display positive scores, sharply separ- back mantle (F14), are, in comparison to ated from those in short or long tunic, other figures of their age, connected bunched or folded himation or no with high stele expenditure, a fact totally mantle; as we have already seen (above: obscured by principal co-ordinate analys- section 5.1), this is the major division is. The effect of right orientation on cos- between average linkage costume types. tume typology is also statistically signi- Beardless and barefoot figures have neg- ficant, and, according to an analysis of ative 1st PC mean scores, while all forms residuals, most apparent in the frequent of a staff (especially when held in a right orientation of veilless F1 women raised position), the long beard, and hi- with a lap himation covering the right mation traits of covering the arms and shoulder and of F11a slave girls, in con- shoulders, including the arm sling, dis- trast to several other types, including play large positive scores. The separa- the adolescent and young adult F5 wo- tion between figures in himation and men with exposed right shoulder, and those nude, and the further distinction of most representations of free non-adult the exact form of the himation, makes it females. clear that the 1st PC reflects the degree However, other social associations of of body exposure.

131 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS

As would be expected from the differ- most bearded men wear an armpit hi- entiation between beardless and long- or mation (M12, M13), and that most beard- medium-bearded figures, the 1st PC is less men in himation display the forearm strongly positively correlated with age or shoulder variety (M8). (fig. 146). Iconographic attributes dis- In addition, the 1st PC shows a moder- playing negative mean 1st PC scores, ate negative correlation with frontality such as the number of attached attrib- and the status of primary deceased, and uta, are connected with childhood and weak positive correlation with right ori- adolescence (fig. 147). Of these, the rep- entation and the number of figures in the resentations of a hound, stele, bird, stri- composition. The correlation with the gil and oil flask run across costume primary deceased is despite the fact that types, while others (i.e., spear, horse, gestures of clasped hands, or arm sword and wheel toy) are confined to fig- brought across to the shoulder, connec- ures of distinct costume. The notable ted with M1 or M5 slaves, show strong lack of significant association with the negative 1st PC associations. This is representation of a pet dog, a strong probably in response to the fact that oth- symbol of childhood, is due to its depic- er non-adult males as a rule represent tion with the intermediate M8 boys in hi- the primary deceased, shown facing left mation, rather than the nude M1 and M2 in frontality or near-frontality, while adult children and youths; this is also the reas- males are mostly shown in profile (espe- on why ‘13-15 years’ old boys have high- cially those seated) or obliquely, on er 1st PC scores than ‘18-19 years’ old either side of two- or more-figured com- youths (fig. 147). The high positive mean positions, and often represent secondary scores of males in handshake, especially figures. Indeed, compositions consisting when amplified with the left hand, and of a single full-size figure (with or seated stance, reflect the fact that these without an additional half-size boy) usu- traits are almost entirely confined to ally have negative scores, while two- or adulthood. Of attributes concerned with more-figured stelai mostly represent stele form and decoration, sirens occur adult figures with positive scores; the with negative scores, and thus young higher 1st PC scores of compositions age, while heraldic animals (sphinxes, with a centrally placed seated figure are lions), bell-shaped crown, anthemion and due to the fact that they frequently rep- metopic stelai are associated with posit- resent seated or standing males of ma- ive scores, and thus old age; there is, ture or old age, holding a staff. however, no differentiation in stele dimensions along this axis. In sum, the first PC reflects greatly figure age, without rank implications, in This interpretation of the 1st PC con- agreement with the main taxonomic divi- firms the age associations suggested by sion between figures in himation, and single costume attributes, especially the those in other costumes; slaves show fact that most adult males are shown in very low scores, and males in short or himation, and those nude, with or long tunic (identified with hoplites, warri- without a bunched himation, are mostly ors without a cuirass, short chiton eph- non-adult. Among males in himation, the ebes and young men, and priests) show armpit and lap arrangements display intermediate scores between non-adults higher mean scores than the forearm in nudity or bunched himation and males and shoulder himation; this is not sur- in proper himation. Allowing for age dif- prising, considering the facts that the ferentiation, this co-ordinate reflects also seated posture connected with the lap an increased degree of covering the himation is confined to older men, that body: of non-adult figures, those with the

132 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI falling forearm or armpit himation cover- has already been noted in connection ing the left forearm and hand have high- with the 1st PC. The number of attached er scores than nude or bunched himation attributes, especially birds and pet dogs, males; of tunicked figures, exomis is connected with negative scores, as is slaves, short chiton youths and young the gesture of the pointed index, and the men, and warriors without a cuirass, composition type consisting of a single priests and hoplites display on average full-size standing figure (fig. 150). On the increasing 1st PC scores, inversely to other hand, the seated stance, and their body exposure; finally, adult figures multi-figured composition types are as- in himation covering the right shoulder, sociated with positive scores. and displaying a right or left arm sling, Apart from age, the 2nd PC is correl- have larger positive scores than those ated almost as strongly with right orient- with exposed arms. The 1st PC is the ation, and, slightly less, with position at most important dimension of male cos- the left of the image (fig. 149). Right ori- tume variability; its strong correlation entation is actually linked with the motifs with age means that male costume is of the himation covering the right primarily used on Classical stele icono- shoulder and right arm sling (positive graphy for age differentiation. scores), while the alternative motifs of covered left arm and hand (negative The 2nd PC, the second most import- scores) are connected with left orienta- ant dimension of male costume, repres- tion. In both cases, the visible, fore- ents 13% of the total variance. As shown ground side of figures with extreme pos- by the mean scores significantly differen- itive or negative 2nd PC scores is tiated from zero (fig. 148), it contrasts covered by the himation; nevertheless, beardless figures with a stephane, the orientation of the figures is involved dressed in shoulder and forearm hi- in defining two different forms of mod- mation covering the left arm and hand, esty, the former appropriate to mature but not the right shoulder and arm, with and old men, the latter occurring with tunicked males of all types, and also with M8 children and adolescent boys. medium- and long-bearded men leaning Unlike the 1st PC, this co-ordinate is on or holding a staff, and wearing a hi- also moderately correlated with stele ex- mation typically covering the right penditure. The axis differentiates shoulder and forming a right arm sling. strongly figures on account of stele While negative scores are shown espe- height, determining the visibility of the cially by M8 boys, high positive scores grave marker, and the number of figures run across several costume types found represented, but not according to relief by average linkage cluster analysis depth, although the few full naiskoi ex- (M11, M13 and M15). amined have on average positive scores; The major underlying social dimension the lack of overall differentiation in relief of this PC is also age (fig. 149); in fact, it depth is the reason for the moderate reflects more closely age differentiation value of the stele width correlation, within adulthood, as may be seen from which summarises the total effect of cost the apparent age mean scores (fig. 150). on this co-ordinate. In this light, the 2nd The positive correlations with the num- PC reflects the effect of the perceived ber of figures in the image, mourner high or low status of different broad ages status at the original use of the stele, on male costume (cf. above: section 2.2). profile position on the side rather than But the higher, positive scores of nude the centre of the representation are due non-adult males in comparison to the to the age associations of these traits, as negative scores of males in bunched or,

133 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS especially, proper himation show true nude athletes, the palaistra possibly con- differences in stele expenditure, which noting preparation for public life (M1), are not always matched by correspond- and from lightly armed youths in short ing differences in apparent age. On the tunic (M4), of the age of military service. other hand, although stele expenditure Young standing men, shown in family does not increase with age within adult- compositions of increasing complexity, hood, higher scores reflect higher age-re- typically with exposed left arm, are dis- lated status, symbolised by the seated tinguished from older standing or seated stance and the gesture of holding the men with a staff, often shown in prob- staff with raised hand, a trait with divine ably outdoor, all-male compositions. The connotations in Classical art. This fact, high positive scores of men with special and the tendency of older figures to be social identities connected with the pub- shown more often on the left of the im- lic sphere, such as hoplites and priests, age facing right than vice versa, show confirm the interpretation of the 2nd PC that left position and right orientation as a representation of both age-related among males signify respect and author- and special status of the figure. ity connected with old age, a result found also in the discussion of specific costume types. The 3rd PC accounts for only 7% of male costume variability; as shown by Males on stelai belonging, according the mean scores of costume traits (fig. to the name inscriptions, to Athenian 151), males with medium hair and hi- families, have on average positive 2nd mation, covered right shoulder right arm PC scores. This is partly due to the fact sling, left arm wrapped and left hand that figures in tunic (high positive covered by the himation are separated scores), identified as priests or warriors, mostly from men in short beard and were mostly representations of Atheni- short hair, and armpit himation, with left ans. It is notable, however, that a com- shoulder bunch or overfold, leaving the bination of proper name with a demotic right shoulder, and both arms and hands or ethnic name is more common with exposed. This PC does not offer new in- adult males, who have positive 2nd PC sights upon the costume of nude ath- scores. Therefore, although it is tempting letes, slaves and special social identities to infer a link between Athenian origin denoted by a tunic (M1-M7), but it re- and high stele expenditure, the associ- flects clearly the degree of body expos- ation of this co-ordinate with family ure of males in proper himation, a partic- provenience must be seen in the light of ularly important composite costume trait the interpretation of the customary ab- (above: section 1.2.3). Although it does sence of a full name inscription among not separate average linkage-derived non-adult males, taking into account oth- types in a clear-cut way, M11 and M13b er evidence (below: section 6.2). men with armpit staff, M15 men with A final aspect of the 2nd principal co- covered right shoulder, and M8a beard- ordinate is the opposition between the less males with medium hair and private and public domain; this is con- stephane have negative scores, in con- noted not only by the mere fact that chil- trast to M12 males, with exposed right dren did not have a public identity, but shoulder and arms. also by differences in iconography The 3rd PC is weakly correlated with among both non-adult and adult males. the deceased or mourner status of the Among non-adults, boys in himation en- figure after final use of the monument, gaged in the private play with bird and and stele cost, especially as shown by pet dog (M8), are differentiated from stele height, denoting its visibility, the

134 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI number of figures, and central position in multi-figured stelai. Despite the lack of the representation (fig. 152). The correl- direct age correlation, the former are ation with centrality is probably due to identified with two age ranges, trans- the distinction between mourners and itional children and young adolescents, the deceased. This co-ordinate therefore and old men. The connection of modesty distinguishes, in the extreme case, with small stele cost is probably due to between dead males, set in the centre of the fact that stelai commemorating short, few-figured stelai (negative males were in general less costly than scores), and mourners represented on those intended for females, which fea- the sides of multi-figured compositions ture men in a himation with left shoulder on tall stelai; it should be noted, how- bunch, and often exposed arms and ever, that some specific costume types hands, as secondary figures. However, in (M11, M13) were found to have quite the comparison with males not wearing a opposite association from that implied proper himation or with deceased men here, probably because of the fact that with positive scores, modesty may be a mourners with exposed arms and hands correlate of lower family rank. are in absolute terms more frequent. As shown by the mean scores of icon- Statistical tests performed on male ographic and tectonic attributes, the costume typology derived by average males with negative scores tend to be- linkage clustering have shown that it is long to often one-figured stelai without strongly associated with the age of the plane differentiation, and those with pos- figures represented, right or left orienta- itive scores are part of compositions tion, their deceased or mourner status where background is differentiated from both at the original and eventual state of foreground; this is yet another aspect of the stele, and stele expenditure (fig. difference in stele cost. But negative 144). As in principal co-ordinate analysis, mean scores also occur with pet dogs, males in a proper himation are differenti- birds and wheel-toys (fig. 153); the pop- ated from those wearing a tunic, other ularity of these attached attributes re- types of mantle, or no mantle at all. By flects their association with single- virtue of their beard, most adult figures figured, type M8a representations of the were put into different types from non- deceased. In fact, ‘9-10 years’ old males adults; beardless males were in fact are contrasted by the analysis with joined with those just growing a beard, youths and young men, ‘18-25 years’ and separated from those having short, old, showing positive mean scores (fig. medium or long beard. This result is not 153). Altogether, the 3rd PC separates as circular as it may look, since the sep- the bulk of standard, short-haired and aration of figures growing a beard from short-bearded young adults in armpit hi- those short-bearded was not determined mation, representing mourners or the beforehand, but was found by the ana- deceased, from medium-haired non- lysis to conform better to the variability adults and old men, wearing a stephane of other costume traits than, for in- or simple headband respectively, often stance, that of short from medium-length being the deceased on smaller stelai. beard. In sum, the third principal co-ordinate Nude non-adult figures lacking a clearly represents the degree of body ex- mantle (M1) are separated from those in posure among males in himation, sug- bunched himation (M2); slaves carrying gesting that deceased males in small a folded himation are correctly linked stelai display a greater degree of mod- with nude slaves on account of their esty in costume than mourners in large, short hair, rather than with free boys in

135 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS bunched himation. They were, however, principal co-ordinate scores. In addition, not separated from free nude males; this despite the major effect of orientation on is not a shortcoming of the analysis, but the principal co-ordinates, the predomin- a reflection of the fact that slaves of this ance of left orientation among the few type, occurring in palaistra scenes, are priests available (M6), and that of M2 differentiated from free males by means boys in himation is clearer in the analys- of relative size, subsidiary position and is of types, rather than principal co-or- specific iconographic motifs, rather than dinates. Other specific associations, costume. Other special social identities, found to be statistically significant by an such as hoplites and priests, have also analysis of residuals, are noted in fig. been identified. 144. On the other hand, the differenti- The separation of M2 males in ation between Athenians and foreigners, bunched himation into subtypes, accord- involved in the 2nd PC, is not overall sig- ing to hairstyle and the exact arrange- nificantly associated with the typology; ment of the mantle, has led to the identi- the notably large proportion of foreigners fication of interesting age associations, in M8 according to an analysis of resid- that could not have been apparent from uals suggests, however, a point of depar- PC analysis alone. However, age-related ture for discussing the question (below: pattern among non-adult figures in hi- section 6.2). mation, classified to type M8, could be In accord with the results of PC ana- found only by dividing the subtypes into lysis, the identity of the deceased both variants, a strong indication that the tree at the original and final use of the stele hierarchy within that type does not re- is significantly associated with distinct flect well age differentiation. In fact, male costume types. While the principal childhood-related aspects of costume, co-ordinate results were somewhat con- such as the medium hair and stephane, fused by the presence of other, equally run across costume types M1, M2 and important associations (e.g., in charac- M8, and are better interpreted in the terising standing males with an armpit light of PC analysis. Young adults, mostly staff), tests on costume typology identi- in forearm or shoulder himation, were fied a number of types significantly asso- correctly assigned to type M10, and old ciated either with mourners, or with the men with a staff separated from those deceased. The tests reflect the connec- without. But the age associations of oth- tion of deceased status of males with er adults in himation run across types, so childhood and adolescence, whereas the that in order to bring out relevant pat- commonest types of adult males are as- tern, we have had to divide them into sociated with mourners. While the effect subtypes; these provided a fuller picture of deceased status on male costume is, of age associations, summarised ad- according to PC analysis, stronger than equately, and more succinctly, by the 1st that on female costume, its interaction and 2nd PC. with other factors suggests that it was The discussion of specific costume better discussed within the framework of types led to the discovery of finer pat- average linkage typology. tern in stele expenditure than that found by PC analysis, concerning specific arrangements of the bunched himation, 11.2 Special interpretative is- the difference in cost between M1 and sues M2, and the small stele expenditure connected with representations of priests In the first part of chapter 6, the major (M7) and M15 seated men, despite their dimensions of female and male costume

136 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI variability have been established, by fig. 110. A combination of medium hair, means of principal co-ordinates analysis. a stephane, shoulder bands supporting Age was found to be by far the most im- the tunic or a girdled chitonion or long portant social variable affecting both overfall and no mantle (F11d) occurs male and female costume. Since we with reasonable consistency among fe- have already established a framework male children, representing the primary for Athenian age categorisation (chapter deceased: with the exception of C824.1, 2), and have discussed the specific social all figures of this subtype represent the associations of both single costume entire range of ‘3-9 years’ of age. On ac- traits (chapter 3) and female and male count of the stephane, a head ornament costume types, found by means of aver- known to have been made of gold (Abra- age linkage cluster analysis (chapters 4 hams 1908: 112), it is interesting to ex- and 5), it is now possible to discuss cer- amine briefly the possibility of this type tain problems in the social interpretation representing arrhephoroi (above: section of costume that have remained open so 2.1.5). According to literary evidence far in this study. (Harpokr. s.v. “¢rrhfore‹n”), the four The relative importance of costume arrhephoroi wore a white dress and types across female and male apparent chrysia, golden ornaments. If the sacral age ranges is presented by respective function was symbolically important for area charts (figs. 110 and 138). It is ap- age categorisation, as suggested by parent with both sexes that other cos- changes in other aspects of stele icono- tume types are used for the representa- graphy (above: ibid.), it is plausible that tion of most children and adolescents costume could be used for stele repres- than those used for adulthood. In partic- entations to connote the age of arrheph- ular, the proper himation is much less oria, even if the deceased was not one of frequent among non-adults than among the actual arrhephoroi. adults, and when it occurs, it usually However, the stephane is also dis- shows arrangements proportionally un- played by a statuette of a little girl found common with adulthood, namely in the sanctuary of Artemis in Brauron shoulder (F7, M8a2) or forearm himation (Karouzou 1957a); it is unlikely that a (most M8 subtypes, F4, F5d an F5f). But costume specifically associated with the the majority of female figures actually arrhephoria, weaving Athena’s peplos, wear just a long tunic (F11), and most would be used in any dedication to males are nude (M1); a bunched hi- Artemis. Thus, the stephane could not mation is set in various arrangements on have been a special golden ornament of the left shoulder and arms, frequently a ceremonial costume limited to the with non-adult males (M2), rarely (but arrhephoria. Moreover, the costume not exclusively) with female children characterises also girls younger than ‘7 (F13). In addition, both male and female years’, the earliest age connected with children sometimes wear a stephane, the sacral function; if it were assumed normally over the medium hair common that the youngest girls with stephane in childhood; these traits run across cos- were ‘7 years’ old, no figures would be tume types, but their age associations left on stelai to represent younger girls, a are confirmed both by single costume clearly improbable situation considering trait significance testing and by PC ana- the view of female childhood presented lysis (above: sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2). in chapter 2 (above: section 2.1.5). The predominance of type F11, char- A major argument against connecting acterised by the absence of a mantle, in the stephane (and F11d) with arrhephor- female childhood, is demonstrated by ia comes from internal evidence, namely,

137 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS that the stephane is relatively less com- by occurrences of the constituent cos- mon with girls than with ‘3-10 years’ old tume traits in Classical sculpture. The boys in bunched (M2c), forearm or crossing bands occur with Amazons shoulder himation (M8a2-M8a3; above: (Robertson 1975: 357-8, pl. 119c), section 3.2.2); this may be due to the Artemis (Daux 1961: 639, fig. 6) and higher frequency of representations of Athena (Süsserott 1938: 85, pl. 5.4; boys than girls in general (above: section Dohrn 1957: 25, pl. 20b). The shoulder- 2.4), but nevertheless indicates that, if back mantle is shown repeatedly by the stephane has any ritual connections, Athena, and also by the Erechtheion they must be relevant to both sexes. In caryatids (Bieber 1977: 104-107, pl. 76- addition, the iconography of play, com- 83). The subject-matter of all these mon with figures displaying a stephane sculptures alludes to virginal life. (ball toys, little and large birds, pet However, the crossing bands occur dogs), is inappropriate for allusion to a also in costume types F11 and F13; such sacral function concerned with prepara- figures displaying also a medallion are tion for marriage. The lack of a costume just ‘4-7 years’ old (C827.1 in F11d; specific to ‘7 years’ old girls lends sup- C840.1 in F13). The fact that the port to the suspicion with which scholars shoulder bands with medallion are not have treated the Lysistrata passage, re- restricted to one specific age within ferring to Athenian female initiation childhood and early adolescence (above: (above: section 2.1.5). section 3.2.11) indicates that it is simply In fact, both males and females on an ornament, that acquires its full signi- choes of the Classical period, interpreted ficance only in combination with other as representations of children taking part costume traits. In F14, it is the shoulder- in the Anthesteria, are often shown in back mantle in particular that is associ- similar scenes of play; regardless of sex, ated with early adolescence (above: sec- they are medium-haired and often wear tion 3.2.11). The strong associations of a stephane (Hoorn 1951: figs. 16, 142, F14 with adornment, shown in the front- 271, 348, 520, 522, 530). This fact, and ality of the F14 girl, her gesture of lifting the importance of the Anthesteria for the mantle at thigh-height, and costume age categorisation, suggest that the traits such as double tunic and sandals stephane, worn by ‘3-7 years’ old girls show that the medallion is here, as in and ‘3-10 years’ old boys, may have F11d, part of a non-adult festive cos- been an ornament worn at the feast, and tume. This formal function of F14 ex- symbolising on stelai that children older plains its apparently exclusive use in than ‘3 years’ old had already been ad- stelai for the representation of the mitted in the Athenian religious com- primary deceased (fig. 113). munity (above: section 2.1.4). The variation in costume traits shown F14 figures displaying both crossing by actual examples of F14 indicates that bands with medallion and a shoulder- this costume is by no means “institution- back mantle are ‘11-14 years’ old; in alised uniform”. Nevertheless, the pro- contrast to F11d figures in stephane, nounced adornment of F14 females and mentioned above, their relatively de- their connection with higher rank than veloped bust indicates explicitly the other girls of the same apparent age transition to adolescence, and thus ex- show that the occurrence of the type cludes the possibility of a connection cannot be simply the result of fashion, as with arrhephoria (based on the orna- implied by Bieber (1977: 106). The mental function of the medallion). Their theme of an adult female checking the age association is indirectly supported appearance of an F14 girl (e.g., C896.2)

138 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI may refer to the preparation for a cere- ing period of childhood, dedicated to the mony, probably the arkteia, a rite mark- goddess during the ceremony. If this is ing the transition from childhood to pu- the case, then the arkteia could have berty. This would explain the icono- taken place after ‘10 years’ of age, in ac- graphy of adornment associated with cordance both with the age pattern sug- F14, and the absence of generic motifs gested by Aristophanes, and with its of non-adulthood, such as little birds. On known pre-nuptial significance. In this the other hand, the representation of a light, the social identity of the age of nude doll with originally jointed limbs arkteia may be represented by costume showing adult female traits, a plaything type F14, explaining its festive character with nuptial connotations (Dörig 1966: and iconographic connotations of adorn- 908-909), occurs with girls of other cos- ment. tume types such as F7 and F11, and thus Type F7, representing females with cannot be used to argue for the signific- falling plait and shoulder himation, is ance of F14 in particular. complementary to F14, representing a On the basis of the Aristophanic evid- relatively small proportion of older chil- ence (Lys., v. 645), the arkteia has been dren and adolescents between ‘8-10’ connected with a saffron-dyed tunic, the and ‘15-19 years’ of age (fig. 110). The krokotos, a garment which could have younger F7 girls are as a rule mourners, had a special significance related to mar- strongly differentiated in height from the riage (Sourvinou-Inwood 1971a: 341); main figures, who are often mature or this has been identified as the crinkling old M11 and M13 men, displaying a sup- tunic of a girl’s statuette dedicated to porting staff. But the older adolescents, the sanctuary of Artemis in Brauron, (Ka- most of whom have their left hand rouzou 1957a: 75). The Brauron covered by the himation, occur in a vari- statuettes are only ‘7-8 years old’, a fact ety of compositions, and represent either that was used to support the connection the deceased or a survivor; for comparis- of the arkteia with childhood rather than on with F14, it is interesting to note the early adolescence (ibid.: 77-78, 82 n. 2). compositional association of F7 girls However, the rejection of the Aristophan- likely to represent the deceased. ic evidence in favour of that of the late When they are shown alone, with a antique commentators is unsatisfactory: maid, a little child, an old man or a wo- even if Lysistrata (v. 641-647) provided man (e.g., C322.3: pl. 11), F7 females an exaggerated view of Attic initiation, are probably meant to be unmarried, fur- the connection of aletris with ten years ther figures representing siblings or par- of age must have sounded plausible to ents. But the theme of receiving an ob- the spectators, and, by its position in the ject from a male adolescent, occurring in passage, it must have preceded the ark- C1021, implies a love present, on the teia. lines suggested by Clairmont for the Besides, the best codex, as acknow- stele of Phyrkias (1970: 102-104; contra, ledged by Sourvinou-Inwood (1971a: Daux 1972: 540). Besides, C888.2 is 340), translates “I shed [rather than shown with a small, kneeling child, and wore] the krokotos”; other evidence in- C1097.1 in handshake with a tunicked dicates that children’s dresses were warrior. On account of these representa- offered to Artemis during the arkteia tions, Stupperich has suggested that (Brelich 1969: 274-275). It is thus likely type F7 here represents married young that the costume of the Brauron women (1977: 107). However, the love statuettes is not that typical of the age present of C1021 may imply betrothal, of arktoi, but the costume of the preced- rather than marriage; this interpretation

139 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS is reinforced by the fact that the male is by kanephoroi; it is tempting, however, a youth, whose missing garment, in ana- to identify this expression as a colloquial logy with other short-haired, beardless name for the characteristic falling hair males, may have been an M8 forearm hi- plait of F7 females, resembling in ap- mation. The kneeling child of C888 may pearance a chain of dried figs. If this is have been a little sister, in analogy with the case, then the association of the cur- the compositionally similar C887. Finally, rent costume type with the age of maid- Stupperich himself notes that a standing ens eligible to become kanephoroi is female shaking hands with a standing strengthened. man on vases or vase stelai “ist wohl die Most non-adult male figures display Schwester oder Braut” (1977: 72, n.4); in one of three common costumes: they are the absence of external evidence, there entirely nude (M1), have a bunched hi- should be no reason why she could not mation on the shoulder or arms (M2), or represent the sister in similar composi- wear a forearm or shoulder himation, tions of proper stelai as well. covering the left arm and, possibly, Maidens of type F7 occur in the hand. Despite the stark difference in the Parthenon East frieze (slabs II, III, V and degree of body exposure between M1 VIII) carrying phialai, jugs or stools, a and M2 on the one hand, and M8 on the parallel lending support to its interpreta- other, and the slightly higher popularity tion as a costume of unmarried girls. of the bunched himation in early child- These figures are grouped, with one ex- hood, the age ranges associated with the ception (East, slab VII, 57), separately three types are largely overlapping. In from type F14 maidens, also shown in examining individual costume traits, the frieze; although they are not differ- however, important associations with ap- entiated consistently in the objects they parent age have been found. Those con- carry, girls wearing a shoulder-back cerning specific bunched himation ar- mantle (F14) appear to be younger than rangements and traits of the himation maidens in shoulder himation (F7). Since are discussed in Ch. 5, since they are F14 girls on stelai are even younger than confined to a single costume type. The their Parthenon frieze counterparts, age association of the stephane with boys categorisation may be involved in the younger than ‘10 years’ of age, and that difference between F7 and F14 females of the shoulder himation with males intended to represent the deceased. older than ‘8 years’ find parallels in fe- The difference has been pointed out male costume, a fact showing that these also by Schmaltz, who noted that type traits have the same significance with F14 represents girls who died in their both sexes. Besides, figures of either sex prime, while F7 is common with those display frequently hair of medium length who died unmarried after the mikros during childhood. kairos had elapsed (1979: 27); but F7 fe- There are, however, clear differences males on stelai depict ‘15-19 years’ old between female and male hairstyle. adolescents, rather than older, adult un- While the medium hair of girls is sup- married women. Thus, while F14 is asso- planted in late childhood and early ad- ciated with the arkteia, F7 maidens may, olescence by a variety of mostly complex in analogy with the Parthenon frieze, be hairstyles, the male medium hair of chil- thought of as representations of kaneph- dren, and the encircling plait common in oroi (above: section 2.1.5). The ischadon early adolescence are entirely replaced ormathos of the Aristophanic passage after ‘16 years’ by short hair (above: (Lys., v. 646), literally a braid of dried section 3.2.1). This change in male hair- figs, may refer to basket offerings carried style is undoubtedly related to the con-

140 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI secration of hair during the festival of non-adult costume types, M8 in particu- the Apatouria, that took place at the age lar. The evidence on ‘16-17 years’ old is of 16 (above: section 2.1.6); this is not unfortunately too scarce to identify their the only occasion for a ceremonial hair- association with simple or full name in- cut (cf. dedication to river gods, Paus. I, scription. It is reasonable, however, that 37, 3-4), but it is the most likely to have the point in time after which youths influenced stele iconography, consider- would be more likely to be called by the ing the importance of the registration in full combination of proper name, pat- the phratry for age categorisation. The ronymic and demotic was in fact the re- frequency of the encircling plait with ‘13- gistration in the demotic lists, marking 15 years’ old boys shows that the the beginning of the ephebeia, at the koureion may have consisted of the ded- age of ‘18 years’, rather than the earlier ication of a plokamos, rather than a full registration into the phratry. hair-cut. It should be recalled, of course, The connection of the ephebeia with that the short hair is common with males hunt is confirmed by the iconographic al- of most ages, so that its presence does lusions of a number of stelai represent- not necessarily imply older age than the ing nude youths in bunched himation registration in the phratry. wrapped around one of the arms, leaning The standing, ‘7-8 years’ old C1100.1, on a stele or pillar (M2b-c; above: sec- with a bunched himation falling back tion 5.3.2). On account of their similar from the left shoulder to the forearm iconography, the petasos and black (M2a), is exceptionally shown in hand- chlamys worn by epheboi may be identi- shake with a standing girl of similar size, fied as the costume of beardless M5a lifting her tunic (rather than non-existent youths (above: section 5.3.4), despite shoulder-back mantle) at thigh-height. the fact that the colour of their dress is Apart from this unique piece, males not preserved. The form of this costume younger than ‘16 years’ of age are not is not, however, a uniform, as suggested shown in handshake (fig. 13). Since the by the existence of bearded M4 men, handshake is a predominantly adult trait, probably representing hunters. The ex- its appearance from that age onwards in- ceptionally high cost of stelai represent- dicates that a change in status is im- ing subtypes M2b-c in comparison with plied; of figures not included in this younger adolescent males, and the horse study, the seated Dionysios (Möbius shown sometimes with M5a youths, 1966), whose stance is otherwise exclus- point to high status, related with the so- ively connected with adults, may also be cial identity of the ephebos, rather than ‘16-17 years’ old. These traits, and the with the actual age itself. The icono- introduction of the theme of hunt indic- graphy of sport (pais, strigil and oil-flask, ate important changes in the categorisa- duplicate images of the deceased shown tion of late adolescence, despite the lack as an athlete) is intimately connected of discontinuity in the popularity of pal- with that of hunt in both costume types; aistra scenes with M1 and M2 non-adult these motifs are not the mere product of males. style, but characterise the social identity The change in late adolescent male of the ephebos, as it was perceived in status is shown by the rarity of full name stele iconography. Himmelmann’s dis- inscriptions, consisting of proper, pat- tinction between M2b-c nude youths ronymic and demotic or ethnic name, to lacking heroic associations on account of commemorate boys younger than ‘16 the palaistra requisites, and the ideal- years’ of age. This is reflected in the ised, frontal C1055.2 (1956: 27-28), is an simple name inscriptions common with argument from silence, since the wrists

141 CONSTANTINOS DALLAS and hands of the latter, where a strigil or oil flask would be expected to be found, are missing. Moreover, the type M1 pais of C1055 and C1036 may, by analogy with the majority of M1 slaves, be interpreted as an allusion to sport. On this evidence, the roles of the hunter and the athlete may be seen as complementary for individuals in the transition between adolescence and adulthood, represented by both M2b-M2c and M5a. The two-stage initiation system presented here is obviously relevant only to Athenian youths; indeed, there is no equivalent reason to unfulfilled citizenship why the ethnic name of metic youths should not be recorded on their graves. Indeed, it is notable that the ratio of ascertained metics to Athenians among M8 figures in particular is considerably higher than 1:4, the general ratio for all stelai that is apparently representative of the Classical Athenian and metic populations (above: section 2.3.1). The number of M8 metics in that calculation may be overestimated, considering that Athenian adolescents before enrolment in the demotic lists were more likely to lack a demotic name than metics. On these grounds, and since no other statistically significant associations between Athenian/metic status and either female or male costume have been found by studying the average linkage clustering and PC analysis results, we may con- clude that, with the exception of the dress of Athenian priests and hoplites (M6 and M7), costume on stelai commemorating metics is not differentiated from that shown on grave markers of Athenians.

142 THE SIGNIFICANCE OF COSTUME ON CLASSICAL ATTIC GRAVE STEIAI

11.3 Conclusion The costume of female and male figures represented on Classical Attic grave stelai appears to be characterised by an almost infinite range of minor variation. Yet, numerical classification (average linkage clustering, followed by principal co-ordinates analysis) has enabled us to identify costume types defined by the recurrent combination of several costume traits, and to assess objectively their ho- mogeneity and distinctness. The use of both female and male costume types on stelai was found to be affected by the age of the individual represented (as determined by systematic age-ranking on the basis of facial and bodily characterisation), whether she/he was the deceased at both original and subsequent use of the monument (as indicated by name inscription), or the social rank of the oikos (as shown by squared stele width, especially after the effect of the identity of the deceased is removed); besides, specific costumes of non-adults were found to correspond to distinct social personae, connected with female and male initiation. Excluding sex, age emerges as the most important source of costume variability. The association of both male and female costume types with important social variables confirms that, in spite of the inevitable distortion introduced by the stylistic whim of the sculptor and by individuality in funerary practice, a major function of costume on Classical Attic stelai was to symbolise the social identity of the wearer.

143 12.List of references

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Adam, S. (1966) The Technique of Greek Sculpture in the Archaic and Classical Period. British School of Archaeology, London.

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Barthes, R. (1967a) Elements of Semiology. Cape, London.

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