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Chemical Basics of Life

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Chemical Basics of Life © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION CHAPTER 2 Chemical Basics of Life OUTLINE KEY TERMS Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonds Acids: Electrolytes that release hydrogen ions in water. Atomic Structure Activation energy: The amount of energy required to start a Molecules reaction. Chemical Bonds Anions: Ions with a negative charge. Types of Chemical Reactions Atomic number: A whole number representing the number Enzymes of positively charged protons in the nucleus of an atom. Acids, Bases, and the pH Scale Atomic weight: The total number of protons and neutrons in Chemical Constituents of Cells the nucleus of an atom. Inorganic Substances Atoms: The smallest complete units of an element, varying in Organic Substances size, weight, and interaction with other atoms. Summary Bases: Electrolytes that release ions that bond with Learning Goals hydrogen ions. Critical Thinking Questions Carbohydrates: Substances (including sugars) that provide Websites much of the energy required by the body’s cells, as well as Review Questions helping to build cell structures. Catalysts: Atoms or molecules that can change the rate of a OBJECTIVES reaction without being consumed during the process. After studying this chapter, readers should be able to: Cations: Ions with a positive charge. 1. Describe the relationships between atoms and Chemistry: The study of the composition of matter and molecules. changes in its composition. 2. Explain chemical bonds. Compounds: Molecules made up of different bonded atoms. 3. Describe how an atomic number is determined. Decomposition: A reaction that occurs when bonds with a 4. List the major groups of inorganic chemicals reactant molecule break, forming simpler atoms, molecules, common in cells. or ions. 5. Explain acids, bases, and buffers. Electrolytes: Substances that release ions in water. 6. Defi ne the characteristics of lipids and proteins. Electrons: Single, negatively charged particles that revolve around the nucleus of an atom. 7. Defi nepH . 8. Describe the functions of various types of Elements: Fundamental substances that compose matter, organic chemicals in cells. such as carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. 9. List four examples of steroid molecules. 10. Explain nucleic acids. 17 © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION 18 CHAPTER 2 Chemical Basics of Life KEY TERMS CONTINUED you understand chemistry, your understanding of Hydrogen bond: The attraction of the positive hydrogen anatomy and physiology will be improved. Chemical end of a polar molecule to the negative nitrogen or oxygen changes within cells infl uence body functions and end of another polar molecule. the status of the body’s structures. Chemicals of the Inorganic: Not having both carbon and hydrogen atoms. body include water, proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, Ions: Atoms that either gain or lose electrons. nucleic acids, and salts, as well as foods, drinks, and Isotope: One of two (or more) forms of an element having the medications. same number of protons and electrons, but different numbers Matter is defi ned as anything that takes up space of neutrons; they may or may not be radioactive. and has mass. Mass is a physical property that Lipids: Substances that do not dissolve in water and include a variety of compounds with vital cell functions, including fats, determines an object’s weight, based on the Earth’s phospholipids, and steroids. gravitational pull. Matter includes liquids, gases, Matter: Liquids, gases, and solids both inside and outside of and solids both inside and outside of the human the human body; it takes up space and has weight. body. Elements are fundamental substances that Molecule: The formation of two or more atoms. compose matter. Copper, iron, gold, silver, alumi- Neutrons: Uncharged or “neutral” particles in the nucleus of num, carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen are all exam- an atom. ples of elements. Most living organisms need about Nucleic acids: Macromolecules that carry genetic informa- 20 elements to survive. Table 2–1 lists the major tion or form structures within cells, and include DNA and RNA. and trace elements required by the human body. Nucleus: The central portion of an atom that contains Atoms are tiny particles that compose elements. protons and neutrons. Atoms are the smallest complete units of an element, Organic: Having both carbon and hydrogen atoms. pH: A value by which hydrogen ion concentrations may be measured. ■ Table 2–1 Elements of the Human Body Polar: A molecule that uses a covalent bond in which Major Elements (totaling 99.9%) Percentage in the electrons are not shared equally; this results in a shape that Body has an uneven distribution of charges. Oxygen (O) 65% Proteins: Substances made up of amino acids that are vital for many body functions, including structures and their Carbon (C) 18.5% functions, energy, and hormonal requirements. Protons: Single, positively charged particles inside the Hydrogen (H) 9.5% nucleus of an atom. Nitrogen (N) 3.2% Radioisotopes: Also known as radioactive isotopes or radionuclides, they are atoms with unstable nuclei. Calcium (Ca) 1.5% Steroid: Molecules with four connected rings of carbon Phosphorus (P) 1% atoms, including cholesterol, estrogen, progesterone, testosterone, cortisol, and estradiol. Potassium (K) 0.4% Synthesis: A reaction that occurs when two or more reactants Sulfur (S) 0.3% (atoms) bond to form a more complex product or structure. Chlorine (Cl) 0.2% Chemistry is the science that deals with the struc- Sodium (Na) 0.2% ture of matter, and the study of the human body Magnesium (Mg) 0.1% begins with chemistry. It is essential for other sci- ences, including physiology, pathology, pharma- Trace Elements (totaling 0.1%) cology, and microbiology. Life is based on atomic, Chromium (Cr) ----- molecular, and chemical interactions. Each cell of Cobalt (Co) ----- the body contains organelles made up of macromol- ecules. e cells then compose tissues and organs. Copper (Cu) ----- e chemical basics of life require the interactions Fluorine (F) ----- of all of these components. Iodine (I) ----- Atoms, Molecules, and Iron (Fe) ----- Chemical Bonds Manganese (Mn) ----- e composition of matter and changes in its com- Zinc (Zn) ----- position are the focuses of the study of chemistry. If © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC. NOT FOR SALE OR DISTRIBUTION Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonds 19 and vary in size, weight, and interaction with other containing the same number of protons, but diff er- atoms. e characteristics of living and nonliving ent numbers of neutrons. Isotopes may or may not objects result from the atoms that they contain, be radioactive. Radioactivity is the emission of ener- as well as how those atoms combine and interact. getic particles known as radiation, which occurs us, by forming chemical bonds, atoms can com- because of instability of the atomic nuclei. bine with other atoms that are not similar to them. e nuclei of certain isotopes (radioisotopes) spontaneously emit subatomic particles or radiation Atomic Structure in measurable amounts. e process of emitting radi- Atoms are composed of subatomic particles. Each ation is called radioactive decay. Strongly radioactive atom consists of protons, neutrons, and elec- isotopes are dangerous because their emissions can trons. Protons and neutrons are similar in size and destroy molecules, cells, and living tissue. For diag- mass; however, protons bear a positive electrical nostic procedures, weaker radioactive isotopes are charge whereas neutrons are electrically neutral used to diagnose structural and functional char- (uncharged). Electrons bear a negative electrical acteristics of internal organs. Radiation is basically charge. An atom’s mass is determined mostly by the identifi ed as one of three common forms: alpha ( ), number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. e beta ( ), or gamma ( ). Gamma radiation is the most mass of a larger object, such as the human body, is penetrating type, and is similar to X-ray radiation. the sum of the masses of all of its atoms. Figure 2–1 shows the components of an atom and its nucleus. CHECK YOUR KNOWLEDGE Electrons orbit an atom’s nucleus at high speed, ✓ forming a spherical electron cloud. Atoms normally 1. Differentiate between atomic weight and contain equal numbers of protons and electrons. atomic number. e number of protons in an atom is known as its 2. Describe the locations of electrons, protons, atomic number. us, hydrogen (H), the simplest and neutrons. atom, has one proton, giving it the atomic num- ber 1, while magnesium, with 12 protons, has the Molecules atomic number 12. molecule e atomic weight of an element’s atom equals e term is defi ned as any chemical struc- the number of protons and neutrons in its nucleus. ture that consists of atoms held together by covalent For example, oxygen has eight protons and eight bonds (involving the sharing of electrons between neutrons, so its atomic weight is 16. An isotope atoms). When two atoms of the same element bond, is defi ned as when an element’s atoms have nuclei they produce molecules of that element, such as hydrogen, oxygen, or nitrogen molecules. Electron Chemical Bonds Atoms can bond with other atoms by using chemi- cal bonds that result from interactions between their electrons. During this process, the atoms may either gain, lose, or share electrons. Chemically inactive atoms are known as inert atoms. An example of a chemical that is made up of inert atoms is helium. Atoms that either gain or lose electrons are called ions. ese atoms are electrically charged. An example of an electrically charged atom, or ion, is sodium. Proton Ionic Bonds Ionic bonds form between ions. Ions with a posi- tive charge () are called cations, and those with a negative charge () are called anions. Oppositely Neutron charged ions attract each other to form an ionic bond. is is a chemical bond that forms arrays FiGure 2–1 The components of an atom (indiscreet molecules) such as crystals. An example © Jones & Bartlett Learning, LLC.
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