Detailed Table of Contents

Preface ...... xvii

Acknowledgment...... xxi

Chapter 1 Systems and Enablers: Modeling the Impact of Contemporary Computational Methods and Technologies on the Design Process...... 1 Michael J. Ostwald, The University of Newcastle, Australia

This chapter presents a conceptual model of the architectural design process, spanning from ideation to realization, but not focused on stages in the process. Instead, the model identifies four primary meta-systems in design (representational, proportional, indexical, and operational) that are connected through, and supported by, a range of enabling tools and technologies. The purpose of developing this model is to support a heightened understanding of the parallel evolution of the design process and of enabling technologies. Thereafter, the chapter introduces seven recent trends in computational design and technology, each of which serves to enable the design process. The seven developments are: Build- ing Information Modeling (BIM), parametric design, generative design, collaborative design, digital fabrication, augmented reality, and intelligent environments. The chapter offers a critical review of proposed definitions of each of these technologies along with a discussion of their role as a catalyst for change in the design process.

Chapter 2 Novel Concepts in Digital Design...... 18 Rivka Oxman, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Israel

New media and methodologies are being employed in changing the conceptual understanding of what digital design is and may become. New experience is beginning to emerge in relation to novel key design concepts, computational methods, and digital technologies in the use of, and interaction with, digital media in design. The chapter describes an experimental program, the objective of which was to identify and map novel design concepts and relevant methodologies of digital design. In making the survey, analysis, and the categorization of relevant concepts and emerging precedents in this field, the authors made an attempt to formulize a theoretical basis for the conceptual mapping of this field. The conceptual mapping of this field is termed DDNET: Digital Design Network. The DDNET is a seman- tic system divided into the following conceptual levels: Key-concepts, sub-concepts, computational models and techniques, and precedent level. As a first step in this research, the authors made a survey of emerging knowledge from both praxis and theoretical resources, and then formulated and presented proposed set of design models, concepts, relevant methodologies, and precedents. Next, the authors mapped a network representation around leading key-conecpts. The final step was to accommodate and apply this representation as a new basis for a pedagogical experiment in teaching digital design. The research has been conducted in Experimental Digital Design Studio in the Faculty of Architecture and Town Planning at the Technion, Israel.

Chapter 3 Slow Computing: Teaching Generative Design with Shape Grammars...... 34 Terry Knight, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

This chapter describes the teaching of shape grammars within an architectural design program. De- veloped over thirty years ago, shape grammars remain today a distinctive computational paradigm – a slow paradigm – for generative design. Shape grammars are visual and perceptual and, at root, non- digital. They are expressive and interpretive, as well as creative and generative. They foster unhurried, reflective design computing. To promote these unique computational features, shape grammars are taught using a manual approach in a collaborative, learning-by-making environment. An overview of the teaching of shape grammars at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology is given here. The potentials and challenges for slow computing versus fast computing by machine, in teaching and in design practice, are considered.

Chapter 4 Learning Parametric Designing...... 56 Marc Aurel Schnabel, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong

Parametric designing, its instruments, and techniques move architectural design education towards novel avenues of deep learning. Akin to learning and working environments of engineering and manufactur- ing, it offers similar advantages for architects. Yet it is not as simple as using another tool; parametric designing fundamentally shifts the engagement with the design problem. Parametric designing allows architects to be substantially deeper involved in the overall design and development process extending it effectively beyond production and lifecycle. Leaning parametric design strategies enhance architects’ critical engagement with their designs and their communication. Subsequently, the computational aid of parametric modelling alters substantially how and what students learn and architects practice.

Chapter 5 Direct Building Manufacturing of Homes with Digital Fabrication...... 71 Lawrence Sass, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

Architecture, engineering, and construction industries maintain a long standing desire to enhance design communication through various forms of 3D CAD modeling. In spite the introduction of Build- ing Information Modeling (BIM), designers and builders expect varying amounts of communication loss once construction has started due to indirect construction techniques or hand based methods to manufacture buildings. This is especially true for houses and small structures, buildings that makeup the core of villages and suburbs. Unfortunately, paper documentation and reading 3D CAD models on screen continue the trend of indirect production defined in most manufacturing industries as error. The emerging application of CAD/CAM within design and construction industries provides hope for elevated communication between design and building. With CAD/CAM, it is possible to manufac- ture buildings of all types and sizes directly from CAD files similar to mass produced artifacts, thus reducing complexity in communication between parties. This chapter is presentation of one process of direct manufacturing from CAD and the emerging possibilities for small building production using digital fabrication. The chapter will focus on houses to illustrate the potential of direct manufacturing of buildings from CAD data.

Chapter 6 Building Information Modeling and Professional Practice...... 83 Dennis R. Shelden, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, USA

The practice of architecture is changing rapidly due to an influx of new technical, procedural, and organizational innovations in the building delivery process. Building Information Modeling (BIM) is a key technical component of this evolution in practice, encompassing newly available modeling, fabrication, and communications technologies. BIM represents a key enabler of other innovations, by creating value and incentives for rethinking aspects of conventional practice, from contractual roles and responsibilities to the format and content of project information.

Chapter 7 Advancing BIM in Academia: Explorations in Curricular Integration...... 101 Karen M. Kensek, University of Southern California, USA

In the early stages of the adoption of Building Information Modeling (BIM), the AEC (Architecture, Engineering, Construction) professionals were often the leaders, and some university faculty were caught unprepared. More recently, many universities have responded to the adoption of BIM technologies in the profession. No single approach to BIM curricula will suffice; each academic program is different, with unique and often innovative ways in accomplishing its goals of BIM integration. At USC, School of Architecture, rather than concentrating on a single strategy, multi-dimensional approaches are being developed that include at their core the recognition that the building delivery professions and academia must be better integrated, communication and interoperability are key components, and that BIM is one step, albeit with flaws, towards developing fully parametric design solutions. BIM technology should be broadly integrated throughout the curriculum; advanced seminars should stress interoperability and sustainability components; and the schools have a mission to outreach to the profession through con- ference hosting and executive education while being receptive to professionals’ advice. Not everyone is in agreement as to how this can be done or what methods should be implemented, and similar to the integration of CAD software and 3D modeling over the past 20 years, dissenting voices, heated dialogues, and solutions born in the crucible of academic/professional debate will accompany change. Chapter 8 Applying BIM in Design Curriculum...... 122 Clark Cory, Purdue University, USA Shanna Schmelter-Morret, Holder Construction Company, USA

This chapter presents an educational case study of applying Building Information Modeling (BIM) as an integrated design platform for interdisciplinary building and construction projects. The course is meant to focus on utilizing BIM for commercial construction. Students examine 3D geometry, spatial relationships, geographic information, quantities of materials, and properties of building components in this course. The students also learn the processes that make up BIM so they will be able to apply this information in a company. The purpose of the initial study was to assess the need for and receive feedback on the syllabus of the first commercial construction computer graphics course at Purdue University through a survey that was sent to industry professionals. The class was taught in the Fall 2009 semester and was successful according to the students in what they learned. The course was a 400 level course in which both upper level undergraduates and graduate students participated. The professor took the approach of a real world job and incorporated it into the content of the course. This chapter will discuss the initial case study of industrial professionals, the initial course creation, the development, and ultimately the final curriculum delivered within the course, as well as student feedback received at the end of the semester.

Chapter 9 Constructivist Learning Theory in Virtual Design Studios...... 139 Leman Figen Gül, TOBB University of Economics and Technology, Turkey Anthony Williams, University of Newcastle, Australia Ning Gu, University of Newcastle, Australia

In the authors’ design teaching, they have been employing virtual world technologies, allowing students the capacity to collaborate and design within a constructivist immersive design platform such as Second Life and Active Worlds. These environments support synchronous design communication and real-time 3D modelling. Particularly, 3D immersive design environments have the potential to make a major contribution to design education as constructivist learning environments. Based on authors’ teaching experience and the students’ learning experience, this chapter discusses 3D virtual world as constructivist learning environ- ments that support team-based design and communication skill-building and presents the challenges faced by design education today. The chapter firstly provides a critical analysis of various design learning and teaching features offered in 3D virtual worlds as constructivist learning environments, secondly, identi- fies a number of key issues in addressing engagement and interaction in virtual design learning, thirdly, addresses the core skills and cognitive processes of designing in 3D virtual worlds, and finally, provides several strategies for the facilitation of virtual worlds as the constructivist design teaching platform. Chapter 10 Understanding Collaborative Digital Media Design in the 3D CVE: A Vygotskian Approach...... 163 Theodor Wyeld, Flinders University, Australia Ekaterina Prasolova-Førland, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway

Digital Media Design (DMD) sits between ICT and the creative arts. DMD uses computers as a design tool. The ubiquity of the computer means DMD is available to a broad range of people. It is used in everyday design practices – creative, professional, commercial, academic, and casual. In an educational context, the way it is taught needs to meet students’ expectations from a broad range of capabilities and requirements. Unlike more traditional forms of design practice, peculiar to DMD is the use of online collaborations. In turn, this demands different cognitive learning structures to traditional design practices. Online collaborations include a socialising element. Hence, current DMD practice is as much about so- cial interaction as it is about design problem solving. Problem solving exercises in design teaching are traditionally explored in a project setting. In DMD this now includes the socialising element of online collaboration. This chapter describes a method for analysing DMD practice and, in particular, online design collaboration using a 3D Collaborative Virtual Environment.

Chapter 11 Will Different Scales Impact on Design Collaboration in 3D Virtual Environments?...... 185 Jerry Jen-Hung Tsai, University of Sydney, Australia Jeff Kan, Taylor’s University, Malaysia Xiangyu Wang, Curtin University, Australia Yingsiu Huang, Tunghai University, Taiwan

This chapter presents a study on the impact of design scales on collaborations in 3D virtual environ- ments. Different domains require designers to work on different scales; for instance, urban design and electronic circuit design operate at very different scales. However, the understanding of the effects of scales upon collaboration in virtual environment is limited. In this chapter, the authors propose to use protocol analysis method to examine the differences between two design collaboration projects in virtual environments: one large scale, and another small scale within a similar domain. It shows that the differ- ence in scale impacted more on communication control and social communication.

Chapter 12 Implementing Computer Gaming Technology in Architectural Design Curricula: Testing Architecture with the Rich Intertwining of Real-Time Spatial, Material, Lighting and Physical Simulations...... 199 Russell Lowe, University of New South Wales, Australia

The case for utilizing computer game modding in an architectural design curriculum is a strong one. The rich intertwining of real-time spatial, material lighting and physical simulations reinforce spatial visualization, navigation, and mental rotation. In the past two decades many researchers have imple- mented games engines in architectural curricula, but in every case, the courses have been in upper years of their students’ degrees, with small, elective classes rather than core courses. That this is in contrast to the wider computer game modding community, suggesting that the difficulties previous researchers have had may actually be mitigated by implementing the technology, along with aspects of computer game modding culture, in large first year classes. Case studies of student work collapse Stockburger’s distinction between the game designer and the game player to further his extension of Lefebvre’s and Soja’s thinking about space as it relates to computer gaming. The chapter concludes by reconsidering the term ‘player’ as a ‘game designer in testing mode’.

Chapter 13 Augmented Reality Research for Architecture and Design...... 225 Mi Jeong Kim, Kyung Hee University, Korea Xiangyu Wang, Curtin University, Australia & Kyung Hee University, Republic of Korea Xingquan Zhu, University of Technology Sydney, Australia Shih-Chung Kang, National Taiwan University, Taiwan

A growing body of research has shown that Augmented Reality (AR) has the potential to contribute to interaction and visualization for architecture and design. While this emerging technology has only been developed for the past decade, numerous journals and conferences in architecture and design have pub- lished articles related to AR. This chapter reviews 44 articles on AR especially related to the architecture and design area that were published from 2005 to 2011. Further, this chapter discusses the representa- tive AR research works in terms of four aspects: AR concept, AR implementation, AR evaluation, and AR industry adoption. The chapter draws conclusions about major findings, research issues, and future research directions through the review results. This chapter will be a basis for future research of AR in architecture and design areas.

Chapter 14 Experiencing Digital Design: Developing Interactive Workspaces for Visualizing, Editing, and Interacting with Digital Design Artifacts...... 238 John I. Messner, The Pennsylvania State University, USA Robert M. Leicht, The Pennsylvania State University, USA

To implement computational design applications into design education successfully, it is critical that educators consider the available facilities which allow students to develop, communicate, and experi- ence their designs. A variety of media spaces can be used to facilitate greater interaction with digital content, along with the potential to foster greater collaboration on team focused activities. An inter- active workspace can be designed to enhance authoring and interaction with digital content by using the INVOLVE framework, which includes seven elements: Interaction, Network, Virtual Prototypes, Organization, Layout, Visual Real Estate, and Existential Collaboration. This framework focuses on first identifying the fundamental uses and needs of the space, along with identifying the types of tasks to be performed within each physical space or room. For example, if a department has three different rooms available to students in a design studio or course, then the activities to be performed within the different spaces, e.g., design review, digital design authoring/modeling, fully immersive navigation of a model, collaborative brainstorming, et cetera, would suggest different displays and means of interaction. Once the use of each space is identified, then the framework guides the user toward the selection of fundamental space attributes, equipment and resources that should be avail- able to students within each space. Exciting new technologies will allow future students to be more easily engaged in the digital content while gaining easy access to data and information which was previously difficult to generate. Chapter 15 Interactive Architecture: Spaces that Sense, Think, and Respond to Change...... 257 Taysheng Jeng, National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan

This chapter provides an overview of interactive architecture relating to the design and implementation of ubiquitous computing technologies. The kernel of interactive architecture is augmenting spaces that can sense, think, and respond to change. A theoretical framework is provided for contextualization of interactive architecture. A model of interaction is proposed to identify a set of processes, functionality and principles that guide the design of interactive architecture. Key capabilities are identified with respect to interactive architecture: sensitivity, smartness, and responsiveness. Examples of some research projects are provided to demonstrate the capabilities. Methods and techniques for developing such capabilities are described according to the model of interaction. Applications for using ubiquitous computing technologies in interactive architecture are reviewed.

Chapter 16 A Methodology for Interactive Architecture...... 274 Carlos Calderón, Newcastle University, UK

In this chapter, the view that Interactive Architecture (IA) practice ought to produce (digital) interactive interventions designed to affect people’s actions and behaviours is firstly introduced. After presenting the challenges arising when integrating these two different conceptions of the word: Atoms and bits, reviewing the interpretations of IA and the lessons learnt from design methods theory in architecture, a novel way of approaching the intersection between architectural design, methodology, and emerging interactive technologies is proposed. This chapter attempts to make strong connections between design philosophy and project work, in aid of reinforcing the intellectual side of IA projects. Very often these types of projects are the result of technological pursuits rather than intellectual ones. Furthermore, this study demonstrates some strategies for ensuring the collaboration of design with related scientific and intellectual domains: architecture, computer science, and behavioural and social studies.

Chapter 17 Information Engagement through Interactive Sonification Design...... 299 Kirsty Beilharz, University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

Design for effective information engagement through interactive sonification and visualization can be divided into two parts: (1) interface and interaction - designing the method of manipulating, investigating and interrogating information representations; and (2) information design - designing the representation, interactivity and user-customizability of the data content. The user experience is affected by the respon- siveness and intelligence (awareness, contextual knowledge, situated interactivity) of the representation design. The purpose of information visualization and sonification is to transform data into information, that is, to enable users to find meaningfulness in the data. Chapter 18 Supporting Design Thinking with Evocative Digital Diagrams...... 319 Christiane M. Herr, Xi’an Jiaotong-Liverpool University, China

This chapter presents a digitally supported approach to creative thinking through diagrammatic visuals. Diagrammatic visuals can support designing by evoking thoughts and by raising open questions in con- versational exchanges with designers. It focuses on the educational context of the architectural design studio, and introduces a software tool, named Algogram, which allows designers to employ diagrams in challenging conventional assumptions and for generating new ideas. Results from testing the tool and the way of approaching conceptual designing encouraged by it within an undergraduate design studio suggest a potential for refocusing of attention in digital design support development towards diagrams. In addition to the conventional emphasis on the variety of tool features and the ability of the tool to assist representational modeling of form, this chapter shows how a diagram-based approach can acknowledge and harness the creative potential of designers’ constructive seeing.

Chapter 19 Architectural Design Education and Parametric Modeling: An Architecturological Approach ...... 338 Caroline Lecourtois, School of Architecture of Paris La Villette, France François Guéna, School of Architecture of Paris La Villette, France

This chapter presents an original teaching method carried out at the School of Architecture of Paris La-Villette (ARIAM-LAREA) whose aim is to prepare future architects for parametric design. Unlike most of the parametric design studio, the authors of this chapter do not want to teach a specific design method. They believe that the students have to find out their own method from the knowledge of archi- tectural usages of parametric design. Theoretical courses linked to a studio will better train them in the usage of parametric tools. During theoretical courses focused on parametric design activity, the authors ask the students to analyze computer activities of architects in order to identify their design methods. The students are trained under a method to analyze design activities based on “Applied Architecturol- ogy.” During the studio, they ask the students to reuse the identified methods. The students apply the methods in their own project and adapt them in order to build their own parametric design method. The works produced by the students in the courses and in the studio bring up new questions for the ARIAM-LAREA research laboratory and constitute bases for the development of new software tools for parametric architectural design.

Chapter 20 Design Education and Institutional Transformation...... 351 Dean Bruton, Southern Cross University, Australia

This chapter aims to develop awareness of the changing characterization of design and design educa- tion in response to the impact of global crisis and the ongoing introduction of innovative computational design methods and technologies. This chapter presents a strategic vision that includes a range of major concerns in relation to design education’s learning and teaching needs in higher education. The purpose of the chapter is to reconsider the foundation and consequent assumptions required of a vital relevant design education in the 21st century. It reflects on a general academic reassessment of the nature of design education in the light of the impact of computational methods and technologies and asserts a need for the re-envisioning of design education pedagogies in terms of networked interaction and global issues. Specifically it maintains that computational methods and techniques and the institutional adoption of interaction as a key factor in education has transformed the conception and construction of content as well as the delivery of communications across the broad spectrum of both the arts and sciences. It acknowledges the theory of institutional transformation, explores the evidence for such a theory, and discusses design education’s potential pedagogical strategies for reform of higher education.

Chapter 21 Teaching Spatial Thinking in Design Computation Contexts: Challenges and Opportunities...... 365 Halil Erhan, Simon Fraser University, Canada Belgacem Ben Youssef, Simon Fraser University, Canada Barbara Berry, Simon Fraser University, Canada

A new generation of design computation systems affords opportunities for new design practices. This calls for potentially new teaching requirements in design education, in particular the development of the requisite spatial thinking skills. In this chapter, the authors review the pertinent literature, followed by two case examples that illustrate how spatial thinking was taught in two undergraduate design courses. The authors’ experiences suggest that early exposure to spatial thinking concepts, coupled with practice using computational design tools in the context of a project, can significantly help students to improve the skills necessary to design in a digital environment. Through the use of team projects, the authors discovered the potential variances in design representations when students switched between digital and physical modeling. They propose further research to explore the spatial processes required in computa- tional design systems and the implications for design education.

Chapter 22 Inserting Computational Technologies in Architectural Curricula...... 390 José P. Duarte, Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal Gabriela Celani, University of Campinas (Unicamp), Brazil Regiane Pupo, University of Campinas (Unicamp), Brazil

This chapter describes two case studies concerning the introduction of computational design methods and technologies in new undergraduate architectural curricula, one in Portugal and the other in Brazil. In both cases, the immediate goal was to introduce state-of-the-art technologies in the curriculum to promote creative design thinking. The ultimate goals were to fulfill the criteria of intellectual satisfac- tion, acquisition of specialized professional skills, and contribution for the economic development of society that should underlie university education. The chapter describes the theoretical framework, the various courses and labs that were devised and implemented, as well as the strategies used to implement them. Then it presents the final results and concludes with a discussion of the pros and cons of each strategy. The main lesson drawn from both efforts was that cultural and organizational aspects are at least as important as technical aspects for the successful integration of computer media in architectural education. Chapter 23 Computational Methods and Technologies: Reflections on Their Impact on Design and Education...... 412 Ning Gu, The University of Newcastle, Australia Michael J. Ostwald, The University of Newcastle, Australia

Computational Design Methods and Technologies: Applications in CAD, CAM and CAE Education surveys five major categories of contemporary computational technologies and explores their applications in, and interactions with, design and design education. The five categories of technologies are: Genera- tive and parametric design systems; BIM; collaborative virtual environments; virtual and augmented reality systems; and interactive and intelligent environments. This final chapter reflects on the impact of these computational design methods and technologies, using Ostwald’s System-enabler Model as an underlying conceptual structure. The chapter explores changing relations between the representational, proportional, indexical, and operational systems in the design process, as well as emerging opportunities and challenges that arise from these methods and technologies. The impact of these new technologies and approaches is also discussed in the context of design education. The chapter draws together this significant body of work in order to provide a point of reference for the interpretation and critique of the new design knowledge and phenomenon encompassed in the five categories.

Compilation of References ...... 420

About the Contributors ...... 453

Index...... 462