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The Autonomous Nature of Creativity in Juxtaposition to the New Structuralism

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The Autonomous Nature of Creativity in Juxtaposition to the New Structuralism 42 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS The Autonomous Nature of Creativity in Juxtaposition to the New Structuralism HOLLEE BECKER Catholic University of America Creativity is independent of technology; it lies in the of software. The term New Structuralism implies a mind of the designer and may be either augmented return to rules, a process- driven design methodol- or hindered by the capabilities and limitations of dig- ogy fully entwined with research of project parame- ital software. For the purpose of argument, this pa- ters and materiality. Rivka Oxman states, “The New per will limit itself to the creation of complex form. Structuralism presents a body of novel representa- Fifty years ago complex forms involving double cur- tional and process models in which form, structure vatures were accomplished without the use of digital and material are integrated as one entity in a single technology and through the same basic strategies model of design”16. The disposition of creative au- used today. The only difference is, since the digital tonomy with regard to form, structure, and material revolution of the 1990s, software allows the design- can best be assessed when compared to the cre- er to create form through the application of rules ation of complex form in pre-digital design. or parameters rather than conceiving form wholly through inspiration, tradition and the vernacular. COMPLEX FORM IN PRE-DIGITAL ARCHITECTURE If creativity is autonomous, then digital technology is merely a tool and not a driver of design. If not, When Eero Saarinen was commissioned for the de- creativity may be directed or dictated by the limits sign of the TWA Terminal at Idlewild Airport (now Figure 1. Source: Antonio Roman, Eero Saarinen: An Architecture of Multiplicity, New York: Princeton Architectural Press, 2003. THE AUTONOMOUS NATURE OF CREATIVITY IN JUXTAPOSITION 43 JFK) in 1956 he was given the directive to capture space on a wharf site in Sydney, Australia. Utzon’s “the spirit of flight”1. In many ways the building competition entry, inspired by the sails of yachts resembles a bird in flight, but more so, it inspired in the harbor, consisted of double curvature shells. a nation of new air travelers to believe they had When the structural design became problematic due finally reached the space age. to the irregular curvatures, Ove Arup, the engineer for the project, and Utzon worked through a num- Architectural Forum attested to this fact by stat- ber of parabolic, ellipsoid and spherical schemes for ing that the terminal was a “smooth and luxurious simplifying the shells into a buildable form. Four switch from ground transportation to planes” and years later, Utzon suggested changing the shell that “the birdlike form is not mere caprice or design shapes to a wedge shape cut from a sphere9 so that virtuosity.”2 Although the inspiration may have been the curvature would be the same in both directions. avian, the shell shapes originated by observing the compression of grapefruit rinds3. Cardboard and Despite protests from Utzon that the design was wire models followed assuming the shapes of mush- not complete, construction began in March of 1959 room caps bisected and rearranged until the final and proceeded slowly for fourteen years. The shells configuration of four rounded diamonds evolved4. were supported by pre-stressed concrete ribs cov- ered with precast concrete tiles. But the process at This procedure is typical of pre-digital design: the first was much too slow and it was quickly realized physical modeling of a form precedes the drawing that a faster method of locating the precise place- of the shape. Saarinen’s team actually created a ment of structural members must be found in order full-scale mock-up of the interior in cardboard5. The for the opera house to be completed. architects developed 130 drawings of sections and details with the help of engineers Ammann & Whit- “Metal pins were inserted into the concrete units in known locations; once erected the positions of the ney6. These drawings were used to develop the pins were checked with theodolite. These survey scaffolding using over 2500 plywood wedge shapes readings would be dispatched by taxi to Australian of twenty-seven different shapes. What Saarinen General Electric’s computer in York Street, Sydney, has taught us, despite the harsh criticism of an fed into the program and run overnight.” 10 Architectural Review article in November 1962 (thankfully after Saarinen’s death) which likened The computer assistance aided the construction pro- its wonderful flow of space to a rat-maze without cess only. Fortran, a computer language invented the credibility of first-hand experience, is that cre- in 1954 could have aided the design of the compo- ativity in creating complex form is not dependent nents through a purely mathematical point of view. on digital technology. But designers are visual thinkers, and did not read- ily embrace computer software until the availability At the same time, Felix Candela experimented with of Computer-Aided Design programs in the 1980’s. the hy-par (hyperbolic parabaloid) and created the If designed today, the shells could have remained conch shell roof of Los Manatiales Restaurant. A true to Utzon’s original scheme. However, it would more regular geometric form, its 4cm thick shell be subjective to ponder whether the original sketch carries design loads with a maximum compressive forms would have proven the better solution. stress of only 186psi7. A decade earlier Pier Nervi combined two simple ideas of support: corrugation What Santiago Calatrava shares with Candela, Ner- and arches to create the Torino Esposizioni complex vi, Saarinen and Utzon is a predisposition to de- allowing natural light through the ninety-five meter sign in three dimensional space using sketching, span8. Both of these examples used regular geom- followed by physical modeling. In 1981, Calatrava etries with easily defined sections. The solutions are presented his Doctorate dissertation: On the Fold- both elegant and easily drawn and along with Saa- ability of Spaceframes.11 This work launched his rinen’s TWA Terminal, all three realized their origi- career toward the creation of expressive, dynamic nal vision. But it must also be realized that not all structures. Calatrava’s process is pre-digital: he creative form has been built exactly as envisioned. uses rods and connections, physically modeled to realize his original hand-drawn concepts. This In January 1957, John Utzon was announced as the method persisted even in the mid-nineties with the winner of a competition to design a performing arts design of the addition to the Milwaukee Art Mu- seum. Hand sketches were followed by physical 44 DIGITAL APTITUDES + OTHER OPENINGS modeling despite the availability of three-dimen- curvature such as The Swiss RE Building 1997, Albi- sional modeling software. And while his designs on Riverside and City Hall 1998, both in London, and are intricate, the members are linear, vector active, Gateshead Regional Music Centre 1998. The Swiss epitomizing the notion of the pregnant pause, Ca- RE Building is a diagrid structure inspired by Silica latrava’s structures are in fact dynamic and con- Sea Sponge. Branko Kolarevic, Mark Burry, Peter ceived without digital design. Wood and Keith Ball “developed an ‘elastic’ mod- eling program for creating variable forms of ‘eggi- THE DIGITAL REVOLUTION ness’”12. ARUP Engineers developed the GSA soft- ware program for structural analysis of the diagrid. With the development of Adobe Photoshop in 1989 This structure could easily be conceived without dig- and 3D Studio by Autodesk in 1990, visual digi- ital tools by creating simple section drawings, but it tal representation in architecture began to follow is significant because the digital exercise illuminated the advances already made in film making. Archi- the possibilities to the designers. tects began to use 3D software to create space, but were limited to simple geometric forms that could be scaled, repeated, rotated and mirrored. As designers employed these tools, logical pattern- ing began to return to design thinking coupled with an appreciation of mathematics. The ability to ar- ray and tessellate with varying scales, often em- ploying fractal mathematics led designers to begin exploring basic concepts with digital expressions. It is probably no coincidence that the prevalence of deconstructionism in architecture coincides with the development of computer-aided drafting. CA- TIA was developed by Dassault Systemes begin- ning in 1977 for aircraft design. Engineers in Arup and SOM began using the software and by the mid-1990s architects followed suit. Catia allowed structural analysis of design ideas, making the fea- sibility and fabrication of complex form affordable by saving countless engineering hours. The next leap in digital thinking occurred when Autodesk Figure 2. Swiss RE BLDG: Parametric models, GSA Maya, and its competitor Rhinoceros, introduced Structural Model. London City Hall geometric diagrams. digital designers to NURBS (Non-Uniform Rational Source: , Foster and Partners, ARUP, James Steele, B-Splines) in 1998. NURBS allow a designer to Architecture and Computers, New York: Watson-Guptill create smooth curvilinear surfaces. The free stu- 2001, p.98 dent licenses offered by Autodesk and the afford- able prices to students offered by Rhinoceros have A mere year later, the complexity of parametric mod- given them a clear footing in design resulting from eling in the London City Hall (Greater London Au- the fact that graduating architecture students tend thority) results in an asymmetrical environmentally- to use in practice software they have learned in responsive form developed by the layering of core, school. With Mel Scripting and Grasshopper, de- tiers and shell in a complex pattern of shapes that signers have easily transitioned to parametric mod- in retrospect shows both a fascination with the nov- eling, and as a result returned to a rule-based de- elty of the software at hand and a mastery of digital sign thinking dubbed the New Structuralism.
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