Baring the Female Shoulder in Ancient

Duchess Andromeda Lykaina∗

∗[email protected], https://andromedaofsparta.wordpress.com/

1 1 Introduction

A version of a garment in which the wearer bares one shoulder existed in without doubt, but it appears to be constructed quite differently than its modern interpretations. Further, it seems to have been used sparingly and in very specific circumstances for women. We are using the broad period of Ancient Greece here as our examples are drawn from the Archaic (800 BCE - 480 BCE), Classical (480 BCE - 323 BCE), and Hellenistic (323 BCE - 146 BCE) periods. While garments differed in subtle ways across these periods, there is enough cohesion to allow us to recognize the same garment in different centuries. We will argue that the appearance of the one-shouldered indicated a sharp departure from standard female behavior in proper Greek society, and we have constructed an example that closely resembles a particular instance of the garment in period. Note that the nature of the garment in most of the scenarios in which it appears lends itself to being simple and functional. Our goal in constructing an example is to show an authentic construction rather than to create a fancy garment. The rest of this work is organized as follows: §2 will present an overview of common garments in Ancient Greece so that we might put the one-shouldered chiton in context; §3 presents what evidence we have found of its appearance on women in the literary and archeological record; and §4 will present an argument as to its construction and an explanation of the example we have constructed.

2 Common Garments

The purpose of this work is not to give an in-depth description of all Ancient Greek ; however, to discuss a specific garment variation, we need to be able to set it apart from others, and for that reason, we must provide an overview of the basic garments worn in this general region in this period. The most commonly mentioned and depicted garment types are , , , and chiton [1]. The chlamys is a short , worn primarily by men and used particularly for military purposes and for traveling [2]. It is frequently shown draped over the left shoulder and clasped on the right, but it is sometimes shown clasped in front of the clavicles or even left open draped over the back and both arms [3]. There may have been two versions of the chlamys, one that is rectangular and one that is shaped more like an almond, coming in at the ends [4]. The difference in these two shapes is indicated by how many points you can see; a rectangle has four while an almond has two [5][6]. The himation is an outer garment or , typically longer than the chlamys, worn by men and women [7]. There are a variety of ways to wrap the himation. One common style shows the himation coming over the left shoulder, wrapping around the body mostly covering the lower half, and the excess fabric collected over the left arm [8]. A similar version is wrapped around the lower body first, brought around the back, and draped over the left shoulder to the front. As with Greek garments in normal circumstances, the right side is left free. For more modesty, or to create mystic, the entire upper body and even the head can be wrapped [9]. For men, the himation carries an air of higher status and possibly intellect, as it is shown on orators and symposium attendants. It seems likely that most were made of wool, but it is possible that another fabric could have been used in some scenarios. Like the chlamys, there are depictions of plain, striped, and patterned himations. The difference between chlamys and himation seems to be one of cut and arrangement for specific purposes. A peplos is a one-piece rectangular garment worn by women, wrapped around the body and characterized by an overfold (apoptygma) formed by folding the upper portion over the , creating a flap [10]. Straight pins (s. perone, pl. peronai) attach the garment front to back at both shoulders with the back coming up and over the front in the Archaic style. When the peplos resurfaces in the Early Classical period, it may have been sewn or fastened with buttons [11]. The open side is most often positioned on the right and can be left open or pinned closed. Belting can keep the garment in place, both over and under the apoptygma. The voluminous fabric can also be brought up over the belt adding emphasis to the hips (kolpos) [12]. A peplos can be worn by itself, as frequently appears in the Archaic, or it can be worn over a chiton as an outer garment [13]. The length of the apoptygma varies, possibly due to the height of the wearer, and it may have been the case that this allowed the garment to clothe a child as the child grew, the apoptygma getting shorter as the child got taller. As the peplos is frequently discussed as being a heavier, outer garment, it was most frequently made of wool. As with the other garments, a variety of decoration styles have been depicted [14].

2 A chiton is a lighter garment worn closest to the skin by men and women, made of two rectangles sewn together at the sides and the top, leaving holes for arms and neck [15]. The term “Doric chiton” is often applied to a full-length garment that does not have sleeves of any kind; it has a sort of tank top or sundress look to it [16]. The Doric chiton may have been fastened with pins (peronai) in a similar to the peplos with the back coming over the front, and later in the period may have been fastened with buttons or sewn. “Ionian chiton” describes a typically full-length garment made of enough fabric that the top edge attachment is not just along the shoulders but can extend along the arm, creating sleeves; however, on a mixing vessel in the Getty Villa, is depicted in an Ionian chiton that stops at the knee, providing at least one counter example to the full-length norm [17][18]. Often, a strap forming a figure eight (s. himas, pl. himantes) is used over the shoulders and across the back to form the sleeves along the body [19] [20]. The sleeves may be sewn straight, pleated and sewn, or attached with buttons, often again with pleating [21][22][23]. The chiton is sometimes depicted with an apoptygma, but it is not a defining feature, as it is with the peplos. The chiton is most often described as being made of and can also be decorated in a plethora of styles. When the Doric-style chiton stops at the knees or thigh, it is called a chitoniskos or “short chiton” [24]. When one shoulder, usually the right, is left unfastened, it is called an , a “ with one sleeve”, contrasted with the amthimasxalos, “having two arm-holes” [25][26]. It is described as being “fastened over the left shoulder only... leaving the right shoulder and part of the breast free” and “especially characteristic of workmen and slaves, Laconizers and Cynics.” The description says nothing of length, so it seems reasonable to discuss an exomis that comes to the knee and an exomis that comes to the ankle; however, the use may dictate the length. As the exomis is described as being worn by those performing physical activities (or else as a demonstration of being removed from prosperity as seems the case with Cynics) and described elsewhere as providing freedom of movement to the right arm, it seems likely that in most cases the short version is the default. The exomis is the garment we are interested in here.

3 Female Uses

Given the nature of the exomis, it is not surprising that it seems to have been worn by women only for very specific and somewhat unusual circumstances, and surely not by the typical Greek woman going about her daily activities. The only appearances of the exomis on women that we have found include women running, depictions of female warriors, and supposed maenads. It should be noted that many images depicting warriors and maenads do not bare a shoulder. We are not arguing that they always appear in this garment; rather, we are arguing that this garment does not appear outside these, or similar, occasions.

3.1 Athletic Competition In some areas of Greece, such as and Elis, women were allowed to compete in foot races. In “The Polity of the Lacedamonians” 1(5), Xenophon writes “the rest of the Hellenes, are content that our girls should sit quietly and work wools,” while stating that Lycurgus, the lawgiver of Sparta, believed that weaving clothing could be left to slaves, but “insisted on the training of the body as incumbent no less on the female than the male; and in pursuit of the same idea instituted rival contests in running and feats of strength for women as for men” [27]. In these cases, the exomis appears to be the garment of choice. The bronze figure of a running girl (figure 1) has been attributed as originating in Laconia. The garment stops above the knee and is unfastened at the right shoulder, leaving the right breast exposed. Similarly, in Pausanias’ “Description of Greece” (Elis1.16.2-3), Pausanias writes of the Heraea games, held every four years in the Olympic stadium, consisting of “foot-races for maidens” [28]. He describes their running as “their hair hangs down, a tunic reaches to a little above the knee, and they bare the right shoulder as far as the breast.” The raising of the hem from foot to knee for the purpose of running is functional, as it increases mobility and reduces the risk of tripping, but the logic of baring the right shoulder is not obvious. It may be symbolic.

3 3.2 Female Warriors The Bassae Frieze consists of twenty-three blocks that ran around the interior of the Temple of Apollo on Mount Kotylion at Bassae depicting “battle between the and Amazons and the Lapiths and Centaurs” [29]. The term amazonomachy is a name for “a legendary battle between Greeks and Amazons, often depicted in ” [30]. In many of these blocks depicting amazonomachy, female figures are shown in chitoniskos, sometimes covered and sometimes with one breast exposed, such as in figure 2.1 In all blocks depicting an amazon in an exomis, it is the right side that is bare. The description of fictional female warriors as wearing the exomis further supports the link between athletic, typically male activities and bearing the shoulder. The length of the tunic is not always clear from literary descriptions; the absence of this information reinforces the idea that length was not particularly meaningful, or perhaps was assumed from the function, but that the bare shoulder is somehow significant and important to mention. An example is in Vergil’s Aeneid (11.648) where he writes of the character Camilla: Resistless thro’ the war Camilla rode, In danger unappall’d, and pleas’d with blood. One side was bare for her exerted breast; One shoulder with her painted quiver press’d. ... Such troops as these in shining arms were seen, When Theseus met in fight their maiden queen: Such to the field Penthisilea led, From the fierce virgin when the Grecians fled;

[31]. Though likely viewed through a 1st century BCE Roman lens, his comparison of Camilla to Amazo- nian queen Penthesilea suggests that the reader may have expected Penthesilea to wear an exomis, further reinforcing that there is some significance to the Greek notion that warrior females bared the shoulder. In the Iliad (6.186), Homer twice refers to the Amazons as Amazonas antianeiras, antianeira being an adjective meaning “a match for men” or, in some translations, “the peers of men” [32][33][34]. It is possible that baring the shoulder somehow indicates the figure as taking on some of aspect of the male gender.

3.3 Dancing Maenads The word maenads is the plural female word for “raving, frantic” [35]. The modern use of the word seems to encompass all female followers of Dionysos; however, it’s more likely that this group is really composed of three distinct groups, being nymphs, maenads, and bakchai. According to [36], the nymphs of Nysa are non-mortals who raised Dionysos, the bakchai are mortal women who follow him willingly, and the maenads are mortal women struck temporarily mad when there is a refusal to properly worship Dionysos. The visual distinctions between the groups when represented seem to be less clear and are out of scope for this paper. For our purposes, we will accept that the descriptions of the following items are accurate in identifying the female figures as maenads. Figure 3 depicts Dionysos shaking hands with Hades in the underworld. The description identifies the figure carrying a thyrsus and tambourine to the left of Dionysos as a maenad. We can see that her garment is unfastened at the left shoulder, leaving her shoulder bare down past her left breast (detail in figure 4). Figure 5 depicts a dancing maenad, again carrying a thyrsus and tambourine and with her chiton unfastened on the left side. Figure 6 is a Roman adaptation of a 5th century Greek relief depicting dancing maenads. [37] notes that the most famous representations of maenads are from the same time as Euripides’ play “The Bacchae” which included the most famous representation of them. It stands to reason then that the image of the maenad here with the left side unfastened would have been seen as characteristic to the contemporary audience. Of figure 7, the museum has said “the bare breast of the figure suggests that she is a maenad, a follower of Dionysos” [38]. In this instance, it is her right shoulder that is unfastened; however, aside from baring her

1This is not to say they had only one breast, but that only one breast was exposed. In none of the images are any of the Amazons lacking a breast. This was interesting to find given the commonly touted myth that Amazons removed a breast to better shoot a bow.

4 shoulder and breast, she bears none of the other visual indications of being a follower of Dionysos, such as carrying a thyrsus or snake and wearing a fawn skin (or other animal skin) or ivy . Without additional information, it seems that she has been identified as a maenad purely because of the garment she is wearing. If this is true, then this reinforces that the exomis is not a typical form of attire on women and instead represents a deviation. Is the side of the body on which the bared shoulder appears significant? The answer is not obvious. For the athletes and warriors, in all instances we found, the wearer has the right shoulder bare. One theory that has been presented without evidence is that handedness is a factor, so a left-handed person would bare their left shoulder. This could be possible given the purpose of the exomis in leaving the right arm free for exercise or labor, and the infrequent appearance of being fastened over the right shoulder could be due to the small proportion of left-handed persons to right-handed persons; however, we have to wonder if the artist would made the decision to make those maenads left-handed, or if instead there is some better explanation. Is there a correlation between the inversion of the garment and the inversion of the women in the social structure? We expressed some doubt that the terracotta dancer in 7 is correctly identified as a maenad, due to the lack of other characteristic features. She is also the only one in the maenad group whose right shoulder is bared. If she is merely a dancer, this could account for the difference, but it would also imply that this style of garment has an appearance that extends beyond followers of Dionysos to other classes of female dancers.

4 Construction

The exomis does not appear to be draped over the body in a different manner than that of a regular chiton. There is a commonly seen recreation wherein fabric is pulled taught from one side of the upper body, close near the armpit, and collected over the opposite shoulder, along with the fabric from that side of the body. Another recreation involves cutting the fabric at a diagonal. This interpretation may have originated from a woodcut of Hephaistos (figure 8), who is often depicted wearing an exomis, probably because he is a smith performing manual labor. Dimension is lost in the woodcut, and the smooth diagonal to his left shoulder suggests that this is an edge of the fabric. Neither of these interpretations seem accurate. Instead, archeological evidence suggests that it is con- structed in the same fashion as the two-shoulder chiton, but with one shoulder unfastened. What appears to be a match to the actual bronze figure the woodcut was representing paints a different picture than the woodcut. On the right side of his body, the line of fabric extends below the blousing of the rest of the garment, with a line highly suggestive of a hanging flap of fabric. In each of other the figures, it appears that the fabric flaps open to wherever the girdle is worn, and the fabric hangs low enough to expose the breast. In the Amazonomachy blocks (figure 2), both the loose flap and girdle are very clear. On the terracotta dancer (figure 7), it looks like the fabric under the right breast is lumpy, and the girdle is clearly seen just below the breast. In the red-figure scene with Dionysos (figure 4), on the dancing maenad, we see what appears to be excess fabric hanging loose near her rib cage. The location of her girdle appears to be closer to the waist, as there is a blousing shown on the opposite side here and a loop that could indicate a tie. On the bronze statuette of the running girl (figure 1), we can clearly see the top corner of fabric where it hangs down in back and front. In these various depictions, the lines suggest there is excess fabric that could be fastened at the shoulder but is instead hanging loose, and the blousing suggests that the harness is what is holding this side of the tunic in place in lieu of a fastener at the shoulder. The garment we have constructed is based on the bronze Spartan running girl in figure 1. The garment appears fitted to the upper body with more fabric around the lower body, given the tight fit around the waist. Conversely, the flap of fabric for the top edge is too wide for this fit; if you were to pull it up, it would not land at the shoulder tightly, but go beyond. There is a possibility that this was due to the fabric being cut in an hourglass-like shape, but it seems more likely to be due to how clothing was depicted during the Archaic period. We agree with this hypothesis and make the assumption that the garment is constructed from rectangular pieces, as is the common belief for chitons.2 Likewise, it’s possible that this garment was made of wool, as a peplos would be, but it seems equally possible that it is made of linen, as most chitons

2We have hypothesized before that the linen we have used (fabric-store.com) is not like what they would have used. It seems that the weight and stiffness of the linen is not conducive to achieving the drape we see in most of the depictions. A fabric that clings to the body could account for some of the fitted appearance of the exomis on the running girl. We are continuing to work on this issue.

5 are described. We make the assumption that it is made from linen. The construction for this garment, then, is as follows: 1. Take two rectangles that are as long as the distance from the shoulder to the knee and as wide as half of the circumference required to take long strides. 2. Sew the rectangles together up the sides a length that is the distance from knee to slightly below the armpit. 3. Sew the rectangles together at the top on one side the distance that is slightly shorter than shoulder point to neck. 4. (Optional) If the fabric is cut rather than woven to the necessary size, hem the bottom, armholes and top. 3 We have reason to suspect that the fabric would have been dyed. Many statues and terracotta figurines show residual signs of color and archaeological evidence of the remains of dye-works exist. We chose to experiment with dying the linen with madder. According to [40], madder is indigenous to Greece and continues to grow wild around the old ruins, and alum could have been used as a mordant with madder. Due to time constraints, we could not dye the example exomis itself, but we present our results on linen swatches to inform what could be done with this garment. Our experimental process was informed by [41][42][43] and is as follows. • Fiber: We started with 89g of white linen softened fabric from fabric-store.com in three swatches. • Mordant Phase: In a separate container, we added 4tsp Turkish black tea (for tannin)4 and boiled 4 cups of water and steeped the tea for 20 minutes keeping the temperature between 140-160F. We added the fabric to the tea bath and held for 15 minutes. We added approximately 1.6 gallons of water to our dye pot and brought the temperature to 110F. We dissolved 18g (20% w.o.f.) of aluminum sulfate (from Dharma Trading) in boiling water and added the solution to the dye pot. We added the fabric to the dye pot along with the tea bath and kept the temperature at 110F for 45 minutes. We allowed to cool overnight ( about 8.5 hours). We removed the fabric from the mordant bath and squeezed out excess water. • Dye phase: We added approximately 1.6 gallons of water, 89g (100% w.o.f.), and our mordanted fabric to our dye pot. We gradually brought the temperature to 180F and held it there for 45 minutes after which we removed the heat and allowed to cool in the dye bath for 12 hours. • Post-dye phase: One swatch was dipped in ammonia immediately and then rinsed in water; one was rinsed and then dipped in ammonia; the third was rinsed only. 5. All swatches were rinsed and allowed to dry.

5 Conclusion

As discussed, women baring the shoulder were exhibiting some atypical behavior. For Spartan and Elean women, baring the shoulder would have accompanied athletic feats, bringing women into the typically male domain, though in a limited fashion. The Amazons provide us with a societal structure in which women have become the equals of men, so they lend their female independence to the symbolism of the garment. Followers of Dionysos were surely engaging in deviant behavior rather than behaving as the proper Athenian would. We can conclude that the exomis carries social connotations that we should be aware of when choosing to wear it if we want to truly understand the historical context. We have presented a construction that is consistent with visual evidence and a dye process likely appropriate to this garment.

3There is a common belief that fabric was not cut, but was rather woven to the appropriate size[39]; we have yet to see a primary source presented for this assumption. Arguing for or against this is out of scope for this paper. 4We do not have evidence for tea in Ancient Greece during this period. More information is needed, or perhaps a different source for tannin needs to be chosen. The addition of a tannin was added after discussion with Baroness Aldgytha. Supposedly, the tannin helps the alum combine with cellulose fibers [44]. 5[40] claims that wool mordanted with alum and dyed with madder turns a richer red when dunked in ammonia after the dye bath, so we chose to experiment with ammonia on linen.

6 6 Figures

Figure 1: Bronze figure of a running girl, 520-500BCE, British Museum [45]

7 Figure 2: Bassae Frieze sculptures: Trojan Amazonomachy (BM 532 top, BM 537 bottom), 420-400BCE, British Museum [46]

8 Figure 3: Volute Krater with Dionysos Visiting Hades and , attributed to the Darius Painter, ca. 330 BCE, Toledo Museum [47]

9 Figure 4: Volute Krater detail

Figure 5: Satyrs and maenad in an ecstatic thyasoi red-figure bell krater, ca. 370 BCE [48]

10 Figure 6: Roman copy of a Greek relief, orig. attributed to Kallimachos, orig. 425-400 BCE, copy 1st-2nd CE [37]

Figure 7: Terracotta statuette of a dancing woman, 3rd century BCE, Metropolitan Museum of Art [49][38]

11 Figure 8: Left: woodcut. Right: Bronze figure. Hephaistos the blacksmith god wearing a pilos (pointed cap) and exomis (short tunic off one shoulder), 375-325 BCE, British Museum [50]

12 7 Acknowledgement

Thank you to Baroness Ari Usni, OL for encouragement and feedback. Thank you to Baroness Aldgytha of Ashwood, OP, OL for helpful discussions and resources regarding dye processes.

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[47] “Volute Krater with Dionysos Visiting Hades and Persephone.” Internet: http://classes. toledomuseum.org:8080/emuseum/view/objects/asitem/People$00401664/0?t:state:flow= f3a24d1f-ceeb-4b41-abbc-b0a4575e3299 [Jan. 28, 2016]. [48] “Greek Vases: South Italian.” Internet: http://www.royalathena.com/PAGES/GreekCatalog/Vases/ SouthIt/CP0808.html, [Jan. 30, 2016].

[49] “File:Terracotta dancing maenad MET 12.232.13.png,” Internet: https://en.wikipedia.org/ wiki/La_danse,_Bacchante#/media/File:Terracotta_dancing_maenad_MET_12.232.13.png [Jan. 23, 2016]. [50] “Hephaistos the blacksmith god wearing a pilos (pointed cap) and exomis (short tunic off one shoul- der) 375-325 BCE Andravida Greece Bronze.” Internet: https://www.flickr.com/photos/mharrsch/ 421143293 [Jan. 28, 2016].

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