THE ROLE OF EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE & HEALTH CARE: STUDIES IN TWO SELECTED DISTRICTS OF NORTH BENGAL

THESIS SUBMITTED FOR THE DEGREE OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY IN ARTS ( Ph. D. )

BY

JAYEETA BASU, M A. M

UNIVERSITY OF NORTH BENGAL DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE 2008 0\0l bd~ 7?, rc::r:- )- , _, ,,~ t. "'

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'7 I '; s loO I I 'S co C(;. '1l- TABLE OF CONTENTS

PAGE NO. PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT i - ii LIST OF TABLES iii - iv CHAPTER- I : INTRODUCTION 1-29 I.I RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. I.II OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. I.III RESEARCH QUESTIONS. I.IV METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. LV BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE. I. VI PLAN OF THE STUDY. NOTES AND REFERENCES !!> CHAPTER - D : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK 30-71 II.I DEVELOPMENT AND ITS CHANGING DIMENSIONS. II.II DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AS AN APPROACH. II.III CONCEPr OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT. II.IV COMMUNICATION IN RURAL DEVEWPMENT. II.V OBJECTIVES AND IMPORTANCE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION. II.VI MASS MEDIA AND EXTENSION EDUCATION. NOTES AND REFERENCES. CHAPTER- m : EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURE 72- 101 III.I AGRICULTURE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT III.II ROLE OF INFORMATION IN AGRICULTURE III.III AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA III.IV EXTENSION EDUCATION IN WEST BENGAL NOTES AND REFERENCES TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER - IV : EXTENSION IN HEALTH AND FAMILY 102- 122 WELFARE IV.I HEALTH IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT IV.II CONCEPT OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IV.III EXTENSION IN HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES IN INDIA IV.IV ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURES FOR EXTENSION SERVICES IN HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE IN WEST BENGAL NOTES AND REFERENCES CHAPTER - V : EXTENSION IN AGRICULTURAL 123-148 DEVELOPMENT: RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY V.I INTRODUCTION V .II SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY V.III DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS V.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION V.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION MESSAGES V.VI CONCLUDING OBSERVATION CHAPTER - VI : EXTENSION IN HEALTH CARE 149- 172 PROGRAMMES: RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY VI.I INTRODUCTION VI.II SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY VI.III DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS VI.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION VI.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION MESSAGES VI.VI CONCLUDING OBSERVATION CHAPTER - VII . SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING 173- 177 OBSERVATION VII.I SUMMARY AND FINDINGS VILli CONCLUDING OBSERVATION SELETED BmLIOGRAPBY 178-193

APPENDIX 194-201 CDewfopment lias 6ecome one of tlie major concerns of our time, especially in the process of nation-6uili:finn aruf rapUf social-ecOTWmic transfonnation. In !nata Ci~ other countries, wfiere 80 percent of the popufation deperuf on anricufture andalfzed activities for tlieir fivetifwotf, all effort at tfevefopment purportedfy start witli Ofjriculture aruf tfevefopment of the rural sector. lJ1Jith tlie cliatlfJinn concept of rura[ tfevefopment, the integrated approach to tfe.vefopment encompasses allaspect of rura[ Cife inc[utfing healtli anti nutrition, education aruf Citerature, family pfannino aruf so on, with tlie ultimate o6jective ofimprovi111J tlie quality of Gfe of tlie rura[ poor. It was assumed tliat an activist state tlirouoli positive action coufj[ promote tlie quafity of Cift of the unprivi(eoed', deprived atuf vufnera6fe strata of society anti act as an instrument of egafitarianism in areas fiks tlie economy, education, lieaJth anti socia{ structure. cBut tlie decade of 1990 represents tlie cuttiii[J 6aci_. of tfie rofe ofgwemment throuoh privatization, tfereoufation anti tfecentrafization. Newrtliefess government stiff pfays tlie vita{ rofe in the development ofrura[ sector. I mprwino anricultura{ productivity 6y way of providinn necessary infrastructura{ anti technofooicof lieq, to tlie farmers is an important responsi6ility-of atr gwemments, particularly in tfeve{opino nations. Newer teclinofogies for increasino production are now 6ecoming avaifaD{e at a much faster rate. cBut tlie meclianism for transferrine tliem to tlie illiterate aruf sma[( aruf mar!Jina{ fanners in an effective manner is fiufj.no. In ortfer to transfer tlie teclinofogies and innovations in tlie jielif of agriculture to fann community, tliere is an urgent neetffor a communication - networ{ incfutfinn eXJ;ension activities. Vnfortunatefy, littfe effort lias 6een made so far for imprwine e:{Jension services. It is not only tlie i_.tW'Wfetfee tliat is neetfed', 6ut tliere is a requirement of a definite approach to supp[y tlie riiJiit i_.nowfedlJe aruf tools to tlie riiJiit peopfe atufat tlie ritJiit time.

i l __:_,) j{t tlie same time, an integrated approacli to ru~a£ tfeve(opment encompasses inter alia tlie impruvement of rura[ lieaftli services wliicli afso requires tlie appfication of e~nsion mechanisms and tlie active imJOfvement of rura[ lieaftli wo~s as e~ension tlf}ents. q'/iis is an occasion to express gratitude and ack._nowfediJe intfe6tetfness to a[[ tliose persons wliose atfflice and assistance liefped me to compfete tlie w~ !My greatest intfe6tedness is to my teaclier (])r. !Maya qliosli, ~ CJJepartment of Cl'ofitica[ Science, !Nortli CBentJa[ Vniversity, wliose itwafua6Ce atfvice, comments and tlioufjlitful SU(JlJestion lie{ped me a[[ afotre in remofdine my tliouglit and accompfisliiniJ su6stantiw improvement in my wort I a/So wisli to record my gratitude to tlie J{gricufture (])evefopment Officer, 1(prandiglii and tlie office stafffor tlieir cooperation in gettine refevant materialS and infonnation for tlie purpose of my study. I woulif ~ to express my deepest sense of appreciation to tlie officials of CDepartment of Jfeaftli and Pamify Welfare of

Jfllpurduar Su6 - arvision and tlie Jfeaftli W~s of tlie (}Janiatfa6ri Su6-centre for tlieir sincere cooperation and assistance. I am grateful to tlie Li6rarians and tlieir staff of tlie 1Vortli CJJeneaf Vnwersity Library and tlie 1Vationa[ Li6rary, 1:(p~ta. ){part from tliis, my parents were a great source of inspiration in tlie compfetion of tliis worR.:, Pina[[y, I acR.JwwfediJe my special tlian~ to my lius6and wlio endured a[[ liazartfs in lie{pi11fJ me to co{{ect materialS from numerous sources. J{6ove a[[, no word$ of tlian~ wou/({ 6e adequate to express my gratitude to my eftfer 6rotlier for liis sincere cooperation tlirounli out my w~

__,,II . LIST OF TABLES:-

1. 1 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE UTTAR DINAJPUR 1.2 AREA UNDER MAJOR CROPS AND PRODUCTIVITY 1.3 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND INSTITUTIONAL FACILITIES.

3.1 YEAR OF ORIGIN OF NATIONAL AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION SYSTEMS IN SELECTED COUNTRIES. 4 1 TARGETS OF HEALTH FOR ALL BY 2000 AD 4.2 ACHIEVEMENT OF INDIA FROM THE YEAR I 95 I -2000 4.3 LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH AND IMR IN SELECTED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES. 4.4 DIFFERENTIALS IN HEALTH STATUS AMONG STATES 4.5 TRENDS IN EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE, 1951- 2002 4.6 GOALS TO BE ACHIEVED BY 2000-2015

4.7 DEMOGRAPHIC, SOCIO ~·~ ECONOMIC AND HEALTH PROFILE OF WEST BENGAL 5.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY AGE 5.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY QUALlFIC A TION 5.3 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY CATEGORY OF FARMERS "'4 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY INCOME

<; 5 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND AGE 5.6 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND QUALIFICATION 5.7 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND CATEGORY OF FARMERS 5.8 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND INCOME "i 9 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNCATION AND AGE "' l(i ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMLNCATION AND QUALIFICATION 5 II ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNCATION AND CATEGORY OF FARMERS 5.12 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNCATION AND INCOME 5.13 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND AGE 5. I 4 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS. FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND QUALIFICATION 5.15 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND CATEGORY OFF ARMERS 5. 16 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS., INSECTICIDES AND JNCOME

iii 5.17 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND AGE 5.18 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND QUALIFICATION 5.19 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND CATEGORY OF FARMERS 5.20 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS, FERTILIZERS, INSECTICIDES AND INCOME 6.1 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY SEX 6.2 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY AGE 6.3 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY QUALIFICATION 6.4 DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS BY INCOME 6.5 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND SEX 6.6 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND AGE 6.7 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND QUALIFICATION 6.8 ACCESS TO MEDIA AND INCOME 6.9 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNCATION AND SEX 6.10 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNC A TION AND AGE 6.11 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNCA TION AND QUALIFICATION 6.12 ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNC A TION AND INCOME C1 l3 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA MATERNITY, CHILD CARE AND SEX 6.14 KNOWLEDGE RFCiARDING MALARIA MATERNlTY CHILD CARE AND AGE 6. 15 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA, MATERNITY. CHILD CARE AND QUALIFICATION 6.16 KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA MATERNITY, CHILD CARE AND INCOME 6 17 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA, MATERNITY. CHILD CARE AND SEX 6.18 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA, MATERNITY, CHILD CARE AND AGE 6.19 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA, MATERNITY, CHILD CARE AND QUALIFICATION 6.20 SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA. MATERNITY, CHILD CARE AND INCOME

iv CHAPTER- I : INTRODUCTION - - I.I RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. 1.11 OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. 1.111 RESEARCH QUESTIONS. I. IV METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED STUDY. LV BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE. I. VI PLAN OF THE STUDY. NOTES AND REFERENCES I.l RELEVANCE AND SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

After World War -II (1939-45), the independence of former colonies was one of the most important events that attached new connotation to the concept of development. The Western Scholars prescribed for the rapid economic development through industrialization and urbanization of the Third World countries. They laid emphasis on heavy accent on science and technology, ruthless exploitation of environmental resources and letting loose of market forces. These models argued that once there is robust growth of the GNP/GDP, the whole society will be developed in all its segments. Perhaps, these alien Westernized models of development did not last long. Soon, many eminent economist and social scientists in the developing countries challenged several strategic formulations of these models. They argued that, development does not mean mere economic development or economic growth. In the 70's developmentalist stressed on equity in the distribution of information and other benefits of development, active participation of the people at the grassroots and fulfillment of basic needs of the people. However the development debate in the early 80's shifted to social aspect of development. Social development aimed at strategic investment in health, education and social services Now a day, the concept of 'sustainable development ' has emerged. It is development which not only regenerates economic growth but distribute its benefits equitably; and which regenerates the environment rather than destroying it. With the new emerging concept of development, rural development has developed as a distinct field of policy, practice and research in most of the Third World countries. Rural development today is a multi-dimensional process with the emphasis on economic growth, with modernization, with increased agricultural production and with services for basic needs such as health, education, transport and water supply. Planning for integrated rural development has assumed great significance as means to achieve a 'balanced' development of rural communities. The integrated rural development project envisages a direct and frontal attack on rural poverty by providing viable income generating assets to the target groups and to enable them through training, extension and other supportive services. For many years, almost everyone looked at the development in terms of economic goals. Development meant rising of gross national product, an increase in investment and consumption, and a nsing standard of living. But the development debate in the early 80s

1 shifted to social aspects of development. Now development implies progressive improvement in the living condition and quality of life of the individual, community and society rather than increase in per capita income. Development indicators are meant to represent both social and economic dimensions of the development process. The purpose of development is to prepare people to lead economically productive and socially satisfying lives. Every where, people strives to increase their earning which increase their purchasing power. And this will enable them to get them sufficient food and housing, better education, better opportunities of leisure, and most important, better health. Since the inauguration of the First Development Decade by the United Nations in 1960, the governments in many developing nations have sought to increase their efforts at providing adequate food for have their people specially those living in the rural areas. The main way through which the Third World nations have sought to improve the levels of agricultural productivity among their small scale farmers has been by encouraging adoption of new agricultural ideas, skills and practices based on the scientific method of production. In this respect, there was a need for prior detailed information about the innovations along with the acquisition of the necessary technological skills associated with their successful adoption This function, it is assumed, would fall into the operational domain of agricultural extension. The ultimate objective of human development is to improve human well-being and the quahty of people's lives. It calls for strategic investments in health, education and social services to promote people-centered development. The Primary Health Care approach which aims at achieving 'Health for All' is essentially based on the regular delivery of health services to the grass root people. For the success ofthe programme it is essential to encourage and ensure full community participation with regular supply of relevant information through which individuals, families and community can assume responsibility for their health and well-being. The role of communication in general and ex-tension activities in particular in achieving the comprehensive goals of human development inter alia, through increased agricultural productivity and accessibility to health care services has assumed significant today. Extension education is concerned with educating adults not in the letters and alphabet, grammar or language, but in the technique of raising better crops; improving existing village crafts and industries and organizing new one; providing minimum health

2 services for children as well as adults; and improving housing and living condition for village women and youth. In the development of rural areas, where more than 80 percent of rural population depend upon agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood, agricultural development is the core of rural development vis-a-vis national development. The continuing importance of the agriculture in the economics of the developing countries is reflected in the association between the growth of agriculture and of the economy as a whole. Agriculture also remains the primary sources of employment for the majority of the world's population and of raw materials in industries. But, the main problem in accelerating agricultural production for meeting the ever-growing demand of the people is that the quantity of land available for cultivation in a country is fixed. Most observers then tum to technological improvement including development of irrigation facilities, pesticides, improved seeds and fertilizers. The adoption of new technology in agriculture depends on the knowledge, skills and motivation of the farmers. In this respect, the agricultural extension plays an important role to transmit knowledge of better production methods to farmers. The Training & Visit (T&V) system of agricultural extension has been adopted in almost all state in India including West Bengal to build a professional extension service m the field of agriculture. The Krishi Proyukti Sahayak (KPS) interact with the farmers to encourage them to adopt agricultural practices and innovation that are most relevant for increasing their incomes. With the expansion of the scope and contents of rural development, the emphasis is also given on the availability of resources to fulfill the basic needs, like health, education and water supply etc. ln the field of health, various programmes such as, National Malaria Eradication Programme, National AIDS Programme, National Goiter Prevention Programme, National Leprosy Control Programme, National Tuberculosis Programme, National Nutrition Programme, National Family Welfare Programme, National Kalajar Programme etc. are initiated in the post independence period to improve the physical condition of the rural people. The new orientation in health policy is towards more integration of promotive, preventive and curative measures in health services especially directed to specific target groups, the weaker section and the most vulnerable groups- children, pregnant women and lactating mothers. The Integrated Chtld Development Services (ICDS) programme benefited

3 pregnant and lactating mother with a package of services in the form of nutritional supplements and non-formal education for mother. The World Bank assisted multi-state ICDS project is also providing income-generating activities for women, and nutritional rehabilitation of severely malnourished in tribal areas. The main thrust of the Rural Health Scheme is to create a countrywide cadre of non-professional health worker, like Multi-Purpose Workers (MPWs) and Community Health Workers (CHWs).The scheme lay emphasis on providing adequate health care facilities to the people and educating them in matter of promoting better health conditions. To this end, it has made provision for one CHW for each village and MPW in each sub-centre. The activities that the CHW is expected to carry out are treatment of minor ailments, giving first aids in emergencies; identification of cases of malaria, small pox and other communicable diseases; helping para-medical staff in work related to communicable diseases, family planning, nutrition and mental health; arousing interest among the community regarding problems of environmental sanitation and personal hygiene and finally, participating in activities related to health education. In West Bengal, there is one male and one woman Health Assistant m each mauza to provide professional health education services to the people. In the context of this changed concept of development with emphasis on social aspects of development inclusive of the concept of human development, the present study seeks to explore the relevance and importance of extension education, service and work in areas like agriculture and health which seem to be the crux in any attempt at rural development. l.ll OBJECTIVES OF THE PROPOSED STUDY The challenge of development is to increase the quality of life which means better education, better health and nutrition, less poverty, a clear environment and more equality of opportunity for all of the society. It requires the transformation of old values, modification of behavioral patterns, establishment of effective institutions and assuming of new functions required to effectuate new social purposes. In this process of social change, communication has a useful role to play particularly in the context of national development.

4 Development in rural sector primarily starts with development in agriculture, more specifically, with the increased agricultural productivity. The introduction of any new innovation in agriculture requires the regular flow of information about the innovation, the method and techniques of putting it into practice. In this process of communication, mass media as the extension agent play a crucial role. Therefore, one of the primary objectives of the proposed study is to evaluate the role of mass media as extension agent for disseminating agriculture related information among the farmers. Extension has long been regarded as the most logical, scientific and systematic method for disseminating more productive and useful knowledge and skills to user receiver. Agricultural extension is the means by which the agricultural extension workers advice and teach farmers about the relevant production technology, and keep themselves abreast of the farming problems and needs of the farmers. It serves as a linkage between the scientists and the farmers. Therefore another objective of the study is to assess the role of the extension agents in extending knowledge regarding the successful use of the techniques, tools and inputs of the agriculture. The Training and Visit (T&V) system establishes a broad structure for imparting time bound extension education to the farmers through monthly workshop, fortnightly training camps and regular scheduled visits to the farmers. The system is attempting to provide accurate research-based knowledge to the ultimate receivers in a timely regular and systemic way. The T&V system has been adopted in almost all the states including West Bengal in India since its introduction in 1974. Therefore, another primary objective of the proposed study is to evaluate the effectiveness of T & V system in agricultural extension in West Bengal. With the changing concept of development, importance has beeri given on the concept of 'human development'. It implies inter alia improved nutrition, hygienic living and working conditions, greater awareness of health problems and wider accessibility to health care services. In rural areas, the primary health care services are given by the he~lth workers who also act as extension agents for disseminating information about health problems and their solution. Therefore, another primary objective of the proposed study is to evaluate the role of the health workers in disseminating health related information and educating rural people on health care services and creating awareness among them regarding health care provisions.

5 The mam thrust of the Rural Health Scheme is to create a countrywide cadre of non-professional health workers, like Multi-Purpose Workers (MPWs) and Community Health Workers (CHWs). The scheme lays emphasis on providing adequate health care facilities to the workers and are expected to carry out the treatment of minor ailments by them giving first aids in communicable diseases, family planning, nutrition and hygiene and encouraging the community to participate in health education. In west Bengal, there is one male and one woman Health Assistants in each mauza to provide professional extension services to the rural people. Therefore, another primary objective of the proposed study is to assess the activities of Health Assistants in West Bengal.

1.111 RESEARCH QUESTIONS Keeping in view the objectives of the proposed study, the present study seeks to answer the following question:

1 Whether and to what extent the flow of information requires the support of extension in the development of agriculture and health care?

2. Whether and to what extent mass media need to be used in extension education along with traditional face-to-face media of communication?

3. What are the specific structural designs in West Bengal for extension in agricultural and health sector?

4. How far and to what extent the non-governmental structures and agencies help and collaborate with the government agencies in providing extension service in the field of agriculture and health in ·west Bengal?

5. How far and to what extent the extension servtces are working successfully m delivering desired results in agriculture and health care?

6 I.IV METHODOLOGY OF THE PROPOSED STUDY

THE RESEARCH DESIGN:- In India, an integrated rural development movement was set in with the inauguration of the Community Development Projects and National Extension Service during the First Five Year Plan (195 1-56). The revolution in extension activities and the new approach to extension work in the context of development has made it the nerve centre of government sponsored development activities. The search, therefore, was for a research design that would allow a study of the process of extension work in the implementation of development programmes in the selected areas of government activities. The developing countries in the so-called Third World display some common characteristics in terms of widespread illiteracy, unequal distribution of wealth, predominantly agriculture based economy, unemployment and lack of health consciousness. The governments in these countries are trying to improve the standard of living through a number of developmental programmes and projects. In India, after independence, the masses expect a lot from the government. A number of developmental programmes are taken up by the governments during last few decades. The success of these programmes depends to a great extent on the active involvement and participation of the people. This in tum requires popular awareness and dissemination of relevant informations for that purpose. Extension workers in this case play an important role in disseminating information about new innovations and projects and making them comprehensible to the rural people. Agriculture is considered as the focal point in any attempt at rural economic development. However, with the changing concept of development health has become another important area, to be dealt with so far as the question of human development is concerned. It therefore, considered proper to concentrate on the study of the actual and potential role of extension in agriculture and health related areas. For a clear understanding of the new role of extension in rural development, the study needs to be conducted at the micro level. Hence, the study has undertaken at the village level. In the selection of villages, two things are kept in mind. One is the distance of the village from the nearby headquarter of the extension worker. Villages close to the

7 block headquarters are eliminated from the list before sampling in order to verify the inclination of extension workers to visit the farmers in far off villages and the frequency of their visit. Secondly, the villages close to urban centres are relatively exposed to different media of communication and have greater access to information due to location advantage. Hence, an impact study of extension activities like T & V system in agricultural extension needs to be conducted in villages which are away from urban exposures for getting a more accurate result. In West Bengal, the Department of Agriculture and Health have their own structural designs for delivering necessary information and service to the rural masses. Thus, their organizational networks, the ways of their functioning and the techniques at their disposal require examination for an understanding of the nature of extension activities among the people in the context of development. The Research Design of the study thus allowed to: (a) Examine the specific structural designs in West Bengal for extension work in agriculture and health sector. (b) Assess the working of the extension network in delivering desired results m agriculture and health care. (c) Study the media exposure and the level of understanding of the people at the micro level in selected fields of development i.e., agriculture and health.

METHOD OF DATA COLLECTJON:- The study has been done in two parts. For the first part of the study, which is mainly exploratory in nature, reliance is made primarily on documentary sources such as the annual reports, periodic official publications, reports of the different committees and commissions, official notifications and materials and other published and unpublished source materials. For the second part of the study, the data are collected solely and completely by using the personal interview method of survey research A structured questionnaire has been administered among the sample respondents for obtaining information relevant for the present study. At the macro level of the study, an insight is given into the extension work in the state of West Bengal in the context of development. Thus, it becomes necessary to identify the structures within the government that are expected to initiate and sustain the process of extension in the state of West Bengal and to examine the modes of their

8 working. The Department of Agriculture and the Department of Health and Family Welfare are the nodal agencies with necessary infrastructures stretched down the local levels for the dissemination of government information and initiation of the process of two-way communication between the government and the people. Thus the first part of the study is exclusively concerned with examining the nature of functioning of these two agenctes. This part of the work has been done mostly on the basis of documentary sources and personal interaction with officials to get idea about the actual way of doing things in these departments. The publication cells of the Department of Agriculture and Health have come out with a number of publications of various leaflets, pamphlets and posters. These publications are found portraying the lists of works done by these Departments through out the year. The real difficulty arose when an attempt has been made to examine the role of the state government in West Bengal in the process of development and extension work. There is neither any official document specifying the areas of operation of the Departments or detailing its activities, nor any regular publication issued by the Departments showing its success or failure. Both the departments admitted their shortcomings in this respect The second part of the study aims at examining the extension network as it is operating within the rural community modifying the behavioral pattern of the people in the context of rural development. Hence the focus of study was shifted from the macro level to the micro level of inquiry into the changes in the perception, attitude and behavior of those who are at the receiving end of development. Consequently, a survey research method of personal interview with a structured questionnaire has been chosen as the principal source of data collection for this part of study. Since the study has been conducted at the village level, it has been thought proper to approach the respondents with the same set of questions so that differences in responses can be fully attributed to the actual differences among the respondents. The selection of the districts for the study was determined by the convenience of the researcher to get sufficient time for field survey and the working of the respective field. There are 9 Blocks in the Uttar Dinajpur district and 13 Blocks in the Jalpaiguri district One Block from each district has been selected using the method of random sampling. To keep the sample size adequately representative of the untverse, finally, two villages are selected from each Block, one for

9 studying the process of extension and its impact in the implementation of agricultural programmes and practices and another for carrying out a similar study in the field of health. The selection of village within the selected Block in each case is made by using the method of random sampling.

CONTENT OF INTERVIEW SCHEDULE:- For the purpose of interviewing the villagers, two separate sets of questionnaire, one relating to agriculture and the other for health and family welfare activities, are framed. The questionnaire included, apart from questions on general profile of the respondents, those for getting information in specific areas of query. Questions are put for an understanding the access of the respondents to different media and their level of understanding of the content of communication in relation to age, sex, education, occupation, caste and religion, the knowledge of the respondents about specified agricultural and health development programmes and the sources oftheir knowledge and the results ofthe different programme campaigns.

THE JNTERVJEW:- Interviewing the villagers is quite a different expenence. It is obvious that villagers have no idea about the social science research. They come forward with some curiosity even when the purpose of the study was honestly explained to them. Nevertheless, they co- operate with the researcher and this has been made possible only by way of mixing with them freely and establishing a rapport before approaching them with a questionnaire as such. To get access to the villagers, first, a few days have been spent only roaming in the villages, sometimes accompanying the Health Assistant or the KPS, and taking with the Panchayat members, the village leaders, the elderly people in the villages, and even the housewives. It is only when such a rapport has been established that the villagers are individually approached with the questionnaire, and they ultimately found it a pleasure to answer the questions they are asked. As most of the villagers are not able to read the questionnaires, the researcher has to translate them and sometimes to elaborate them for their clear understanding. The villagers are very frank and free in giving reply to the questions.

10 DATA PROCESSING AND ANALYSIS:- The data that are obtained from the interview have been first classified into categories and then arranged in the form of tables. Finally, the data are analyzed and measured to find out the relationship between the dependent variables and a set of independent variables and attributes.

LOCATION OF THE STUDY:- The District of Uttar Dinajpur came into existence on 1st April, 1992 after the bifurcation of erstwhile West Dinajpur District. The District lies between latitude 25° 11' N to 26° 49' Nand longitude 87° 49' E to 90° 00' E occupying an area of 3142 sq.km. enclosed by Bangladesh on the East, Bihar on the West, Darjeeling and Jalpaiguri District on the North and Maida District on the South. The regional topography is generally flat with a gentle southerly slope towards which the main rivers like Kulik, Nagar, Mahananda etc. flow. Bengali is the main language but a sizeable portion of Urdu and Hindi speaking people live in Islampur Sub-division. Uttar Dinajpur is bestowed with a very fertile soil. The soil is very rich in nature due to the alluvtal deposition which helps to grow paddy, jute, mesta and sugarcane etc. Raiganj on the bank of the river Kulik is the District Headquarter where 'Raiganj Wild life Sanctuary', the second largest bird sanctuary in Asia is situated.

TABLE- 1.1 DEMOGRAPHIC PROFILE OF THE DISTRICT ! Total Population 2441824 I No. ofB1ocks 9 I Density of Population I 778 ! Municipalities 4 I Literacy Rate 48.63% No. of Gram Panchayats 99 SC to Total Population 28.9% High School 113 ST to Total Population 8.29% Primary School 1438 ------~----~------___ L _____j______

TABLE- 1.2 AREA UNDER MAJOR CROPS AND PRODUCTIVITY

1 CROP AREA PRODUCTIVITY± PRODUCTION --- (Kg/Ha) (in MT) Aman Paddy 190469 2425 5836 -j 1------+---~------~------+------j Aus Paddy 3887 1500 t 461933(approx) ! ------~------l-~-~--~------.1

11 CROP AREA PRODUCTIVITY -- -- PRODUCTION- ··-· (Kg!Ha) (in MT) Boro Paddy 69985 - 244948 ---··- .. -- --JUte---- -~- 1------28898______------1784- - - - - 51554 Wheat 52532 105064(approx) Mustard 54020 974 52615 Potato 15230 1834 279318 Pulses 6458 980 6329 i Total Vcgetables 17214 - 153665(approx) L-~-----~-· L··----·------~------~------···----· --··----·------·--· -- (Source: Principal Agriculture Office, Uttar Dinajpur, 2004-05) Due to favorable climatic condition and the fertility of soil, Uttar Dinajpur produces a number of fruits. The total area under fruit cultivation is 5772 Hectare.

TABLE- 1.3 AGRARIAN STRUCTURE AND INSTITUTIONAL FACILITIES l. . No. ofF amilies dependent on Agriculture 2,39,500 ~ No of Small Farmers 88,536

-~---~---·------No of Marginal Farmers 1,35,827 No of Agricultural Laborers 3,71,081 i ~----- j I No of TN units 172 i I ··---·-----~------1 ~···~ Agriculture Seed Farm 1 I ----·-----·--·------~ Thana Seed Farm 5 I Sub-divisional Research Farm 2 ---~ No. of Regulated Market Committee 2 (lslampur & Kaliaganj)

I I Soil Testing Centre l (at Kamajora) ~--··----·-----··-I ··-----·---·--- ·--·--r··------·----·------·----- I Krishi Vishwavidyalaya l _Ji ~~---·------·· ------~------L----·----- ____j

Out oftwo sub-division ofthe district, Islampur covers the area of 1,735.7 sq.km. Total population is 2,41,910 with the density of 730 per sq.km. The percentage of rural population in this sub-division is very high, the rate of literacy is low (3 9. 42%) compared to the percentage of literates in the district (48.63%). According to the 2001 census, the percentage of total workers in the district was 38.35%, while that of Islampur sub­ division was 38.94%. Of the total workers in Islam pur, 23.46% were cultivators and 38.26% were agricultural labors.

12 There are five developmental blocks in Islampur sub-division, vtz. Chopra, Islampur, Goalpokhar-I, Goalpokhar-II and Karandighi. Among these blocks, Karandighi has been selected for the study. The block covers an area of 386.90 sq.km. bounded in the east by Bangladesh, in the north by Kishanganj, in the west by Bihar and in the south by Raiganj Block. According to the Block record of the 2001 census, the Block has a total population of 3,18,793, of which 1,63,876 are males and 1,54,917 females. Of the total population in the block, 32.07% belong to Scheduled Castes and 8.41% to Scheduled Tribes. The percentage of the literates is 49.68. There is 14 Gram Panchayats in the block with a total number of 214 villages. Of the total population, 38.94% are total workers. Among them 23.46% are cultivators and 42.45% agricultural labours. The block has got one high school and 17 KPS circles. Jalpaiguri is the largest district of North Bengal, covering an area of 6,245 sq.km. It is situated between 26° 16' and 27° 00' North altitudes and 88° 04' and 89° 53' East longitudes. The district was established in 1869. The name Jalpaiguri came from the word "Jalpai" means "olive" which grew in abundance at one time in the town. The suffix "guri" means a place. The name as well associated with Jalpesh, the presiding deity (shiva) of the entire region. Jalpaiguri is one of the parts of the ancient "Koch Rajbongshi'' kingdom i.e. "Kamtapur" presently the district situated in the northern part of West Bengal It is flanked by Darjeeling and Bhutan in the North, Assam in the East, Bangladesh and Coochbehar in the South and Bangladesh and Darjeeling in the West. A major stretch of area is bordered in the north by Bhutan and hence the named Dooars/Duars which mean Door of Bhutan. The entire topography is crisscrossed with rivulets, rivers and hills, veined by mtghty rivers like the T eesta, Torsa, Jaldhaka, Dyna, Neora, Sankosh etc. This piece of land has been aptly named as the land of 'Tea, Timber and Tourism'. According to 2001 census, total population of the district is 34,03,204 with the density of 547/sq.km. The district is primarily rural with more than 80% of rural population. The percentages of SC and ST population are 36.99% and 21.04% of the total population respectively. Having high percentage of migrated population different cultural groups (Ranjbanshi, Ravas, Totos, Metch, Santhals, Madasia and Oraons) have created a unique cultural harmony which is rarely seen in other districts of West Bengal. The average annual rainfall is 3160mm and the average temperature ranges between 30.9 and 10.8 degree throughout the year. The average relative humidity is about

13 82%. The storm rainfall is of hydro-metrological significance causing inundation and flood of the area. Spring and autumn are the most liked and comfortable seasons in the district. All environmental hazards directly or indirectly affect the health condition of the people especially in the rural areas of the Jalpaiguri district. The Diarrhea, Malaria, and other water-born diseases are 'Acute Problem' ofthe area in the monsoon period in every year. Till December, 2007, 35 people had died of malaria in Alipurduar sub-division and 15,924 sample out of the 4,50,867 had tested positive for malaria. Of the three sub-division of the district, Alipurduar was made a sub-division in 1876. It covers an area of2532.8 sq.kilometers. According to the 2001 census, the total population in this sub-division is 12,63,811. Alipurduar covering 40.56% of the total area of the district accounted for 37.14% of the total population. The percentage of rural population in this sub-division is higher than the district average and the rate of literacy is lower compared to the percentage of literates in the district. The total number of villages having primary health centre are 6 and 105 villages in the sub-division have primary health sub-centre. There are six development blocks in the Alipurduar sub-division, viz. Madarihat, Kumargram, Kalchini, Alipurduar-L Alipurduar-ll and Falakata. The block Alipurduar-ll has been selected for the study The block headquater is located at Jasodanga. The total area is 196.22 sq.km. According to the Block Record of the 2001 census, the block has a total population of 1,97,160 of which 1,01,505 are males and 95,655 females. Ofthe total population, 42.92% belong to SCs and 20.590/o to STs. There are one Rural Hospital, 4 Primary Health Centre and 36 Primary Health Sub-centre in the block.

I.V BRIEF OVERVIEW OF LITERATURE

In this sector an attempt is made to present a brief overview of the works undertaken by the Western and Indian Scholars in the study of development and communication as well as in the field of extension education in rural development. George F. Gant1 in his book discusses the concept of development administration and its changing dimensions. He clearly outlined the role of agriculture in rural development and high lightened the importance of information in increasing agricultural production. Robert Hunter1 examines the concept of development. He explains the Western model

14 of development. Kathleen Staudt3 advocates the process of managing development in terms of state, society and international context. Robert Chambers4 makes an inclusive definition of rural development. He emphasized on gaining power and dominance by poor people in the rural areas for getting control over the benefits of development. Edward W. Widner!i in his article discusses elaborately the origin of the concept of Development Administration. It also analyses the role of Development Administration in Third World countries. Marie Fainsod6 examines various ~ssential elements of Development Administration. Fred W.Riggs7 in his article makes a detail study about the separate administrative structure for the wide variety of functions, which have to be performed in developing countries. Donald C.Stone8 discusses the goals of development administration and various plans, policies and programmers of administration in developing countries. Terence J. Byres9 in his edited book advocates the achievements and failure of planning in India. It also dealt with the contribution of planning to the development of agriculture in India and the long term and short term economic measures for introducing reforms in the economy. R.B Jain and Feinj Bongatz10 has made a comprehensive study of the concept of Structural Adjustment Programme in the context of New Economic Policy O.P Dwivedi and R.B.Jain11 points out the relevance of American ideas of administration to the situations in the Third World countries. It deals wtth the cnsts of tdentity and purpose of development administration during the last four decades. P.W. Purushothan and M. Karamatullah12 discuss the concept of development administration m rural perspectives. Vasant Desai13 makes a comprehensive study of various programmes for amelioration of the socio-economic conditions of the rural population. P. Gopinath Rao14 has dealt with the central problems of rural development and the role of sustainable livelihood approaches in addressing them. It explores the inter-relationship between agricultural growth and rural poverty. S.K.Sharma and S.L.Malhotra15 interpret the most popular conception of integrated Rural Development Programme (IRDP) and its various goals. B.S.Khanna16 makes a detailed study about the changing concept of rural development He spoke of various strategies of rural development, which were adopted by the South-Asian countries. Ch. Balaramulu17 in his book stressed on the need for initiating changes in the organizational patterns of rural administration and making them viable to adopt new conditions and modem technology for development. He tried to focus on the linkages between technology, rural development and organizational building. A number of articles

16 contained in S.P Srivastava 's18 edited book has dealt with and evaluated the development debate through decades by way of presenting different models, dimensions and of development and interpreted the challenges it confront. The article by S.P. Verma and S.K. Sharma19 provides a number of articles to give clear outline about the concept of development administration and its changing concept. D.R.Shah's20 edited book contains a number of articles regarding various programmes and policies to enunciate the development process in rural areas. M.L.Dantawala and J.N.Barmeda21 in their article take into consideration various rural development programmes initiated and implemented during five year plans in India. It has also highlighted the objectives of rural development. Wilbur Scramm22 views that the task of mass media was to speed and easy the process of long and slow social transformation required for an all comprehensive societal development. Daniel Lerner23 shows communication as 'the great multiplier in the development of new ideas, attitudes and knowledge'. Juan Diaz Bordenave24 makes a perceptive analysis of the Western theoretical models of commum~.:at10n and thel! relevance in the process of modernization and development in the Third world countries. E.M.Rogers25 comes out with a new communication strategy in the task of more equitable distribution of socio-economic benefits of development. Harold A.Fisher26 in his article exammes the role of communication in development and the changing concept of communication. Carl Hovland and CoDeagues27 does a pioneering work in the area of commumcation and persuasion. They emphasized the importance of mass media in acquiring power of the poorest in the rural areas for getting control over the benifits of development Paul Hartmann, B.R. Patil and Anita Dighe28 examines the role of mass media in rural areas. They show that radio is most effective medium of mass communication. Apart from radio, rural people are very much close to traditional media. Joseph E. Kivlin, Pradipto Ray, Frederick Fliegel and Lalit K.Sen29 project a two­ nation comparative analysis on the level of knowledge about trial and adoption of certain agricultural, health, and family planning practices. Srinivas R.Melkote30 in his book has elaborately discussed the role of communication in the process of development in the post Second World War period. This book presents a comprehensive study of the relative importance of different media especially in the context of rural development in third world countries. Y.V.L.Rao31 examines the background to the problems of development from the communication angle in a comparative study of two Indian villages in Andhra

16 Pradesh. D.S.Mehta32 Presents the role of various tools and techniques of mass media in Rural Development. Nita Sangvi33 has dealt with different media of communication at the disposal of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting in India. Mehra Masani34 in his book has dealt with the inadequacies and shortcomings in the construction of media massages for rural audiences due to the largely urban control of media. He also pointed out the communication barriers in the absence of programmes in local languages and major dialectics in most of the developing nations. O.P.Dahama and O.P.Bhatnagar35 describe the meaning, objective and characteristics of extension education. The book has attempted to identify the areas where the extension education can play a significant role~ it also discusses the functions of extension workers and the importance of this education in rural communication. B. Kuppuswamy36 examined the impact of communication on social development. He shows that face-to-face communication is more effective than any other media in rural India. Majid Tehranin37 gives an historical overview of the theories and approaches of communication for development. It presents the importance of people's participation in the communication process. Devesh Kishore38 reviews the effectiveness of various mass media used by the change agent for dissemination of information in rural areas in India. S.R.Mehta's39 edited book contains a collection of papers presented in a UNESCO supported seminar. The main thrust was on the need for mtegrated communication methods for a more desirable social transformation of the society in a more acceptable decentralized development communication policy. Peter Golding40 high lightened the need for a qualitative approach for the measurement of media message preferences in relation to media exposure. David C.Kortein41 in an article has dealt with useful new concepts and methods to make rural development a meaningful enterprise. C.T.Kurein42 takes into considerations the features of India's Economic Reform with the existing administrative setup in the context of the changing global economy. K.R. Hope43 in his article discusses the concept of development and development administration in the context of their changing dimensions. A.K. Dubey44 in an article discusses the concept of Integrated Rural Development Programme. It has also made a detailed study about the impact of the programme in South Asian countries. S.N. Singh and K. Vijayaragavan45 have dealt with the importance and limitation of mass media specially radio as a media for the rapid dissemination of various types of information regarding modem furm technology in the rural areas. P.M. Mane40 presents the television as an effective media of communication.

17 _. ""'i( ''.' :tl He analyses its role in disseminating information regarding various farm technology to the rural people. B.N. Borthakur47 in his article examines the impact of communication process in transferring the health services to the rural people. Guy Hunter48 in his book pointed out the administrative structure for agricultural development in India. He discusses the structure at village level to provide necessary information and helps to the farmers. Paul Bairoch49 in his book has elaborately discussed the role of agriculture in the process of economic development in the Third World countries. Robert A.Berry and W.R.Ciine511 discusses the various strategies, which are undertaken by the developing countries in improving agricultural productivity. Roger Slade and Gershon Feder51 examines the impact of the Training and Visit System (T & V) in the process of agricultural extension in India. Dominique Gentil52 in his article discusses the T&V system in agriculture and its deficiencies in extension management. He recommends for two-way communication between the research station and extension workers on the one hand and between the extension workers and the farmers on the other. D.Benor and J.Q Harrison53 elaborates organizational design and staffing pattern under the T&V system. Michal Macklin and D.C. Misra54 in their edited book presents an outline of T&V system in India. .K.C.John, C.S.Ranjan, D.K.Sharma, Charanjit Singh and S.K.Arora55 have made an extensive analysis ofthe participatory approach of farmers in extension and research system,which have had an impeccable track record in the past J.S.Uppal56 deals with the role of agriculture as the backbone of the Indian economy. It also points out the problems that are facing the agricultural sector. Srinivas R. Melkote and Chandrashekhar Vallath57 has made an extensive analysis of the impact of application of T&V system in agriculture. Smita Mehrotra511 focuses on the role of agricultural extension in India and the impact of Training and Visit system in states. N.K.Jaiswal and H.P.S.Arya59 describes the problems which are faced by extension workers in face-to-face communication with the farmers. The book also highlightc; the role of T&V system in overcoming the major problems in transferring farm technology. Dr.A Mukhopadhyay60 discusses about the agricultural extension service in some developed and underdeveloped countries with special emphasize on extension services in India. He mentioned various extension services in India. Satadal Dasgupta61 emphasizes the distinctive elements of the diffusion process of agricultural innovations in village India including mass media and extension agents. He also points out both the findings of Indian studies with those of

18 other countries especially the United State. P.N. Mathur62 examined the relationship between research and extension in agriculture to meet the requirements of the new economic order. He pointed out that the focus of agricultural extension has shifted from production-orientation to farmers' income-orientation and in future, it will be the group­ action oriented. The World Development Report, 2008: Agriculture,63 seeks to assess how agriculture can be an effective instrument for economic development, particularly in third world countries and the new challenges and opportunities for agricultural development. Bhupendra Hooja64 examined the vanous steps which were taken by the Government of India in agriculture extension and pointed out their limitation in operation. R.C Sood65 gives an overview of the reorganized agricultural extension set-up in India. G.R. Desai and M.R.Reddy66 examines the various limitations in managing the agricultural extension in India. They underlined a number of constraints in employing the T & V system. O.P.Bhatnagar and G.R.Desai67 in their article review the historical development of agricultural extension in India. Tushar Shah68 examines the various agricultural and rural development policies in India and how they actually operate. Karam Sing69 discusses the role of education in increasing agricultural productivity. It also points out the importance of mass communication in adoption of new technologies in agricultural sector. Ashish Bose and P.B Desai70 discusses elaborately the critical issues of primary health care at the global and national level. It has also focused increasing attention to the Community Health Workers Scheme in India. S.I.A. Bukhari71 has made a comprehensive study of Community Health Workers (CHWs) including the evaluation of the role of CHWs and their training system. H.R.Vohra, T.J.Ramaiah, K.G.Rao, D.S.Singal and Sharad Kumar72 make a detail study about the total process of Community Health Workers Scheme. Meera Chatterjee73 has dealt with various governmental agencies and NGOs, which are helping to deliver health care services. K.V.Narayana 74 analyzes the inter-state variations in the status in India. The study lays emphasis on the identification of interrelationships between various socio-economic components in the process of development. A.B.Hirmani75 deals with the importance of health education to achieve primary health care. It includes some important health issues like AIDS, water and sanitation, health communication, and social research in malaria and leprosy. L.Ramchandran & T.Dharmalingam76 deal with the system of proper

19 training of health educators to attain the goal of "Health for All ". K.K.Verma 77 points out the various programmes of health care and family welfare and their shortcomings. Ajit K Dalal and Subha Roy78 in their book contain volume of articles, contributed by eminent social scientists, which present rich source material for theoretical, empirical and interdisciplinary studies done in India, suggestive of the new ways of health care planning. P. Durgaprasad79 provides a detailed study about the health care delivery system in rural areas with special emphasis on Multipurpose Health Worker Scheme. Jayati Hazra80 presents a number of articles regarding the operational structure of health department in West Bengal and their performance in the districts. R.K.Wishwakarma 81 points out the various health care policies in the Pre-Independence and Post­ Independence period in India. It has also discussed about the essential features of National Health Policy and the institutional support and health infrastructure to implement and evaluate the policy. R.K.Sapru82 discusses the conditions prevailed before formulation of National Health Policy in 1983 and the target of NHP. He also points out the limitation of the NHP. Rajib Misra, Rachel Chatterjee and Sujata Rao83 highlights the failures of health care programmes and the financial constraints in implementing the health policies. National Family Health Survey (1992-93)84 provides a detailed outline of various Health and Family Welfare Policies and Programmes in India from Pre-Independence period to post-Independence period. Human Development in South Asia 2004: The Health Challenge85gives an overall picture of health situation in South Asian countries and underlines the imperatives in health sectors in these countries S. Srinivasan86 in his article discusses the organizational set -up of Primary Health Centre in West Bengal and their problems and constraints. Debabar Banerjee87 in his article takes into consideration the achievements and the weakness of national health policy in the courses of development of the different phases of the health service system. A.K. Shiva Kumar and Vanita Nayak Mukherjee88 in their article assesses the country's health performance. It has also sought to explore the multi-dimensional complex linkages between poverty, deprivation and ill-health. Smt. Shanta Shastri, A.K. Kundra, A.K. Srivastava89 provides a detailed picture of various health policies in India since independence. S. Lal 90 discusses the new health policy launched by the government of India in 2002 and policy for the implementation.

20 From the above discussion it has became clear that most of the studies have either dealt with the general issues in extension education in the agricultural development or health care services in India. In West Bengal, since the 70s, the administrative departments that are especially charged with the rural development programmes, have been giving a new dimension to their work by way of putting more emphasize on the dissemination of information at the grass root level through extension agents and workers. This has led to a reorientation in the study of the role of extension media and workers in rural development. Unfortunately, this aspect of communication as a step to reach to the rural people with the information regarding new innovations in the field of agriculture and health is left almost unnoticed by the scholars in West Bengal. The present work is a serious attempt to look into this unexplored field of extension education in West Bengal.

I. VI PLAN OF STUDY

The study consists of seven chapters. The opening chapter outlines the significance and objectives of the study and the research design for the study. Starting with the significance of the study, it goes on to expound the research questions and discusses the objectives and the methods of enquiry for the study including the method of data collection, content of interview schedules and data processing and analysis. It also incorporates a review of the literature in this area of study. Chapter two deal with the theoretical framework for the study of the communication in the context of development, especially rural development It analyses the concept of development - the origin of the concept in administration. It examines the role of communication in rural development Finally, it discusses the concept of extension and its role in development processes. It attempts to examine the working of the different media units in facilitating the two·way communication between the government and the people. Chapter three discusses the role of agriculture in rural development. It is an attempt to examine the importance of extension in the dissemination of developmental information in the field of agriculture. It analyses the various efforts made in India to provide extension facilities in the field of agriculture. It also discusses the institutional structure and the operation of the Department of agricultural extension in West Bengal. Chapter four analyses the concept of Primary Health Care and the role of health in the process of development. It

21 incorporate the various health programmes which are initiated by the rural government to provide primary health care in the rural areas. It also deals with the structural facilities and their working in the primary health care in West Bengal. Chapter fwe and six present the findings of the empirical investigation into the working of the extension worker among the villagers, their access to different media of mass communication, their ability to comprehend the developmental information in two related fields of development i.e., health and agriculture. The final chapter presents the summary and conclusion of the study by highlighting the nature and effectiveness of extension work, and offering some suggestions for future researchers as well as public policy makers in the government.

22 NOTES AND REFERANCES:- 1. Gant, George F.: "Development Administration: Concept, Goals, Method", University ofWisconsisn Press, Madison, 1979. 2. Hunter, Robert: "What is Development?", Washington D.C.: Overseas Development Council, April, 1971 . 3. Staudt, Kathleen: "Managing Development: State, Society & International Contexts", Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1991. 4. Chambers, Robert: "Rural Development: Putting the last First", Essex: Longman Scientific and Technical/ New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1983. 5. Widner, Edward W.: "The Elements of Development Administration" in Edward W. Widner (ed.) "Development Administration in Asia", N.C. Duke University Press, Darham, 1970. 6. Fainsod, Marie: "The Structure of Development Administration" in Irving Swardow ( ed) Development Administration : Concept and Problems , Syracuse, Syracuse University Press, 1963. 7. Riggs, Fred W.: "The Idea ofDevelopment Administration" in Edward W. Weidner

(ed) Qevel.QQ__tn_entAdmtnisJrJltiQ11in~Asia, op.cit. no. 5. 8. Stone, Donais C.: "Tasks, Precedents and Approaches to Education for Development Administration", in Donald C. Stone(ed.) Education for Development Administration, Brussels, International Institute of Administrative Sciences, 1966. 9. Byres, Terence J. (ed.): "The State Development Planning and Liberalisation m India", Oxford University Press, New York, 1997. I 0 Jain, R.B. and Feinj Bongatz: "Structural Adjustment, Public Policy and Bureaucracy in Developing Societies", Har Anand, New Delhi, 1994. 11. Dwivedi O.P and R.B.Jain: "India's Administrative State ", Gitanjali Publishing House, New Delhi, 1985. 12. Purushothan, P.W. and M. Karamatullah: "Development Administration: A Rural Perspective", Kanishka Publishers, Delhi, 1993. 13. Desai, Vasant : "Fundamentals of Rural Development A System Approach", Himalaya Publishing House, Delhi, 1991 14. Rao, P. Gopinath: "Rural Development: Sustainable Livelihood and Security", Authors Press, Delhi, 2006.

23 15. Sharma S.K. and S.L.Malhotra: "Integrated Rural Development " Abhinav Publications, New Delhi, 1983. 16. Khanna, B.S.: "Rural Development in South Asia,Vol.l ",Deep & Deep Publication, NewDelhi, 1983. 17. Balaramulu, Ch.: "Technology and Rural Development: Need for Organisational Renewal", Rawat Publications, Jaipur and New Delhi, 2000. 18. Srivastava, S.P.: "Development Debate: Critical Perspectives", Rawat Publication, Jaipur I New Delhi, 1998. 19. Verma, S.P. and S.K. Sharma(eds): '"Development Administration", IIPA, New Delhi, 1984. 20. Shah, D.R.(ed.): " Alternatives m Rural Development", Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd.,1990. 21. Dantawala, M.L. and J.N.Barmeda: "Rural Development" in R.S. Ganapathy, S.R. Ganesh, Rushikesh Man, Samwl Paul,and R.M.Rao(eds) Public Policy and Policy Analysis in India , Sage Publication, 1985. 22. Scramm, Wilbur: "Mass Media and National Development", Standford University Press, Standford, California, 1964. 23. Lerner, Daniel: "The Passing ofTraditional Society: Modernising the Middle East", Glencoe, Ill: Free Press, 1958. 24. Bordenave, Juan Diaz: "Communication and Rural Development", UNESCO, Paris, 1977. 25. Rogers, E.M.: " Communication and Development : The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm" in Rogers: Communication and Development.: Critical Perspectives , Baverly Hills, Sage Publications, 1976. 26. Fisher, H.A.: "Media and Development" in S.R. Melkote and Sandhya Rao (eds.) Critical Issues in Communication: Looking Inward for Answers, Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2001 27. Hovland, Carl and Colleagues: "Experiments in Mass Communication", Wiley, New York, 1949. 28. Hartmann, Paul, B.R. Patil, Anita Dighe: " The Mass Media and Village Life", Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1989.

24 29. Joseph E. Kivlin,Pradipto Ray,Frederick Fliegel and Lalit K.Sen: "Communication in India : Experiments in Introducing Change", World Bank, Washington D.C.,1977. 30. Melkote, Srinivas R.: "Communication for Development in the Third World: Thery and Practices", Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1991. 31. Rao, Y.V.L.: "Communication and Development: A Study to Two Indian Villages", University ofMinnesotta, Minneapolis, 1966. 32. Mehta, D.S.: "Handbook of Public Relations in India", Allied Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1980. 33. Sangvi, Nita: "Administration and the Citizen in India", Somaiya Publication Pvt. Ltd., Bombay, 1977. 34. Masani, Mehra: "Communication and Rural Progress", Lesile Sawhney Programme for Democracy, Bombay, 1975. 35. Dahama, O.P. and O.P.Bhatnagar: "Education and Communication for Development", Oxford and ffiH Publication Co. Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi, 1985. 36. Kuppuswamy, B. :" Communication and Social Development in India", Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, 1976 37. Tehranin, Majid: "Communication,Participation and Development . Comparative Political Ideologies"in Jan Servaes,Thomas L.Jacobson and Shirley A.White's(eds) Participatory Communication for Social Change, Sage Publications, New Delhi, 1996. 38. Kishor, Devesh: "Mass Media and Rural Development: An Analysis" in Ajit K. Dande(ed.) Studies on Rural Development, Inter-India Publications, New Delhi, 1984.

39. Mehta, S.R. (ed.): ~'Communication and Development Issues and Perspectives", Rawat Publication, New Delhi, 1992. 40. Golding, Peter: .. Media Role in National Development: Critique of a Theoretical Orthodox", Journal of Communication, vol. 24(3), 1974. 41. Kotein, David C.: "Organising for Rural Development A Learning Process" m Development Digest, 20:3, April, 1982. 42. Kurein, C.T.: "India's Economic Reforms m the Context of Emerging Global Economy" in Economic and Political Weakly, April, 10, 1993.

25 43. Hope, K.R.: " Development and Development Administration: Perspective and Dimension", Administrative Change, vol. VII, No.1, July-Dec, 1979. 44. Dubey, A.K.: "Integrated Approach to Rural Development The South Asian Experience", UPA, vol. xv, no.2, 1997. 45. Singha, S.N. and K.Vijayaragavan: "Mass Media for Agricultural Development", Social Change, December, Vol. 13, no.4, 1983. 46. Mane, P.M.: .. Role of Television in Transfer of Farm Technology", Journal of Rural

IJ~velopment, Vol.8(6), Nov. 1989. 47. Borthakur, B.N.: "Communication and Diffusion of Innovation about Health in a Village", Man & Life, Vol.l8{3&4) July-Dec, 1992. 48. Hunter, Guy: "The Administration of Agricultural Development Lessons from India", Oxford University Press, New York, 1970. 49. Bairoch, Paul: "The Economic Development of the Third World Since 1900", University of California Press, 1975. 50. Berry, Robert A. and W.R.Ciine: "Agrarian Structure and Productivity in Developing Countries" , Johns Hopkins University Press, 1979. 51 . Slade, Roger and Gershon Feder: "Impact of Agricultiral Extension: The Training and Visit System in India", Agriculture and Rural Development Department, World Bank, 1985. 52. Gentil, Dominique:" A Few Questions on the Training and Visit Method" in Nigel Roberts(ed.) Agricultural Extension in Africa", World Bank, Washington D.C., 1989 53. Benor, D. and J.Q Harrison:"Agricultural Extension : The Training and Visit System", World Bank, Washington D.C., 1984. 54. Macklin, Michal and D.C. Misra (eds.): "'T&V System of Agricultural Extension in India", Directorate of Extension, Ministry of Agriculture, 1990. 55. John, K.C.,C.S.Ranjan,D.K.Sharma ,Charanjit Singh and S.K.Arora: "Farmers' Participation in Agricultural Research & Extension System", Concept Publishing, 1997. 56. Uppal, J.S.: "India's Economic Problems An Analytical Approach " Tata McGraHill Publications, New Delhi, 57. Melkote R. Srinivas and Chandrashekhar Vallath: "Communication Gap in Development : Case Studies of T&V Project in South India", Rawat Publications, New Delhi, 1992.

26 58. Mehrotra, Smita: "Agricultural Extension and Growth (Training & Visit System)". Printwell Publishers, Jaipur, 1996. 59. Jaiswal, N.K. and H.P.S.Arya: "Transfer of Farm Technology m India: An Overview", Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, 1981. 60. Mukhopadhyay Dr.A: "Agricultural Extension : A Field Study " The Minerva Associates, Calcutta, 1971. 61. Dasgupta, Satadal: "Diffusion of Agricultural Innovations in Village India", Wiley Eastern, New Delhi, 1989. 62. Mathur, P.N.: " Technology and Extension", in V.S. Vyas and Pradeep Bhargava Policies of Agricultural Development: Perspectives from States, Institute of Development Studies, Jaipur, Rawat Publication, 1997. 63. World Development Report: Agriculture for Development - World Bank Publications, 2008. 64. Hooja, Bhupendra: " Reflection on Agriculture Extension & Rural Development with reference to India", The Administrator, Vol. 31, July-Sept, 1986. 65. Sood, R.C: "Re-organization of Agricultural Extension Machinery in India Through T&V system" in Administrative Change, Vol.6, no.-1, July, 1978. 66 Desai, G.R. and M.R. Reddy: "Operational Constraints in Management of Agricultural Extension", Journal of Rural Development, Vol.8, NJRD, Hyderabad, 1989. 67. Bhatnagar, O.P. and Desai, G.R.: ••Management of Agricultural Extension", Journal ofRural Development, vol. 6(1), 1987. 68. Shah Tushar: "Agriculture and· Rural Development in 1990s and Beyond " Economic and Political weekly, May, 1993 69. Sing Karam "Education,Technology Adoption and Agricultural Productivity " Indian Journal of Agricultural Economics, Vol. 55, No.3, July-Spt. 2000. 70. Bose, Ashish and P.B Desai: "Studies in Social Dyanamics of Primary Health Care "'Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), Delhi, 1983. 71. Bukhari, S.I.A: "Performance Evaluation of Community Health Workers in a Primary Health Centre", Thesis for M.D. Submitted to University of Delhi, Delhi, 1979.

27 72. Vohra,H.R., T.J.Ramaiah, K.G.Rao, D.S.Singal, and Sharad Kumar: "Dynamics of Selection of Community Health Workers (A Study in Four Northern States in India)", National Institute ofHealth and Family Welfare, New Delhi, 1978. 73. Chatterjee, Meera: "Implementing Health Policy", Manohar Publication, New Delhi, 1988. 74. Narayana, K.V.: "Health and Development: Intersectoral Linkages in India, Rawat Publishers, Jaipur, 1996. 75. Hirmani, A.B.: "Health Education m Primary Health Care", B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1992. 76. Ramchandran, L. & T.Dharmalingam: "Health Education:A New Approach", Vikas Publishing House Pvt. Ltd., 1976, (Reprint 1996) 77. Verma, K.K: "Health Care & Family Welfare", Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 1992. 78. Dalal, Ajit K. and Subha Roy: "Social Dimensions of Health", Rawat Publication, Jaipur, 2005. 79. Durga Prasad, P.: "Health Care Delivery System in Rural Areas: A Study of Multipurpose Health Worker Scheme", National Institute of Rural Development, Hydrabad, 1989. 80. Hazra, Jayanti (ed.): "Health Care Planning in the Developing World", Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, 1994. 81. Wishwaka•·ma, R.K.: "Health Care Policy in India "in Onkar P.Dwivedi, B. R.Jain and Dhirendra K.Vajpai(eds) Governing India: Issues Concerning Public Policy.Institution and Administration, B.R Publishers, New Delhi, 1998. 82. Sapru, R.K.: "Health Care Policy and Administration in India" in T.N. Chaturvedi (ed.): Fifty Years of Indian Administration: Retrospect & Prospects. IJPA, New Delhi, 1998 83. Misra, Rajiv, Rachel Chatterjee, Sujatha Rao: "India Health Report", Oxford University Press, New York, 2003 84. National Family Health Survey (1992-93), International Institute of Population Survey, Bombay, 1993. 85. "Human Development in South Asia 2004 : The Health Challenge" by The Mahbubul Haq Human Development Centre, Oxford University Press, 2004

28 86. Srinivasan, S.: ''Organisation and Management of Rural Health Care Services in West Bengal- Case Study", Journal of Rural Development, NIRD, Hyderabad, VoL 12(2), 1993. 87. Banerjee, Debabar: "Health Policies and Programmes in India in the Eighties'' in Economic and Political Weekly. March, 1992. 88. Shiva Kumar, A.K. and Vanita Nayak Mukherjee: "Health as Development: Implication for Research,Policy and Action" in Economic and Political Weekly, April, 1993. 89. Shastri, Shanta, A.K. Kundra, A.K. Srivastava: "Paper on Health Policy" , The Administrator, Vol. 31, April-June, 1986. 90. Lal, S.: "Implementation of National Health Policy-2002", Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 27(2), 2002.

29 CHAPTER- II : THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK - - II.I DEVELOPMENT AND ITS CHANGING DIMENSIONS. II.II DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AS AN APPROACH. II.III CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT. II.IV COMMUNICATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT. II.V OBJECTIVES AND IMPORTANCE OF EXTENSION EDUCATION. II.VI MASS MEDIA AND EXTENSION EDUCATION. NOTES AND REFERENCES. II.I DEVELOPMENT AND ITS CHANGING DIMENSIONS Development, in its varied dimensions, is a subject of intense and absorbmg interest for social scientists in all the countries, whether developed or developing. It ts a continuously changing and dynamic concept Almost all the available writings on development related 1ssues suggest that the concept itself has become an tssue of considerable debate and a subject of variety of interpretation. The concept of development in the early nmeties differs considerably from that of the fifties and sixties Brandt Commission Report states that "Development never will be and never can be defined to universal satisfaction " 1 Similarly Uphoff and lichman pomt out that development is probably one of the most depreciated terms in social sc1ence literature, having been used more than it has been understood. 2

Many have defined 'development ' in terms of an increase in national production and economic growth Some others include social improvement and still others think of it in tem1s of an increase in the capacity of political system. There are others also who make no distinction between development and modernization. Thus. development is a complex phenomenon comprising many dimensions - sociaL political,

econonnc ::~dmm1strat1ve and so on In the context of public administration, scholars read, talk about 'development admimstration' and 'administrative development' Thus. whlle defmmg the concept of development tt 1s necessarv to take an mtegrated approach

According to Colm and Geiger. development means change plus growth 3 Weidner defines it as 'a process of growth' in the direction of modernity and particularly

u1 the direction of natton bulldmg and soc1o-econom1c progress_. Fred W Riggs deftnes development m terms of nsmg levels of autonomy for dtscretJOn m the sense of abtlity. to choose among alternatives, not of course, in the sense of caution or moderation. He mtroduces the concept of development as an increase in the level of discretion of the social system. Riggs says that development involves the ability to choose whether or not to increase outputs, whether or not to raise levels of Per Capita Income or to direct energies to other goals, to the more equttable distnbution of what is available, to aesthetic or spiritual values or to qualitatively different kinds of output~ Hahu-Been-Lee defines development 'as a process of acquinng a sustained growth of a system's capacity to cope w1th new . continuous changes towards the achievement of progressive political, economic and soc1al objeCtives (, He sees development both as process and purpose

30 Rogers defines the concept of development as "a widely participatory process of socta l change in a society, intended to bring about -both social and material advancement (including greater equality, freedom, and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people through their gaining greater control over their environment7 Infect, the princ1pal aim is to improve not only the economic, but the social, cultural, and environmental welfare of a nation. It is a process of raising the standard of living of the people, improvmg their education and health and also opening up new and equal opportunities for a richer and more varied life

After the Second World War ( 1939-45). wtth the independence of former colonies from the political dependence, most of the developing countries in Asia. Africa and Latin America were aspired for nation building and rapid socio-economic progress. For many years. almost everyone looked at the development of the third world countries solelv in terms of economic goals. During the fifties and early sixties. the western scholars prescribed for rapid economic development through mdustrializatton and urbamzation of these countries. They laid emphasis on mdustriahzat10n. heavv accent on science and technology, ruthless exploitation of natural (emtronmental) resources and letting loose of market forces These models argued that once there 1s robust gro'0.1:h ofthe GNP/GDP. the whole societv will develop m all its segments The non-western economtst and political elite's m the third world countries accepted these models and tried to nnplement them in the development planning processes These models of development are also known as dommant paradigm, as during these periods, they dominated the entire field of development

The dommant paradigm 111 the west vts-a-\tS Thtrd World development was based on an application of the evolutionary concept of Darwm to socml change According to this concept, development of societies followed a unilinear path and the major stages of growth were universal The highest stage of development or evolution was represented by advanced European nations of the 19th and the early 20th century. As Fred Fjes comments, "it was generally assumed that a nation became truly modem and developed when it arnved at that point where it closely resembled western industrial nations in terms of political and economic behavior and institutions. attitude towards technology and innovation, and social and psychic mobiltty "8 In these theories, the thtrd world nations were usually descnbed as traditiOnal while the mdustrialized nations ofthe West were identified as modem The advanced western nations had a capacity to cope

31 with a range of social, cultural, technological and economic issues in the process of social change. The Third World nations, on the other hand were limited in their capacity to cope with problems or crisises as even master their environment. According to this theory of development, societies are modernized through greater differentiations in thetr institutions. In sum, the western countries were treated as models of political, econom1c, social modernization that the third world nations would emulate.

However, all the theories of modernization were not necessarily at the macro level. Weiner believed that attitudinal and value changes were prerequisites to creatmg a modern, socio-economic policy. 9 Another area of interest of moderntzation theories was the role of culture in development. Using Max Weber's thesis in the Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, sociologists sought to identify a set of cultural values in Asian religions that inhibited modernization. The recommendation of these studies was to continuouslv extend the modern (i.e western) component and displace all traditional (i e Asian) elements in developing nations10

In dominant paradigm. economic growth was considered the key to development Industnahzation and accompanving urbanization was considered the main route to 1mpresst\e economtc growth The development performance could be measured by quantitative md1cators vvl11ch mcluded gross national product (GNP) rates, per capita mcome etc. ln dommant paradtgm the choice oftechnology was considered to be cap1tal intensive and machine intensive to substitute labor which was abundantly available in the Third World nations. Underdevelopment in Third World countries was usually attributed to internal constraints within countries rather than external forces acting on thts nations 11 Perhaps the attractiveness of these alien westerntzed models of development did not last long Soon, many eminent econom1sts and social scientists m the developing countries not only challenged the economic bias of these models, but also rejected several strategic formulations that were presented as receipts for the development ofthe third world countries. The argument raised basically was and still is, that development doesn't mean mere economic development or economic growth. The mcreased GNP benefited the top-echelons where as the rest of the populations remain largely unaffected The top-down approach to planning and development under the dommant paradigm did not reflect the new concern for self reliance and popular partJc1pat10n m development activities 12

32 The concept of development changed quite drastically in the seventies. There was a move from the earlier technologically deterministic and GNP centered definitions to alternative conceptions that were more qualitative. The newer concept of development envisages widely participatory process of social change in a society. It intended to bring about both social and material advancement (including greater quality, freedom and other valued qualities) for the majority of the people. The new definitions of development were pluralistic and indicated several new goals for meaningful and real development in the Thtrd World. They stressed equity in distribution of information and other benefits of development: active participation of the people at the grass roots~ independence of local communities to tailor development proJects to their own objectives; and integration of the traditional and modern system to constitute a unique blend suited to the needs of a patiicular community. 13

There were others interesting development in the mid 70s. The opening of china to the rest of the world showed that it was possible for a country to embark on a development by usmg tts own umque models of development Another consequence of the dtsenchantment with the trickle down idea of development was the focus on basic needs of the people The bas1c needs approach ensured access to mimmum levels of consumption of bas1c goods and services to all to maintain a decent quality of life The bas1c need;;, approach ltke other poverty onented approaches, attached fundamental tmportance to poverty eradication within a short period oftime14

Research in the 70s also proposed for mtegrated rural development as a means to achieve a 'balance' development of rural communities It was not solely concemed with mcreasmg agncultural production lt also mcluded other areas like health and nutntion. education and literacy contributing to the tmprovement of quahty of hfe of the rural poor. It provided viable income generating assets to the target groups and to enable them through training, extension and other supportive services and infrastructural facilities to maintain assets15

However, the development debate in the early 80s shifted to social aspects of development The central focus was on human-centered and broad based development, effecting equal opportunities for all to participate fully and freely in economics, sociaL cultural and political activities It was believed that, economic growth is an essential but not sufficient condition to ensure social development The aim of social development is to reduce the economic inequalities and bolster the ability of everv human bemg to

33 satisfy his/her basic needs and achieve a satisfactory quality of life within the environment of equity, social justice and human dignity. It calls for strategic investments in health, education and social services and necessitates access of the underprivileged to means of economic well being Social development consists of all sorts of changes in social structure brought about with a view to improving social situation relating to social environment, housing, health and nutrition, education and training, work and employment, working conditions, social security and social welfare. There was a view that, every country, big or small, rich or poor had to struggle hard to develop its economy, to ensure the 'well being of the people'. Development means increase in material welfare through increased productivity; increase in social welfare through education, health programs, increased safety, freedom and opportunity and also sense of participation in local, regtonal and national affairs and an equitable distribution of the fruits of development among different groups of people and among different regions of the country. 16

In connection with soctal development, two allied concepts, namely. 'human development' and 'sustamable development' find frequent mention in the current development debate The concept of human development though not new to social science vocabulary has now acquired new mterpretations A few decades ago. it was

used to refer to more mvestment m human sktlls. Human development tended to be equated wtth human resource development - treating human beings as a resource It is only m recent years that human development has taken on a deeper meaning by recognizmg that development is sustainable only when human beings are increasingly capable oftakmg charges ofthetr destinv The essence of human development is to place development at the servtce of people's well bemg rather than people at the service of development. In this perspective, human development implies empowering people to make their own choices. It also emphasizes the relevance of local values and knowledge as guidelines and tools for making this choices. 17 The process should be done m such a manner that their proper personality development may take place; opportunities for suitable employment may be avatlable to all the employable; they may be able to make their fullest contribution towards achievement of goals of their society. and that they may be m a position for acquiring equitable benefit from the fruits of their labour18 The ultimate objective of development is to improve human well being and the quality of people's lives

34 The concept of sustainable development lays emphasis on the development that meets the needs of present and future generation It stress on the development of social capital in conjunction with the development of phystcal capitaL The argument ts that without social capital other forms of capital cannot be maintained or used properly. The social capital emphasizes the empowerment of the disadvantaged people, suggesting their involvement in decisions affecting their life It is considered the key to sustainable form of development A UNDP report ( 1994) puts the concept in its proper perspective. According to this report, sustainable development 1s development that not only regenerates economic growth but distributes its benefits equitably that regenerates the environment rather than destroying it that empowers people rather than marginalizing them. It gives priority to the poor, enlarging their choices and opportunities and

providing their participation in decisions affecting them. It is development that IS pro­ poor, pro-nature, pro-jobs and pro-women and pro-children19 Thus sustainable development is a process of change m which the extraction of resources, the d1rection of mvestment the onentation of technologtcal development, and mstitutional change are all m harmony and enhances both current and future potential to meet human needs and aspirations Barbier (I 987) provided a detailed definition of sustamable development He

defined sustamable development as one whtch IS dtrectly concerned with increasmg the matenal standard of II\ mg of the poor at the grass roots level wh1ch could be quantitatively measured m terms of mcreased food, real mcome. educational services, health care. santtatJOn and water supply etc.. and only mdirectly concerned with economic growth at the aggregate 20 In this sense, sustainable development merges economics and environment both in theory and decision making. It seeks to restrengthen the human dtmens10n of development bv focusmg development strategies and poltc1es on people. encouraging thetr participation m the development process and meeting their needs It places a marked stress on participatory involvement of people in the design and implementation ofhuman development strategies and programs

11.11 DEVELOPMENT ADMINISTRATION AS AN APPROACH After the World War IL in 1945. a number of countnes of Asta. Africa and Latm Amenca attained mdependence from political dependency and tmpenal yoke Dunng the colonial regime these countnes were stricken with poverty, hunger, tgnorance, inequality and backwardness The new status of political freedom gave hope of greater individual

35 freedom and equality of treatment in the society All the newly independent nations embarked upon a complex process of nation building and rapid socio economic reconstruction. Independence created hope for higher national and per capita income. a rapid rise in standards of living and freedom and self determination in political systems of representation. New governments and their administrative systems were expected to give reality to these anticipated fruits of independence from imperial power. Certainly the maintenance of law and order remained a prime function of government and was baste to development but the ultimate was to bring about socio-economic transformation through planned change. Since traditional administration both as a discipline and as a field of applied technologies was concerned more with 'system maintenance' the need was felt to develop a separate branch of public administration for undertaking the task of development. Thus the concept of 'development admimstration' has almost exclusively been used with reference to the developing nations of Asia, the Middle East, Africa and Latm Amenca21

After the Second World War, western countries, specially the USA, come out wtth vanous techmcal asststance, economic support, theoretical models and frameworks like Marshal plan and comparative admmistrattve group (C AG) for the newly mdependent countries The CAG set up m 1963 as a committee of the American Society for Public Admm1strat10n was concentratmg on comparattve studtes of the admmistrattve svstems m the third world countries wtth a developmental focus. It developed a three told program to encourage research, teaching and more effective public policy formulation in the area of development administration The C AG fc)cused on the admmistratne problems of de\ elopmg countnes m the context uf then "oc1;;i culturaL pohttcal and econom1c em1ronments The group supported and -;ponsored research, seminars and conferences and works for the 1mprovement of teaching matenals and approaches It served as a communication link between the scholars and practitioners concemed with development administration. To CAG, the key role of modernized administration (bureaucratic administration) of developing countries was to prO\ ide planning and an institutional infrastructure to convert inputs of objectives, capital and know-how mto developmental outputs 22 Fred Riggs, who was the chairman of the group from its mception to the end of 1970, had given special interest m the study nl public admmistration m developing countries The traditional literature on comparatn c administration was culture bound, limiting itself to the studv of Western natton-. then

36 governmental institutions and practices. Riggs first emphasized on cross cultural and cross temporal analysis. For this he mapped out and entered into a comprehensive program of research, seminars, and conferences for the expansion of facilities for field research in the third world countries.

Broadly speaking, there are two schools of thought with regard to the definition and scope of development administration. Montgomery and Fainsod represent the school of thought which defines development administration in a narrow sense. According to Montgomery, development administration connotes ''carrying out planned change in the economy (in agriculture or industry, or the capital infrastructure supporting either of these) and to a lesser extent, in the social services of the state (especially education and public health). It is not usually associated with efforts to improve political capabilities ''23 In the world of Fainsod, "It embraces the array of new functions assumed by developing countries embarking on the path of modernization and industrialization. Development administration ordinarily involves the establishment of machinery for planning economic growth and mobilizing and allocating resources to expand national income. ''24 According to thts school of thought, development administration means merely a program oriented approach to administratiOn which is concerned with the resolve to mobilize existing and new resources and cultivate appropriate sktlls to achieve the developmental goals of admmistration

The other school of thought which IS represented by Lucian Pye, Fred W Rtggs and Weidner, uses the term 'development administration' m a broader sense. Wetdner points out that "development administration m government refers to the process of guidmg an organ1zat10n toward the ach1evement of progressn e poll tical economiC and

2 soCJal obJeCtives that are authontatively detennmed m one manner or other " " In th1s sense, development administration would include the entire process of nation-bu!lding. particularly in the developing states of the world. In short, it may be said that development administration is essentially a concept of administration which IS action oriented rather than structure oriented. According to Fred Riggs " Development administration refers to organized efforts to carry out programs or projects thought bv those involved to serve development objectives. The phrase (development administration) originated from simple analogy with such expressions as agricultural administration, educational admmtstratJon and social welfl:ue admimstration, each of which involves organized efforts to implement agriculturaL educational and '-'OC 1al

37 welfare programs, respectively. "26 Riggs observes, "Administration can not normally be improved very much without changes in the environmental constraints (the mfrastructure) that hampers its effectiveness and the environment itself cannot be changed unless the administration of development programs is strengthened. "27 The development administration focuses on the dynamic interaction between an administrative system and its social environment Riggs vtews development administration as goal-oriented administration - which is engaged in the task of achieving progressive political, economic and social goals. In this context Riggs has presented the concept of "administrative development" which refers to the increase in the capabilities of an administrative system to achieve the prescribed goals.28 According to George Gant the concept of development administration came to denote "the complex of agencies. management systems, and processes a government establishes to achieve its development goals Development administration is the administration of policies, programs and projects to serve development purposes." 29

Like the concept of development, the concept of development administration has changed dramatically over the last four decades. During the 1950's and 60's Development AdmmtstratiOn was concerned pnmarily with transfernng the techniques of public administration. applied in the western industrially developed countries to the developing nations The aim was to create a rational, politically neutral and an Impartial efficient bureaucracy m the Weberian tradition. Development admtmstration was supposed to be based on professiOnally oriented, techmcally competent, politically and Ideologically neutral bureaucratic machinery. It was to act as a main instrument and catalyst for mobiitzmg existmg and new resources, and to cultivate appropriate skills to achieve developmental goals, known as modermzatJon·~" However, this approach to development came under increasing criticism during the 1970s for being ethnocentric and for attempting to 'impose' western concepts and values that were often irrelevant in poor countries. It helped little in developing countries to cope with the complex and uncertain problems of change. Modernization had failed to solve the basic problems of underdevelopment Whilst some significant increases of GNP had indeed taken place, but there was the growing gap between the rich and poor nations. During this period, the focus came to be laid on mstitutiOn-building and proJeCt planning and management, which were necessary for the development of poor countries Development administration was also seen as being concerned with the need to develop and mobilize

38 existing and new resources and to cultivate appropriate capabilities to achieve developmental goals A number of techniques were popularized during this era, such as five year planning, community development and administrative reforms, which reflected the developing countries ' preference for e)l.'iernal help for modernization and westernization. But in the mid 1970s, it was clear that something had gone wrong. The western style of economic progress was obviously not forthcoming; instead, the quality of life in many third world countries was declining. Thus, by the end of this decade, the focus again shifted to equitable distribution of the benefits of development activities. Greater attention was given to provide for basic human needs, to stimulate productivity and raise the income of the disadvantaged groups to create condition in which the community, private and voluntary organization could play a stronger role in 'bottom-up' process of development planning. The content of GNP becomes more important than its rate of growth and the rural sector of the economy becomes the major focus for development The aim is to bring about agricultural transformation through a decentralized system of smalL locally controlled organization rather than through large scale governmental organizations requiring strengthening of local governments. mcreased local parttctpation. and other major changes in socio-political condition

Dunng the 1980's and the early 1990s m nearly every developing countnes of the world. short-term stabtltzation measures .. liberahzat10n efforts and economic reforms have been attempted or adopted It was felt that the 'development industry' has become a 'big business'. which should be dominated by professional financters and technocrats. The development mdustry seeks to maintain an apolitical and value free stance in dealing wtth the problems of power and values ro deal with the development cnsts people should be dnven by a strong soctal commitment rather than by the budgetary tmperatives of huge global bureaucracies31 Hence the stress was on the potential role of voluntary non-governmental organizations (NGO's ). All of these have basically aimed at a reduced role of the state in the economy, particularly in the area of expenditures and ownership of productive enterprises through privatization, deregulation and decentralization. They have focussed their attention on market mechanisms, especially in the areas of exchange rate adjustment, trade. liberalization and the use of subsidies Such a strategy under the rubric of Structural Adjustment Program (SAP) has made use of trade, fiscal and monetary policies to restore balance of payments. equilibrium and stimulate growth in developing societies 32 Programs were based on the belief that once macroeconomic

39 stabilization was achieved, complementary measures would help to alter the structural characteristics of the domestic economy (for instance, through deregulation and more market oriented) Stagflation would thus be avoided and proper conditions established for sustainable economic growth. The World Bank, IMF, the US agency for international development (USAID), the British Overseas Development Agency (BODA) and other similar international aid agencies- appears to provide an alternate model to development administration through 'de-administered' development The granting of aid is made conditional upon policy changes involving a downsizing of the bureaucracy as well as elimination of subsidies, acceptance of devaluation, and other changes m monetary and fiscal policy 33 Ideally, public servants at all levels and in all areas of the world should be better trained, more professional, more aware of the world at large, more ethical, more production, more humble and more responsive to citizens. In that eventuality, administered development would co-extst alongside private sector entrepreneurship and Private Voluntary Organizations (PVOs) and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). They are the principal actors m the reconstruction of political, culturally and territonally diverse orgamzations and mdividuals to advance a common agenda on one or another tssue of global tmport. NGOs can tactlitate cross national policy transfer and modify policy processes: trans-national networks of NGOs are vehicles to empower domesttc

NGOs on a range of Issue at the global leveL Then atm IS to secure human nghts and environmental protection Emphasis is on leadership and teamwork at the local leveL wtth reltance on help from knowledgeable outsiders. The stress is given on pluraltstic strategy of development that encourages the exploration of alternative channels for providing services through the use of 'multi-organizational service networks' including pnvate enterpnse and reliance on non-governmental orgamzat10ns (NGOs)

Different countries in the various regions of the world have responded to these policies in different and even constructing ways. Most of the Asian and African countries changed their former policies whtch created economic crisis and the pressures exerted by creditor countries, commercial banks, international financial agencies and transnational corporations. India responded to the Structural Adjustment Program only in

3 the 1990s "' India turned a new page in its administrative history with the adoption of New Economic Policy in 1991. thereby committing herselfto liberalization, privatization and globalization Under the impact of the New Economic Policy (NEP) and Structural AdJustment Program. India is opening itselfto the world and even integrating ttselfwith

40 the world economy. The concept of "New Economic Policy" has cut short government activities through privatization, deregulation and decentralization It is essentially the policy of the removal of restriction, trade barriers, and projectionist measures to enable the tree flow of control, technology and services. Even the government subsidies in agricultural sector have been reduced and the spending on education, health and other social services was put under strain. This calls for a redefining of the role of the state.

The analysis of the changing role of the Government in the wake of liberalization mdicates a new role of public admtmstration in the national economy The governments are now not merely passive actors. The role has become promotional The role of the bureaucracy has been reduced to provide the conducive environment- both for the public and private sector activities which will operate in a competitive spirit In the period of cris1s. unemployment, falling of real wages and because of high rate of inflation, state intervention is necessarv. The state is supposed to work for the development of social infrastructure and promotion of universal social services Deregulation and Pnvatization also need to be supplemented by the establishment of suitable regulatory frameworks for ensunng t"l.llr competition among different operators and protecting consumer mterests, puhhc safetv and em1ronmental protection This regulatory authority can onlv he the government and tts machine[\· 1 e bureaucracy J:'

Along w1th the change m the role and responsib1httes of the Government m the nat1onal economy, there IS also a need for a greater concern on human development The state and its public administration will contmue to play an tmportant role 111 agricultural development employment generation, population control, literacy, health, nutrition and basiC mfrastructure to...Jow the common concern of development admimstrat1on 1s to deal w1th the tran~format1on of policy reforms and programs to produce benefits and better lives for citizens m countries of the developing world. The main trend ts to achteve a 'balanced' development of rural community through self- determination, empowerment, equity in the distribution of development benefits and acttve participation of people in community services. The development administration is based on the realization that the community participation in the task of national development is a sine qua non. In this respect planning for mtegrated rural development is a synergic approach which aims at total development of the area and the people by bringing about the necessary mstitutional and attitudinal changes and by deltvering a package of services through extension methods

41 ll.III CONCEPT OF RURAL DEVELOPMENT In most of the third world countries, in recent years, rural development has emerged as a distinct field of policy, practice and research Development encompasses sustained increases in per capita output and incomes, expansion of productne employment and greater equity in the distribution of the benefits of growth. Rural development over the years has emerged as 'a strategy designed to improve the economic, soctal and cultural life of a specific group of people living in mral areas '36 The objectives of rural development are multidimensional as well as multi-directional. It atms at increasing employment higher productivity, higher income as well as making provisions for minimum acceptable levels of food, clothing, shelter, education, health, and inculcating such ethical and moral which are in keeping with the high cultural heritage of the country. Thus, mral development encompasses all aspects for the overall development of rural life

The \Vorld Bank, m its mral development sector policy paper of 1975, had defined mral development as a "strategy designed to improve the economtc and social life of a specific group of a people, the rural poor It involves extending the benefits of development to the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the mral areas. The group tncludes small fanners tenants and the landless ''37 The World Bank strategy emphastzed on tmprovmg the ll\ mg standards of the masses of the lew, mcome population residing tn mral areas while making the process of rural development self­ sustaining On the contrary, the I. I. 0 approach aims at satisfying also non-material needs such as human nghts. participation and autonomy It stresses on the redistribution i)f assets. mcome and povver. and changes m mcome dtstribution and in the structure of 38 productton Rural development has also been defined as a process which leads to a continuous rise in the capacity of the mral people to control their envnonment accompanied by the wider distribution of benefits resulting from such contro\.39 Michael Todaro views that "Rural Development encompasses improvement in levels of living, including employment, education, health and nutrition, housing and a variety of social services: decreasing inequality in the distribution of rural incomes and m rural urban balances in incomes and economic opportunities: and the capacity of the rural sector to sustain and accelerate the pace of these improvement "411 Mishra and Sunderam define "rural development as not merely development of rural areas but also the development of quality of life of the rural masses into self-reliant and self-sustaining modem little

42 communities. Rural development is, therefore, development of rural areas in such a way that each component of rural life changes in a desired direction. "41 According to a UN Report, "Rural development has come into international usage to connote the process by which the efforts of people themselves are united to those of governmental authorities to improve the economic, social and cultural conditions in the life of the nation and to relate them to contribute fully to national programs. "42

Rural development has been identified variously with economic growth, with modernisation, with increased agricultural production, with socialist forn1s of organization, and with services for basic needs such as health, education, transport and water supply. A complementary and more inclusive definition has been offered by Robert Chambers defined it is as a strategy to enable a specific group of people, poor rural men and women, to gain for themselves and their children more of what they want and need. It involves helping the poorest among those who seek a livelihood in the rural areas to demand and control more of the benefits of development. 43

Thus. Rural development. m the ultimate analysis. means making provisiOns for the optimum utilizatiOn of human and material resources m rural areas for the optimum development of both phvstcal and mental potential of the rural people It mcludes the development of socio-economic condttions of the people living in the rural areas, and ensures then participation in the process ofattaining development

Rural development as a strategy for development received special attention of the Indian national leaders. Mahatma Gandhi designed a comprehensive program of rural development which mcluded use of khadi, promotion of village industnes, eradication of untouchabtltty. pwvtston of baste and adult educat10n. provtsion tor women's uplift and propagatiOn of the national language. Sevagram at Wardha, where Gandht was trying to give his ideas a practical and real exhibition soon came to represent the vision of India Gandhiji raised a nation wide army ofvoluntary workers engaged in rural reconstruction programs all over the country. Thus he conceived the village units as self-sufficient and 44 "as strong as the strongest0 " He wished to revive the panchayats with democratic bases and invest them with adequate powers so that the villagers could have a real taste of 'Swaraj' or self rule His idea of village swaraj was that the village would be a complete republic independent of its neighbors in some important areas of activity and yet mter dependent m some tmportant areas of acttvttv The government of the village, i.e, Panchayat 'vvould have the full authority over the village There would be a prefect

43 democracy based upon individual freedom. The individual would be the architect of his own government. 45

The concept of rural development has undergone reinterpretation in the same way as the holistic concept of development. In the decades of the 50s and the 60s, rural development strategy laid the main emphasis on rural economic development, implying largely agricultural growth in a broad sense. But as this was resulted in social and economic polarization with rising agrarian discontent and even some local conflicts, reformulation of development strategies and restructuring of programs began to take place so as to induct the social equity concept as complementary to rural economic growth Employment expansion, income transfers and extension of social services and social welfare facilities have begun to be given an increased emphasis in strategies and policies of rural development The existing strategies are also being modified in order to reduce regionaL social and gender disparities. There is also a growing awareness among decision maker that development plan should also take into account population and ecology as important tactors mfluencing the implementation and impact of the . . 46 d eve lopment po Itcies

It is now w1dely recogmzed that rural development 1s by no means an agncultural

or productnnty problem alone .. nor 1s tt mamly a technical problem. Poveity is spreading. while constraints seem to mult1plv and contmue to halt progress. It is the removal of these constraints and the IdentificatiOn of gaps in rural development policy, process and research, which need to get prime attention in any effort at rural development Rural development must be looked upon as a process of change m societies, whereby poverty w11l he reduced. 1fnot totallv ehmmated and the creativity and extsting knowledge ofthe poor wdl be fully utihzed The poor must have access to the resources ofthe society and control over their environment.

Now, planning for integrated rural development has assumed great significance as a means to achieve a 'balanced' development of rural communities. The concept of integrated Rural Development (IRDP) came in 1970s as a 'basic need oriented approach 'which emphasized on greater equity in the distribution of fruits of development in the economic growth process 47 This approach emphasis's on integration of multifaceted efforts of rural development According to FAO, IRD is a concept and an approach to planned progress in rural areas. It is based on the assumption that economic and social progress are mutually remforcmg, that all naturaL techmcal, economic, social and 44 institutional interrelationships and their changes are taken into account and that they are combined in such a way as to serve the well being of men with social integration as the ultimate goal 48 Robert Chambers suggests to include in this approach poorest group of rural women and children who not only seek a livelihood in the rural areas but would also seek to demand and control more benefits of development. 49 Conceptually, while rural development can be explained in terms of the economic growth, issues such as increase in agricultural production, expansion in employment opportunities, availability of resources to fulfill the basic needs, like health, education, water supply etc. and their distributional aspects are equally tmportant Rural development being so diverse in content requires simultaneous attention on a number of issues. For example, intensification of agriculture and attempts to bring in a shift in the occupational structure by increasing employment opportunities in secondary and territory sectors (fishery, forestry, husbandry and horticulture) would require different strategies, even though both may be si!:,rnificant contributors to the process of development

In the Indian context several efforts have been made in the field of rural development The attempt began with the multipurpose approach Under this approach, the Communitv Development Programme, started in 1952. aimed at developing to the fullest extent the material and human resources of an area through the cooperative efforts of the people and the acttve help of the state. The ratiOnale of the approach was that all the aspects of rural life are mextricably interlinked with each other. Agncultural development is not possible without the spread of education and tmproved standards of health of the rural people. Other crucial factors for rural development include road, trngatton. electnctty, communtcattOn and rural industry The aim was to raise the standard of livmg by promotmg soctal weWne. soctal JUStice, a cooperative way of life. and community cohesion and also building up the democratic organizations and institutions of the people. The problems as a whole were to converge on the totality of human development 50

However the CD. Programme failed to produce desired results due to financial constraints and a multi pronged attack was not possible So, a certain priorities had to be drawn to solve the problem of food shortage A more specific limited-purpose or minimum package approach was considered to be way out This approach was used for higher agncultural productton and marketable surplus A Package Programme was launched as the Intensive Agncultural Distnct Programme (lADP) in the vear 1960-61 to

45 advocate a selective area approach to agricultural development and the achievements of intensity of cropping. However, this approach helped only the richer farmers in the rural areas. 51

The wtdespread regional disparities resulted from growth oriented strateg:v ultimately compelled the government to launch special target group oriented programmes Therefore, separate programmes like the SFDA (Small Farmers Development Agency) were started for the development of specific groups. For example. the Antyodaya scheme t.e. betterment of the last in the line is a target group approach This approach produces a client oriented design and the ultimate goal is to transfer all the responsibilities of planning and development to the clientele themselves 52

Another approach was undertaken to develop the underdeveloped regions. Under the Area Development Approach, a pinpointed area is taken for development A backward area is identified for concentrated efforts. such as Drought Prone Area Programme (DPAP) Tribal Area Development Programme (TOP), Command Area Development (CAD). Hill Area Development. etc. which comes under this approach lt requires detailed action .. cooperation and support from credit and service organizations in '>everal fields ltke 1rngat10n soil conservatiOn and agnculture extension 53

The last but not least tmpot1ant m the senes of programmes launched in India for

poverty allevtatJOn and rural development 1s the Integrated Rural Development Programme The approach under which the programme was launched might be defined as integrated development of the area and the people through optimum development and utilisation of local resources -physical, biological and human and by bringmg about necessarv mstitut1onaL structural and attitudinal changes and bv deltvering a package of services to encompass not only the economtc field, t.e.: agriculture and rural mdustnes. but also the establishment of the required soctal infrastructure and services in the area of health and nutrition, sanitation, housing, drinking water and literacy The lRD approach aims at raising per capita income and standard of living of the rural masses, provtding fuller employment, elimination of waste, achieving national self sufficiency in agriculture, prevention of distress in rural area and migration to urban areas, increasing farm productivity and generation of maximum employment

No scheme of rural development especially the sustainable rural development can be ach1eved without people's participatiOn The people's parttctpatJOn can best be ensured

46 through a process of democratic decentralization. It is based on the recognitton of the right of the people to initiate and execute the policy decision in an autonomous way The UN document on decentralization for national and local development says, "The people will have a better understanding of what the government proposes. "54 Through thts understanding they would be more likely to adopt new ideas and practices, use the services offered, contribute their own effort and resources to the programme, gtve vitality to new institutions and make constructive adjustment in their lives.

Decentralisation is a process whereby the government divests Itself completely of certain duties and responsibilities and devolves them on to some other authority Decentralization soon began to be seen as an alternative system of governance where a 'people-centered' approach to resolve local problems is followed to ensure economic and social justice It was realized that people should be empowered politically, economically and sociallv by ensuring them various rights so that they can participate in decentralized governance more effectively In this respect, the term 'democracy' is used to impart a special meaning to the term of 'decentralization' Democratic decentralization possesses two virtues: it is consistent with the democratic trend and It is also technically the most efficient method of formulatton and execution of local projects It is democratic m the sense that the source from whtch power is decentralized has tts democratic base and the body to whtch power flows ts also democratically organized5 =" Some, therefore. conclude that "democrattc decentralization ts a political tdeal and local self government ts tts institutional form. ,.5(, As Ensminger pomts out "with democratic decentralisation the administrative orientation must shift quite completely from making decisions and 1ssuing orders to helping the people make dectstons through their Panchavats. '-'ooperattves and samttis"="" Thus the scheme of decentraltzat10n factlttates the combination of, and cooperation between. the official machinery of admmistration and the non-official leadership and control through the mechanism of local self governments.

In India, after independence, there was a need for an agency which represents the government and, at the same time, is nearer to the people to fulfil the role of welfare state. In 1952, the Community Development Programme (COP) was started to meet the demands of the people tor local development works, but decisions were taken at the official level People were not associated with the decision making process.

ro overcome this defictency, the Balwant Rat Mehta Study Team recommended a J- tier Panchavatt RaJ system to associate people in dectston making at the village.

47 block and district levels. It was expected that the Panchayeati Rai lnstituons (PRls) would properly utilize the development funds as per the local needs and aspirations of the local people, create opportunities for employment in rural areas, develop infrastructure and assist the government in removal of poverty. Since 1959, almost all the rural development department executed their programmes through the PRis. Agricultural extension, animal husbandry, handicraft and handlooms, woman and child development primary education, health services and family planning were all supervised by the PRls.

But the institutions of panchayats did not strike roots. The lack of polittcal attention coupled with bureaucratic neglect crippled the institutions. Staff and budget of different departments were withdrawn. All the development programmes during this period were implemented by bureaucrats Funds were directly given to the bureaucratic agencies bypassing the panchayats58 In 1978. the central government created an agency for rural development in every district known as the District Rural Development Agency ( D RDA) All the funds for rural employment and poverty alleviation were diverted to it. which had the authority to fund and monitor progress. The PRls remamed only as agenctes for executing development programmes

The quest ton of rev ttaltzatiOn of participative instttut10ns for rural development began to merit senous attention of policy makers smce the mid 1980s The panchayats got a constitutiOnal status in 1993 A clear cut role of the PRls in rural development has been envtsaged Major employment generatiOn programmes, for example, the Food for Work Programme of the late 70s. or the National Rural Employment Programme (N REP) and Rural Land less Employment Guarantee Programme (RL E GP) of the 80s were Implemented by the panchayats The programmes of the Jawahar Rozgar Yojana (J.RY) and recently Sampoorna Gramin Rozgar Yojana (S.G.RY) are also being implemented through them. The Panchayats had the responsibility to implement rural water supply programme, minor irrigation, agriculture and animal husbandry They had the responsibility to undertake promotional measures in agriculture as also to identify the beneficiaries for the supply of mini kits (seeds and fertilizers) to farmers The Panchayat samitis supervised the functioning of the Integrated Child Development Scheme (IC.D.S ) and variosu social security measures. In the field of education, the panchayats utthzed the funds for construction and renovation of school buildings. They also had the responsibtlity of ensuring supplv of text books to the school In addition.

48 they are also involved in rural electrification and rural housing programmes and the 9 public distribution system. 5

The District Planning Committee and Block Planning Committee constituted for preparing the plans for economic development and social justice at the block and district level. They prepare plans and projects in the light of the resources available keeping in mind the felt needs of the people. The government of India and different states are now increasingly seeking the assistance of the PRis for infrastructural development in rural areas to implement various schemes. Efforts are being made by various states to empower the Gram Sabha to get all people involved in decentralized planning. True democracy really means that the power to plan and execute the village development plans should rest with the people at the grass roots level.

II.IV COMMUNICATION IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT In keeping with the current trend towards a more holistic development paradigm. there IS a growing recob:rnition of another crucial dimension that is so integrally connected with development the communication and information dimension. The new emerging concept of development emphasizes on rural development. and in this aspect. ..:ommuntcatton and mformation represent a key factor Development from below. based on parttcipatJOn m dectsion-makmg, has tts own commumcation requirements LJma Lele ·s analysts has shown that almost every activtty that is considered vital to rural 60 development IS information -~ related or mformation dependent in some way. CommunicatiOn establishes a favorable climate in which development can take place. It

1s an essenttal pre-requtslte for good leadershtp m rural areas Commumcatton has multtplter effect m dtsseminating mformation to different sect10ns of the soctety. Rural development calls for intensive efforts to tackle problem of mass illiteracy, population malnutrition. poor health, hunger, pollution etc. It is through the process of communication that the aims and objectives of the various rural development programmes can be realized and useful information about new technologies to solve the problem of rural people can be passed on to them.

The word communicatton originates from the word 'communis' which means common or "to establish commonness" between two or more people The dictionaf\. describes communication as ''intercourse by words. letters or messages. 49 interchange of thoughts or opinion". The purpose of communications is to share the knowledge and ideas among the people in such a way that each gains a common understanding ofthe meaning and use of the message Leagans defines communication as "a process by which two or more people exchange ideas, facts, feelings or impressions m ways that each gains a common understanding of the message. In essence it is the act of getting a sender and a receiver tuned together for a particular message or senes of message."61 According to Hartman "communication is the control of behavior through descriptive and reinforcing stimuli"62 Hovland describes communication as ~'the force h,\ which an individual communicator transmits stimuli to modify the behavior of other individuals."63 Loomis and Beegle define communication as "the process by which information, decision and directions pass through a social system and the ways in which knowledge. opinions and attitudes are formed or modified"

50 and the emergence and distribution of new functions reqmred to effectuate new social purposes. ln this process of transformation, mass media can play a useful role in bringing about sustainable changes in the attitudes, values, beliefs and social norms 66 The role of the mass media in development activities was very clearly implied in the dominant paradigm of development during 40s and 50s. Wilbur Schramm, a champion of the dominant paradigm, reiterated that the modernization of industry or agricultural sectors in developing nations required the mobilization of human resources. Schramm said that '·without effective communication, economic and social development will be inevitably retarded. and may even be counter productive "67 Some scholars went further to state that the maJor problem m developing countries was not a shortage of natural resources but underdevelopment of human resources. Thus, the mass media had the enormous task of building the human capital. Mass media were also expected to prepare individuals for change by ·establishing a climate for modernization·. 68 For many years. communication flows were hierarchtcal, top-dov.n and one-way People were regarded passtve recetvers of development mformation. But the new approach to social development based on participation and grassroots development envisaged nev., roles for commumcatton to encourage and facilitate more and more participatiOn bv the beneflcmries on a co-equal basis of knowledge sharing with technical experts. Communtcation should be two-way. mteractiYe and participatory at all levels It thus upholds the tmportance and advantages of traditional folk media as they were mtimate with the people at the grass root level and highly participatory. Now there is a shift from the concept of development communication to development support communtcatton to mediate between the techmcal experts and then beneficmries. The development support communicator is expected to translate techmcal language and ideas into messages that would be comprehensible to users. 69 Under DSC, development defines as ·a process of empowerment' which 'builds on the capacities of Third World peoples and governments to make self-reliant decisions· Support means understanding and helping all who take part in a development project · .the DSC person will do whatever tt takes to help the project succeed' The term ·communication· calls for professionally trained communicators ·well-versed in all aspects of communication, but especially in the social sctence aspects of human communicatton for human behaviOral change· DSC experts need to realized that cultures, needs and problems are dtfferent m the society 70

51 Thus, development support communication has a dichotomous goal structure. As far as the beneficiaries of development are concerned, it is used to mobilize, train and organize them so that they may participate effectively with the experts and governmental authorities. For the sources of development or benefactors, it can be used to execute better management strategies, hire and train development support communicators with effective communication skills, co-ordinate the various user agencies, and generally ensure that the development programmes do not suffer from handicap.

II.V OBJECTIVES AND IMPORTANCE OF CONCEPT OF EXTENSION Over a period of time. extension has become highly specialized and well developed as a profession It has long been regarded as the most logical, scientific and systematic method for disseminating productive and useful knowledge and skills to user receivers There is a lack of consensus regarding the definition of extension Scholars have defined the concept in different ways by using their own psycho-physical methods. J.P Leagans defines extension as an applied sc1ence consisting of contents derived from researches. accumulated field expenences and relevant principles drawn from the behavioral sciences, synthestzed with useful technology, in a body of philosoph), pnnciples. contents and methods tocused on the problems of out of school education for adults and youths 71 Extenston is the act of presenting to the people, m an understandable manner, new tdeas and Improved technology of practical utility. It enables people to put them into practice so as to tmprove their own realization and efforts. Extension is to teach a person to thmk. not what to d11nk. It also teaches people to 1dent1fy accurately their ovvn problems and develop confidence to solve these problems through their acqUired knowledge. According to O.P.Dahama, ExtensiOn is defined as an educational process to provide knowledge to the rural people about the improved practices in a convincing manner and to help them to take decisions within their specific local conditions. 72 Extension is education outside the school, in which adults and young people learn by doing Extension is also the education of rural adults in matters of their choice and interest. It is education for freedom, which seeks to help to help person to use the liberty of action with which democratic society is constructed73 Bradfield, whose publication has been used extensively by the Food and Agncultural Organization of the United 1\iation. summarizes the philosophy of the extenston approach Extension paves the vvav

52 for further progress of standard of living by relating national, economic and techmcal objectives and create interest among the farming community about the benefits of attaining them. 74 Extension has three broad components and classifications. Each one has Jts own merits and yields different results depending on the abilities, capabilities and potentialities of the individuals, organizations, and users who practice them in the field sltuatlOn.. . 7"-· l. Extension Education:- This is basically a need-oriented, local-resource based, problem-situation oriented system and concerned with tripod for modernization viz, Teaching, Research and Extension Education. It aims at effecting the behavioral changes of people in a desirable direction through conviction, communication and diffusion. The role of extension education is generally performed by higher learning institution like Research Institute. Universities and apex level Training and Extension Organisations. 2. Extension Service:- Extension Service is location-specific, input-intensive, service­ oriented and field level professional activities, concerned with advising the target beneficiaries on the various facets of technologies on the one hand and communicating field and users' problems to the research scientists on the other. Thus it bridges the gap between research results and thetr application m the field through continuous persuasion. communicat10n. mot1vat1on and translation of research results (technology) m practice Extension services also work hand-in-glove with other development departments, mputs and credit institutions and try to multiply their efforts through mass and local media of communication It is the mission and mandate of various development departments like agriculture. health. irrigation. industry. mformation and communication etc. 3. Extension Work:- Th1s concept 1s at the lowest 111 hierarchy but extremelv broad based m usages as it is highly popular Extension work IS actually performing task(s) m helping the people to help themselves in making them self-reliant, self-respectful, self­ acting through self-help project and activities and inculcating self-will This is generally the role and responsibility of individuals and agencies having mission and mandate to uplift the people. With all the academic definitions put together, the Layman's definition of extension is to bring the desirable changes in the behavior (knowledge, skills, attitude, understanding, goals and confidence) of the people through mutual learning It bridges the gap between the missiOn-and-mandates of the organization (individuals) and the

53 needs of the ultimate target beneficiaries (clientele) as per their aims and objectives b\ using well tested and proven extension methodology Acknowledging the importance of extension education, the Second Five Year Plan opined that "the extension programme aims at the rapid increase of food and agricultural production, the promotion of education, improvement in health, introduction of new skills and occupations, so that the programme, as a whole, can raise the rural community to a higher level of economic organizatiOn and arouse enthusiasm for nev, knowledge and improved ways of hvmg. By this, the three unportant levels of the country's economy, i.e, hunger, disease and ignorance would be tackled through coordinated, planned effort on intensive lines. Its general objective is to secure the fullest development ofnatural and human resources ofthe area selected, called as blocks."76 The aim of the Community Development Blocks is not merely to strive for ample food, clothing. shelter, health and recreation facilities but more Important than these material • tmprovements. is a change in the mental outlook of the people, mstalling m them an ambition for a higher standard of life. and the will and determination to work for such standards. In the words ofCC Hearne, the obJective behind the extension programme in India is ·'to raise standard of liVing of the village population. and the right use of land. water and ltvestock ,r The extenswn educatiOn changes the outlook of the villagers Unless the people develop aspirations for a higher level of living. all efforts to motivate them will fat! Extension education helps village people to become self-reliant, responsible. capable and willing to participate effectively, and with knowledge and understanding, in the programme of development In sum. the extension education assist each vtllager in planning and carrymg out an 111tegrated mult1-phased tamtlv and vtllage plan. directed towards mcreasing the agncultural production: Improving existing village crafts and industries and organizing new one; providing minimum health services, arranging educational facilities for children as well as for adults; and improving housing and family-living conditions for village women and youth. It is usually believed that the knowledge of the principles is of no value to an extension worker These principles are considered to be of academic interest for the students taking advance courses in extension. However. Leagans has given stress on the need for a sound knowledge of the pnnctples for the extension workers. He points out that wtthout this knowledge extenston workers either keep on laboring under some

54 handicaps, or make great mistakes, particularly in the initial stages Further. If an extension worker aspires to become an administrator or a supervisor, it will be all the more necessary for him to posses a sound knowledge of the principles of extension. The principles of extension are relative and not necessarily fixed in importance or sequence They are fundamental in nature and widely accepted in literature or subject. To make effective, extension work must begin with the interests and needs of the people. Many ttmes the mterests of the rural people are not the interests of the extension worker. Even though he sees the needs of the people better than they do themselves. he must begin with the interests and needs as the people see them In this way only the extension agency can mould the needs and interests of the people into realistic needs. For extension programmes to be effective and real, the approach and procedure must be suited to the culture of the people Different culture requires different approaches Earl Moncur remarks that ·'As each culture is unique and each particular situation within which a change is occurring, or is to be made, is unique, it is not possible to lay dovvn prescription for what to identify and to describe the process which occurs so that each particular mdividual or team charged with responsibility for planning. execution or adJusting to some tvpe of change can act m terms of the process ''711

It 1s 'ery difficult for a multipurpose extens10n worker to keep h1mself abreast with a II the latest findings of research in all the branches of science Trained spec1altsts have to be provided, who keep themselves in touch with their respective research institutes. No single extension teaching method is effective under all situations. Reading material is for those who can read. radio-programmes for those who have rad1os. meeting for those who can attend demonstratJOn The use pf teachmg methods must ha\ e flexibility considering the variations in age. educatiOn, economic status, sex etc. among the members of the community. The involvement of leaders in extension programmes is the one single factor that determines the success or failure of those programmes. Local leaders are the guardians of local thought and can be trained and developed to best serve as interpreters of new ideas to the villagers. Satisfaction of the people is very essential in extension work Unless the people are satisfied with the end product of any programme, it will ultimately fat! to make any lasting impact. In democratic societies people can not be made to move like machines They must continue to act out of their ov.n conviction. This is possible only

55 when they derive full satisfaction through adoption of innovations, which are well suited to their needs and sources.

ROLE OF EXTENSION WORKER

Extension is not the work of a single person or agency. It includes all those who are working with the villagers with specific programme of development. The Village Level Workers, the Extension Officers, the Block Development Officer and the Extension Specialist together constitute a team for executing and carrying out successfully a programme of extension. Extension work is mostly determined by the efforts of these people. Extension work is not limited to the rural areas alone, but extends to urban side as well. To a large extent, the success of an extension worker is determined by his ability to communicate with others. In order to work effectively in the field of extension education for community development, it should be made clear that the central challenge is to help vtllage people to put useful knowledge to work for them. The extension worker ts bound to touch upon all aspects of rural life. He should have a comprehensive understandmg of the village people and their problems, needs and capabtlittes. For this, he must survey the entire village, tts people and their resources. The extension worker should use as many methods of extenston as are necessary Expenence has shown that extension workers who use more methods of extension are more successful Thus, the use of all practical methods of teaching requires serious and careful planning. He should give the villagers every chance to work in co-operative group action. The villagers should be encouraged to have discussions. Because as a village discussion group grows and gams confidence It will naturally seek to become a village extension group. The extensiOn must, m the beginnmg, gtve leadership to the group. The extension worker has to improve the village life and surroundings and create the conditions for farmers to become active members of our republic, socially, economically and politically.79 He is also responsible for making the villagers feel that he is a real partner in village affairs Actually, the field of the extension worker is very wide He carries the teachings, recent research findings and discoveries from the institutions, experimental and research stations in the country or elsewhere, to the villagers He is the man to raise the levels of ltvmg of the villagers and provide a more stable base for economic and mental security. The worker bnngs to the rural masses the baste knowledge of tmproved methods of

56 agriculture, health, animal husbandary, home management etc. He enables the villagers to increase their agricultural production and improve their standard of living by promoting social, cultural and intellectual activities in the villages Finally, the worker brings psychological change in the attitudes, believes and values of the village people so as to prepare them to adopt new ways of life. So, the extension worker has to choose his own way of living in such a manner as to adjust him self to the surroundings existing around him He should respect the villagers' customs, tradition. He must be a friend to the villagers and help them m all situations and even in awkward circumstances. Throughout the development decade the extension approach represented the main thrust of development strategies. lt was at the heart of the trickle-down and bullet theories of communications Experts would go on radio and television, while the extension agents would journey to the villages instructing people on how to be healthier, have smaller families, farm more effectively etc. This role of extension as a disseminator of new ideas and practices was clearly tmplied in the Dominant Paradtgm of Development Extension communicatiOn was seen as the vehtcle for ( i) transfernng innovations from the development agencies to their clients, and (ii) preparing individual recipients for change by establishmg a climate for moderntzation 80 Thus. extension 1s an educationaL cooperative. collaborative, democratic. persuasive and never endmg process that generates harmony, leadership, effective communication, partictpation and mvolvement of the people in organizing self-help activities and projects It is a system of 'leaming-by-domg' at an individual level and 'mutual-learning' at group level amongst professionals and target beneficiaries, resulting

1 n a high degree of rapport and empathy

II.VI MASS MEDIA AND EXTENSION EDtJCATION Communication constitutes the nervous system of any society and is vital for its sustenance, change and continuity In the context of development particularly in the rural sector, the media of mass communication has assumed great importance in transmitting information regarding new technologies and innovations to the rural people. The task of dissemination of information among the people in remote villages is extremely difficult, because of low level of literacy, different socio economy and varied agro-climatic conditions Extenston agenctes take help of mass media for transmission of information,

57 dissemination of facts and the development of positive attitude among the people. For the purpose of meaningful and effective communication government uses different types of media - mass media, traditional media and interpersonal media in association with extension workers at various levels. Among the mass media, the most important are the electronic media like radio and television, printing media, posters and films.

Electronic media: The most successful electronic media are Radio and Television. Rad1o is by far the most important medium of mass communication in fndia if assessed in terms of its scope and coverage. It is the only medium which can claim its presence in the remotest area of the country. Radio performs three types of function: entertainment, information, education and extension. Most of Akashvanis' total hours of programming are spent on entertainment programmes However, there are powerful uses of radio in educational and extension programmes. Radio plays an important role in disseminating information among the people about nev, innovations in creating awareness about the desirability of adopting nevv practices about the possibility of change towards betterment and in motivating people to adopt ne"" methods and improved technologtes Since the fifties, w1th the launchmg of five year plans in India, programmes were destgned to carry the developmental messages on agriculture, health, hygiene, family planning, tribal weWue and other related matters to the doorsteps of the people through out the country. A major impetus to mral broadcasting came with the initiation of the Radio Rural Forums (RRFs) in l956 There were more than 22 .. SOO RRFs all over India It provtded an orgamzed ltstenmg group m a village w1th useful mfom1at10n on agriculture, health and other related matters The members of the listening group discussed the new innovations, broadcast in the radio, its relevance to their needs and problems, and then decided to seek more mformation, if necessary. It was in 1966 that AIR, in consultation with the Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, set up Farm and Home units in selected AIR stations to provide information and instructions regarding agricultural practices, scientific methods of cultivation, soil and water management fertilizer application, plant protection measures, storage and marketing etc Besides, 36 stations have special cells for Family Welfare Programmes Special programmes were broadcast in support of the programmes sponsored by Small Fam1ers' Development

58 Agency (SFDA), marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. dry farming and drought prone areas schemes, etc. A Farmers Training and Functional Literacy Programme was also launched every evening to provide hard core farm information, together With a short weather report and timely agricultural hints for about five minutes m the mornmg The functional literacy classes are held for rural youth between 15 and 25 years of age by way of establishing centres with about 30 students in each centre. Like the RRF, the tTFL programme was conceived under an organized pattern of group listening, I 0 to 20 farmers constituting a charcha mandai under a group leader. Besides, Akashvani\ Audience Research Unit (ARU) provides qualitative feedback on audience size and composition, reaction of listeners of rural areas to the programmes and assesses tmpacts of the programmes on the target audiences. Radio Rural Forums can play vital role under the Trainmg and Visit System and extension service in India. This system heavily relies upon contact farmers to disseminate relevant farm information among their fellow farmers If contact farmers orgamse and take active part in the deliberations of radio forums, effective dtssemination of farm mformation will occur81 Radio as a mass media is verv much exclusive. There 1s the opportunity for instant feedback m manv programmes To make it more relevant, certain steps should be taken The mfonnat10n on agncultural practices dissemmated through radio should be seasonal bas1s otherw1se the obJective 0f the programme will not be fulfilled The programmes will be broadcast on a time when the farmers are at home. The language of the information should be easy s0 that the rural people can easily comprehend its content There should not be too heavy an information load in any one programme and 1mpact points need to be repeated

TelevlSlon has emerged w1th an extenstve netw0rk to sene the broad obJectives of disseminating information, imparting education and providing entetiainment to the people. Apart from its national programme, news and current affairs programmes, it offers a substantial number of programmes on agriculture, animal husbandry, rural health, family welfare, rural industries, arts and crafts and domestic services. Doordarshan ts telecasting a number of educational, farm, health and other extension programmes. This was initiated with the Delhi School Television Programme in 1961 and then followed up by the experimental Pre- SITE Krishi Darshan Programme in Delhi The launchmg of SITE ( \975) marked a maJor expansion not merely in the television system but m the mstmcttOnal content of programmes These are need based,

59 area specific programmes and programmes for specific audiences. Like AIR. l?) Audience Research Units under the control of the Director, Audience Research have been functioning at various centres to collect feedback on Doordarshan programmes The stress is on reaction from the rural audiences. Audience profile and need assessment studies are undertaken to identify area specific programmes. Pre-testing evaluation ts also done to find the relevance and impact of different programmes.82 Telev1s1on ts more powerful a medium than radio and convey more informations because of the visual content, often made mteresting through demonstration and dramatization with the aid of animation, masks, puppetry etc However, the problem with the television is that its expansion in rural areas is still limited because of its high costs. Besides, there are difficulties of time - sharing among different programmes and disparities between the local dialect and the language used in the televtsion programmes, as well as inadequate programme identification with the local environment and culture on account of generalized and centralized programming and hmited feedback. In order to make the extension broadcasting relevant, particular messages are to be deltvered to defined target audiences at a given time and in a gtven sequence One has to consider the clnnate. emtronment and socio economic diverstttes within the countJY and even within the states and extenston messages must be designed for :-;pectfic audiences 111 relation to crop, health problems, local circumstances. language. age­ groups, stages of development and simtlar factors

PRINTING MEDIA News agenctes are a maJor source of supply and cnculation of information among the people The press plays an tmportant role m creatmg public opimon on various political, soctal and economic issues and problems facing the country. It touches almost every aspect of our public life. The Press Information Bureau (PlB) is the principal agency of Government of India, whose main function is to supply information on the policies, programmes and achievements of the government to the press. It is primarily responsible for presentation and interpretation of the policies and activities of the government and for keeping the people informed of developmental activities m the social and economic spheres through the medium of press Newspaper can play a vttal role in extension education through publishing arttcles that can present tnformation in detail about various developmental efforts in the

60 field of agriculture & health. To use new techniques and methods in agriculture, the farmers should have clear conception about the method, otherwise it may be counter productive Newspapers fill up the information gap left by other media about various community development programmes. However, it is found that, the circulation of newspapers falls sharply beyond the urban area because of the concentration of literacy and purchasing power in cities and towns. But the basic problem is that very few of the village people can read newspaper. The Indian Press does not take much interest m giving adequate coverage of rural news. It seldom deals with rural problems and inadequacies. rt hardly devotes any space to the happenings in the rural areas except providing coverage of natural calamities, sensational crimes etc. The press has faded to create the necessary climate for motivating people in taking interest in rural development It does not give periodical appraisal of the performance of developmental agencies working for the rural community.

POSTERS The majority of the rural people in India are illiterate, which explams the tmportance of extens1on education in development oriented activities m the rural sector.

The aim of extension educat1on 1s to give mformation and motlvate the people to participate in rural development programmes Since rural development starts with community development, poster can effectively be used to give mformation and motivate rural people about new and 1mproved techniques and methods of farming and health care system As in posters, information are generally delivered in symbols, the symbols must be used in a simple wav so that the villagers can comprehend the messages easily However, a poster can not g1ve deta1led mformat10n So 1t 1s necessarv to put m words also. In India, posters are produced by Directorate of Advertising and Visual Publicity (DA VP) in English, Hindi and thirteen languages. However, DA VP is not directly mvolved in campaign planning. A Distribution section in DA VP prepared a list of about 40,000 institutions, officials, and associations to whom publicity materials are directly sent The mailing list covers village panchayats, state information centers, community development blocks, social service agencies, educational institutions and extension officmls. These agencies and officials in their tum are expected to distribute the bulk of the materials so received to others lower down in the hierarchy83 However, there is no

61 authority to undertake study to ascertain whether the materials are distributed regularly by the concerned agencies. Their publicity materials are directed to an undifferentiated audience. Advertisement again is an important medium of communication. The purpose of an advertisement is either simply disseminate information or to motivate or persuade or influence people. Display advertisement in newspapers or through other media of communication is very much powerful to motivate the farmers of using new techniques, tmproved seeds and fertilizers to increase productivity or a rural people to take precaution against communtcable diseases. Advertisements are launched through various media like press, printed materials like posters, folders, booklets, wall hangers and wall painting and transmit advertisement on buses and tramcars, audio visual media like radio, television. films and video programmes In India DAVP is responsible for the classified as well as the display advertisement of the Government of India84 In many societies. advertising contributes efficiently to the generation of consumer demand and of a mass market but its influence on the consumer and on the mass media may also be decisive and negative Just as it can contribute to raising aspirations and can be a motivatmg force tor an tmproved quality of life. likewise it can also contribute mightily to rising frustration among consumers Another medmm whtch attracts rural people ts exhibition Exhibition may be organtzed by the government to gJVe information about new agricultural innovations and health facilities. A well organized exhibition wtll attract a large number of people to participate where they can interact with each other and will be motivated to use various techntques Exhibttton sh

FILM:

Like radio and TV, film 1s also a very effecttve medium for entertainment, information and instruction It is highly artistic and creattve medium and can influence

62 the captive audience. As it is a visual medium and has the advantage of presenting the message content in a story form, it can play an important role in informing and educating the people, in motivating them to participate in development programmes and bringmg about changes in their attitudes. Thus, film as a medium has a clear and district role to play in extension education. If the theme in the film is presented in a story form, 1t creates a lasting influence among the rural people and the result will be very much fruitful. However, in making films, it is necessary to see that the content is relevant to

the audience for whom the film IS made. The responsibility of dealing with developmental issues is often handed to documentary film makers. This is, perhaps, because in India, most documentaries deal with subjects like agriculture, health and family welfare, etc. ln India, Film Division is the centralized unit for the production and distribution of all films including documentaries and news reels. It also produces short films under the integrated plan publicity scheme The films Division supplies documentaries and news reels to all the cmema houses in the country Short films for exhibition are supplied to Ministries and Departments of the Government oflndia, to Indian Missions abroad for external publicity. to schools and other private bodies, and to the field publicity units to be shown free in the rural areas The films made under the Integrated Film Publictty

Scheme are supphed to the Director of Fteld Publicity who IS responsible for orgamzmg the screening of films in mral communities through its 46 field units and mobile vans 86 1t seeks to proJect the polictes and programmes of the government by bringing Its men and materials face to face with the people The Directorate of Field Publicity endeavors to inform mral people of the decisions taken and the plans formulated for their benefit by the government Its baste obJectives are to secure involvement of people m development programmes, to foster national cohesion and communal harmony, and to facilitate smooth transformation especially in backward, remote and tribal areas. It is a two way channel of communication, relying on its 'public reaction reports', 'special situation report' and 'success stories'. It seeks to achieve the basic objectives of development and transformation through skillful synthesis between the traditional and modem forms of communication and judicious use of various media techniques All these media are used by the government in extension programme. But the use of these media alone is not sufficient m executing an extension programme particularly among mral poor because of specific limitations in their use. Besides, in most cases they

63 function as a one way commumcation channel and instant feedback is not possible Nevertheless, at the initial stages of creating awareness and developing interest, these media can successfully be used. At the later stages they are to be used along with other media particularly the traditional media and interpersonal media of communication The newer concept of development in the seventies with its thrust on social development and later on 'sustainable human development' focused on people initiated change and participation of villagers in the planning and decision making process In this respect, traditional media have come to play a vital role. Almost in all the developmg countries, song - dance and drama groups, puppet shows and similar ' folk media' are playing a supplementary role along with the modern mass-media of communication Folk media are rich in variety, readily available at low cost and have a greater potentiality for persuasive communication, face-to-face communication and instant feedback It is believed that traditional media employ the idioms and symbols of the rural farmers and peasants that are readily comprehensible to them. They can easily reach to the part of the rural population who are impervious to the influence of the mass media The traditional media are charactenzed by their acceptability, cultural relevance. entetiamment \ alue. localized language. flexibility and instant two way commumcation

The government of India 111 l q:;4 established a Song and Drama Divtsion in the Ministry of Informatton and Rroadcastmg to perform arts in development commumcat10n functtons. The Diviston utllizes life entertainment media to create awareness among the people about vanous national programmes of socio-economic significance It uses a wide range of traditional stage forms such as drama, dance- drama, puppets, folk recitals and tradttJOnal plays as well as sound and light programmes The Division presents tts programmes through tts 35 departmental troupes. two sound and ltght units. one tribal unit and almost 575 pnvate parties, mostly Social Action Groups owing allegiance to various political, social and religious bodies, registered with the Division, and in close collaboration with other Central and State agencies like the Directorate of Field Publicity, the Directorate of Audio Visual Publicity (DA VP) and the departments of Health, Family Welfare, Education and Information Rural people take keen interest in traditional stage forms and actively participate

111 those programmes. Thus the traditional media c.an play an important role m extensiOn work. The atm of extenswn programmes is to provide information about and innovations and motivate the people to partictpate m developmental acttvtties The traditional media

64 can very well be fed with developmental information regarding new innovations. techniques and methods in fanning. These media have can be served as a significant channel of communtcation in passing the developmental message to the rural people in India and have created a tremendous impact in influencing the attitude of the people in the past. But recently the developmental authorities have shifted their attention to the fast emerging electronic media. These modern media have certain important features such as quick communication, wide coverage, world wide connectivtty etc. However, a cnttcal look at the important features of the modern medta reveals that almost all the new media require a lot of infrastructure facilities like electricity, computer facility, Internet connection, telephone connection etc and ours is a country where in, till today, there are thousands of villages that do not have accessibility to electricity, or telephone connection, what to talk then of computer, Internet or e-mail servtces. The literacy level is also very low 111 our country, whtch again is a basic necessity for most of the electronic media. According to Kothan and Takeda. Literacy ts a critical aspect of the 'soft' infrastructure that will detennme the extent and nature of the information revolution. Only half of the adults of the country are literate and only half of the literate may be ltterate enough to be able to take the advantage of the text-based matter tn books or mternet. 117 In fact there has been a communtcatton gap or vacuum of informatton m the vtllages. because the new medta have not been able to reach the rural masses. For changing the attitude of the rural audience traditiOnal media ts very much dependable, because the rural folk identify themselves with these media and think them to be their own. These media can carrv modern messages verv effecttvelv bv employmg the folk songs. local tdtoms and proverbs, through folk dances and ballads. whtch can he easily understood by the people. Government also sponsored a number of Tamasha troupes to educate the masses m family planning. AlR and Doordarshan have used Keertana for disseminating the development messages. These media have more persuasive power and are able to create genuine interest among their audience. Certain important features of the folk media such as their local appeal, indigenous nature and cultural compatibility make them so tmportant. unique and popular among the rural masses.

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70 80. Rogers, Everett M. '"The Passing of the Dominant Paradigm - Reflections of Diffusion Research" in Schramm and Lerner (eds.) Communication & Change, (Honolulu, University Press of Hawaii) pp. 49-52. 81. Ray, S.N. • "Communication in Rural Development A Public Policy Perspective" (Indian Institute of Advance Study, Shimla, 1995) pp. 87-88. 82. Government of India• Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Mass Media in India, 1987, pp. 5-9. 83. Ray, S.N• op.cit, no.38, pp89. 84. Mehta, D.S. "Handbook of Public Relations in India'' (Allied Publishers Pvt Ltd .. New Delhi, 1980) pp. 183-184. 85. Government of India• Ministry of Information and Broadcasting• Annual Report, 1989-90, New Delhi, 1990, pp. 24 86. ibid, pp. 66-67. 87. Kothary, B. and Takeda, L '"Some Language Sub-tttling for Literacy• Small Change for Colossal Gains". m Bhatnagar. S and Schware, R (eds.) Information and

[pmmJ.micattQt1_I~~ht1J2JIQ_gyin Deyelo.mnell.t Sage Publicatios, New Delhi, 2000.

71 CHAPTER - ID : EXTENSION IN AGRICULTUaE - - III.I AGRICULTURE IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT III.II ROLE OF INFORMATION IN AGRICULTURE III.III AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA III.IV EXTENSION EDUCATION IN WEST BENGAL NOTES AND REFERENCES III.l AGRICULTURE IN RtJRAL DEVELOPMENT ln a predominantly agrarian society like India, where more than three-fourth of the total population live in villages and more than 80 percent of the rural population depend on agriculture and allied activities for their livelihood, rural development ts a sine qua non of national development and agricultural development is a prerequisite for rural development. Therefore, in such a country, agricultural development should fonn the foundation for national development Traditionally, the word agriculture has been associated wtth the occupation of basic food production, known as farming. Agnculture and farming were synonymous before farmers began selling their products and purchasing farm inputs in commercial markets. However, today, producing food and firming is only one part of scientific agriculture Modern agriculture includes the farm supply industries like seeds. fertilizers. pesticides. machinery, feed etc., as well as product processing and distributing industries which convert raw food and other raw materials into the forms consumers want

Thus. agriculture use m the broadest sense mcludes all segments of farmmg. lt mcludes crop Husbandry \mmal Husbandrv Fish Farming, Sericulture. Horticulture. Forestry Agncultural Engmeenng, Home Sc1ence and several others Agriculture encompasses the two d1mens10ns - Agriculture as a means of livelihood is an organtzed body of knowledge for developmg, guiding and directing agricultural productiOn, processes and skills. On the other hand agriculture as a way of life represents certain values, ideas, attitude, customs, traditions and confidence.

The role of agriculture m economtc development has been recogntzed smce the time of the physwcrats According to the physiocrats, it was only the agricultural sectors which produced an economic surplus over cost of production and therefore it played the most strategic role in economic development Therefore, agriculture must be pushed by a strategy emphasizing the use of modern technology and supporting infrastructural facilities and services 1

The continuing importance of agriculture m the economies of the developing countries is reflected in the assoctation between the growth of agriculture and that of the economy as a whole Agriculture also remains the pnmary source of employment for the majority of the world's populatton Some 61 percent of the population of the developing

72 world is employed in agnculture and 18 percent of its gross domestic product IS derived from the land. 2 Despite increased urbanization and growth of the industrial and service sectors, more people each year are working in the agricultural sector than in the previous year Thus, enhancement of the productive capacity of the agricultural sector is crucial to the survival and development of most less developed countries.

Agricultural development reduces rural poverty in several ways. Technological progress in agriculture, if on a neutral scale, directly increase the income of the small and marginal farmers provided they can secure access to credit extension, trainmg and modern inputs. Furthermore, It mcreases the demand for their labor and hence employment of the landless labors on farms Besides, agricultural progress results in increased output which keeps food prices low for the poor and thereby gain an increase in real income3 Higher productivity in agricultural sectors leads to industrial grO\vth as the surplus m agnculture can be drained out for investment m industries.

Thus. mcreasing agricultural productivity is a major target for development almost eve1ywhere However it IS not onlv the quanttty of food whtch matters but also its qualttv as tt affects people's health. productivtty and happiness. Too little food ts ttself a cause of mal-nutnt10n 1\dequate quantities. however. tf of deficient composltton do not protect agamst mal nutntwn. Defictenctes of non and vitamin 'A' are also common and create senous nutritiOnal problems Mal-nutnt10n can and does lead to anemia. apathy, stunted growth of both mmd and body. It makes it'> sufferers more subject to mfection and disease and death. Malnutrition reduces the hours per day a person can work and even his efficiency because of lassitude and lethargy and this low productivity has the cructal effect on hts abtl!tv to buy more and better food The Food and Agncultural Orgamsat1on ( FAO) reported in Its World Food Survey that about 40 percent of the women in developing countries are anemic. because of malnourishment, and that up to I ,00,000 children go blind each year.

Each developing country faces this problem of food and nutrition. These countnes must be concerned with the desire of 1ts people to live happier as well as healthier lives. a desire which is met at least basically by the assurance of larger and better meals Each developing country must be concerned not only with its capacity for growing food but also fibers in the forms of trees or grasses or cottons or hemp or sheep m the support of clothmg. housmg and even export as these are needed and desired m connection wtth Its development programme.

73 The agricultural sector has a maJor contribution to a country's industrial development and to its economic development as a whole. As the agricultural community emerges from its traditional and largely subststence form and begins to produce for the commercial market, its earning and its savings are major source of investment in industrial sector. In addition to supplying capital and raw materials, the agricultural sector makes labor available for industrial employment by releasmg manpower when technology and mechanization reduce its own requirement for labor Finally, and of exceeding importance in the development process. the agricultural sector provides the industrial sector with a market for both consumer and producer goods Moreover agriculture depends heavily upon industry for energy, machines, fertilizers, pesticides and food processing and its supports industry by providing a growing market for these products and services of tndustry.

Thus .. the agncultural sector is expected to make a major contribution to the welfare of the rural population There is usually not a direct one-to-one relationship between a rise m the profits of farming and the economic or other happmess of all the residents of the farm communi tv Nevertheless, the growing productivity of agriculture ts generally. expected to play a prominent part in improving the condition of the rural population as a whole Thus m several crucial ways - for food. for tndustnal development for rural development. for erad1cat10n ofpoverty and tor economiC grov.th agriculture has a key role in development

111.11 ROLE OF INFORMATION IN AGRICllLTLTRE DEVELOPMENT In most of the developing countries. the quantity of land avatlable to agnculture is fixed or declining. Agam. a surplus of labor cannot increase the production from lands. Thus, neither land nor labor can boost agricultural production Most observers then turn to technological improvement considering as the most promising path to agricultural growth. Example includes stationary threshers, mills and water pumps. tractors etc. In recent years. power tillers have been used for mechanizing puddling of rice fields The mcreasmg use of chemicals against msects and msect borne diseases has greatly boosted crop production Pesticides are often crucial for preventing losses of htgh ytelding crops It can change msects nnmunit1es, destroy natural enemies

74 There is also the spread of irrigation, high-yielding seeds and fertilizers. Half the increase in grain yields since 1950 is a result of increased use of fertilizer in combination with irrigation and modem seeds.

The emergence of genetic science in the mid -19th century and the establishment of publicly financed agricultural research centres have fostered scientific breeding and production Plant selection and improvement take place today in hundreds of national and international centres forming a world wide network that share data, planting materials etc. At the frontier of genetic research, microbiologists are applymg still more advanced technology to develop new or dramatically modified plants.

With the emergence of the concept of sustainable development in recent years, emphasis is given on the use of new technology which will increase agricultural production without damaging ecologtcal balance. Sustainable agriculture is that which is ecologically sound, economtcally vtable, socmlly equitable and humanitarian In order to achieve sustainabihty in agnculture, there are some physical and social remedies which need to be adopted Natural fanning systems, utilization of urban garbage for fertilizers, use of livestock energy to Improve the nutrient cycle of soiL tree plantation to improve sod stmcture and reduce sot! erosiOn and multi-cropping system are some of the physical aspects wh1ch need proper attentiOn. Nature has provtded enough to fulfill our needs but not to fulfill our greed There ts need to use all natural resources very wisely If an appropriate agncultural system ts adopted according to land resource capability, any regwn will be able to fulfill thelf minimum needs.

So, to bring about overall progress in the field of agriculture, it ts necessary to g1ve mtormation to the fanners about all these techntques and technologies boostmg production. At the same ttme, the fanners must know the sources of information Because, without detailed knowledge about the use of these improved technologies, farmers can not use them properly, otherwise it may be counter productive. Thus, there is the need for a wide network of communication which will give detailed and relevant information to the fanners. In this respects, it can be mentioned that, there are two broad ways, through which farmers may get knowledge about new inputs, new techniques of production and how to economies in production and marketing These are education and extension.

75 Education : The basic skills and education whether obtained in or out of school makes six types of contributions to agricultural productivity. First, the educated farmers have greater access to external information sources. They get information through correspondence or newspapers and by reading extension agency leaflets. It may also enhance contacts between farmers and extension agents. Education may mean easy access to the information giver as well as to the information. The second value of education. m the eyes of many authors, ts tts positive effect on allocative ability Schultz notes that the economtc return on having a post fourth grade education for boys is high because of increased allocative effictency 4 In Whartm's language, "Mastery of the ability to think through the economic calculus is, I believe, most closely linked to the level of education. "5 A third value of education is its tendency to enhance farmers' favorable attitude toward change, openness to new ideas and techniques. A fourth advantage said to accrue to better educated farmers is the ability to perform the detailed activities assoctated with operatmg a furm busmess such as keepmg record of financial transactions and domg the budgetmg Herdt suggests that a consequence of mc.reasing levels of education m a populace ts that It stimulates the research mstitutions and e"\:tenston -;,,-stem to provtde a more raptd flow oftechnology In his vtew, "only when an educat10n that v1ews technology as a means to problem solvmg becomes vv·idespread will raptdly changmg technology he bUJit mto the system " 6 Finally it has been argued that in a better educated populace knowledge ts more eastly transmttted to all mdivtduals m a commumty. If the larger unit is better educated .. then those with less education are said to be benefited because of greater number of local peoples are capable of passing on new mformation

Extension : rhe adoptlOI1 of tll'\\ technology depends on the knowledge, sktll and motivation of farmers lt ts the task of agricultural extension to transmit knowledge of better production methods to farmers and help them to overcome difficulties in applying them. An extension system may enhance any of the categories of farmer's efficiency technical efficiency (how and what to plant), allocative efficiency (how to manage farm resources optimally) or innovative efficiency (how to obtain and use mformation) Agricultural extension ''relates to the process of carrying the technology of scientific agriculture to the farmer in order to enable him to utilize the knowledge for better agriculture and a better economv Agriculture extension service seeks to impart the necessary skills to the farmers tor undertaking tmproved agricultural operations, to make

76 I C'ountry ------·------··------~----- Year of Origin l:,::::·:rab Republic -- . . ------t- :::: ~·-~··· --·i ~--,------··------+-- ~Netherlands 1953** IN1gcr;a 1954 r ------t------c--::-::~---·--· f Tai\\an 1955 ' ---~------·-----·------·----·-----··------1---- i Brazil I 1956 t I r-' ·-· --·-···------·------··-·---r----I ------·- ! Belgium ' 195 7* * I 'L-----~------~----~------·------L ---~------* Source Axinn. George and ,C..,!ufhakar l'horat. Modernizing World Agriculture. New }ork .Praeger Publisher. 1972

**Source Agrzcultural Advtsorrr Services in Furope and North America. lhe organizanonf(n· Furopean Fco. ( 'orpn Paris. /<)57

The size. structure and services of the extension organisation vary from country to country representing different economic cond1tions distmct levels of mtens1ty of agricultural production and diverstfied educationaL social, and cultural attachments of their people

Among the de,eloped c~)untne::,, Amenca 1s pioneering m adoptmg the extension method The Amencan extens1on programme ts popularly known a.'> Cooperative ExtensiOn Service. The mam objecttves are to raise fann efficiency and mcome and thereby high living standard for the farmers, to impart farm and home oriented technical education and to develop leadership in the locality The process of extension is like a two way traffic to take tanners' problems to agncultural research centres and transmit the1r results to farmers through audio v1sual methods In the Umted Kingdom, Extension

service is called the National Agncultural Advisory Service. It IS solely concerned with agricultural extension and functions with local agencies like National Farmers' Union, National Federation of Young Farmers' Clubs and Women's Organization and the Government Agency ofthe Agricultural Department

However. agricultural extension fuiled to make a significant impact on farmers m the rura I areas on developing countries. In most of the developing countries the extension systems operate on bureaucratic pnnciples These systems are charactenzed by very strong hierarchy and deep organtzattOnal structures Traditionally messages

78 followed unilaterally from sources at the top, namely the extension agency, to recetvers at the bottom, such as the peasant farmers. The utmost emphasis is placed on convincing the farmer to adopt extended innovations, which becomes essentially pro-persuastve It was apparently, taken for granted that extension personnel were well equipped both conceptually and operationally, to carry out the task of spearheading the diffusion of innovation. The adoption rates in the Third World nations were usually so low that they generally failed to create S-shaped adoption curves. This failure signifies that the innovations are tailed to reach in rural Third World. The elements of the social - psychological constraints are familism. fatalism. limited aspirations, low empathy, low achievement, motivation, low innovativeness, lack of deferred, gratification etc. On the other hand, some development commumcation researchers hypothesized that the development constraints were not located inside the heads of peasants but outside m their environment Field studies in the Third World showed that there were a great many external constraints inhibiting peasants for adopting new ideas Some of them were economic. others political and sttll others assoctated with communication failures The study suggested that until these external constraints were removed, it was premature to posit soc1al psychological sub cultural constraints Several national governments in the developmg world put together multt - package programmes to overcome such external constraints The mtegrated approach to development attempted to mtroduce ecologtcally sound new techmques and technologtes and revamped mstttutwnal structures for more efficient delivery· of financial and material inputs necessary in the implementation of the new ideas But this approach gave short shift to the communication constraint

Thus .. tt 1s conceived that the constraints that prevented peasant fanners from makmg greater adoptions of mnovat10ns may not necessarily he onlv external The fault may lie within the extension process There seemed to be a lack of effective strategtes for delivering adequate, reliable and relevant information, knowledge and skills to the peasant farmers There are hardly any professwnals trained to communicate effectively m the peasant idiom. It is because the institutions are not providing appropriate training. The extension system is non-democratic and one-way, usually from the industrialized western nations to most of the Third World. and within the individual countries, from the elites, such as scientists and government offictals. to the peasants.

To overcome these problems. intensive agricultural extension programmes. like the Training and Visit (T & V) system of the World Bank has been mtroduced in 1974.

79 This programme attempts to provide accurate, research based knowledge to the ultimate receivers in a timely, regular and systematic way

111.111 AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION IN INDIA The history of agricultural extension in India dates back to the early years of the 20th century. Among the earlier experimental Pilot Project undertaken in this field are Sriniketan Project (West Bengal - 1920) of Rabindranath Tagore, Martandam Project (Kerala - 1921) of Hatch (YMCA), Gurgaon ProJect (Punjab - 1927) of Brayne, Sevagram ProJect (Gujarat -1936) of GandhiJI, Nilokheri ProJect (Punjab - 1947) of S.K Dey Etawah Project (UP- 1948) of Mayer.

In 1920 Rabindranath Tagore laid the foundation of the Sriniketan Institute for Rural Reconstruction and formulated a programme for the all - round development of the vtllage. The basic objective was to study rural problems and help the villagers to develop agriculture, tmprove the livestock, and Improve village sanitation etc. 8 It was an attempt to cultivate 'Total Man' by taking holistic view of life with full mtegration to cultural and matenal self Besides the practical programmes for vtllage upliftment, a youth movement called 'Yratachan movement' and 'Shtksha Satra' was also launched There was marked tmprovement m the vtllages surroundmg Snmketan, but such examples were not rnulttphed due to lack of profess tonal research support and government initiatives.

The Martandarn experiment was started m 1921 under the leadership of Dr. Spencer Hatch. The purpose of the experiment was to bring about a total and meaningful development of rural life, spiritually. mentally. physically, socially and economically Martandam 25 miles south of Trivandrum. was developed as a demonstration centre to guide I 00 young christian J\ihssionaries in Martandam and 40 in the surrounding villages 9 This demonstration centre had a demonstration tl:um, ammals, equipment for the honey industry and other cottage vocations within the campus. The local leaders were trained and actively involved. Rural surveys were conducted, dramas, exhibitions, melas and demonstrations were organized. Some local industries like weaving, poultry, bee-keeping were started on a co-operattve basis. The Martandam experiment's main gains were the changes that it brought m the attitudes of the rural people, mculcating in them a desire to improve the spirit of co-operation and self respect The experiment was

80 followed by other states and its workers helped the states of Baroda, Mysore, Cochin and Hyderabad to set up centres for training for rural reconstruction.

Mr. M.L Brayne, who was the collector ofGurgaon District, conceived the rural development scheme in 1927. Brayne in his book 'Better Villages' spoke of rural reconstruction as "nothing more or less than the revival of the old - fashioned virtues of hard work, thrift, self respect, self control, self help, mutual help and mutual respect "10 The scheme was divided into many parts such as· institutional work, rural sanction, agncultural development, education. cooperatiOn, social reforms, coordination and publicity. The contents of this programme were as comprehensive as those of the Integrated Rural Development Programmes. Brayne established schools of economics and domestic science to teach dignity of labor and self help. Intensive publicity through films, songs. dramas was undertaken with a view to increase farm yields and improves health standards. His great contribution was the creation of the "Village Guide" as a multipurpose worker representing the various departments of the Government at village level Brayne's work, however, could not spread beyond Punjab, and it also disappeared soon after he was withdrawn

Loder the enlightened MaharaJa of Baroda, a scheme of rural reconstruction was

started 111 the year 1932 The Dtwan ofthe state, Mr V T. Knshnamachan, who made his class1c contnbution m the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee ( 1952) and subsequently acted as Vtce - Chatrman of the Planning Commission, undertook the scheme taking lesson from the expenence of Martandam and studying methods of extension and cooperation m Europe Krishnamachan prepared and implemented a comprehensive programme of rural reconstruction. covenng the vanous aspects of rural life. The programme mcluded acttvities, hke Improvement of communicatiOn, digging of drinking water wells, anti malaria measures, pasture development, distribution of improved seeds, training in cottage crafts, establishment of panchayats and cooperatives covering every village, and development of village schools as centres for imparting teaching in agnculture and inculcating among the villagers the 'will to live better'. To meet the cost of the programme a trust of Rs. I crore was created and in every district, intensive zones consisting of 20 to 25 villages were carved out By 1942-43 there were 24 such centre covering 487 villages and in charge of these centres were graduate assistants to spread the massages11

81 Gandhijt also undertook the rural reconstruction activities in Sevagram near Wardha to implement his ideas of constructive programmes. It included use of Khadi, Promotion of village industries, removal of untouchability, basic and adult education, rural sanitation, uplift of the backward classes, the welfare of women, education in public health and hygiene, propagation of national language etc. 12 Gandhiji emphasized self- sufficiency in food and cloth He was in favor of 'Gram Swaraj'. The individual was to be the centre of initiative which could expand and express itself in ever widening circles. beginning from local panchayat and heading towards a corresponding national organisation or supra - national organisation through various intermediate tiers. To him, moral values like truth, non-violence, self-restraint, dignity of work, fearlessness were the main means to achieve the ends.

The Gandhian philosophy was officially accepted by the government The mtroduction of the Khadi and Village industry programme, acceptance of the notion of village self sufficiency and the faith in the 'Panchayati Raj' and 'Sahakari Samaj' movement are some of the examples of the tmpact of the Gandhian tradition on the working of the government The 'Bhoodan' and 'Gramdan' movements led by Acharya Vmoba Bhave and late Jaiprakash Narayan were the contribution of Gandhian philosophy

All these early attempts mJttated the move m the dtrect1on of rural reconstmct10n Tagore gave the holist1c cultural approach, which is even today the gemus of the Commumty Development Martandam's extens1on servtces served as bases for inventing a complete mventory project of extension principles Brayne's scheme was <.;omprehensJve m contents He had already suggested the 1dea of a multipurpose functiOnary at vlllage level The rulmg party drew msp1rat10n from Gandh1_p's tdeology of mral reconstruction after mdependence and was deeply committed to tt. The lessons learnt from all these trials formed the bedrock of the present CD and NES programme. However these attempts were not successful because they were isolated ones except the Baroda experiment. Each one of them worked independently without taking lessons from others. Their coverage was limited due to lack of adequate resources and technical support The attitude of the government towards them was also unsympathetic

The first government sponsored scheme was launched in Madras in 1946. The scheme was first tntroduced m 34 F1rkas and later 1t was extended to 50 Firkas m 195013 The short term objecttves of the scheme were to develop basic amenities and an

82 institutional framework for carrying out communication, water supply, sanitation projects and formation ofpanchayats and cooperatives The long term objectives were to attain self sufficiency in food, clothing, and shelter, development of agriculture, ammal husbandry, Khadi and Cottage industries. To achieve these goals a special fund of RsA crores was created. The Director of Rural Welfare at the state level was put in charge of the scheme. The Collector was made responsible for implementing the scheme at district level. He was assisted by a Rural Welfare Officer who was m charge of two or three Ftrkas and had under him five to ten 'Gram Sevaks'. Junior staff in Agriculture and pubhc works was also provided for every firka Arrangements for trainmg of 'Gram Savaks' were also made available. When the CD and 1\itS programme was adopted bv the state in 1953-54, the Firka Development Scheme was merged with it

Nilokheri Experiment was another pioneering attempt whtch drew country-wide attention and mtluenced the CD movement directly After independence near about 7,000 displaced persons were rehabilitated in Nilokheri town. The scheme was called 'Mazdoor ManZJI' because it was based on the princtple of "He who would not work, neither shall he eat" Rights for education and medical care for the sick were guaranteed.

'\t the core of tts acttv tttes were. 1t was a vocational training centre, run on cooperative

! mes. the co Iony had 1ts 0\'\11 dat rv poultry piggerv, prmtmg press, engmeenng workshops. tannery and bone-meal factory People were gtven vocatwnal trammg of their chotec to run these cooperative enterpnses Nilokheri was seen as a symbol of progress through self help and mutual atd lt left an tmprint on the Community Development Programme in the country It gave the idea of agro-industrial town ship as the nerve centre of rural development and found place m the First Ftve vear plan as well

as m the lay out of the tlnanctal plan of the first ~2 commumty proJects It is sttll an eminent centre for imparting training to vanous kinds of development personnel and ts nghtly looked upon as a place of pilgrimage for development workers.'~

The Eta wah Project was the forerunner of the first series of Commumty ProJects

111 1952. It preceded them by four years and set the pattern for the community projects to follow The Etawah Pilot Project was conceived by Mr Albert Mayer in 1948 for the development of the rural areas of Eta wah district in UP The main objective of the Project was. "To see what degree of productive and social improvement as well as mttiattve. self - confidence and cooperation can be developed The problem was to ascertatn how qUJcklv these results ma~· be attained and remain permanently a part of the

83 people's mental, spiritual, technical equipment and outlook after the special pressure ts lifted. "15 In Eta wah District, Maheva Block with 97 villages was selected for intens1ve operations To train in agriculture and extension, VLWs were selected with great care In carrying out various activities like agncultural demonstrations. soil conservatiOn. improvement in animal husbandry and village sanitation, the cooperation of various departments and non-official agencies was secured. A programme of social education was initiated to secure people's participation. The main features of its organizational net were: a multipurpose worker at village level, coordination, team approach, a pane I programme and regular follow-ups The proJect was successful m achieving its aim and in three years it was extended to 300 villages of the Etawah district in U pH• An tmportant contribution of Mr. Mayer in administrative reorganization was the practice of "Inner Democratization." By this he meant warmth in interpersonal relationship. restraining arbitrary determinations and wide consultatiOns through systematically conducted staff meetings and other admmistrative methods to bnng about coordination between the techmcal and admmtstratne personnel

All these earlier expenments m rural reconstruction at different places at different tunes generated insp1ratton among our planners and provided valuable guidance for them to frame a rural reconstruction scheme on a natwnal scale. The int1uence of Etawah ProJect m particular \vas most dommating The impact ofthts expenment did not remam confined to Uttar Pradesh onlv but was manifested m the scheme of 'Commumty ProJects' \Vhtch has figured so prominently m the successive Five year plans

The Fiscal Commtssion ( 1949), set up by the Government of India, observed "In uur \ 1ev, the greatest need at present m India IS an Extension Servtce with the object of bndgmg the gap between research and practtces of producers .,t~ Subsequently, the first effort to spread the work on an area basis was started with the Grow More Food Campatgn Although the campaign was launched m 1943 in the wake of the Bengal famine, it did not make much head way until 1947 It was a growth oriented programme launched to stimulate cultivator's interest in increasing crop yield per hectare. Field demonstrations and contact with the farmers to introduce the improved technique and mitiation of a dialogue with villagers was the main focus in the campaign Field staff was strengthened for th1s purpose. However. the campatgn developed certain snags. and therefore. the Government of India set up an enquirv commtttee to examme the working of the GMF campaign in 1952 The Grow More Food enqutry committees found that, all

84 aspects of village life are interrelated, and no lasting results can be achieved if mdividual aspects of it are dealt with in isolation: and the movement touched only a fringe of the population, and did not arouse widespread enthusiasm or become in any sense a nattonal programme18 The enquiry committee further elaborated the concept of extension servtce and recommended the setting up of an 'extension' service for undertaking intensive rural work which would reach every farmer and assist in the coordinated development of rural life as a whole. lt was out of this background and experience that India's Community Development Programme (COP) was born. The Community Development Programme (CDP) was formally maugurated on 2nd October 1952. Initially, the CDP was launched in 55 project areas. Each area embraced approximately 300 villages, with a population of about 2,00,000 people and was administered by a team of officials company of Subject Matter Extension Officer (s) and about 30 Multi Purpose Village Level Workers (VLWs). The central objective ofthe COP was to secure the total development of the material and human resources of rural areas, and to develop local leadership and self governing mstitutions. The baste tdea was to ratse the levels of ltving of rural people through a number of programmes related to agriculture, communications. education, health. housing, supplementary employment. training and socta! welfare The emphasize was on a rapid increase in food and agncultural productiOn by strengthening programmes of resources development. by nnprovmg the effectiveness of farm inputs supply systems. and by providmg agncultural extenston services to fam1ers A year later. the project was supplemented by a new scheme called National Extension Service (NES- 1953) It was stated that the NES was mtroduced as an agency and Community Development as the method to bring about transformatiOn 111 two broad areas extension education and community organization The Fiscal Commission and the Grow More Food Enquiry Committee first gave offictal recognition to the desirability of setting up a NES. To act as an agent of all development departments and to advice the farmer in matters relating to agricultura I practices. the commission recommended for the creation of a post of an Extension officer, with necessary staff. for a group of 40-50 villages. The committee for the constitution of a National Extension Service proposed the following organization patterns. 19 a) For a developmental block the Taluka or tahsil consisting of I 00-120 villages could be a convenient umt It could be further divtded mto 12 circles, each consisting of

85 a group of 5-l 0 villages and placed under the charge of a Village Level Worker (V.L.W.) who was to be the joint agent for all development departments. To impart lessons of research and arrange supplies and service needed by the farmers and also render first aid in case of animal and plant diseases was his basic duty. A team of consisting of the Sub-division revenue officer and other officers in agriculture, animal husbandry, co-operation and engineering was to be posted in each block. b) As represented by local self-governing bodies of corresponding levels and members of parliament and state legislature from the area, the non-official leadership was also to be attached at taluka and district levels. Panchayats and Co-operatives were to be recognized as agents for the implementation of the local plans. The farmers were to play an important role in forming the programmes. c) A non official board of State level and an All India Council of Rural welfare to discuss the progress of work and advise the Government on all matters relating to village development was also suggested by the committee. d) The expenses were to be shared on fifty -fifty basis The whole country was to be covered with the network of Extension Service Block within a period of I 0 years. It was stated that the NES was mtroduced as an agency through which the Five Year Plan sought to initiate the process of transfom1at10n of social and economic life of villagers However. the ImplementatiOn of this programme became very defective due to non - avatlability of technology and technologists, quick change in emphasis, lack of tramed personnel, lack of motivation amongst funct10nanes and problems of co­ ordination at different levels Innovations were also relatively infrequent and often mduced by exogenous factors mstead of being a contmuous process resulting from a constant exposure to organized research and development effort There was no purposive and organized application of science and technology which could maintain continuity in striving for innovations. It was emphatically stated that there was only 'Fictitious Paper Participation' rather than 'Functional People's Participation'. The alarming shortfall in food grains production during 1957-58 and the rapid trends of rise in population compelled planners to focus greater attention on examinmg the lacunae in the approach and reorienting the programme for agricultural extension The Government of India appointed a Study Team of Ford FoundatiOn m 1958- 59 to make definite recommendations for rapid grovv1h of agnculture The Team suggested ways and means to achieve self sufficiency 111 food and recommended that

86 agricultural extension programmes should be based on local conditions, village production problems and village potentials. This was followed by launching Intensive agricultural District Programme and Intensive Agricultural Extension Programmes (l.A.D.P and I.A.A.P.) Intensive Agricultural District Programme (IADP-1960) popularly known as package programme, consisted of collective and simultaneous application of all improved practices and services mcluding, improved seeds, fertilizers, irrigation, plant protection, credit implements etc. The obJective of IADP was to choose a few districts (originally 7, later 15) [Two distncts later fell out of the Programme, making 13 in all] to evolve a dynamic pattern of productivity which could be extended to other places In these Intensive Districts the Extension Staff were increased- the V.L.W from 10 to 20 per Block. the AE.Os from 1 to 4 per Block. A highly selective team of Subject Matter Specialist (technical team of experts including farm management specialist at district level) was constituted for technical guidance and to guide the programme. Farm information units were established to provide mtensive information support to lADP. Large scale extenston techniques along with monitoring and evaluation system were used for the first time 20 The concept of IADP revolved round the process of developmg and executing 'Farm Production Plan' along with full scales supplies, servtces. credtt and mput management. Thts Programme later was modified as crop- area- onented programmme known as Intenstve Agncultural Area Programme (lAAP). Both the programmes made a great stride and significant beginning because for the first ttme a fairly large proportion of cropped area in the country possessing adequate production potential was brought under intenstve production efforts

However, the programme as a whole did not work well. Because. tt cltd not concerned about the development of new technologies or the addition of non-irrigated area or the training of the personnel, which facilitate the transformation of production functions and quicker the increase of output and capital formation in agriculture As a result IADP was equally effective and equally ineffective in motivating cultivators to expand crop output and yield. 21 As a result of IADP and IAAP experiences, and drought and severe scarcity in 60's, it was felt that there was an urgent need for developing and evolving cost-reducing high - yielding agricultural technologies which can easily match the scarce inputs and limited resources The Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) in collaboration

87 with Agricultural Universities and state Departments of Agriculture launched various programmes both as a concern to technological testing in the field and to get a 'feed­ back' for the scientists. Moreover, grant-in-aid is sanctioned to various research organizations and universities in the state to conduct high priority research activities At the same time, ICAR also established Trainers' Training Centres (TTCs), Krishi Vigyan Kendras (KVKs) to teach the science of agriculture to the trainers and the farmers. Some of these programmes are: National Demonstration ( 1965 ), Operational Research Programme (1971) and Lab to Land programme ( 1979). But the problem with all these efforts are that it is one way communicat10n. absence of single line control; lack of proper supervis10n; inadequate and improper training; no updating of knowledge in service; lack of specialization of staff; low level of linkages with research and other. Considenng the earlier efforts and limited resources of the country the Government of India took advantage of World Bank assistance. so as to accelerate the process of development and reorganize the extension system. With the asststance of the World Bank, the agricultural extension set-up was reorganized on the bas1s of what 1s called the Training and Visit (T&V) system The bas1c obJective of this ne\\ system is the establishment of an effective link between farmers, Profess10nal extension workers and researchers The new extension IS based on contmuous trammg of all categones of extension staff and their regular and well scheduled visits The other salient features ofT&V system are a) to build a professional extension servtce that w11l be capable of assisting farmers to raise production and increase their mcomes and of providing appropriate support for agricultural development h) To bring the extension service under a smgle line of technical and admtmstrattve command Support ts reqUired from teachmg and research mstitutions, and other agncultural organizations but all extension workers should be responsible administratively and technically to a unit within only one department. c) Extension staff to work only on agricultural extension and not to spread their efforts over a wide range of other activities like supply of inputs, data collection, distribution of subsidies or other activities not directly related to extension. d) To teach and train the contact farmers (CFs) and through them the other farmers to make the best use of resources available to them. The extension workers must make regular and ttmely v1sits to meet the agricultural difficulties. e) To arrange regular and continuous training of extension staff to enable them to convey useful production recommendations to farmers f) To establish two way

88 linkages between research centres and extension workers which would help the research scientists to formulate production recommendations suited to the specific local environment and farmers' resources. The major problems that the T&V system hopes to overcome are a) lack of a single line of command; b) dilution of efforts by assigning a multipurpose role to field extension workers; c) Excessively large areas of operation; d) Lack of regular training for updating knowledge of extenston workers. e) lack of proper ties with research; t) duplication of extension services by various agencies of development. 22 Under the T &V system. there ts effective coordination between research, traimng and extension activities and optimal utilization of human power to ensure maxtmum coverage in rural areas. Under this scheme, the transfer of package of knowledge and skills from research stations to farmer's fields is achieved in two steps: the first step provides for systematic, time bound and location specific training of village level extension workers (VLW). the extension functionaries responsible for meeting with farmers The second step ensures transfer of the new knowledge and skill from VL Ws to farmers through regular, pre-scheduled v 1sits 23 The T&V system 1s based on the assumption that it is rather impossible to mamtain regular contact with most of the farmers directly, which is netther necessary nor destrable Hence. selected messages have to be focused mamly on selected contact farmers. who will asstst in spreading the new practices to most farmers 111 thetr area very qutckly It ts assumed that the contact farmers must be willing to try-out practices recommended by the extension workers and be prepared to have other farmers visit their ftelds The advice to contact farmers will thus be diffused and spread to other farmers. through the well kmt commumcat1on system Ill the rural area and through the process of dissemmation and diffusion. The fundamental approach in T&V system is a systematic and problem oriented programme of training of the VLWs, combmed with frequent and well planned visit by them to the farmers' fields. The step I 'Training' ensures transfer of know how from the research sc1entists/SMSs to the field level extension agents and step II 'Visits' ensures transfer of know how from the extension agent to the contact farmers and down to the other farmers m tum. The training develops better understandmg amongst extensiOn agents about the technological components which enhances their self confidence and

89 results in further convincing the farmer and I or target beneficiaries. Once this eye lie process starts it becomes 'reinforcing' and 'self propelling' type 24 The T&V system has an inbuilt mechanism for monitonng and continuous evaluation of the performance and finally the impact on the beneficiaries. At the national level the Directorate of Extension under the Ministry of Agriculture monitors the extension activities and at the state level special monitoring and evaluation cells have been created for thts purpose. The main indtcators for monitoring are the number and frequency of visits of VEW to contact farmers. the regularity and quality of fortnightly training and monthly workshops; the extent to which the recommendations made by YEW are adopted by the farmers: and the yields obtained by the farmers in the project area. 25 The evaluation studies are conducted before, during and after stages of implementation of the extension activities/project An appropriate representative sample 1s drawn at two stages vtz. dividing district level farmers into group and then selecting suitable sample from these groups within the categories of contact as well as non contact farmers Thts ts followed by admmtstering pre-structured, pre-tested and an mtegrated questiOnnaire conststmg of basic set of questions, both for early and repetitive studies. Moreover.. the assessment of tmpact ts also judged by crop cutting experiments. The T& \ svstem has resulted m mcreasmg the cultivated area under Htgh \'teldmg \anettes Programme. dtssernmatmg new knowledge of fiummg for mcreasmg the crop intensity. mcreasing employment of famtly labor, raismg margmal value of producti\ tty of all mputs. and acceleratmg the extent of adoption of recommended practices It is also assumed that there ts more impact of this system on the small holdings as compared to large ones Thus. T &V .;;ystem has a considerable posit1ve Impact on the farming economy The T & V system has been m operation m major states smce 1977 on a large scale. The process was complemented by two broad projects called National Agricultural Research Project (NARP-1980) and National Agricultural Extension Project (NAEP- 1983) under the T&V system wherein the Universities and Research Institutions have an important role to play, the NARP is a major effort of the lCAR in this direction to upgrade and strengthen the regional research capability of the State Agricultural

Umversit1es to conduct location specific, productton-cum-problem-onented researches 111 the various agro-cltmatic zones To perform a matching role with well expanded research system. the National Agncultural Extenston Project (NAEP) has been launched to

90 strengthen location specific and problem cum production oriented extension service in an agro-climatic zone. Both NARP and NAEP are striving to achieve the objectives of linking research and extension activities from the State level to the grass root level. The two giant viz., NARP and NAEP together expected to overcome various organizational, structural and functional constraints that have been identified during the operation of T&V system.

III.IV EXTENSION EDUCATION IN AGRIClJLTURE IN WEST BENGAL West Bengal has got about 8 percent of India's population and not less than 3 percent of the country's total land. Again in West Bengal, nearly 80% of population depends on agriculture and alhed occupation. While 60% ofthe employment of the state ts in agriculture and related sectors, 50% oftotal state income comes from agriculture. In spite of the importance of agricultural sector m our economy, the investment of capital m agriculture is very meager as compared to that in industry 26 Facilities for creation of permanent assets for increasmg agricultural production are also not adequate. Thus to meet the reqUJrements of food for the ever mcreasmg population, to alleviate rural poverty and to ensure supply of ravv materials for our mdustnes, mtenstve agncultural development by way of providmg mtgatiOn facilities to existing land under cultivation, supply of unproved seeds m adequate quantity at fair pnce, applying of Improved fertilizers ts seen as the alternative to limited land use Besides. to improve agricultural production, various types of need based agncultural research are also regarded as formtdable requirements The adaptive research wmg of the Agnculture Directorate wtth the fmancwl assistance from State and Central Government, Indian Council for Agricultural Research (IC AR) is undertaking serious need based researches for improved agricultural practices Moreover, grant-in-aid is sanctioned to various research organizations and universities in the state to conduct high priority research activities. At the same time, in order Ul tmprove the agricultural production, special attention has to be given to ensure regular tlow of highly producttve recommendations, based on research findings in research stations, to farmers through a well planned extension system. An effective lmkage between Research and Extenston wmg ts an essential element for adoption of ne\\

91 technologies The extension system will give detailed information regarding nevv innovations to the farmers and motivate them to use these technologies appropriately If the farmers do not get information about the ways of adoption of innovation, the effort will be counter productive27 The success of intensive agricultural development programmes depend largely on extension publications such as folders, leaflets, charts, posters and technical bulletins etc. The mformation wing of the State Department of Agticulture produce seasonal extension publications on different crops and agro techniques and distribute them among the farmers and extension workers In addition to these, extension support is rendered through mess media like the radio, newspapers, agricultural journals, diS<:ussion groups, TV etc. The agricultural policy of the Government and information on various technologies are published in the departmental monthly JOurnal 'Basundhara' and quarterly journal 'Sar Samachar'. 28 But the problem with all these efforts ts that it ts one-way commumcatton. In order to make communicatton effecttve, there ts the need for two- way communication where both tarmers and extens10n agents can interact with each other ln West Bengal unproved extens10n sen tees 1 e T&V system of extension was introduced in 1974 and 111 North Bengal tt was 1977 The T &V system of agncultural extens10n atms at the estabhshment of an effecti\e lmk between farmers, profess10nal extens10n workers and researchers. The transfer of technology required a network of extenston servtce mvolving officials at the state, dtstnct, and block and down to the village leveL

.\'TRUCTURE OFT & V SYSTEM The extenstve servtce under the agncultural Trammg and Vtslt system ts earned out in a simple, sctentific and organized way in West BengaL At the bottom of the system, there are KPS to interact directly with the farmers. Generally for every ten villages there is one KPS to take agncultural messages to selected contract farmers. One Agricultural Development Officer (ADO) trains and looks after 6-8 KPS.

92 CHART- 3.1 :ORGANISATIONAL SETUP OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

DIRECTOR OF AGRICULTURE

SUBJECT MATTER SPECIALIST (SMS)

RANGE JOINT DIRECTOR OF JOR JDR CIR.CLE RANGE iJOR)

SUBJECT MAHER SPECIALIST (SMS)

SUB-OIV.lSIONAL SUB- AGR!CUL TURAL OFfiCeR SAO SAO SAO OtVISION ~SAO)

SUBJECT MATTER SPECIAliST (SMSI

A£0 AGRICULTURAL AEO AEO AEO AEO CH-<.CU:: E'XfENSlON OFFICER tAEOl

VLW , KRISHI PROYUKTI KPS KPS KPS KPS KPS CIRCLE SAHAVAK (KPS)

CONTACT FARME:RS

L ·- .. J.

FARMERS GROUP

93 Again 6-8 ADO work under one Sub-divisional Agricultural Officer (SAO) who is assisted in his work by a Subject Matter Specialists. A Principal Agricultural Officer (PAO) is appointed to supervise 6-8 Sub-divisional Agricultural Officers. The PAO is also assisted by a group of subject matter experts. Above the PAO in the administration hierarchy there are Joint Directors one for each range and at the apex there is the Director of Agriculture at the Headquarter. The structure of the organization thus hierarchical and an effective system of coordination and control is established. The officials are empowered to make necessary changes and alternatives in policy directives in course of implementing the programmes One of the basic requirements of the effective agricultural extension is that extension messages must reach quickly and regularly to as many farmers as possible. 1n order to ensure this Krishi Proyukti Sahayak (KPS) are supposed to pay pre-arranged visits to farmers at regular intervals. During these visits, the KPS will convey production recommendation, he is informed of in fortnightly training sessions, teach the farmers about the skills and techmques required for following the recommendations, and motivate farmers to have a trial of the practices on a small piece of land. To make the visits fruitful and effective, it is extremely important to define carefully and correctly the area t0 be covered bv the KPS-the 'Circle' and the grouping of farmers within the circle

Good extensiOn 1s not possible tf a ctrcle or farmers' group ts too large to be covered by the KPS effectively However. the number of families to be covered by the KPS vanes dependmg on the nature of agncultural land, the effect of prime agricultural seasons, the tenancy system, the transport facilities available. the density of population of the area, types of crops and the system of cultivatiOn There is no hard and fast rule regarding the maxtmurn number of agncultural family to be supervised by one KPS. Generally, the number is determined after considering the sttuat10n and field carefully and the experiences of the KPS. Where the density of population is high, many small families live together and cultivate a few number of prime crops, the number of KPSs are generally kept in the ratio of 1 :800. In area, where the farmers are very much competent, the ratio may be 1:1200 or more than that Again in thinly populated area where people live scattered the ration may be I 500 In hilly areas which are mostly inhabitable the ration is generally I :300. 29 Once the KPS farm family ratio has been determined. the next step is to demarcate the circle of operation for KPS. A circle is divided in eight parts according to

94 situation of agricultural land, area of village and transportation facility The number of farm families in each of KPS groups need not be exactly the same; it may vary from 60 to 120. KPS selects 10 agricultural agents for every part in consultation with prominent members of the village and according to his acquired experiences. The SAO ensures all participants and selects the training location. He is also responsible for arranging the necessary teaching materials and aids. He is helped by the Subject Matter Specialist (SMS). SMSs are the princtpal trainers. The tramers work as a team and production recommendations for each crop are presented according to lesson plans. Such a plan is a written statement containing an outline of the specific topic. mcluding the lesson's aim and materials and teaching aids required. If a practical skill needs to be taught in conjunction with the topic, the lesson plan covers this also, indicating the place where the practical trammg will be held. At least three days before a training session, a SMS in expected to complete a lesson plan for each topic he will teach. The lesson plans are revtewed by the SAO At that time AEOs are also actively participating in training, both to report on field condttwns and to learn production recommendations and to ensure that the KPSs under their Junsdictton are able to understand the messages properly and acqUJre through practical work the sktlls necessary to implement them. In addition. AEOs help the SMSs to Identify the KPSs who need spectal attention The KPSs

participatmg m the trammg programme get m detatl the practical trammg which 1s to be recommended to the tarmers during the coming fortnight30 Gtven the tmportant role of Subject Matter Specialists m the Trainmg and Visit system of agricultural extension. there is also a system of monthly workshop to provide m- servtce traming to the SMS Apart from their mittal professiOnal trammg at vtllage.

\Vhtch ts central to the ctrcle. the Agnculture Development Officer ts expected to supervise and guide 6 to 8 KPS m a way stmllar to that followed by the KPS wtth regard to his supervision and guidance of farmers 'group' He visits each of his KPS regularly at least once a fortnight.

TRAINING OF EXTENSION WORKER.fli At the village level, each KPS is tramed every fortnight to take productive recommendation from the agricultural experts All KPS participate in one day trainmg each fortnight The fortnightly training is the chief means of continuously upgradmg the professional skills of extension workers Effective extension work depends on good regular training as tt ts mainlv through this training that KPS learn the specific relevant

95 recommendations which will be discussed with farmers during the coming fortnight Without these recommendations, their visits are likely to be generalized and undirected and so of little use to farmers. Fortnightly training are held at regional research stations, departmental farms. farmers' field or sub-divisional offices, depending on facilities available in the sub­ division and required for a particular session. The number of KPS participating in trammg should not be more than 35. Fortnightly training is held twice in a month on the same date m each month. Where there IS more than one training group in a sub-di\ 1sion the training days of each group must be different since the tramers i.e Subject Matter Specialists (SMSs) are to be the same for all the groups in a sub-division. Moreovei there are intervals between trainmg sessions which are utilized by the SMSs for field visits m order to review problems faced by the KPS and to see the efficacy and effectiveness of the extensiOn staff in presenting the recommended messages to farmrs. The Sub-dtvisional Agricultural Officer ts the orgamzer, convener and leader of all fort­ nightly traming session held in his sub-diviston Given the tmportant role Subject Matter Spectahsts m the traming and vistt system of agricultural extension, there ts also a system of monthly workshop to provide in service training to the SMSs Monthly workshops are arranged at the dtstrict level. The maxtmum numbers of participants are

3 'i The workshops preferably should be held at a research station If suttable research station 1s not available. an Agricultural Universtty or Department of Agnculture seed farm wlth appropriate facilities may be chosen for the purpose These factlities must include adequate land nearby for practical work. Two full consecutive days are required for a workshop Partictpants must have two full days to dtscuss clearly the topics presented_ do practtcal work. and tdenttfv field problems and tmpact pomts for the next two fortnights It is the sub-diviston and district level SMSs and the Zonal or Regional Director, the District Agricultural officer and Sub-Divisional Agncultural Officers and Assistant Sub-divisional Agricultural Officers, who are generally the participants of the workshop. The trainers normally come from state agricultural Universities and their Research Stations and the Department of Agriculture In addition to the main cadre of trainers, 'guest trainers' for specific topics are also invited. Guest trainers include SMSs,

Department staff and even tanners who are familtar with particular toptcs .it

96 VISIT OF EXTENSION WORKERS A key feature of the T&V system of the agricultural extension is the fixed. regularly scheduled visits to furmers' fields made by extension staff Although field vtsits are undertaken by all extension workers, including extension staff at the headquat1ers and zonal levels, it is the Krishi Proyukti Sahayak (KPSs) whose visits are assumed as the most significant in the T&V system. The purpose of the visits is two fold. One is to present to farmers, and encourage them to adopt, agricultural practices and innovations that are most relevant to the optimal use of their resources and skills for increasing their mcomes. A second purpose IS to enable extension staff and through them, researchers to be closely and continuously acquainted with farm conditions and problems so that extension recommendations and agricultural research are relevant to actual t~umers' needs. 32 The KPS visits each of the eight groups m his circle for a full day one in a fortnight Since it is not possible for the KPS to establish and maintain frequent contact with all farmers directly. he selects I 0 farmers as 'contact farmers' before the commencement of Ius v1s1t. The contact farmers are selected by the KPS ttl consultatiOn \.Vtth members of the \!llage panchayat and according to hts acquired experiences. A contact farmer ts selected as one who can gJVe leadership to other farmers ttl hts group and ts able to motivate others m 1m1tatmg han. The KPSs in their mteractton with contact fam1ers must keep m mind the basic requirements of the T & V system and work accordingly The KPS should vistt apart from the contact farmers of the group concerned, contact farmers of other groups if available ln the field, the KPS should im 1te as many other available farmers as possible to come and parttcipate in the dtscusston and hear the recommendation The contact tarmers should be encouraged to explain the recommendation to the other farmers reviews the responses and willingness of contact farmers in adopting recommendations and guides the KPS on how to achieve more effective support from them and other farmers With the KPS and AEO, Sub­ divisional Agricultural Officer (SAO) also spends at least three days each week in field visiting farmers, KPSs and AEOs. He reviews two main points-First the KPSs make regular fixed visits to farmers' fields and secondly. that the messages given to farmers are relevant to them. The SMSs of all levels (sub-division, distnct and headquarters) also spend at least one third ofthetr time in field visits. Field visits made by SMSs are of two main types One is to examine field problems brought to light at fortnight training

97 sessions or monthly workshops, and to see if their recommendations are being followed correctly by KPSs and farmers. A second function of a field visit is to review local fam1 production practices and constraints. Such visits are as important as the problem solvmg visits because these help the SMS to make research more relevant and need based Though the visits of AEO, SAO and SMS are not the compulsory job, but their regular field contact gives them useful insight in the T&V system of extension.

EVALUATION & MONITORING OF T&VSYSTEM An Evaluation and Monitoring unit has also been established under this programme. Monitoring and evaluation is a management tool that helps the extension service operates efficiently, enables management to take necessary corrective. KPS visits his circle according to his fixed schedule. The days for meetmg the groups of the circle are kept fixed A new fortnight begins each alternative Monday. The fortnights are calculated according to the days ofthe week and not according to the date or the month. The Visits are field oriented The time of visit ts generally when the

farmers are 111 then- field. and tt varies wtth the seasonal changes. ln summer, the most suitable ttme for vtstts may be 7 to II am and 4 to 6 p m In winter. the tnne may be

from q a m to ~ p m On each v isH. KPS meets as many contact farmers as possible. He goes to the fields of as many contact farmers as possible so that other farmers may come and meet hun In this way KPS meet with selected groups (eight) in hts cucle at the rate

of 4 days 111 a week and 8 days in a fortnight After the visits to farmers's field in the mormng or afternoon, sometimes the KPS holds a meeting with the farmers. To ensure the regular supply of information KPS have to live in his own field. ln order to remove theJr housmg dtfficulttes m the rural areas. quarters are bemg built up KPS are also being provided with loans to buy bt-cycles m order to ease his movement Apart from KPS, the other extension staff also makes field visits. The immediate supervisor of the KPS, the Agricultural Extension Officer (AEO) spends eight days in each fortnight for field visits. The purpose of his visit is to see that the recommendations are presented by the KPS to the farmers and thus to extend support to KPSs in their efforts of persuasion and motivation. The AEO also monitor the action or shortcomings in extension operations The monitoring of extension activities consists of timely gathering and analysis of data on the build up of the extension service and on its performance, as well as farmers' acceptance of extensiOn advtce. Evaluation assesses the

98 overall effects of the extension service on production and farmers' welfare in order to determine the degree to which the extension service is reaching its economic, technical and social targets. Monitoring and evaluation of extension involves three mam activities. First, routine monitoring of the implementation of extension activities focuses on the staff appointments, training activities, equipment and civil works in all areas in which both physical and financial progress is monitored. Secondly, monitoring and evaluation of field activities and the impact of extension through field surveys that focus on KPS visits, extension recommendations and crop yields. Data on field activities and impact are collected through sample surveys conducted and analyzed by staff of the monitoring and evaluation unit. There will normally be one monitoring survey early in a season and a monitoring cum evaluation survey tied to the seasoned crop cutting survey at harvest time. Besides these two, special studies may be conducted to focus on particular parts of . 33 t h e extension system. Before 1995-96, it was the Bureau of applied Economics and Statistics (BAE&S) which estimate the total productiOn in a particular season. But recently, the Government of West Bengal to get reliable statistics on agncultural production has mtroduced a scheme. called Establtshment of an Agency for Reporting Agricultural Stattstics or EAR AS at the block level Under thts scheme, the average productton of 20 pnme crops of the four agricultural seasons m a particular year ts calculated by KPS. This calculation of what agncultural yteld helps to find out the efficacy of the new technology m increasing the productivity of the agricultural land as well as the effectiveness of extension service

99 NOTES AND REFERENCES:- 1. Lewis W. Arthur: "Economic Development with Unlimited Supplies of Labor", The Manchester School, Vol.:22, May 1954, pp. 139-42 2. World Bank: World Development Report, 1982, Oxford Umverstty Press, Oxford. 1982, pp.40. 3. Prasad, B.K: "Rural Development: Concept, Approach and strategy, Sarup and Sons, New Delht, 2003, p.l6. 4 Sited in Gant, George F ·''Development Admintstration Concept, Goals, 1V1ethod< (Madison: University ofWisconsins Press, 1979) pp 30 5. ibid, pp.31 6. Sited in ibid pp.31 7 Sited in ibid pp.32 8 Rambhai, B · "The Silent Revolution, Delht, Jiwan Prakashan, 1959, p.l 0 9. Smgh, Prabhakar "Communtty Development Prot,rramme m Indta". New Delhi, Deep & Deep publicat10n. 1982, p.34. l 0 Quoted m Jam, S C . "Commumty Development and Panchayati RaJ m India" (New Delhi.. Allied Pubhsher. 1967) p48 II \lltshra. S N --New Honzons m Rural Development Admintstration" Mittal Publications. New Delh1. 1989. p "-6 12 Pyarelal "Mahatma GandhL The Last Phase··, Vol. I L Ahmedabad, Nav_pvan Publishmg House. 1963, pp 551-52 13 Rambhat, B. op cit no 9, p.15 14 Sing. HoshiaT- ".Admimstratton of Rural Development in lndta" Sterlmg Publtshers. 1995,p 15. Mayer, A "Pilot ProJect m India'', Umverstty ofCaltforma Press, 1958, p37 16. Krishnamachari, VT "Community Development in India'', New Delhi, Government of India, Publication Division, 1958, p 12. 17. Report of the Fiscal Commission, 1949, Government of India, p.90. 18 Bhatnagar, 0 P and G R Desat " Management of Agricultural Extension" in Journal of Rural Development, NIRD, Hyderabad, vol6( I), Jan, 1987, p 16 19. Mishra, S N · op.ctt. no 11, p.19. 20 Hunter, Guy "The Administration of Agricultural Development Lessons from India··, Oxford Untverstty Press, New York, 1970, p. 92-94.

100 21 . Brown, Dorris D .. "Agricultural Development in India's Districts", Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1971, p.25 & 59-60. 22. Benor, Daniel and James Harrison "" Agricultural Extension: The Trainmg and Visit System", World Bank, Washington DC, 1977, pp.18-32. 23. Melkote, Srinivas R. and Vallath Chandrase: "Communication Gap in Development", Rawat Publications, Jaipur, New Delhi, 1992, pp.20-24. 24. Dahama, O.P. and Bhatnagar, O.P: "'Education and Communication for Development", Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt Ltd, New Delhi, 1980. 25. Senor, Daniel and James Harrison op.cit no 22, pp. 709-712. 26. Budget Speech, 1984, Demand No 52, Department of Agriculture, Government of West Bengal, pp. 2-3. 27. ibid, pp. 5-11 28. Government of West Bengal, Department of Agriculture, Agnculture Production Programme, 1980-81, pp.21. 29. Government of West Bengal Agenda Paper on NatiOnal Conference on Agnculture for Kharif Campaign, 1996. New Delhi, pp.3l

JO Government of India. Mnnstry of Agriculture and Co-operation, Agricultural Extension lrammg and VISit Svstem- OperatiOnal Notes. New DeihL no.6. pp l-6 J l 1b1d, pp.J-5. 32 Government of West Bengal Agriculture ProductiOn Programme. Department of Agnculture, 1992-93, pp I 9 33 Government of West Bengal. Evaluation Report · Alu-Sashya Kartan Anikhya ··, Department of Agnculture Evaluation Branch. 1999. pp 1-2

101 CHAPTER - IV : EXTENSION IN HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE - - IV.I HEALTH IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT IV.II CONCEPT OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE IV.III EXTENSION IN HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES IN INDIA IV.IV ORGANIZATIONAL STRUCTURE FOR EXTENSION SERVICES IN HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE IN WEST BENGAL NOTES AND REFERENCES IV.I HEALTH IN RURAL DEVELOPMENT With the changing concept of development, two allied concept,'human development' and sustainable development', find frequent mention in the literature on development. The ultimate objective of human development is to improve human well­ being and the quality of people's lives. The UNDP Human Development Index (HDI) comprises of three components, i.e. health, education, employment. Health is a pre­ requisite for human development and is essentially concerned with the well-being of the common man. The concept of sustainable development also lays emphasis on the development of social capital. It is directly concerned with increasing the material standard of living of the poor at the grassroots level which can be quantitative measured in terms of increased food, real income, educational service, health care, sanitation and water supply etc. Health is at the very centre of the concerns of an individual. Unless the people have healthy living, they can not enjoy the other benefits of life. It is now universally regarded as an important index of social development. Health is fundamental to national progress in any sphere. It is the measure of energy and productive capacity in every country. The concept of health is a broad one. The popular interpretation considers a person healthy if his body is performing all its physiological function normally. This is, however, only one aspect of being healthy. But apart from physiological fitness there are several other factors determining the state of health of a man. These include environmental, social and psychological factors, and list continues even beyond these parameters for several modern definitions of health. The Health Survey and Development Committee rightly observes, "The term health implies more than absence of sickness in the individuals and indicates a state of harmonious functioning of the body and mind in relation to his physical and social environment so as to enable him to enjoy life to the fullest possible extent and to reach his maximum level of productive capacity,"1 The most widely used modem definition of health was developed by the WHO- "a complete state of physical, mental and social well being, not merely free from sickness or infirmity".1 The WHO also' radically expanded the scope of health by explicitly including the mental and social dimensions of human prosperity and by extending the roles and responsibilities of health professionals and their relationship to the larger society. The Indian Council For Medical Research (ICMR) and the Indian Council For Social Science Research (ICSSR)

102 in its report of health for all by 2000 AD acknowledged, "health is a function, not only of medical care, but of the overall integrated development of society - cultural, economic, social, and political".3 It is accordingly, a function that covers host of area including nutrition, personal hygiene, family life, environmental conditions and access to social services including medical care. The multiplicity of factors involved in the promotion of sound health care system renders it more a social rather than a medical problem.

Role ofHealth in Development Improvement in health status is viewed primarily is a product of socio economic development. Countries that enjoy higher per capita income also experience higher health status. Development implies improved nutrition, hygienic living and working conditions, greater awareness of health problems and wider accessibility to health care services. Alfred Marshall wrote that "health and strength - physical, mental and moral...... are the basic of industrial wealth; while conversely the chief importance of material wealth lies in the fact that when wisely used, it increases the health and strength physical, mental and moral of the human race". 4 Better health is desirable as an end in itself. It brings substantial economic benefits releasing resources that can then be used to achieve other developmental goals. Better health and nutrition raise worker's productivity, decrease the number of days they are ill, and prolong their potential working lives. Health and nutrition also have long run effect on productivity and output. Workers who have had a healthy childhood have well developed physiological and cognitive processes. Episodes of illness during childhood have a lasting impact on an individual's physical and mental abilities. Better diets, housing and control of communicable diseases have raised the quality of life in all spheres. Even the benefits of good health flow well into the future. For instance, a mother's good health strongly influences the early physical and mental development of her children. In an increasingly integrated world, trade and tourism are perhaps the two most important sectors influenced by the status of health in a country. Communicable diseases such as HIV/ AlDS, Malaria, Tuberculosis etc. in a country reduce its attractiveness for trade (especially of agricultural and food products) and tourism. Thus, health is the most precious component for the happiness and all round development of man in society. An individual's health and the health of a society are

103 considered complementary to each other. It is a fact that the individual's health contributes to higher productivity and economic development which, in tum, provides them with higher wages and better prospects for good health. Thus, societal development largely depends on the health of the people. It has been rightly pointed out in the report on the Census of India (1971) that, "the expenditure on improving the health of a nation is regarded as a good investment yielding indirect return in increased efficiency and productivity". 5

IV.II CONCEPT OF PRIMARY HEALTH CARE

Public health emphasizes on the health of population. Public health can be defined as "What we as a society do collectively to ensure the conditions in which people can be healthy". The main concern here is the various aspects of public health. There are many social problems that increase an individual susceptibility to disease. Public health is also concerned with collective action to over come these social problems. Such measures include community action to ensure environmental hygiene, uncontaminated food and drinking water, proper sanitary conditions and the prevention of infectious diseases. To prevent diseases and promote better health, public health can work at three different levels: Primary, Secondary and Tertiary. The term of primary health care was first used to mean the care given to the patient by the health worker who saw him first. It was also called 'first contact care'. If the patient was referred to hospital, it was called secondary care'. More recently, the Alma Ata conference in 1978 gave primary health care a wider meaning. Primary health care is defined as "essential health care and universally accessible to all citizens and acceptable to them through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford" (WHO, 1978). It addresses the main health problems in the community through preventive, curative, promotive and rehabilitative medical and health services. The primary health care strategy as outlined in the Alma Ata declaration of 1978 envisaged a revolutionary strategy which recognized that health for the majority of the people could not be achieved through the conventional hospital based health system. The Alma Ata strategy of primary health care upholds that health care would not only be available but it should be accessible, affordable, acceptable and appropriate to the needs of the people. It is now admitted that instead of concentrating on development of health care alone, it may be more worth while to device

104 a concrete strategy of integrated development simultaneously in the fields of health and social welfare. The concept of primary health care has been accepted by all countries as the key to the attainment of health for all by 2000 A.D. It has been accepted as an integral part of the country's health system. It includes the following elements: [a] Promotion of food supplies and proper nutrition. [b] Education about health problems and their control. [c] Safe water supply and basic sanitation. [d] Mother and child health and family planning. [e] Immunization against infectious, diseases and injuries. [f] Prevention and control of locally endemic diseases. [g] Treatment of common diseases and injuries, It calls for a continuing process of dialogue, popular consultation, organizational adaption and possible change in social, political, economic and cultural environments. 6 Primary Health Care is based on four basic principles :- Equitable Distribution:- Health services should be available to all sections of society with special attention to the needy and vulnerable groups. Primary health care aims at correcting urban-rural imbalances and bringing health services to the door-step of every citizen. Community Participation:- It requires the involvement of individuals, families and communities in promotion of their own health and welfare, including self care. The community should participate in the planning, implementation and maintenance of health servtces. Multisectoral Approach:- One of the basic tenets of primary health care is that full health cannot be provided by the health sector alone. It requires the joint efforts of the health sector and other health-related sectors viz. education, food, agriculture, social welfare, housing and public works, rural reconstruction etc. Appropriate Technology:- It calls for scientifically sound materials and methods that are socially acceptable, directed against relevant health problems. The examples are domiciliary treatment as against sanatorium treatment for TB Patients, Oral rehydration therapy in cholera and other diarrheal diseases etc. The International conference on primary health care calls for urgent and effective national and international action to develop and implement

105 primary health care through out the world and particularly in developing countries in a spirit of technical co-operation and in keeping with the New International Economic Order. It urges governments, WHO and UNICEF and other international organizations, funding agencies, all health workers and the whole world community to support national and international commitment to primary health care. The government of India became one of the signatories to the Alma Ata declaration of the World Health Organization in 1978.

IV.III HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE PROGRAMMES IN INDIA

Ever since the government of free India has come into being it has taken up health as one ofthe important component of social and economic development in the country. In order to provide good health care services, the Government of India planned for people­ oriented health policy programmes. In the British India, by and large, the health system was elite biased, urban based and curative-oriented, and was not geared even to providing minimum health care services to the mass of the rural people. The system suffered largely in terms of both inadequacies of health institutions and facilities as well as manpower. 7

Consequently, the majority of people in both the urban and rural area ~ere subject to critical health and environmental sanitation problems: widespread incidence of infections and communicable diseases; severe malnutrition; inadequate supply of safe drinking water and poor sewage disposal; high levels of mortality particularly among infants, children and mothers; and low expectation of life. Broadly speaking, there were four major problems associated with health status of population: over population, wide spread incidence of communicable diseases, malnutrition and inadequacy of health care infrastructure. The present health care system in India has its origin in the recommendations of the Health Survey Development Committee appointed in 1943 under the chairmanship of Sri Joseph Bhore whose report was published in 1948. The committee insisted that "medical relief and preventive health care must be urgently provided as soon as possible to the vast rural population of the country". The main thrusts of the Report was on preventive work rather than curative; the health service should be placed as close to the

106 vast rural population of the country and to secure the active cooperation of the people in the development of the health programme. 8 From 1951, the successive Five Year plans have reflected the Government's public health policy. During the planning period, there was obviously a progressive increase in the involvement of government in matter of public health. From the beginning, the emphasis in health sector planning has, accordingly, been on the need for the creation of an infrastructure for the delivery of health services through out the country. This was clearly reflected in the priorities enunciated by the first plan and specific objectives defined by the second. The First plan (1951-56) priorities were to provide preventive health care to the rural people through health units (PHC) and mobile units~ control of malaria; ensure health services for mothers and children; expand education; training and health education and give priorities to family planning and population control. With the launching of the Community Development Programme in October, 1952, a modest beginning was made to implement a programme of setting up Primary Health Centers (PHCs) as an integral component for all-round development of rural areas. A PHC with three sub-centers for every Community Development Block covering approximately 60,000 people was designed to provide integrated curative, preventive and promotive health services to the rural population. The PHCs were envisaged as the focal point from which primary health care services would radiate through Sub-centres in the rural areas. These were also expected to be responsible for medical care, control of communicable diseases and maternal and child health. The Third (1961-66) and Fourth Plans (1969-74) highlighted the shortfalls in the implementation of the programmes and sought to improve the performance in the health sector. The Third plan, launched in 1961, directed attention to the shortage of health personnel, and inadequate training facilities for the different categories of staff required in rural areas. The Fourth Plan, which began in 1969, after a three year plan holiday, reiterated these difficulties and pleaded for the establishment of effective machinery for speedy construction of buildings and improvement of the performance of Primary Health Cares by providing staff, drugs and equipment. Meanwhile, the report of the Mudaliar Committee on Health Survey and Planning was published in 1962. Briefly the committee reviewed the progress on public health since the submission of the Bhore Committee Report. The main recommendations of the

107 report were regarding steps to enhance the health delivery system; to stream line its organization; to develop training facilities for para-medical personnel; and to advocate the creation of 'auxiliary health workers' specially trained to help public health officers. However the Mudaliar Committee report did not do much to reverse the trend towards urban oriented public health services with emphasis on the curative side. During the Fourth Five year plan, the Committee on Multi Purpose Workers under Health and Family Planning Programme, also known as Katar Singh Committee (1972-73) was constituted. The Multi Purpose Workers Scheme (MPS) aims at providing package of health services to the rural population at their door step to meet the growing needs of the people regarding health and family planning services. It intends to make to people aware of the services and at the same time educate them about the contribution they could make. Each sub-centre would be manned by a trained Female Health Worker (Auxiliary Nurse Mid-Wife) and a trained Male Health Worker known as Multipurpose Worker to provide health services in the form of an entire package. 9 The Fifth Plan (1974-79) reformulated the health programme in order to "consolidate past gains in various fields of health such as communicable diseases, medical education and provision of infrastructure in rural areas."10 This consolidation of the past gains was envisaged in the context of the new National Minimum Needs Programme (MNP) introduced by the plan. The health related components of MNP were ensuring in all areas a minimum uniform availability of public health facilities. It included preventive medicine, family planning and the detection of early morbidity. It stressed on supplying drinking water to villages and carrying out environmental improvement of slums. The Plan further envisaged that "the delivery of the integrated health care programmes will be through multi-purpose health auxiliaries- a new category of paramedical personnel to be specially trained for the purpose." 11 This was a step forward in the direction of rural orientation to the medical and para-medical personnel. As a result, one PHC for 30,000 persons and one sub-centre for 5,000 persons were to be established. In 1975 a report was submitted by a group, under the chairmanship of Dr. J.B. Srivastava. The group was asked to devise a suitable curriculum for training a cadre of Health Assistants. The group recommended an alternative strategy for development which is suited to our conditions, limitations and potentialities. It includes the criteria of development of an integrated service covering promotive, preventive and curative aspects

108 of health services and family planning ; universal coverage and equal accessibility to all citizens; full utilization of paramedical resources available in the community. The group emphasized on the community approach that represents a step forward towards the development of primary health care. Accordingly, the group maintained that it is the duty of the community to provide a proper environment for helping each individual to be healthy. This report led to the Community Health Worker Scheme which was launched in October, 1977 as a centrally sponsored and funded scheme. According to this scheme, a Community Health Worker (CHW) is given training for a period ofJmonths to teach the fundamentals of health sciences, measures for maintaining health, hygiene, treatment of common infectious diseases, first aid etc. He is expected to provide basic health care facilities to a village or community with a population of 1000. Another decision taken by the Government of India pertained to implement the Village Health Guide Scheme from October 2, 1977 by having a worker from within the community trained in some basic work to render assistance in maternal care and educate mothers about family welfare schemes. 12

An important milestone in India's health services development was reached with the signing of the Alma Ata Declamtion (WHO - UNICEF sponsored International Conference on Primary Health Care) on September 12, 1978 recommending "Health for All by 2000 AD" through Primary Health Care approach. Responding to this declaration, a study group of the Indian Council of Social Science Research and the Indian Council of Medical Research (1981) drew up a wide range of recommendations in these lines. The Report recommends that the existing "exotic, top-down, elite-oriented, urban based centralized bureaucmtic system, which over-emphasizes the curative aspects, large urban hospitals and drugs." Should be replaced by an alternative model of health care services which is strongly rooted in the community and which integrates preventive, promotive and cumtive aspects. The report also endorses the Community Health Workers Scheme. It has laid stress on maternal and child health; nutrition, environmental improvement, health education and family planning.13 The ICSSR- ICMR report has had some impact on the strategy adopted for the Sixth Five Year plan (1980- 85). In this Plan, health was viewed in its totality as a part of the strategy of human resource development. Under the Plan, the Minimum Needs Progmmme (MNP) had been allowed to continue as the main instrument for the development of the ruml health care delivery system. The adoption of National Health

109 Policy (1983) during this period was taken as a high watermark in the national health scenano. The document of NHP points out that the demographic and health picture of the country still constitutes a cause for serious and urgent concern. The high rate of population growth continues to have an adverse effect on health of the people and the quality of their lives. The mortality rates for women and children are still distressingly high; almost one-third of the total deaths occur among children below the age of five years; infant mortality is around 129 per thousand live births. The NHP has enunciated the long-term demographic goal of the country to be attained by the year 2000.

TABLE- 4.1 TARGETS OF HEALTH FOR ALL BY 2000 AD SLNO. INDICATOR GOALS BY 2000 AD 1. Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) Below 60 per thousand live births. .. 2. Crude Death Rate (CDR) 9. 0 per thousand 3. Maternal Mortality Rate (MMR) Below 2 per thousand live births.

~±=- Life Expectancy at Birth (Yrs.) 164 -- , Crude Birth Rate (CBR) 21 per thousand -----I . J 6. ' Growth Rate of Population (Annual) I 120 pen:ent ! Total Fertility Rate (TFR) 2.3 children per women -----l r--~~~·- I I ______j Source: India. Health Information on India. NeY.' Delhi. Directorate ~General a./Health ,\'e!Vices. /983.

As the nation was committed to achieve the goal of 'health for all' by the year A.D. 2000, therefore, the Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) had envisaged developing the country's vast human resources for the acceleration and speeding up of the total socio-economic development and attaining an improved quality of life. The main thrust was on the MNP to provide necessary health care services to the rural masses. The Eighth Five Year Plan (1992-97) had the aim of enforcing a balanced development of primary, secondary and tertiary health care services in the country with priority on primary health care services. The main programmes pertaining to control of diseases include control of communicable diseases, malaria eradication, control of Kala azar, leprosy eradication, tuberculosis control, guinea-worm eradication, control of AIDS and diarrhea diseases and such non-communicable diseases as cancer control, diabetes control, mental health etc. The plan stressed on the needs of the tribal population and

110 communities living in difficult and inaccessible areas; and making the rural health services responsive to the needs of the rural masses and accountable to the community. The plan also emphasized on ensuring the urban basic services for the comprehensive development ofhealth and welfare services. India's Ninth Plan (1997 -2002) identifies health as one of the priority areas and emphasizes on control of communicable and non-communicable diseases; improved health management information systems; and facilitation on Panchayati Raj institutions' involvement in programmes on health care. The plan gave stress on enable people to be better providers of their own health care; rejuvenating the public sector to better deliver its core services and engaging the private sector to meet societal health goals. The Ninth Plan envisaged reorganization and restructuring of all the elements of health care so that they function as integral components of a multi professional health system. Thus, at the beginning of 21st century, it has become clear that public health initiatives indeed have contributed significantly to the improvement of health indicators. There has been impressive progress in certain areas concerning health care.

TABLE- 4.2 ACHIEVEMENTS OF INDIA FROM THE YEARS 1951-2000 INDICATORS 1951 1981 2000 -·- --~-l

Demographic Changes ·- Life Expectancy 36.7 54 64.6 (RGI) -- Crude Birth Rate(per 1000 population) 40.8 33.9 (SRS) 26.1 (SRS) Crude Death Rate (per I 000 population) 25 l2.5(SRS) 8.7 (SRS) IMR (per 1000 live births) 146 110 70(SRS-99) I ---1----- _J U5MR (per lOOO live births) - 173 101

Epidemiological Shifts Malaria (cases in Million) 75 2.7 2.2 Leprosy (per 10,000) 38.1 57.3 3.74 Small Pox (No of cases) >44887 Eradicated Guinea worm NA >39792 Eradicated Polio 29709 265 Near Eradication TB (100000) NA NA 136.9 - SC/PHC /CHC 725 57)63 1.63.181(99-RHS)

111 INDICATORS 1951 1981 2000 Dispensaries & Hospitals (all) 9209 23,555 43,322(95-96CBHI) Beds (Pvt. & Public) 117,198 569,495 8,70,161(95-96- CBHI) Doctors (Allopath) 61,800 2,68,700 5,03,900(98-99-MCI) Nursing Personnel 18,054 1,43,887 7,37,000 5)ource: GO! 200/a; !IPS 1995 and ORGI, varrous Issues. Sample Reg1stratJon System Bulletm. and Various issues, Health Information ofIndia

There has been marked expans10n m hospitals, dispensaries and medical institutions. For example, the number ofmedical colleges has gone up from 28 in 1951 to 175 in 1996 and that ofhospitals from 2,694 in 1951 to 13,692 in 1992. There has been a colossal increase in the number of health institutions particularly in the rural sector. In 1996, the country had 2,424 community Health centres, 21,853 PHCs and 1, 32,727 Sub­ centres. Availability of trained manpower is one of the important indicators of health development. On this count, the number of registered medical practitioners has increased from 61,840 in 1951 to 4,10, 875 in 1992 and 4,50,000 in 1996. 14 Further significant achievement has been made in extending drinking water facilities in rural as well as urban areas covering 56.3 percent of rural population in 1985 to 82 percent in 1996 and 72.9 percent of urban population in 1985 to 85 percent in 1996. While the country has registered some remarkable progress m certain areas in the field of health care, it is lagging behind with negative consequences in other areas. In several areas in health sector, the country has done poorly in comparison to other countries of the world.

TABLE -4.3: LIFE EXPECTANCY AT BIRTH AND IMR IN SELECTED DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Sl.No. Country Life Expectancy at Birth IMR(perl 000) 1. China 68.8 44 2. Indonesia 63.0 58 3. India 60.8 74 4. Malaysia 70.9 13 ------·------·- 5. Pakistan 61.8 89 _1,___ _L______..l______I

112 6. Korea 71.3 11 7. Singapore 74.9 6 8. Srilanka 72.0 17 Source: UNDP. Human Development Report, 1996

Besides, there are differences in the morbidity and mortality rates among the states and between rural and urban areas. The indicators of human development vary from state to state. The statistics bring out the wide differences regarding the attainments of goals between the better-performing states and the low-performing states. It is clear that national averages of health indices hide wide disparities in public health facilities and health standards in different parts of the country. Despite a thrust in the NHP-1983 on narrowing down the gulf by way of establishing more public health institutions at the lower levels, a large gap in facilities still persists.

TABLE- 4.4: DIFFERENTIALS IN HEALTH STATUS AMONG STATES ..._ IT.J r-l ;;...._ r-l z IT.J > E:= = <

113 Again, the dominant diseases in India are water-borne which account for 75 percent of ailments and deaths. About two lakhs villages do not have adequate drinking water facilities. Lack of sanitation and drinking water facilities add considerably poor health and diseases. Diarrhea diseases continue to account for more than half-a-million infant deaths annually. Out of six million cases of leprosy in the world, two million are estimated to be found in India of which 15 percent are children. The annual incidence of malaria of India, after falling sharply from 75 million in 1950 to less than one million by 1970, has gone up since then and is estimated at about two million. During 19%, the country witnessed a sudden out break of infectious diseases like plague, dengue fever, kalaazar etc., in various parts. Tuberculosis is another infectious disease which accounts for 1.5 percent of total population in India of which about one-fourth or 0.4 percent are sputum positive or infectious. In the case of blindness, there is an estimated 12 million blind persons, who cannot see from a six meter distance and another 45 million people are suffering from visual impairment. In the case of AIDS, it is estimated that out of an estimated 10 million people infected with HIV in 1995, two million are in India. According to the World Bank, "the rate of new infectious in Africa will slow somewhat and that new transmission will be concentrated in India and other Asian and Island reg10n.. " 15 Besides, these diseases there are an increase in mortality through 'life-style' diseases like diabetes, cancer and cardiovascular diseases. The increase in life expectancy has increased the heath care requirement for older people. Similarly, the increasing burden of injury and violence cases and mental disorder are also a significant public health problem. Moreover, this continuous trend of increasmg health problems is accompanied by a simultaneous decrease in plan outlays on health in successive five year plans. The plan outlay demonstrates a significant increase in the total budgetary allocation for health in successive five year plans. But in terms of percentage it shows a steady decline from 4. 7 percent in First Plan to 0.6 percent during the Ninth Plan. It seems to be an unhealthy trend as government wants to achieve a target of"Health for All by 2000 AD".

114 TABLE- 4.5: TRENDS IN EXPENDITURE ON HEALTH AND FAMILY WELFARE, 1951-2002

PLAN PERIOD TOTAL PLAN HEALTH (WITH %) I INVESTMENT (Fi2ures in Rs. CroreJ First 1951-56 1,960 652 (3.33%) Second 1956-61 4,672 1,408 (3.01%) Third 1961-66 8,576.5 2,259 (2.63%) I Annual 1966-69 6,625.4 1,402 (2.12%) ~- Fourth 1969-74 15,778.8 3,355 (2.13%) L__ -- Fifth 1974-79 39,426.2 I 7,608 (1.93%) Annual 1979-80 12,176.5 2,231 (1.83%) Sixth 1980-85 109,291.7 20,252 (1.85%) Seventh 1985-90 218,729 36,886 (1.69%) Annual 1990-91 61,518 9,609 (1.56%) Annual 1991-92 65,855 10,422 (1.58%) Eighth 1992-97 434,100 75,822 (1.75%) I Ninth 1997-2002 859,200 51,181 (0.6%) ., . Source: Jndw. five rear Plans, CiOl Planning Commzssion & Economic- Swvey, GOJ. Ministry oj'Finance. 1997 Thus with the beginning of the 21st Century, it is self-- evident that in a country like India, which has a wide variety of socio-economic settings, national health programmes have to be designed with enough flexibility to permit the State public health administrations to craft their own programme package according to their needs. Overriding importance would be given to ensuring a more equitable access to health services across the social and geographical expanse of the country. Emphasis will be given to increasing the aggregate public mvestrnent through a substantially mcreased contribution by the Central Government. It is expected that this initiative will strengthen the capacity of the public health administration at the state level to render effective service delivery. The contribution of private sector in providing health services would be much enhanced, particularly for the population group which can afford to pay for services_ Primacy will be given to preventive and first-line curatives at the primary health level through increased sectoral share of allocation. Emphasis will be laid on rational use of drugs within the allopathic system. Increased access to tried and tested systems of traditional medicine will be ensured. With these broad and extended efforts it can certainly be expected to achieve the time -- bound goals outline in NHP-2002_

115 TABLE- 4.6: GOALS TO BE ACIDEVED BY 2000-2015

------~ ---~----~-----·------~------~~~------~~---~ ------Eradicate Polio and Yaws 2005 Eliminate Leprosy 2005 Eliminate Kalaazar 2010 Eliminate Lymphatic Filariasis 2015 Achieve Zero Level Growth ofHIV/AIDS 2007 Reduce Mortality by 50% on account ofTB, Malaria, and other vector and water borne I 2010 \ diseases Reduce prevalence of Blindness to 0.5% 2010 Reduce IMR to 30/1000 and MMR to 100/lakh 2010 Establish an integrated system of Surveillance, National Health Accounts and Health 2005 Statistics Increased health expenditure b_y Govt. as a% ofGDP from the existing 0.9% to 2.0% 2010

Increase share of Central grants to constitute at least 25% of total health~ending 2010

1 Increase State Sector Health s ndin from 5.5% to 8% 2010

The main objective of the policy is to achieve an acceptable standard of good health amongst the general population of the country. The NHP -- 2002 sets out an increased allocation of 55% of the total public health investment for the primary health sector; the secondary and tertiary health sectors being targeted for 3 5% and 10% respectively. The Policy envisages the gradual convergence of all health programmes under a single field administration. Vertical programmes for control of major diseases like TB, Malaria, HIV/AIDS, and Universal Immunization programmes, would need to be continued till moderate levels of prevalence are reached. Powers are given to the Head of the District health administration to allocate the time of the rural health staff for managing different programmes at the field level, depending on local needs. NHP - 2002 lays great emphasis upon the implementation of public health programmes through local self government institutions. The policy envisages that priority should be given to school health programmes, which aim at preventive health education, providing regular health check-ups and promotion of health seeking behavior among children. The policy welcomes the participation of the private sector including private insurance in all areas of health activities- primary, secondary or tertiary. The policy commits the highest priority of the central government to the funding of the identified programmes relating to

116 women's health. Also, the policy recognizes the need to review the staffing norms of the public health administration to meet the specific requirements of women in a more comprehensive manner. Possible threat to health security in the post -- TRIPS era, as a result of a sharp increase in the prices of drugs and vaccines has been acknowledged. This policy envisages a national patent regime which ensures the affordable access to the latest medical and other therapeutic discoveries. The Government of India has launched a National Rural Health Mission (NRHM) on 12th April, 2005; with objectives to provide integrated comprehensive and effective primary health care to the unprivileged and vulnerable sections of the society, especially women and children by improving access, availability and quality of public health services. The NRHM objectives indicate the motivation on the part of Government to correct the rural-urban, inter-state and gender inequalities in health. The Mission aims for empowering local communities for public health by devising specific health plans for each village through village health committees of panchayat. The NRHM strategy integrates health with sanitation and hygiene, nutrition and safe drinking water. The objectives of Mission is to achieve acceptable health and nutrition status of women, girls and children by ensuring appropriate access of state sponsored health and nutrition services. ln Rural Health Mission strategy the Community Health Volunteers (CHVs), Auxiliary Nurse Midwives (ANMs) and Anganwadi Workers (AWWs) have a focal role to play as the frontline team. The importance of community participation forms the cornerstone of the concept of primary health care to achieve the goal of 'Health for All'. For the success of the programmes it is essential to encourage and ensure full community participation through the effective propagation of relevant information through which individuals, families and community can assume responsibility for their health and well-being. Regular interactive sessions with mothers, parents group, old age persons added by audiovisual demonstration along with household contact and monitoring, development of local resources groups etc. should be incorporated

117 IV.IV ORGANISATIONAL MANAGEMENT OF HEALTH IN WEST BENGAL

Provision of basic health care services to the rural community is the primary objective of the government of West Bengal. Rural health services, water supply, environmental sanitation, nutrition, health education are all brought together in the form of an integrated package to improve the social, economic and health conditions of the people of the state. The health package of primary health care provides such inputs which promote the well being and good health of the people. The administration of Health Department in West Bengal has a three-tier system. At the top is the Directorate of Health and Family Welfare followed by the office of Chief Medical Officer of Health (CMOH) at the district level and at the peripheral level is the Block Medical Officer (BMO) of the PHC. The Directorate ofHealth and Family Welfare is headed by the Director and is assisted by a team of Joint Directors, Deputy Directors and Assistant Directors to provide leadership to the team. The Directorate oversees the implementation of the various health programmes including rural health services. The district offices of the Chief Medical Officer of Health (CMOH) in West

Bengal IS the nerve centre for the integration of all state financed health activities in the rural areas. With the introduction of the MPW scheme, the "MPWs are assigned the responsibility of undertaking comprehensive health activities for a population of 5,000 persons at the sub-centre level. CMOH is responsible for planning, execution, monitoring and evaluation of all health and family welfare programmes in the district. His functions include: issuing of posting orders of supervisors of different tiers in the district, sub­ division and block levels as well as posting one male multipurpose health assistant and one female multipurpose health assistant The CMOH is assisted by district level line and staff personnel to provide supervision of various health institutions in the district and the specialists in the fields like malaria, leprosy, tuberculosis, school health, nursing, drugs control and health intelligence to give staff support. At the district level, management of MPW scheme is done through the district health supervisors, the district nursing supervisor and the district health education officer assisted by a deputy health officer. The district health supervisors provide technical supervision and guidance to the PHC

118 CHART- 4.1 :ORGANISATIONAL SETUP OF HEALTH & FAMILY WELFARE

Ministry of Health & Family Welfare Government of West Bengal

Secretary to the Government of West Bengal

Director of Health Services & Family Welfare Government of West Bengal

I Deputy Directors I

I Assistant Directors I

I Deputy Assistant Directors I

Chief Medical Officer of Health

supervisory staff and also to the junior health assistant (male) in all health programmes, like malaria, tuberculosis, leprosy and family welfare_ The district nursing supervisor gives technical guidance and supervises the senior health assistant (female) at the PHC.

119 Senior health assistant (female) visit the sub-centres for supervision and give guidance to the junior health assistant (F) in maternal and child health, family welfare, nutrition and immunizations. The District Health Education Officer guides the Block Social Welfare Officers of the PHC in educational activities such as orientation training camps, mass educational media activities, film shows etc. The district immunization officer monitors the immunization programme. The district tuberculosis officer monitors the T.B. programme in the district. He organizes BCG campaigns with the help of PHC staff The district malaria officer gives guidance and supervision of various categories of staff such as the MPWs, sanitary inspector at the PHC and SCs assists in detection and treatment of leprosy cases at the SCs. The monthly review meetings of the PHCs are held at the office of CMOH once in a month. AJI the BMOHs I MOHs of the PHCs in the district attend this meeting which is presided over by CMOH. The monthly performance of each PHC in the district is discussed in detail and the targets achieved under various health programmes and shortfalls in the achievements of the programmes are discussed item wise so that suitable actions can be taken to improve the performance of each PHC. The Primary Health Centre (PHC) at the block level is a key institution in primary health care approach to delivery of rural health care services. In the state ofWest Bengal, there are 1993 PHCs and 12,10 l sub-centres16 The Primary Health Centre is provided with 2 or 3 Medical Officers assisted by a number of paramedical staff. One of the senior Medical Officers is designated as Block Medical Officer of Health (BMOH) in charge of the PHC. Besides the medical officers, the PHC team consists of Block Sanitary Inspector, Social Welfare Officers, Laboratory Assistant, Block Public Health Nurse, Health Assistants (Male and Female) to provide line and staff support to the multipurpose health workers. The sub-centre acts as a link between the PHC and the villages. It provides clinic-based services to the villages. The. sub-centre of the PHC forms the base of activities of two multi -purpose health workers (male and female) who cater to the need of about 5,000 to 8,000 population. At the sub-centre level, there are two main functionaries, the MPWs (Male and Female), who cater to the needs of about 5000 population in about 5 villages. The MPW (female) has an additional responsibility of providing maternal and child health care and attending to deliveries. In addition to them there is one Auxiliary Nurse Midwife (rural) in each sub-centre who will be available to the rural people at any time.

120 TABLE- 4.7: DEMOGRAPIDC, SOCIO-ECONOMIC & HEALTH PROFILE OF WEST BENGAL

S.NO. ITEM WEST BENGAL INDIA 1. T ol.al population (census 2001) 80.18 1028.61 I I I (in million) I 2. Crude Birth Rate (SRS 2005) 18.8 23.8 ·j 3. Crude Death Rate 6.4 7.6 I 4. Total Fertility Rate (SRS 2004) 2.2 2.9

~---· ~-- - . --:---~~--- ···-- ···- ·---·~ ---- 5. Infant Mortality Rate (SRS 2005) 38/1000 58/1000 6. Maternal Mortalitv Ratio(SRS2003) 194/1000 301/1000 Source: RHS Bulletin. March 2006. M!O Health & Family- We(fare, GO!

The position of West Bengal in the field of health and family welfare in terms of states average as is shown by the health indicators is higher than the national average but compared with other states in the Indian Union, West Bengal is disgracefully lagging behind and ranks only eight among the sixteen major states. Infant mortality has decreased in line with all-India performance and is the fourth lowest in the country, and life expectancy is slightly above the Indian average. But treatment of acute respiratory infections and diarrhea has declined, and malnutrition remains unacceptably high. Incidence of malaria in duars area is increasing. The state is still far behind the better performing states like Kerala. In addition, there are large intra-state variations in health outcomes between districts.

121 NOTES AND REFERANCES:- 1. Report of the health survey and development committee, 1946, Govenment of India,p.7. 2. cited in Ramachandran,L and Dhramalingam; "Health Education : A New Approach'', Vikash Publishing House Pvt.Ltd. 1996.p-163. 3. Narayana,K.V.: "Health and Development: Inter-sector linkages in India ", Rawlat publications ,Jaipur and New Delhi 1997p.9-10. 4. Alfred Marshall: The Principal of Economics, 8th ed, omtg pub, 1890, London:Mackillan. 5. Report on census of India (1971 ), Register General and census commissioner of India, Socio-economic profile ofDadra and Nagar Haveli, New Delhi, Government of India, p-24. 6. Modules for Continuing Education of Medical Officer of Primary Health Center; Rural Health Division, Government of India, 1990 p-1 09-11. 7. Government of India, Planning Commission, The First Five Year Plan, New Delhi, 1952, pp. 490-92. 8 Government oflndia· Health Survey & Development Committee (Bhore Committee), Report, Delhi, Manager of Pubhcation, 1946, volume iv. 9. Government of India, Committee on Multi purpose \¥orkers under Health and Family Planning Programme (Katar Singh Committee) Report, New Delhi, Ministry of Health and Family Planning, 1973. 10. Planning Commission, 1974, vol.I1:234, Government of India, New Delhi. 11. ibid. 12. Government of India, Annual Report 1977-78, New Delhi; Ministry of Heath and Family Welfare,l978. 13. ICSSR and ICMR, Health for All: An Alternative Strategy - Report of a study group set up jointly by ICSSR & ICMR, Pune, Indian Institute ofEducation, 1981. 14. Government of India, Economic Survey 1996-97, New Delhi, Ministry of Finance, 1997, pp.189-90, 193. 15. World Bank: World Bank Report, 1993, New York, Oxford University Press, 1993, p.33. 16. RHS Bulletin, March 2006, M/0 Health & Family Welfare, Government oflndia.

122 CHAPTER- V : EXTENStON IN AGRICULTURAL DEVELOPMENT: RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY - - V.I INTRODUCTION V.II SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY V.III DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS V.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION V.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION MESSAGES V.VI CONCLUDING OBSERVATION V.I INTRODUCTION The major thrust in development administration is on the execution of defined programmes and specified projects designed to accomplish identified goals of social and economic development Agriculture ts an economic activity that needs enormous administrative support for directly contributing to the development process. Increased agricultural production which is expected to play a key role in development in several ways - ranging from supply of increased food requirements and welfare of the rural population to industrial development and economic growth - can be achieved by opening up new lands to farming, by introducing multi-cropping system, by using high-yielding varieties of plants and by making irrigation facilities available to the farmers. It requires technological advancement and modernization as well as the application of the new technological advances by farmers. Thus the farmers need to be motivated for adopting new technologies of agriculture and for modernizing their agricultural operations. It is the task of the administrative agencies to make agricultural operation attractive to the farmers by serving them with necessary educationaL informative and advisory services, by assuring them wtth the supply of essential inputs such as seeds, fertilizers, water and msecticides at the nght time and right place.

In lndta, programmes in rural development m general and agncultural de\elopment in particular are generally triggered off from the district level. Hence. the administrative set up of the principal agricultural agencies at the distnct level and their functionmg are the critical ingredients in maintaining vertical and horizontal coordination among the different supportive agencies for pulling up development in agricultural field. It is at thts level that the designing and planning for communication and extension work are chalked out.

V.ll SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY

The study has been conducted in Uttar Dinajpur district of West Bengal. The selection of district is guided by certain key considerations. Uttar Dinajpur stands out as one among a few districts in West Bengal with record amount of cultivable land that contributes substantial share of total agricultural production in the state. The selection of the district is also determined by some personal convenience of the researcher as she has

123 to do her work in free time after fulfilling her official responsibilities and commitments Besides, the researcher is well acquainted with the map of the district, the location of the agricultural lands, the language and the habits of the farmers, the mode of transport as well as the accessibility to the villages that are located far away from district headquarter

CHART- 5.1 :DISTRICT LEVEL SETUP OF AGRICULTURAL EXTENSION

L PRINCIPAL AGRICULTURAL OFFICER (PAO)=]

DISTRICT AGRICULTURAL DISTRICT TRAINING AGRONOMIST INfORMATION OFFfCER OfFICER

SUB-DIVISIONAL DISTRICS PLANT AGRICULTURAL OFFICER PRO'fECTION OFFICER

SUBJECT MAHER ~ .. ,_~"'

•\S'::iS ';;J, t :\(ck'ICU:. f Uk 1\l LX I LNSH)f\ C•i I rC; l. f~

The district is divided into nine blocks of which the Karandighi block has been selected using the method of random sampling. The Karandighi has got seventeen K.P.S. circles and out of these seventeen circles, Kantirpar circle has been selected using a table of random numbers

124 V.III DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERS:- Uttar Dinajpur is one of the backward districts in West Bengal Illiteracy and poverty makes the district underdeveloped. Under the Kantirpar circle of Karandighi block, there are thirteen mauza, out of which, Barhans has been selected by the method of random sampling. Barhans mauza comes under the Domohana Gram Panchayat Barring six to seven villagers who are in service and approximately ten families are running some small business. The majority of the population in village is dependent on agriculture. Most of the villagers are small and marginal farmers. The number of big farmers is countable. There is only one primary school in the village and no Secondary or Higher Secondary school The roads are unmetalled. Only shallow tube wells are there but no deep tube well are found for purified drinking water. One primary health centre has been opened very recently. River irrigation system is not available. The only option for irrigation is motor driven water. The villagers are gasping for having their minimum needs for farming As a result, about 95% women in the village engaged themselves in bidi binding to earn their subsistence. For last few years, some villagers have taken mterest to grow silk-worm after gettmg mcentlves from the Sen-culture department

The agncultural practtces followed hv the farmers are basically traditional that are learnt from then ancestors. Paddy_ Jute, wheat. matze, mustard, vegetables are the maJor products of the area. Farmers are generally Ignorant about various infom1ation and the mcentives supplied by the government in support of fam1ing that are generally disseminated through the mass media. Most of the family has radio sets and a few of them also possess Television sets. But to the villagers the electronic media are usually meant for entertammg them Even those who hsten to the programme on agnculture, never take the nsk of applymg them at the time of farmmg because they opine that the new practices are time bound and expensive. Moreover they lack comprehensiveness and are very much complicated in terms of their application. However the villagers think that the modern farm innovations regarding practices will be more comprehensible if they are presented through films, because that will help to initiate dialogue among the audiences viewing the documentaries. The farmers go to the Gram Panchayat, and the office of the ADO at Block level only when they are faced with problems that can not be sohed locally This is not only because of distance or monetary problem but also for the!!

unwillingness and 111 some cases f()r some bitter expenences The mstttutional agenctes for extendmg credits and mputs in agriculture development are not available m the

125 villages under study As the majority of the farmers are illiterate, printed media have little usefulness for them and those who can read newspapers, advertisement very superficially making no sense to them.

The only support to the villagers is the local fertilizer and seed dealers who provide necessary information about farming and posters and leaflets distributed by the various companies Besides, farmers are very much influenced by the publicity through miking made by various compames for selling their farm inputs Infact. farmers regret that they are deprived of any types of government grants and v1sit by government officmls.

To start with, an attempt is made to understand the socio-economic

background of the respondents This IS done with a view to ascertain the inclination of the respondents towards acquiring knowledge of improved technology and farm practices through extensiOn education and then adoption.

TABLE- 5.1: AGE

AGE GROUP NO OF FARMERS

IX 27 Year 12 .:>X 1,7 Year IX

-- - 3X- 47 Year

------4X- 57 Year 10 ~-- 5 X and abO\ c 8 Total 100

------Table:" I shovvs the particulars regarding age of the respondents It reveal that

more than )O~o of respondents come of m1ddle age group, while a neghg1ble percentage of them belong to young and old age group

TABLE- 5.2: QlJALIFICATION

Q~ALIFICATION I NO~~ARMERSJ ~;~i~~~~: -t------~------1 -HighSChoOl --=t~-~-=---~----:j Matriculation 4 ' Total 100

126 V.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION

TABLE- 5.5 : AGE AND ACCESS TO MEDJA

AGE MASS MEDIA NEWSPAPER TELEVISION RADIO POSTER N

YES I NO YES NO YES NO YES NO (%) (%) (%) (%,) (oil•) I (%) (%) (%)

I I ! 18-27 Years I 50.00 50.00 58.33 4l.67 83.33 16.67 50.00 I 50.00 12 I I I ' ' I ! 28- 37Ycars 16.67 83.33 16.67 83.33 83.33 16.67 77.78 22.22 18 38- 47Years 9.62 90.38 7.69 92.31 94.23 5.77 84.62 15.38 52

48- 57Ycars 20.00 80.00 I 40.00 60.00 80.00 20.00 80.00 20.00 10 58 and abmc 0 100.00 25 00 75.00 25 00 75.00 50.00 50.00 8 I I I ' I I ! Total 16 84 20 80 84 16 76 1 24 100 i i i I i i i I l I

Table 5.5 shows that, 50 00 percent respondents in the age group between 18-27 years read newspaper. Among the age group between 28-37 years and 38-47 years, the percentage of respondents who do not read news paper is 83.33 percent and 90.38 per cent respectively Nearly 80 00 per cent of the respondents m the age group of 48-57 years answer m negative. The respondents belongmg to the age group of 58 years and above answered that they never read newspaper. In case of television, the highest percentage of television viewers belong to the age group of 48-57 vears (40%) The respondents in the age group of 38-47 years

recorded the 10\vest percentage (7 69%) In the age group of 58 and above, one fourth (25 00%) of the respondents watch Television The analysis reveals that one fifth (20.00%) oftotal respondents watch television regularly. An over whelming percentage (84%) of the total respondents listen radio programme regularly. 83.33 per cent respondents in the age-group between 18-27 years listen radio regularly. The highest percentage (94.23%) of respondents belongs to the age group of 38-47 years The lowest percentage of listeners belongs to the age group of 58 years and above (25.00%). 50.00 percent of the respondents belong to the age group of 58 and above view posters regularly. Among the respondents whose age is in between 38-47 years, 84 62 per

128 cent go through the poster. More than three fourth (76.00%) of the total respondents notice the posters regularly.

TABLE- 5.6: QUALIFICATION & ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

MASS MEDIA NEWSPAPER TV RADIO POSTER N QUALIFICATION YES NO YES I NO YES NO I YES( NO 0 -·--·------+-li_<_"!.-o)·-+--(-"!.-o)--+1-(_"_!._.. _l ~/o) (%) . (~l__i _•/o) . _( /o)_L __j ILLETERATE I () I IOO.OO .5.26 i 94.74 87.72 12.28 I 70.18 129.82 I .57

PRIMARY 22.58 77.42 22.58 77.42 83.87 16.13 77.42 22.58 31 [------+-----+---+-----·-+-·---+----+----t------t-----i------i I HIGH SCHOOL I 62 ..50 I 37 50 ! 7.5.00 I 2.5.00 I 7.5.00 2.5.00 100.00 () 8 I I i I I I I I l I MATRICULATION I I 00.00 I () I 00.00 I () 50.00 I .50.00 I 00.00 J" () I 4 I I I I I I I I~ r··-·---=T:-::0:-::T=-A:-:L,.----+1 --~-6--+---84--+-1 -2,-:-o-:-80-+84 I I 6 76 I 24 It 00 I ------·-··-·--· __ L ___L _____l__ _j ______L___ .!

Table .56 reveals that all the respondents who are illiterate answer in negative on the question of whether they get any mforrnation from the newspaper or not'"' Obviously because of their Illiteracy thev can not read newspaper. On the other hand. all the respondents. who have the certificate of matnculation, read newspaper regularly 62.50 per cent of respondents who stepped mto high school, read newspaper. 5.26 percent of respondents who are illiterate watch Television. 75.00 per cent of respondents who have high school education watch television regularly All the respondents who have the qualification of matnculation watch Television regularly Among the Illiterate respondents, 87 72 per cent listen radio, 83.87 per cent of respondents who have primary education listen programmes on radio. 50.00 percent respondents under the category of matriculation listens radio very often. Among the respondents who have high school education 25.00 per cent are not interested to listen radio. Poster is very much attractive media for both high school level respondents (1 00%) and matriculated respondents (I 00%) Whether they understand or not, but 70. I R per cent uf illiterate respondents take keen interest in posters displayed in their area.

129 TABLE- 5.7: CATEGORY OF FARMERS AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

------,------::---c-:::-:::-:::-:=~~----~------·- --- - MASS MEDIA NEWSPAPER N

- ---~------YES NO I (%) (%)

. ---·· --

Table 5 7 shows that all the respondents under the category of agricultural laborers have no acces::- to newspaper The percentage of respondents who read newspaper in the categones of margmal farmer and small farmers are 14 8 I per cent and 25.00 per cent respectively Among the big farmers, 50 00 per cent have responded posittvely All the respondents under the category of big farmers watch televtswn regularly. On the other hand 6 25 per cent of respondents who are agricultural laborers watch television 14 81 per cent of respondents who are margmal fanners watch programmes on television. 68.75 per cent 88.89 per cent and 82.14 per cent of respondents belong to the category of agricultural laborers, marginal farmer and small fanner listen radio regularly All the big farmer respondents listens programmes on radio. 62 50 per cent of respondents among agricultural laborer view poster in their locality The percentage of respondents under the category o marginal farmer and small farmer is 83 33 per cent and 71.43 per cent respectively 50.00 per cent of the btg farmer respondents take keen interest on poster in their area.

130 TABLE- 5.8 : INCOME AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

MASS MEDIA I NEWSPAPER TV RADIO POSTER N I I l INCOME ! YES ! NO YES NO I YES I NO YES NO I I I I I (%) (%) (%) (%) I (%) i (%) I I I ~~(%) I I f i ------~ +----~ i I +-----~- i () ' I _, L'7 27 I '2 I BELOW- 500 100.00 0 100.00 8636 13.64 72. T I I - i I I 501 - 1000 12.50 87.50 10.71 89.29 80.36 19.64 83.93 16.07 56 I I I 1001- 1500 35.71 64.28 I 50.00 50.00 100.00 0 64.28 35.71 I 4 I I I I I I I .. I f-- I ---~-- ' ~-f-- I ))OlAND- I I I --+---+ t I ! ABOVE I 50()() i 50.00 ' 87.50 12.50 I 75 ()() . 25.00 50.()() 50.00 ~------+-- ~--~-+~-~~r--

TOTAL 16 1 s4 20 8o ! 84 1 t6 i 76 100 1 ...... ______j ______L__ ...... _...:______~' ----~~------L·-~------·-_L

Table 5 8 shows that not a smgle respondent whose monthly income is less than Rs.5UO read ne\\spaper and watch televtston. 86.36 per cent of them hsten radto regularly and 72 73 per cent respondents nottce poster m their area The htghest percentage (50%) of respondents who read newspaper are those whose monthly incomes are more than Rs.l500 per month. 35.71 per cent of the respondents, whose monthly income ranges between Rs.l 001 to Rs.l500 read newspaper. The htghest percentage (875%) of respondents who watch televtston regularly. eam more than Rs. 1500 per month. I 0 71 per cent respondents whose mcomes fall between Rs 501 and Rs.l 000 per month watch programmes on television. All the respondents whose income ranges between Rs.l 00 l to Rs.l500 listens radio. 75.00 per cent of respondents who eam more than Rs.l500 per month listens programmes on radio. 86.36 per cent of respondents whose income is less than Rs.500 per month listen radio regularly. The highest percentage (83.93%) of respondents who view posters regularly earn between Rs.501 to Rs I 000. 72.73 per cent respondents whose monthly income is less than Rs.500 notice poster m thetr locality 50 00 per cent respondents whose monthly mcome ts more than Rs. 1500 mclme to read poster regularly

131 It is important to note that the larger section of the respondents (84 00~/o) can not read newspaper and not have access to information coming through newspapers. Only a negligible percentage (16.00%) of them has access to this particular medium ot' communication. So far as radio is concerned, a sizeable number of respondents (84 00°·o) have told that they listen to radio. But the survey shows that most of them prefer to listen to entertaining programmes. 20.00 per cent of the total respondents watch television. The sets of television in the locality under survey are countable. Most of these respondents watch television at any shop where they assembled on regular basis. Posters are regularlv displayed in the area. These are mostly exhibited by various companies of seeds. fertilizers and pesticides. 76.00 per cent of the total respondents vtew poster regularly But most of them are illiterate or less educated. Thats why they can not understand the content of the poster.

TABLE- 5.9: AGE AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

------~ -----,------. ------~-----,---c------:--cc------c:---::------=---=-c---- i INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION EXTENSION PANCHAYAT FRIENDS & N AGE ~--- T l ---T- I WORKER I NEIGHBOURS i > I YES (o/~f--N-'-0(0/~,) +-\'ES ("!.)>1- Nc-=0:------:(0=--Yo--:-)---+1 -..:-\--:-:'E=-S~(o=--yo~)---,--1--:::N-::-0=-----c(--=- 0!.-:--oc----) 1 16 67 -'-'-'-' -h(Jh7--t-----666y--t-:n33--+-- 12 Years

----· --- -· -----. 28-37 22.22 Y) n 77 7'(., 2212 Years

------+------~-~~ XXA<) -1-2.32 11.54

20 ()() xo ()() 20.00

-- - -- () 100 00 25.00 8 TOTAL 68 82 18 100 ---- L

Table 5.9 reveals that 14.00 per cent of the total respondents maintain contact with extension worker regularly. The highest percentages (22 22%) of respondents who collect information from extension worker are in the age group between 28-37 years. Among the age group between 18-27 years and 38-47 years, the percentage is 16.67 per cent and I 1.54 per cent respectively. No respondents belong to the age group of 58 years and above get information from the extenston worker.

132 32.00 per cent of the total respondents express satisfaction regarding the role of panchayat as effective communicators. 42.31 per cent of the respondents whose age are between 38-47 years keep regular contact with the panchayat. The percentage for the age group of 18-27 years and 28-37 years are 33.33 per cent and 22.22 per cent. The respondents who crossed the age of 58 years are incapable of maintaining contact with panchayat largely because of their incapability to cover a long distance in order to reach the panchayat office.

82.00 per cent of total respondents get information from friends and neighbors. 88.46% respondents who are in the age group of 38-47 years have regular contact with friends and elders. The percentages of respondents in the age groups of 28-37 years and 48-57 years are 77.78 per cent and 80.00 per cent respectively. 33.33 per cent of the respondents in the age group of 18-27 years answer in negative.

TABLE- 5.10: QUALIFICATION AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMtJNICATION

~------~--- - INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

--· ------~---·---~-~~--~-----r~--~------·-····

QUALIFICATION EXTENSION i PANCHAYAT I FRIENDS & N WORKER 1 NEIGHBOURS

YES(%) '\10 ('~,) , YES ('~o) [ NO (%•) YES (%•) NO('%) ------·------+------~~------~------~- -- --r ILLITERATE I 0.53 : X0.47 I 24 5(J I 75.44 I X4.21 15 7') "'i7 +-· ·-~--~--r-----+- t------i 1 PRIMARY 12.90 ! X7.10 I 3X.71 I 61.29 I 83.87 16 13 I 1-- HIGH scHOOL Hr--25 oo---t-75 6o~--r-- 50.00 -+- so.oo--+~- 75.0(J- 25 00 X r~ATRIClJLA TION_} .•• 50.00 --it _5~00 -t SO 00 lsoooJ-=so~ii :'() ()() -+ ! TOTAL 14 86 32 . 68 1 82 18 II)(I 1 1 1 I ------·-~--~---_1___ __ .. l_

Table 510 reveals that 89.47 per cent of illiterate respondents do rwt ge! information from extension workers. 25.00 per cent of respondents with high school level education get information from the extension workers. 50.00 per cent of respondents who have passed matriculation examination have contact with the extension workers. 50.00 per cent of respondents with high school level education recel\ e information disseminated by panchayat members The percentage of respondent::. is same

(50 00°,"0) among respondents who have passed school final examination. 24 56 per ..:en! of illiterate respondents have access to the panchayat 61 29 per cent of respondent:--. having Primary education do not have any contact with the panchayat.

133 84.21 per cent of illiterate respondents get information from their friends and neighbors. Three-fourth (75.00%) of the respondents with high school education keep regular contact with elders and shopkeepers. Half of the matriculated respondents have contact with their friends and shop keepers. 83.87 per cent of respondents who have primary education get knowledge from friends and neighbors.

TABLE- 5.11 :CATEGORY OF FARMERS AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

Table 6. t l shovvs that 11 "0 per cent 0f respondents belonging to agncultural labourer category get mformation from extension workers 50.00 per cent of respondents from big farmer class have contact with extension workers. The lowest percentage ( 12 96%) of respondents who collect regular information from extension workers are marginal fanners 71.43 per cent of the respondents under the category of small farmers do not have contact with extens1on workers The study shows that 3 7. 50 per cent of the respondents belonging to agricultural labour category answered that panchayat maintain contact with them. 50.00 per cent of the respondents belonging to big farmer category keep contact with the panchayat. The percentages of respondents among marginal and small farmers who get information from panchayat are 29.63 per cent and 32.14 per cent respectively.

8333 per cent of respondents belong to the category of marginal farmers get information from friends and neighbors. 50.00 per cent of the respondents who are big farmers keep contact with their friends and elders The percentages of agricultural laborer

134 and small farmers who get knowledge from neighbors and shopkeepers are 87.50 per cent and 78.57 per cent.

TABLE- 5.12: JNCOME AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

I INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION EXTENSION FRIENDS& INCOME PANCHAYAT I I WORKER NEIGHBOURS I rj. I I I YES(%) ! NO (~/o!-+~'ES (%~+- N~ (%) I YES (%)+NO ('Yo)j1_- l L .. ,______----· - i - 1ir- ~B--el_o~\\~"-o_o_+--1 -~9-0~9-+--~9~o-c~9 _1 ·i-- 3E).. ~E~~+,--~).) .. <:)~ ~- 81.82 ---+--~~~----~ 22 lSOI-1000 10.71 89.29 I 28 _, 7 7 1 4 _, i 82.14 i 17.86 i)6 ~·-1C~JO~l---15--0-0-+-2-8~.5-7--+----7-l-. 4-3-+ 1 4 2.86 57. 14 14.29 r l 4

1 1500 and 25 ()() : 75.00 2:".00 75.00 25.00 8 I Above I I

·----·----~-- TOTAL li L-...___ _...L_ ___ ,4_ 86_ 68 l ' L 1 -.u ± •s -~ Table 5 12 shows that 10 71 per cent respondents who earn between Rs.501 to Rs.IOOO per month have contact wtth the extension workers. The highest percentage (28. 57%) of respondents who have access to the extension officials, belong to the income group ranging between Rs I OCll and Rs 1500 per month One fourth (25 00%) of respondents who earn more than Rs 1500 per month have access to the extension workers 90 91 per cent respondents who earn less than Rs 500 per month do not have contact wtth extension workers. The analysts reveals that 71 .43 per cent respondents whose income ranges between Rs.50 1-1000 per month never contact with panchayat. 36.36 per cent respondents who earn less than 500 rupees per month keep contact with panchayat 42.86 per cent respondents vvho earn between Rs 100 I to I "00 per month get access to the panchayat regularly The highest percentage of respondents (85.71%) who get information from friends and neighbours earn between Rs. 1001 and 1500. Three fourth (75 00%) of the respondents who earn more than Rs. 1500 per month have regular contact with the elders and local shopkeepers The percentages for the respondents who earn between Rs. 50 I - I 000 and less than Rs 500 per month is 82 14 per cent and 81.82 per cent respectively. The role of extension worker and Panchayat is not so satisfactory Rather it is the informal communication which is more reliable for the respondents 14°;'0 of total

135 respondents hear about the post of extension officers. Panchayat plays some 1mportant role regarding farming, especially during draught

V.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION MESSAGES

TABLE- 5.13: KNOWLEDGE REGARDING USE OF SEEDS I FERTILIZERS I INSECTICIDE AND AGE

100

- .1 ___ .. ·-----~-_1_. --·--·------_;_ __

Table 5 13 sbovvs that. all the respondents under the age group between 18-27 vears and those who cross the age of 58 years know about the use of seeds. 84.62 per cent of the respondents whose age 1s between 38-47 years hear about the process of usmg seeds. Among the respondents rangmg between 28-37 years of age 77.78 per cent have a knovvledge about the use of seeds In case of age group between 48-57 years 40°io respondents do not response m thts matter The highest percentage (88 89%) of respondents who know about the application of fertilizer are in between the age of 28-37 years. This percentage is very nearer to the age group of 18-27 years (83.33%) and to the age-group of 48-57 years (80.00%) Almost three fourth of the respondents ranging between 38-47 years of age (76.92%) and those who cross the age of 58 years (75 00°~~) have the knowledge regarding use of fertilizers. SO per cent of the respondents under the age group between 18-27 years have the knowledge about the applicatiOn of msecticide m the field. 33.33% under the same age group do not response 46. 15 per cent of respondents ranging between 38-47 years of age kno\v about the use of insecticide 4444 per cent of respondents under the age group

136 between 28-37 years know the use of insecticide. Percentage of respondents who response in negative under this age group is same (44.44%). 60.00 per cent of the respondents under the age group of 48-57 years have no idea about the use of insecticide 25.00 per cent of the respondents belonging to the age group of 58 years and above have the knowledge regarding use of insecticide.

TABLE - 5.14 : KNO\VLEDGE REGARDING USE OF SEEDS I FERTILIZERS I INSECTICIDE AND QUALIFICATION

Seeds Fertilizers j Insecticide

---r-~--~ ----,--··· Qualification No I ~- Yes No Yes I No I No : Yes I No ~o Response Respon (%) (%) (%) se ' (01 ) ( 01 ) Response ' (%) I (%)1 (%) /0 /0 ('%) I ~---·--+- - 1~-- 0.70 7.02 \2.28 82.45 tos:; .. ___mi_te_rat_e --+--,R 7 02 I J42_:_~~ j 4211 --r---- I ) I ( I ---~imary I 90.3~ 0 :68 ·-~~ 7~20 ~~.:-~()+ _12.90 145.!-)_ 3~Ul +---~~i; High School ; 75.00 , 0 1__ 00 ! h.OO 0 i 25.00 i 50.00 1 25.00 : 25 oo 1 Matriculation I 100.00 I o I ---0--~-t~IOO.OO t-(-) -t o -+-1-s-o_o_o--ll-s-o_o_o---+l--(-l- t , TOTAL : 84 +--4---+- -12-- -~--80-t-s-i 12 I 44 I 40 -~~--16- L ______L ______l__~ ____ _L ... . J. -----~-__j______1___ ·---'------.L...... - ....L...... •..•-

Table :'i 14 reveals that all the respondents who have passed the matriculation examinatwn know the use of seeds 80 70 per cent of illiterate respondents have the knowledge regarding the use of seeds. Three-fourth (75.00%) ofthe respondents who get high-school level education knows the use of seeds Rest of the respondents (25 00%) nothing remarks in this matter. Among the respondents under the category of primary education, 90.32 per cent have the knowledge of various seeds 9 68 per cent of the respondents under the same category do not response anythmg

82.45 per cent of the illiterate respondents have the tdea about the use of fertilizers. The percentages of respondents under the category of primary and high school level who know the use of fertilizers are 74.20 per cent and 75.00 per cent respectively. All the respondents who have the qualification of matriculation have knowledge about the use of fertilizers.

42.1 I per cent of the respondents who are illiterate know about the use of insecticide Under the category of both high school and matriculation 50.00 per cent of the respondents have the knowledge to apply insecticide in the field The percentage in

137 the respondents have the knowledge to apply insecticide in the field. The percentage in case of primary educated respondents is 45.16 per cent. 25.00 percent of respondents who have the high school education do not response on the query.

TABLE- 5.15: KNOWLEDGE REGARDING USE OF SEEDS /FERTILIZERS I INSECTICIDE AND CATEGORY OF FARMERS.

I Category r y ~~ N:~ds- -No- - lv es ~·::·;l~er~No I Yes T_·n-:-:-c~id_e_N_o___ f_N_l

· (o/o) I Response 1 i Response I 1 \ R I I 1 l-----+--~-+--(_o/._o_)-+-__<_o;._o_) _ · (%) 1 (%) 1 (%) : (%) (%) , esponse(%) 1 Agriculture 87.50 12.50 75 56.25 25.00 18.75 16 I Laborer I r··-· Marginal 6 72.22 14.81 ' 12.96 54 I Farmers -0;, -I :~;~t~i:~! ·:2 + !______.... _J ______+---t. ------·-· --~~ 1 ______1_ ------~-~- Small 1 I ' ~ t ' Farmers 2143 178.57! 357 I 17.86 l7s.oo I 7.14 I 17.86 28

-~~~~~ u r~-0-·()()l---()-·l·- 50()(~- ls(;;r--;) -·-r - 5()-~()(~- 2 +-- --~ ..... ---- .. -~------+---- .. --~··· - --- 4 10 . 80 ! 6 14 i 70 ! 14 16 I W

.....l. ______L_ .. ...J.... _. ·------~· ·---~~ ---··-

It manifests from table 5 l 5 that 87 50 per cent of respondents who belong to the category of agricultural laborer have the knowledge of using seeds 68.75 per cent respondents under the same category have the idea regarding the use of fertilizers. 56.25 per cent of them do not have idea about the use of insecticide in their farming.

50 00 per cent of respondents under the categorv of b1g fam1ers have the knowledge regarding the use of seeds, fertilizers and insecticide.

Only 3. 70 per cent of the respondents under the category of marginal farmers do not have knowledge about the use of various seeds. Around three fourth of the respondents who are marginal farmers know the use of fertilizers (85 .19%) and msecticide (72.22%).

78.57 per cent of respondents under the category of small farmers have the knowledge of using seeds. Rest ofthe respondents (2143%) do not response to the question 78.57 per cent of the respondents under the same category know about the use of application of

138 fertilizers. 75.00 per cent ofthem know the use of insecticide and 7.14 per cent do not know the use of it.

TABLE- 5.16: KNOWLEDGE REGARDING USE OF SEEDS I FERTILIZERS/ INSECTICIDE AND INCOME. ------,------.------,------··· Seeds Fertilizers Insecticide i Income N

l-l X 100

Table 5.l6 shows that highest percentage (8928%) of respondents who have the knowledge of usmg seeds belong to the income group of Rs.50 l-1 000 per months. 85 71 per cent of the respondents who eam between Rs I 00 I and 1:'500 per month know the use of seeds

The percentage of respondents knO\ving the use of fertilizers in the income group between Rs. l 00 I and l SOU per month 1s 85 71 per cent Three-fourth of the respondents whose monthly income 1s more than Rs.1500 has the knowledge of using seeds. The percentage is almost same (72.00%) who earn less than Rs. 500 per month]. All the respondents who earn more then I 500 rupees per month know the application of

fertilizers as well as msect1c1de Only 1 57 per cent of the respondents who earn between Rs 501-1000 do not have the knowledge regardmg the use of fertilizers 63 64 per cent of the respondents who earn less than Rs.500 per month know the use of fertilizers.

57.14 per cent of the respondents who earn in between Rs.l 001 and 1500 know the use of insecticide. 50.00 per cent respondents ranging between Rs.50 1 and 1000 do not know the application of insecticide. Among the respondents who earn less than Rs. 500 per month, 27.27 per cent have the knowledge regarding the use of insecticide.

The analysis reveals that 84.00 per cent of total respondents know the use of seeds. where as 4.00 per cent do not have idea about the use of seeds. 80.00 per cent of total respondents know the application of fertilizers. The percentage of respondents using

139 insecticide is 44.00 per cent However, the problem is that the respondents do not have enough knowledge about the quantity of using fertilizer or insecticide in a particular farming. The exact quantity of seeds per acre is also unknown to them. Y ery small section named one or two seeds which are used by them.

The table 5. l 7 shows that 33.33 per cent respondents under the age group of l 8-27 years get information about the use of seeds, fertilizers and insecticide from the mass media. Friends, neighbors, elders and shop keepers give the information about use of seeds to all the respondents (I 00%). ln case of fertilizer & insecticide, the percentage of respondents who get information from them is 50.00 per cent and 33.33 per cent respectively. 16.67 per cent respondents under the same age group said that the extensiOn worker helped them to use the fertilizers and insecticide. 77.78 per cent of respondents under the age group of 28-37 years get mformation about the use of seeds and fertilizers from friends and neighbor Mass media and panchayat are the sources to get knowledge about the use of seeds for the 11 11 per cent respondents in the same age group. 22.22 per cent of them get mformation about the appltcation of fertilizers from mass media. 11 . J l per cent of the respondents under this category have access to the panchayat and extension worker to get mformation about the use of fertilizers Mass media and extension worker help l I. !I per cent of them to get knowledge regarding the use of insecticide 44.44 per cent of them receive mformation about the use of insecticide from their friends and shopkeepers. 80 77 per cent respondents under the age group between 38-47 years get information from their friends, netghbors and shopkeeper The percentage of respondents who get information from mass media and extension workers regarding the use of seeds is 7.69 per cent. A neglig1ble percentage (.~ 85%) get information about various seeds from the panchayat 6923 per cent respondents under the same age group acquire knowledge about the use of fertilizers from their friends and neighbors 1 I 54 per cent of them get from mass media and panchayat. Extension worker help 7.69 per cent respondents under the same age group to know about the use of fertilizers. 46. 15 per cent of the respondents under this group get information about the use of insecticide from their friends or shopkeepers. A small section (3.85%) knows about the application of insecticide from mass media or panchayat 15.38 per cent respondents get help from extension worker in this respect. In the age group between 48-57 years, 60.00 per cent respondents get knowledge about the use of seeds and fert1lizers from their friends, neighbors, elders and shopkeepers 20.00 per cent of the respondents get help from extension worker 111 the using of seeds.

140 TABLE - 5.17 : SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS/FERTILIZER/INSECTICIDE AND AGE

------~------.------f ------SEEDS FERTILIZERS I INSECTICIDES

Vl ..... ;;...§ ------~r~ r 1 . c c ... ~ "" '::! :.-. o ...... , ~ - 1 ;;.., o ~; ...... = .... ~ ~ ~~ ~·- ~ ~ ~ ~ AGE Q,l 0 'IJ 1 ·- ' t...'"" eo: Ol:)l) "-z ~ > .... "-z 0 ~ >o ~ I W;.l 1 ... ,z 1 ~ >o 1 ------+------t------r --l-----~'I ------L---_-i I I ~I .,...., '""'"" ' l ~-27Y cars [ 33 J3 ! 0 i l 00.00 i n () _..... J.-"-"' lh 67 ~() 00 (I : () 3333 I )(JJJ7 I 33.33 16.67 () I ------i--' I t---' - I ) , I ----+ : I I n-37Ycars I II II : () 77.78 i I I II ------+------+-~--v.-----+--- --+------1 ---- -~- -~------+------+------~----- 11.11_~~?-~~-~._- --~~~j -~) 1~~~--tl 11.11 44.44 () ----r-----~~J -+ 1 I ! 38-47Ycars j 7.69 [ 7.69 1 80.77 ! 3 8~ 7.(Jl) 1--~~~!~~-t--~~~~~+ () ~:~~-+ 15J8 46.15 3.85 I ~--~ '48~:'~-~~~~~--~-~~ i 6ooo--lo (I •• (>(100 j •(I 40.00 20.00 ------+------+------+----+ ~ 20~~ ~ u~U-+~0001 ro •••~ 0 ! :'0.00 ! 25 00 i () I 25.00 I () 25.00 () 0 I "H~-~~-~~:1 __ 0 I () I l ()() ()() ! () ____ _L ______l ______L__ -- __l ___ _L___ _ 20.00 per cent respondents get information about the application of fertilizers from mass media and panchayat The percentage under same category who acquires knowledge from mass media and friends or neighbors to apply insecticide in their farming is 40.00 per cent All the respondents who cross the age of 58 years get knowledge about use of seeds from their friends and neighbors. 50.00 per cent of them get information about various fertilizers from the same source. 25.00 per cent respondents know about the use of fertilizers from mass media and panchayat In case of using insecticide 25.00 per cent respondents get information from mass media and their fnends.

It is clear ffom table 518 is 85.96 per cent of the illiterate respondents get information about use of seeds from their neighbors, friends, or shopkeeper. A negligible percentage ( 3. 51%) of respondents get knowledge from mass media and panchayat 7 5.44 per cent of illiterate respondents get information about the application of fertilizers from friends and neighbors. 15.79 per cent from mass media, 12.28 per cent from panchayat and 5.26 per cent from extension workers. In case of using msecticide the percentage of

respondents who get the knowledge from extension workers IS 7 02 per cent 3 5 09 per cent of respondents get it from friends and neighbors and 14 04 per cent from mass medta 77.42 per cent of the respondents who have primary education get the knowledge of usmg seeds from thetr fnends and neighbors 6.45 per cent of them gettmg the mformation regardmg use of o;;eeds from mass media. extensiOn workers and panchayat 51 6 I per cent of respondents under the same category get knowledge about the use of fertilizers from their friends. neighbors and shop keepers The percentage who get the information from extension worker and panchayat is 6.45 per cent and 9.68 per cent respectively 16 I 3 per cent of respondents get information from mass media 54.84 per cent of respondents acqutres mfom1at1on about the use of insecticide from friends, elders and shopkeepers 12 90 per cent get it from extension worker and panchayat 50 00 per cent of the respondents who have high school education get information about the use of seeds from mass media. It is 25.00 per cent who get the same knowledge from extenston workers and 75.00 per cent from friends or neighbors. The percentage of respondents who acquire information regarding the application of fertilizers and insecticide from the source of mass media, extension workers and panchayat is 25.00 per cent under the same category. 50.00 per cent of respondents who get matnculation degree acquired information about the use of seeds, fertiltzers and insecticide from the source of mass media and 75 00 per cent from the friends and neighbors.

142 TABLE- 5.18 : SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS/FERTILIZER/INSECTICIDE AND QUALIFICATION

z INSECTICIDES 0 -~ -~ ~ r- . i < I "' - = "' .-:: ~ §~. ~~ ~ rt·-~, = ... ~~ ~ 0 c ·~ '- ~ :.6 ·~ ~ ~ 0 ~ i S ~ I ~ .:S ·~ ~ ~ 0 ~· l S ~ ~ ., = ... = -:: ..c I = ·=- I ~ ~ , = ... = -:: .c: I = ..."' - - ~0 - <.J -- ~ - Col 1 < ~ ~ ';< > .9:! .!?:P = I -§ ~ ~ ~ i ~ ;; .9:! .!?:P = ! .a =~ ~ ,_, 0' I. ~ ~ > eJl I 1 ,_, 0' I. ~ ~ I 0 eJl... 5 !- '-z Q.. I o• ·- .~z Q.. '>c~ I ! I I I i I : I I [_t~iterate l 3.51 ' o 1 85.96 -rj~T:t--o-[1579f<2oJ 7~~ L~2~~ o 1404 f 7 02 I 35.09 I o · 1 Primary 1 6.45 6.45 77.42 I (,45 f- 0 i 1613 ' f,4) t 51.61 i 9.68 i 0 6.13 12.90 ~---Higrl5o.oo 25.00 75.00 I () t--o--t25 ooT-25--(l(lt--so oo\ 25.00 i - 25.00 25.00 ' s h I , I . I I / • l , c 00 : I I i , I : : tMatric~ so oo I so.oo 75.00 I -()- ! o ·t5o.oi)f-25 (lo I 75 oo---r- o I 75.00 o I uati I I I I i i ,

I on 1 1 I 1 I . 1 i ______l______l .. -- ___ j______j__~------1 ___ ----- __ j ______L__ _ TABLE- 5.19 : SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS/FERTILIZER/INSECTICIDE AND CATEGORY OF FARMERS

-~------'"-----~~------~------r- ---- . -----~-----~ , I SEEDS F ERTILIZERS I INSECTICIDES I I \----~ T---- ;..... rJJ I l :.. :.. :.. ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ :.. , ~ I ;.< 0 .... 0 i w I w w~ ~-- Agricu1tu :;r6 rl12.50 100.00 o 0 i 62.50 0 0 0 () 50.00 12.50 0 I I I Laborer I I I i I .1 I --+--~~-- i --~---t---: () Margin 1926 () 81.48 1 3.7 I 64.81 T 12.96 I () 14.81 1111 37.04 7.41 0 I i I I I i 1 I Fam1er I : i \ I _J ~-- 10.71 10.71 75.00 I 7 I 10 71 17.86 50.00 () Small -t67.~~ 0 17.86 0 I 1 I I I I I I ' I ' I I Farmer I I I ! I 1 1~5if0<' ' I i . 5o.oot--() I so oo't~(;--n Big 0 ·tl 00 00 I 50.00 I () so.oo fsooo 100.00 0 F I . I I I I I ~I I ___1___ I : arm~~s___ l __ _ I ____j______l__ __ ~- __L_ ___.L.. ______L I ______[ I j Table 5.19 shows that all the respondents (100%) under the category of agricultural laborer get knowledge of using seeds from friends and neighbors. 12.50 per cent of them receive information from extension worker. 62.50 per cent of the same category get knowledge about the application of fertilizers from their friends, neighbors or shopkeeper Mass Media provide information about use of fertilizers to the 25.00 per cent of these respondents. Regarding insecticide 50.00 per cent agricultural laborer respondents acquire knowledge from their friends, neighbors, elders and shopkeepers Under the category of marginal farmers, 8148 per cent respondents receive information about the use of seeds from friends or shopkeepers. A small percentage (3. 70%) get the same from panchayat. 64.81 per cent respondents under the category of marginal farmer receive idea about the use of fertilizers from their elders, friends or shopkeepers. Mass media and Extension Workers provide knowledge to the 14.81 per cent and 9.26 per cent ofthe respondents respectively Regarding the application of insecticide 37.04 per cent of the respondents get information from and neighbors 14.81 per cent respondents getting it from mass media and ll.l I per cent from extension worker. 75.00 per cent of the respondents who are small farmers get information about the use of seeds from their elder. friends or neighbors l 0 71 per cent of the respondents of this category receive knowledge from mass med1a. and extension workers 67 86 per cent of the respondents get knowledge about the apphcat10n of fertilizers from thetr frtends and neighbors The percentage of respondents who get knowledge regarding the use of fertilizers from extension worker and Panchayat is same ( l 0 71%) 50 00 per cent of the respondents who are small farmers get idea about the use of insecticide from friends and shopkeepers. ! 7.86 per cent of the respondents get information about the same from mass media and extensiOn workers. 50 00 per cent of the respondents who are belongmg to the categorv of big farmers receive information about the use of seeds from mass media, extension worker and friends. 100.00 per cent of the respondents get information regarding the application of fertilizers and insecticides from friends and neighbors. 50.00 per cent respondents under this category get information about the application of insecticide in the farming from mass media and also extension worker.

145 TABLE- 5.20: SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING SEEDS/FERTILIZER/INSECTICIDE AND INCOME

SEEDS FERTILIZERS INSECTICIDES

r------,---·------·------+------.. ·y------~ I ' :... i I ~ r...i ~ ' ~ ~ ~ I ~ . ~ ~ t.,. , en ....., C :.. rJi. ~ i C \.I r:~J - 0 I~- - ;o.-,0 0 ">~"- - I >.0 O ~- 0 "'<;/ = .. loo ·- . ~ = -~ . loo ... "'<;/ fll -~ w ~"0 :s ~ _g ~ s ~ ~ :£ :$ -o _g ~· I s ~ ~ .;:: :s ~ g z C!l ~ = 1 c.- .c: =·- ce., = = .c:. =·- ce"' = .. .o o 1 ~- c.; ~- o c.; ~~ o .. ~::; ·~ ....2!' = -0== ~. ~ ~ ·~ .S:! -=011- = -0== C!l ~ ...... S:! -=OJ) - ' ..,.,~ \ t.. ~ """"' ~ ..... \.. • = 1)(1 ~ r.l'i ;...... !1 .,.5 I r...-1_ Q. 1I > 0• ....,~. r....:_ Q. >"'0 ..,..5 r...,~ 1 i :.< : :.< :.< i . i ~ I ' I r...i : : l r...i I 1 --~elow soo l 9.1o I o ; 90.91 t~9~ -r- o t1s"1-s~- _~~~=_1-_ 63-64 =~8181 o 9 10 + 9 10 2121 , 1 r so1-1000 1 357 357 9643----j o I o t-1011 t 714 r 7857 1 1071 1 o 1786 . 1428 57.14 28.57 14.29 42 86 14:mt-o--14286t- 29 I 14 29 28.57 ~1ao1-1soo 1 -r -1429--r-2s57i-14i9t-----o-~4 t:s~~~~~~v=-J- 25.00 25.00 25 o~_l ~- 0 t~ 0 -~!~=-~~ ~ ~-o~j=-~0-00 j-o =t 0 -~-r_o 25.00 I Table 5.20 manifests that 90.91 per cent respondent who earns less than Rs.500 pe1 month get information regarding the use of seeds from friends and neighbours. The source of knowledge from 9.10 per cent respondents under the same group is mass media as well as panchayat. Friends and neighbors is the source of information for 63.64 per cent of respondents who earn not more than Rs.500 per month. 18.18 per cent of these respondents receive knowledge from mass media as well as panchayat. 27.27 per cent respondents under the same category take idea from their friends and shopkeepers about the process of using insecticide. 96.43 per cent of the respondents who earn between Rs 50 l to I 000 per month get the knowledge about the use of seeds from friends and neighbors. A small section (3 57%,) of the same category receive information from mass media and extension workers. 78.57 per cent of the respondents under this group gel knowledge regarding the application of fertilizers from friends and neighbors Mass media and panchayat provide knowledge to 10.71 per cent of the respondents who earn ranging between Rs.501 ··· 1000 per month 7 14 per cent ofthem get idea about the use of fertilizers from extension workers 57.14 per cent of respondents under this category get idea about the use of insecticide from friends and neighbors. 14.28 per cent respondents receive the same from extension workers and 17 86 per cent from mass media 42 86 per cent of the respondents who earn Rs 1001 to 1500 per month get knowledge regarding use of seeds from friends and shopkeepers The source for 14 29 per cent respondents is extension worker and panchayat 28 57 per cent respondents under this categorv receive mtormation about the seeds from mass media. 42.86 per cent of the respondents under the same group get idea about the various fertilizers from mass media. 14 29 per cent of the respondents get knowledge about the application of insecticide from extension workers and panchayat 28 :'7 per cent of the respondents who earn between Rs.l 001 to Rs.1500 per month getting information regarding use of fertilizers and insecticides from their neighbors as well as shopkeepers. Among the respondents whose earn more than Rs. 1500 per month, 25.00 per cent of them get knowledge about the various seeds from mass media, extension workers as well as friends and neighbors. Half of the respondents under this category get knowledge about the application of fertilizers from their elders, friends or shopkeepers. 25.00 per cent respondents receive the idea about the variety of fertilizers from mass media as well as extension workers One fourth of the respondents who earn more than Rs.1500 per month get knowledge about the application of insecticide from their tnends or shopkeepers 147 V.VI CONCLUDING OBSERVATIONS An incisive survey of the analysis of data presented in a number of contingency tables leads to some important observations relating to the relationships of social attributes and variables of the respondents on the one hand and the communication structures, the programme campaigns and campaign results on the other. The general observation relating to the working of different communication structures among the village people reveals first of all that among the electronic media radio has ensured greater accessibility than television The relatively low access to television is simply due to the high cost involved in purchasing the television set and the lack of electricity connection. Poster and films, although they usually attract attention of the village people are less effective since their visual and symbolic appeals are in most cases beyond the ability of the villagers to comprehend. The result of the survey shows that 84% ~f respondents do not read newspaper at all. So far as the relationship between independent variables and access to different media of communication is concerned, it is found that age as a social variable does not have significant association with all the communication structure With regard to education, it can safely be stated that there is positive correlation between education as a social variable and the communication structure.

rhe analysis reveals that 6% of the total respondents get information ,1bout riH.' various seeds from extension worker The percentage of the total respondents \\lw g_c!

0 idea about the application of fertilizers and insecticide from the extension workers 1s ?S " and 12°o respectively The major role for providing knowledge about the use of seeds and fertilizers and insecticide is played by the friends, neighbors and shopkeepers Shopkeepers are regarded as very reliable source of information for the farmers in thh matter Whate\ er the infom1ation are provided by the mass media, most of the time. those are complicated and difficult to be comprehended by the farmers. Although it IS an established fact that most of the farmers know about the various seeds, fertilizers and insecticide, but no institution is there to help farmers with necessary instructions for using them in right combinations. Voluntary organization can play an important role in this respect But there is no such organization in this area. The system of contact farmers is also absent in the area. Demonstrations regarding the various method of cultivation are not organized by the government officials. Thus the farmers are very much depended upon their fate in every season.

148 CHAPTER - VI : EXTENSION IN HEALTH CARE PROGRAMMES: RESULTS OF FIELD SURVEY - - VI.I INTRODUCTION VI.II SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY VI.III DEMOGRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS VI.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION VI.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION MESSAGES VI.VI CONCLUDING OBSERVATION VI.I INTRODUCTION Health constitutes one of the important components of overall econom1c and social development The International Conference on Primary Health Care, organized jointly by WHO and lTNICEF at Alma Ata in the USSR in 1978 argues that " any distinction between economic and social development is untenable. Economic development is necessary to achieve most social goals and social development is necessary to achieve most economic goals. Indeed, social factors constitute the real

driving force behind development. The purpose of development is to permit people to lead economically productive and socially satisfying lives ,. The Declaration further recommended that " government (should) encourage and ensure full community participation through effective propagation of relevant information, increased literacy and the development of the necessary institutional arrangements through which individuals· families and communities can assume responsibility for their health and well being." (Report ofthe Study Jointly undertaken by WHO and UNICEF. 1978, p.44 and 23.) The district in India is the locus of all developmental activities. and it is at this level that the citizen experiences the presence and operation of the state government. Public health. \vhich is commonly bracketed among the ministration tasks of district

administration. i~ technical in nature and requires considerable autonomy Generally, the Chief Medical Officer of Health is in overall charge of medical and public health administration of the district He is assisted in the performance of his function by a number of Deputy Chief Medical Officers He looks after administration, control of malaria and registration ofbirth and death. family welfare and maternity and child health respectively With the introduction of Multi - Purpose Rural Health Programme, further decentralization in the administration of health services at its operational level has taken place and the Block has come to be recognized as the nucleus in the operation of the new multi-purpose development programme in health. The Block Medical Officer of Health is in charge of the entire effort in the field of community health and medical care. He, is, however, assisted in this gigantic task by a number of officials holding independent responsibilities of different segments of the programme. The structure of health administration at the Block level can be clearly understood from the organizational chart.

149 Block Medical Officer of !-fealth (BMOH), PHC

r:;~;~~l r~~ SH~j L··~·- -.- -- ____ J ..

Pharmasist ANM HA(M&F) Lab Computer BSI(1} SW0(2) Asst. (1) {1)

BPHN ' !'iQ.TE . S.l. (1) IBMOH- ; BLOCK MEDICAL OFFICER Of HEALTH SHC SUBSIDIARY HEALTH CENTRE - ·~ ••N• --··---~ !swo SOCIAL WELFARE OFFICER PHN (1) 1St SANITARY INSPECTOR ·------~· HS{PJIJ'F). HEALTH SUPERVISOR (MALE/FEMALE) H.S. (M) IMO . MEDICAL OFFICER BSI BLOCK SANITARY INSPECTOR ··--- - -~--- IBPHN BLOCK PUBLIC HEALTH NURSE H.S. (F) 'HA(MIF). HE.ALTH ASSISTANT (MALE/FEMALE) ANM · AUXILUARY NURSE MIDWIFE -·.<~ __ _,,.~~------'-~-- ---~- H.S. (M) H.A. (F) VI. II SELECTION OF LOCATION OF STUDY:-

The study has been conducted in Jalpaiguri district of West Bengal The selection

of district is guided by certain key considerations. Among them, the most important 1s that Jalpaiguri district is mostly malaria prone area. There are 13 development blocks in the District of which 6 are within the Alipurduar Sub-Division. One of the blocks - Alipurduar-II -- has been selected for study by using the lottery method of random selection The Alipurduar-11 block has been divided into eleven sector and 36 sub-centers Each sector is in charge oftwo supervisors (one male and one female). Each sub-centre is under one Health Assistant (M) and one Health Assistant (F) As the study was intended to examine the extent of availability of extension worker to the people and to assess the response of the people to what is communicated through the worker, i.e., the activities of health workers, the method of sample survey had been adopted. For this purpose, one of the sectors has been selected by using a table of random numbers. Then one village from that sector has been chosen from among the villages having maximum number of Scheduled Tribes population The Baniadabri sub-centre under the Samuktala sector has been selected. The sub-centre has five villages, from which, the village Garokhuta has been chosen for intensive study 'vvhich has had a population of 1362 as per 2001 Census Report H<.m ever the populatinn in the village has registered an increasingly rapid rate of growth The total number of famdy is 277 of which 272 are tribal family (Madesia) The selection of the respondents has been made by adopting the method of systematic random sampling from the voters' list. The sample size was kept at hundred.

VI.III DE!\10GRAPHIC CHARACTERISTICS

Garokhuta, the village under survey, is located at a distance of 32 kilometeres from Alipurduar Sub-division Township and 2 kilometers from Baniadabri. There is a market and a weekly hat takes place at Banidabri. Bus and auto-rickshaw services are available between Baniadabri and Alipurduar. There is a Missionary primary school, one SSK one MSK and one Anganwari centre in the village. The road of the village is non­ metalled. There is only one Deep Tube well in the village. The economy of the village is in a miserably bad shape Most of the villagers are daily laborers and mowing grasses to sell as fodder Thev live in small hutments in a totally unhygienic condition The number

151 of respondents in the sample who earn less than Rs.SOO per month is 70, while 20 per cent respondents earn between Rs. 500 to 1000. Only 4 out oftotal respondents earn more than Rs. 1500.

So far as age is concerned, most of the respondents belong to age-group of 18<~ 7 years and next comes the age-group of 28-37years. Of the total respondents 66 per cent are Female and 34 are Male respectively. The number ofllliterate persons in the sample is 44, while the number of those having primary and high school education is 38 and 14 respectively Only 4 respondents have completed Matriculation.

TABLE- 6.1: SEX

SEX RESPONDENTS I I ~-- ·-·-·- _J ...... ------1 MALE I 34 I ~-···· -·---1---·------·--J I FEMALE I 66 ! >··-··· ·- ·-----··· .. _,_ --- . -~

1 Total l 100 : L...... ----·~------·-·······-L··--···-· ______j

TABLE- 6.2 : AGE

AGE GROlJP RESPONDENTS

18-27 Year -----·--·- ·------2R- 37 Year 38- 47 Year

48 -- 57 Year 10

58 and abo\c 6 Total 100

TABLE- 6.3: QUALIFICATION

I QUALIFICATION RESPONDENTS ~~-:__ Illiterate 44

1 Primary 38 t-- _H_ig_h_s_c_ho_o_l____ =r-. ---- 14 i Matriculation 4 Total 100

152 TABLE - 6.4 : INCOME

INCOME RESPONDENTS

-- -~ Below- 500 70 r 50 l - l 000 20 1001 - 1500 6 1501 and above 4 Total 100 I.

V.IV EXPOSURE TO EXTENSION MEDIA AND MESSAGE DISSIMINATION The primary objective of the study is to examine the working of the process uf communication among rural people in the field of health. The study has been done in three parts An enquiry has been made to assess, first, the access of the people to different

media and the inter-personal communication~ second, the knowledge ofthe people about the messages communicated through the media and third, the relative importance of different media. For this purpose. questions had been incorporated in the interview schedule to tind out the relationship between the independent variables and a set of dependent variables A number of questions had also been inserted into the interview schedule mentioning special programmes on health. and respondents has been interviewed to knO\v if they had information about these programmes and the sources of information for the respondents. The findings of the study have been presented through a number of tables. Sex is an impotiant factor so tar as access of the people to different media of communication is concerned. Table 6.5 indicates that printed media play a very TABLE - 6.5 : SEX AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

MASS MEDIA --- NEWS PAPER TELEVISION RADIO POSTER SEX I YES NO NO I I NO (%) ~~~ NO (%) I YES (%) (%) YES(%) I -~ (%) (%)

35.29 64 71-+ 4!.18 58.82 1 88.24 11.76 82.35 17.65 T I ---~ ----+----+ -1-- -, I I

153 insignificant role among the rural masses, particularly in case of women. The data presented in table shows that only 9.09 per cent of the female respondents read newspaper. The corresponding percentage in case of male respondents is, however, a little

promising (35.29~/o). The table shows that the percentage of the female respondents vvho do not watch television is very high (90.91 %) than the percentage of their male counterparts (58.82%). 88.24 per cent ofthe male respondents and 81.82 per cent of the females answer that they listen to radio regularly. The data presented in the table again indicate that male respondents are more exposed to different types of posters than their female counterparts. This is obvious because of the difference in the nature of jobs of men and women. Women tor most of the time remain confined to their homes While 82.35 per cent of the male respondents answered in the atTtrmative, the conesponding. percentage in case of females is 72.73.

TABLE- 6.6: AGE AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

------~---1- -M-A-,-S_S_M_E_D_I_A··------··- ·------·- -·------·------~

L______------~T -----··----,-- - ··------1 AGE i NEWS PAPER _L_T~~------_1___ RA~ __j__ POSTER . --1--~ r- YES -r· NO ·- i YES I NO 'i YES I NO I YES i NO ! ! (%) (%) i (%) i <%> r (%) I (%) l <%> I (%) i ! I X- 27 Years I 6.00 84.00 Li(J()(l+g{j-()(}-+-92 00--+-80{)-t 88.00 t--12 1 ' I - ' ' ' I ()(rr-• )() --·- .L --~------J__· -+---+ ------~ 28- 37 Years 30.00 70 00 '0 00 [ ~W 00 ' lJO 00 : !0.00 80.00 ' .20 00 ' 20 . - -~------; ------l-~ ----+------+ ____ _: ___ -f_ ------~ . ·------+ -·------·------+------1 3R-47Years! 14.29 85.71 · .28571 71.4.'. 8571 • !4.29 · 71.43 . 2857, 1 i ' I i ~ I I I I ~48-- 57 Yca·r~-T- 2o-:mi·-:--xo~0()--:2o:oo i •80.00 i :60 00 -- 1. 40.00 ~ 40.00 i 60.00 r·-w--1 L58and Above_}~-- o __-tmloo~o~----o---l!oo.o{)J-d33.33 -~--66.-67- 1 3U3--r6.67 ~- 6 I ! ~~~al___ d- ! 18 l 82 J_ 2~ 1 80 t. 84 -~~___ _j_ ___~6 __ _l_!~ 1 100 _j

Table 6.6 shows that newspaper as a medium of communication plays a very insignificant role in the village. The percentage of people who do not read newspaper is very high (82.00%). The highest percentage of respondents who read news paper belongs to the age-group of 28-37 years. Newspapers do not play any role for the age-group of 58 years and above. The age-wise break-up shows that the highest percentage of the respondents (28 57%) who see television is in the 38-47 years age-group while 20.00 per cent respondents under the age group of 28-3 7 years, 18-27 years and 48-5 7 years watch television regularly 92 00 per cent respondents belongs to the age-group of 18-27 years

154 listen to radio. The percentages of respondents who listen radio is also high in the age­ groups of 28-37 years (90.00%) and 38-47 years (85.71~·o). The percentage of people listening to radio is pretty high ( 84.00%) in comparison to the percentage of respondents who do not have any access to radio (16.00%). The data contained in Table reveal that poster as a medium of communication is very significant for almost all age-groups The highest percentage (88.00%) of the respondents who have noticed posters at ditTerent places belong to age-group of 18-27 years followed by 80.00 per cent in the age group of 28-3 7 years and the lowest (33 33<%) is among the respondents belonging to the age­ group of 58 and above.

The explanatory hypothesis adopted here states that the higher the level of education, the greater is the access to different media of communication. Nevertheless, the village is engulfed with widespread of illiteracy. The data of the Table 6. 7 shows that there is a positive correlation between the level of education and exposure to different media of communication. Table shows that the percentage of respondents having access to printed media increases with the rise in the level of education Among the illiterates, newspaper does not play any role as a medium of communication since the respondents within this group do not even listen to newspapers read by others. 15.79 per cent of the respondents who have primary level of education get news from the newspapers The percentage is remarkablv high among the respondents with the matriculation degree. The highest percentage ( I 00%) of the respondents who see television regularly falls in the category of those who have the matriculation degree. 89.47 per cent of the respondents who have primary level education never watch television. The data presented in the table reveal that 86.36 percent of the illiterates listen to radio daily Of the respondents with primary level of education 84 2l per cent have access to radio as a medium of communication The percentage registers a slow fall (50 00%) in case of respondents have matriculation education. lt may be inferred from the data presented in the table that

TABLE- 6.7 :QUALIFICATION AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA

155 1

1

1

1 MASS MEDIA 1 -~------~~------~~-_,--~~~~-r----~ NEWS PAPER TV RADIO POSTER N i 1 ·r 1 YES ' NO YES i NO YES I NOII YES I NO 1 (%) (%) I (%) I (%) (%) I C%) (%) (%) 11 1 15.79 84.21 10.53 89.47 57.14 42.86 57.14 42.86 85.71 14.29 100.00 0 14 1

MATRICULATION 100.00 0 100.00 0 50.00 50.00 100.00 I 0 I 4 l 1

Total 18 82 20 80 I 84 I 16 76 t24-T100i L______------I L______L______j_~- I i ___! 1 -·-~---.....L. .. I

1 there is a significant association between the level of education and the exposure to different types of posters. The lowest percentage (54. 55%) is found among the illiterate 1 respondents and it registers a constantly rising with the rise in the level of education. The 1

percentage in case of respondents with primary level education is 89.47% and it rised to 1

I 00 per cent in case of respondents with some high school education 1 The research hypothesis adopted here suggests that Income as a social variable is 1 directly related to different communication structures. The data presented in Table 6 S 1 establishes that among the respondents who earn between Rs 50 l-l 000 per month · 'n \ 1 20.00 percent read newspaper Both the two respondents who earn more than R:-, ' - ' 1

TABLE- 6.8: INCOME AND ACCESS TO MASS MEDIA 1

MASS MEDIA 1

INCOME 1

1

BELO\V 1

1 1001 1500 I fl6.67 I 33.33 66.67 : 33.33 I 100.00 () I 1 ---r--· ! 1501 AND 100.00 0 ' I ()(). ()() () 100.00 () ABOVE I 1 I f TOTAL I 18 82 20 L __ I 8-~ 84 l t6 1 -~-~------·------~

1 reads newspaper regularly The percentage of respondents who earn belmv Rs. '\( H l pe1 1 month is very low (8.57~/o} The table reveals that the percentages of respondents nut 1 viewing television is quite high among the category of less than Rs.500 (9143°o) and

between Rs SO l-1000 ( 70 00~·'0) Among the respondents who earn Rs l 00 l- I 500 per 1

1

156 1 month, 66.67% reply that they view television regularly. The data presented in the table shows that the percentage of respondents listening radio is quite high among all the categories of income. All the respondents who earn between Rs. 1001-1500 and more than Rs.150 I per month listen to radio regularly. The percentage of listening radio under the category of below Rs.500 and between Rs.501-1000 is 80.00 per cent and 90.00 per cent respectively. The percentage of respondents who have noticed posters at different places is remarkably high in all the categories, the lowest (50.00%) being among the respondents who earn more than Rs.150 I per month. All the respondents who earn between Rs. I 001- 1500 notice posters regularly at different places. The analysis shows that radio and poster serve as important source of information to the respondents 84.00 per cent of the respondents are listening to radio, while 76.00 per cent of the respondents have noticed posters, particularly on the walls of Health Centre or Panchayat Office. Television has limited access to village people, because very few of the villagers have got T V sets. As the rate of literacy is very low in the village, ne\vspapers do not play any effective role in this field. Only 18.00 per cent of the respondents read newspaper. In case of poster, the percentage of respondents who have noticed posters is unexpectedly high However, all of them are not abled to go through the meaning of the poster It may safely be stated that most of the posters are unattractive and too svmholic tn be understood by the illiterate village people

TABLE- 6.9: SEX AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION FRIENDS & SEX HEALTH WORKER PANCHAYAT NEIGHBOURS N ------·------·----- ·------·-----r·----··--- - NO(%>) YES (0 (>) : NO (01o) YES(%) : NO(%>) -MA.iE: --t- - 7<)~5i) --- i- i44-t ; 29.41 70.59 -1 88~24- t-----TI~6-- -~ 34 . FIE~~~ t 8::5 l-~:~sm·r~::E r-~7 r -~:~-=t~~r- L:~

Regarding the source of knowledge, the role of neighbors and friends as a channel of interpersonal communication has been proved more effective than any other channel. Table 6 9 indicates that 88 24 per cent of the male respondents and 87 88 per cent of the female respondents have received information from this source. The role of health workers is distinct among the female members ofthe village 84 85 per cent ofthe female

157 respondents have come into contact with the health workers. The corresponding percentage in case of male respondents is 70.59 per cent. The table shows that male (29.41%) respondents are more exposed to panchayat members than female respondents (18.18%).

TABLE- 6.10: AGE AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

fNTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION ' FRIENDS & AGE I PANCHAYAT f----H_E_A_L-TH WORKER NEIGHBOURS YES (%) -~0 (%) ~YES (%) I NO (%) YES (%) NO (%) 18-27 Years + 88.oo -.....,'-2_.o_o_-+ __24_._o<_) +76.oo 92.00 I 8.00 28- 37 Years 90.00 10.00 20.00 80.00 90.00 10.00 20 38- 47 Years 71.43 28.57 28.57 71.43 85.71 14.29 14

Table 6. 10 indicates that, the percentage of respondents who received information from friends and neighbors as well as from health assistants working in the village is very high in all age-groups in comparison to the percentage receiving information from panchayat members. More than 60.00 per cent of respondents in all the age groups received information from friends and neighbors. The range varies between 66.67 per cent in the age-group of 48-57 years and 92.00 percent in the age-group of 18-27 years. The role of health workers who are supposed to be the primary and most effective channel of face-to­ face communication are playing an important role. 90.00 per cent respondents in the age­ group of 28-3 7 years get information trom the health workers. The lowest percentage (33.33%) ofthe respondents who receive information from health workers is in the age­ group of 58 year and above. The percentages of respondents who get information from panchayat is not very satisfactory in all the age-groups. The range varies between 20.00 per cent in the age-group of 28-37 years and 48-57 years and 28.57 per cent in the age­ group of 38-47 years No respondents in the age-group of 58 years and above receive information from panchayat members

158 Friends and neighbors and health workers are the most efTective channel for the dissemination of information among all educational groups. All the respondents who have matriculation degree receive information from friends and neighbors. The lowest percentage (85. 71%) of respondents is among those who have high school level of education. The role of health workers is more distinct among the illiterate ( 81.82%) and those who have some primary level of education (84.21 %). Among the respondents having some high school education, the percentage is 71.43 per cent. Panchayat is the source of information for the half of the respondents who have matriculation degree.

TABLE- 6.11: QUALIFICATION AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION

PRIMARY 84.21 ~ 15.79 2105 i 78.95 , 89.47 -+----~05-~--~---~-~--~ r HIGH SCHOOL ---r 7143 : 28.57 I 42.86 -r 57 14-r 85.71 ~ 14 "() I 14 • c -t~ _____ .. _- ---+------+------+------~- -- +----~~-----+----- J ! MATRICULATION i 50.00 ! 50.00 i 50.00 I 50 i 100.00 i 0 j 4 I -+ ' +- ---!- I ---t------+------:-1 : TOTAL : -- --80 - :--20- j ---22-- I ----78~ 88 : 12 : 100 !

~ ~-- ·---~------··-·-··---··-·· ·-·- _ _l______------·-· ··-··--·----·---~-~------·-----·...... ;_·------~--______:.·~------~------·------I-- 13.64 per cent of illiterate. 2J05 per cent ofthose having primary level of education and 42.86 per cent of respondents having some school education received information from panchayat.

Table 6.12 shows that 92.43 per cent of respondents who earn less than Rs.500 and 80.00 per cent of the respondents who earn between Rs,501-l 000 have got mformation from friends and neighbors. All the respondents who earn more than Rs 1500 received information from friends and neighbors. More than 50.00 per cent of the respondents in all groups of income have received information from health workers. 85.71 per cent of the respondents who earn less than Rs.500 and 70.00 per cent of respondents who earn between Rs.50l-1000 and 66.67 per cent of respondents who earn between Rs. l 00 l-1500 have got information from health workers.

159 TABLE- 6.12: INCOME AND ACCESS TO INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION l INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION I I I FRIENDS& INCOME I HEALTH WORKER PANCHAYAT I NEIGHBOURS

i YES(%) J NO(%) YES(%) I NO(%) I YES(%) NO(%)

33.33 per cent respectively

V.V COMPREHENSION LEVEL ON EXTENSION

MESSAGES

The department of health in West Bengal has undertaken several health improvements and family welfare programmes which call for a change in the attitude and behaviors of the villagers for which an information campaign is crucial. Thus a wide variety of media of mass communication as well as interpersonal communication channels are put to use for achieving the set goal. In the present study, a number of questions have been incorporated in the intervie\v schedule on the programmes of malaria

control, maternity and child care to see the relative usefulness of different media 1n information campaign in disseminating information and changing behavior of the people

160 TABLE- 6.13: SEX AND INFORMATION REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY I CHILD CARE

~---~T Malaria Mother's care [ Sex No No No Yes No Yes No Yes No N Response Response (%) (%) Response (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) ~--~--:-:-=----+-=-:--:-:-+--,---.,----=-:--t-- (%) (%) MALE 76.48 11.76 11.76 I 41.18 52.94 5.88 70.59 17.65 17.65 34 I I FEMALE j-7-8-.7-9-+-l-5-.1-5-+1- 6.06 .193.941 3.03--+--3-.(-)3- 87.88 9.09 l=:_!'OT AL I 78 14 _8______I -76 I 20 I -4----t-1 -8-2--j- 12

It is hypothesized that the males are more aware of the programmes than the female. However the data obtained reveals that the percentages of female respondents who know about the programmes are higher than their male counterparts. The data presented in table 6 13 shows that 78 79 per cent of female respondents have knowledge about the disease of malaria and its precaution as against 7648 per cent of male respondents. ln case of maternity and child care, the percentage of female respondents is 93.94 per cent and 87 88 percent respectively. Significantly 52.94 percent of male respondents do not have any knowledge about maternity 70.59 per cent male respondents know about the various child care pro!:,rrammes

TABLE- 6.14: AGE AND INFORMATION REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY/CHILD CARE

Malaria Mother's care I Child care Age No -s- -T--N--1---~---r-:-y -~-N-T ____ No----- Yes Ye , o es : , o · N Response ) , (o/ ) 01 ) ; ( 01 ) : ; (4%) I (4%) ! ( 010 Response • ( Response (%) 14 . to ' (o/o) : to I to ' (o/o) - -·- +------f------·------I : 1 ' I . -Ts8()() r 12 ()(Ju ___ n __ ()- - r9i.oo-rif.()()-t H ___ (}___ 18-27 vears 1 88.oo 8.00 4.00 50 . I : -~------· + 28-37years 80.00 10.00 10.00 --h~o~o-- -- 20 1 38-47vears 85.71 14.29 () 57.14 42.86 () 85.71 14.29 () 14 48-57Years 40.00 40.00 20.00 60.00 20.00 20.00 40.00 20.00 40.00 10 58 &above 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 33.33 6 I[______----r------.. -----·- ---·------·--·-·------r------r----t------·-· ··------I TOTAL 78 14 8 76 20 4 82 12 6 100 I ___ j ______------·------~------· ---- _l_' __ L ------l I

161 It has been inferred that variation in age is directly related to the knowledge about the programmes. People in younger age-groups are more aware of the programmes than people in older age-groups The percentages of respondents regarding the knowledge about malaria and maternity in the age-group of 18-27 years are 88.00 percent and go UCl percent in the age-group of 28-3 7 years. In the age-group of 3 8-4 7 years, 85.71 per cent respondents have the knowledge about the disease of malaria and child care. Only 3 3. 3 3 per cent ofrespondents in the age-group of 58 years and above have the knowledge about the programmes regarding prevention of malaria, maternity and child care. 57 14 per cent respondents in the age-group of 38-47 years have the knowledge about maternity 92 00 per cent of respondents in the age-group of 18-27 years and 90.00 per cent of the respondents in the age-group of 28-3 7 years have knowledge about child care. In the age­ group of48-:'7 years. 40.00 per cent ofthe respondents know about prevention of malaria and child care where as the percentage of respondents who has the knowledge about maternity in same age-group is 60.00 per cent

TABLE- 6.15: QVALIFICATION AND INFORMATION REGARDING !VIA LA RIA I MATERNITY I CHILD CARE

Malaria Mother's care Child car-e

' Qualification No

() 4 6 100

··-·····-··-·· ... --~-----

An analysis of data presented in table 6 15 reveals that there is a close association between the level of education and the knowledge of the programme. The higher the level of education, the greater is the awareness about the programmes. Among the illiterates the percentages of respondents who know about the disease of malaria and their precotion, maternity and child care is 77.27 per cent, 68.78 per cent and 77 27 per cent respectively The percentage has registered a steady rise with the rise in the level of education. Among

162 those having some high school education, 85.71 per cent have the knowledge about malaria, maternity and child care. All the respondents having matriculation degree are well aware about all the three programmes.

TABLE- 6.16: INCOME AND INFORMATION REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY/CHILD CARE

--·----~------·-···- ·------!"" ---~ I Malaria I Mother's care i Child care Income I Ye~-TNo r No v~T No I -No r--Yes-[ ~~[NO r1 I I response I j response 1 I ( 0.11 ) 1_ Response (%) (%) 1 CYo) i (%) (%) I (%) (%) I 0 : (t%) I I l i' I J.43T -2 s6- BeJ(;w 500 I 77.14 14.29 8.57 + 80.00 1 17.14 2.86 85.71 I 50 1-lOOO 70.00 20.00 10.00 70.00 30.00 0 80.00 I i o0oo I _1 i;~o ___ ·· 1001-1500 100.00 0 +--- 0 -~00 00 0 j-- o_ -~ IOO:OOt -----t---· 1501 & : I 00.00 0 0 ! ~() ou abov·e 0 : 50 00 ! 0 ! 50.00 I 50.00 I I ··-·---- - r-· ---c·· .. - ··-[· "76" --t---4·--··t·--82-- ··+·· Total 78 14 8 -t-20 t·· 12 1 6 100 -~--_L _L______l ______j_ __ ..... c .• I - ___ . __ ...... !... ----···· __ L

The analysis of data presented in table 6 16 shows that the percentages of respondents having knowledge about the programmes among all the categories of income is more than

50.00 per cent The lowest percentage (70 00°1o) regarding the knowledge of malaria is

recorded in the category of Rs 50 l-1 000 77 I ..:I: per cent of the respondents who earn less than Rs. 500 have the idea about the disease of malaria All the respondents under the categories of Rs. I 00 1-1500 and Rs. 1501 and above have the knowledge about the disease of malaria and their precaution 50.00 per cent of the respondents who earn more than Rs. 150 I have the idea about maternity and child care Percentages of respondents having knowledge about maternity and child care who earn below Rs.500 is 80 00 per cent and 85.71 per cent respectively. All the respondents who earn between Rs.IOOI-!500 know about maternity and child care .

.'-)( Jll!U '/'-~">'OF KNOWU-_JJ( 11j· Rh'GARDINCi MAlARIA !VIA 7r,J?Nl!Y CHILD CARE

\\lith regard to the sources of knowledge of the programmes, both the mass media and face to face media of communication have played definite role in the dissemination of information However, in case of disseminating information regarding the disease of

163 malaria and its precaution, mass media have played very insignificant role. As source of knowledge about the programmes, the role of interpersonal communication is more important than the electronic media.

Table 6.17 indicates that in case of malaria, 88.24 percent of the male respondents and 63.64 percent of the female respondents have received information trom friends and

neighbors. Mass media is not playing the vital role to the female respondents ( 6 om~) The role of health workers is distinct in delivering information regarding the precautll)n of malaria. 75.76 per cent female respondents and 70.59 per cent male respondents have come into contact with the health workers in matters of getting information of the programme On the other hand only 17.65 per cent ofthe male respondents and 6.06 per cent ofthe female respondents have received information from panchayat In case of maternity and child care, 58.82 per cent of male respondents get information trom mass media about maternity, where as percentage of female respondents is 21.21 per cent 64 71 per cent ofthe male respondents and 72.73 per cent ofthe female respondents have received information regarding maternity from health workers. The role of neighbors and triends as a channel of interpersonal communication has been proved more etlective in disseminating information about both maternity and child care. The percentages of male respondents are 70 59 per cent and 76.47 per cent respectively. And in case of female respondents, the percentages are 75 76 per cent and 87.88 per cent respectively Unfortunately Voluntary Organization are not playing any role in disseminating information regarding maternity and child care. The percentage of respondents vvho received information about the programmes from friends and neighbors as well as from health assistants working in the village is very high in all age-groups in comparison to the percentage receiving information from electronic media. As a channel of information, friends and neighbors standout as the major source of knowledge regarding malaria. Non- governmental organizations are not playing any role in this respect The percentage of respondents who receive information regarding precaution of malaria from mass media is lowest (4 00%) in the age group of

164 TABLE - 6.17 : SEX AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY I CHILD CARE

-·~--r---~------··--- MALARIA MATERNITY CHILD CARE , ·····~·r-·····---··r_·-·. ··-·------,------·----~-·--· ! II ~ ~ ..... ~Q= I "' ..,. >,Q= ..... § I "' ~ SEX. ... "'1;1 = ~ .... ·- I ... ~ ... ~ I ... ·- ~ s C·.: "'~ '[-=Q.I "'- » ~~ "'~I -=Q.I "'~ » ~~ ~ -= t ~ ~ "' ·- ..... ~ "C .... ~ ..... "' "' ·- ..... ~ .... ~ ..... "' "'-c"' ;:::~ "C,.Q"' Q ~ ..... "' ~ ~ ea ... = .c -= = ·- ~ "C I -; ... "C= .c -= = ·- ~ ·-Q.l ~ ... - ' Q.l Q (.,j Q.l Q.l Q (.,j Q.l Q -=(.,j -= = = -= = = =-=Q.l ell =·­ :::; ~ I .... ;;;;.. .~ ell ~ ~ .~ OJ) I I -::::: ~ ::;::; = =~ ~ ...... ·a:; =~ 'I -:::::.... ell ::; ~ I .... ;.,...... ·a:; =~ .... ell = -Q OJ) :::c~ ·c ·~ ~ I "'- z c.. I > ... I "'- z c.. I > ... c.. > ... 1 "-z 0 I · ot + 1 0 ~~~EJ 294117059 88.24 1765~0 - i5X~;-r 6471 170 ~~j _Jl_-;;; 1 -q 47 0~ 164 71 76.47 2353 0 , FEMAL.:_j 6~- ps 76 63.64 6 06 · o _l2U~L2273 _7~76_j :o6t o 24.241 xw ms 9.09 o TABLE- 6.18: AGE AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY I CHILD CARE

---· ---"-- MALARIA MATERNITY CHILD CARE ·- ,- _j

~ ... -; ! ~.~ ... ~a"' ~ ... "' = ~ ..."' ~ t· =0 AGE - ~ :I ~ I ;.. ..,. ~ r.l) ~ .... -= ... -~ c:: .! -= ~ ·= "' 0 ~ . "' .... -= "'0 . = ~ "'-c .::::...::.: "C.Q "'-c .::::...::.: ~ ~ ~ ~·- .::::~ "C.Q"' 0 .... ~ ~ QJ ~ ... -= . ~ QJ ~ ... .Q i "0 ~ (,j I -g -= = ·- ~ ... ~ 0 =-= QJ 0 ~ .c: (,j I ::: = ~ ~ ~ 0 =-= -=(,j =·- ~~ -~ -~ ~~ •• ~ = I - ~ ~ ~ .~ ~ = =~ :c~..... ~ -~ =~ :c~ ;.. 'a:i ~ I .o ~ :c~ ~ -0 ~ - Q, ... ·- = Q, z r.o.z Q, i ;;>o 1 r....Z > ... ! 0 ------~- ----+ I 1 -+I () 1X-27Y cars 4 ()() i 80.00 88.00 X 84.00 84.00 I 8.00 I ------+--- i I l 1 I I( I 2g-J7Ycars I 2( 1.oo 1 1o.oo 60.00 80.00 20.00 0 I I ' 170.00 ·-

38-·l;~.::rj 42 57.14 2~ ,7!~)--r,~~:-71~;- ~;;:;i ~~;9--1- ~ +:~ 8I 71.43 85.71 14.29 0 ------+--- ~14) -- -- 48-57Y cars~ : 60.00 40.00 o := o _t:(; ~Olh~ oo toooo ~ 0 - r 0 I 0 ~() 80.00 0 () 58~-A~:l_ ) 66.67 66.67 () ~ 0 16667) 6667t6667 : () I 0 I 33.3 66.67 100 33.33 0 ---·'-·--· ..J_____---~~ __L --- _____L_ - --- - ~-_j___ ---'------'·'--- I I 18-27 years. No respondents in the age-groups of 48-57 years and 58 and above get information from mass media. 42.86 per cent of respondents in the age-group of 38-47 years have received news from mass media. This shows that mass media failed to come up to the level of understanding of the villagers, particularly among the older people of the village. However the percentage of respondents who receive news from health workers is more than 50.00 per cent in all age-groups. 88.00 per cent of respondents in the age-group of 18-27 years, 60.00 percent of respondents in the age-group of 28-3 7 years and 66.67 percent of respondents in the age-group of 58 year and above have received information from friends and neighbors. Health workers are playing a definite role in this respect The percentages of respondents in the age group of 18-27 years, 28-3 7

years and 38-47 years who get information regarding malaria from health workers IS

80.00 percent, 70.00 percent and 71 43 per cent respectively. The role of panchayat IS very insignificant in all the age-group In case of maternity and child care also face to face communication particularly friends and neighbors and health workers have played the vital role in disseminating information More than 50 00 per cent of respondents in all the age-groups received information from these sources In case of maternity the range of percentage that get

information from health \vorl-;ers \aries between 60 00 per cent in the age-group of 4~-" ~

years and 80 00 percent m the age-group of 48-5 7 years The role of panchayat is <1

restricted one. registering a h1ghest percentage of 14 29 per cent in age-group t>f 38-·-f ~ years In case of mass media. the highest percentage ( 66 6 7°'o) belongs to the age-group of 58 years and above. 42 86 per cent of respondents of age-group 38-47 vears have

received mforrnatwn from mass media about child care \1ass media and panchaya! dll not play any role in case of respondents belonging to the age-group of 48-57 years The highest percentage of respondents who have received information from health workers is 84.00 per cent in the age-group of 18-27 years The percentages of respondents who received information from friends and neighbors vary between I 00 per cent in the age­ group of 58 years and above and 80 00 per cent in the age-group of 28-3 7 years and 48-'\ 7 years.

167 TABLE- 6.19: QliALIFICATION AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY I CHlLD CARE

z MALARIA MATERNITY CHILD CARE 0 ~~~~~-~ i= !i <( ' = T I 1: 1I () 1:':1 = o(j I...... I.. OCl "'; o(j "'; 1:':1 c.:: I.. "' Q,l -;;.., C·~ ;;.... 1:':1 .... = .c 1:':1 1:':1 .: ~ i - .c Q,l ;;... u::: .~ 1:':1 ~ .:: fiJ .~ = 'I "' .:::~ "' 0 .... ~ "' 0 1:':1 .... ~ .... ~ "' 0 C·~ "'-o 1:':1 I.. "'.t:;. .= .... "' "'-o -; t.. "'.t:;. .c "'-o -; I.. "',.Q = ....= "'= :J = Q,l (J Q,l .c Q,l 0 = ·­ = Q,l 0 (J = Q,l Q,l 0 (J <( Q,l ell Q,l ell =·- =·- ~~ =-= -= =1:':1 =-= -= =1:':1 .S:!=-= ell = = ' :t:~ = 0 ell ~~ 'i: 0 ell ~~ :t: -0 ell= :::> ·c ·~ 1:':1 =~ ·a; 1:':1= ~ I.. ·- = '-z Q., > I.. Q., Q.,= > I.. 0 0 '-z 0 , I I : I --~ I ' I >tl..+ I' Illiterate- y.55T6818 68.18 227~ 6818 863;r o_-t ;-,;~77.: ~7 86.36 4 55

Primal)' i 10.53 I 78.95 73 68 5 26 o 21 05 , 73 68 57 89 I o I 0 I 36.84 78.1 )5 84.21 5.26 0

~--- High School 42.86 . ;~-4;f 7142- j ;; 57_, 0 85 71 714;-i- ;;~;t~.;,- r 0 42.86 ±~-; 14 71,42 42.86 0 , ; ' I

~;t~c:l~;;~ ~so~~ 1~~ ~~t;~o oo l~o oo ~ ~~- so oo L1 o~;;l~o;o t~~ 5~~;- 1oo 00 100.00 50 00 I I TABLE- 6.20: INCOME AND SOURCES OF KNOWLEDGE REGARDING MALARIA I MATERNITY I CHILD CARE

r------··------, 1 MALARIA MATERNITY CHILD CARE

--r-- ---~------~ ! 1: 1: 1: ~ ;.... 0 "' i .... ;:...,0 ~;"' ~ C: .~ "' ~ ~ 0 ;:..., ~; ""' .... .c ... ~""' ""' :; I - ~.... ~ .c ""'Q.l -;:..., ~ ...... ~ ...... w ~ .~ ~ "' 0 ~ .... ~ ~ ... "' 0 ~ ~ "' .:-: "' 0= ~ ~ "O,~;j ~~ "O,~;j .... "'"O ~~ "O,~;j .... I "0 ""' .c 1: ·- "0 .c ~ z ~ ~ 1.1 ~ ~ Q,) ... .c: I :; ~ Q/ 0 = 1: ~ Q,) ~ 0 1.1 =·- Q,) 0 =.c: 1.1 = ·- 5~ 1: ~ ~ ~ 5~ Oll -0 Oll = =~ ~:; .S:! = =~ ~ - •t: ·~ ~ "i: •ij 0 Oll -0 Oll i ~ =~ =~ =~ =~ ...... =~ ~ ~ > I. c:lo., '-z > 0""' ~z '-~ > ""' 0 I 0 r . r , I ~----~- ---r------. +-.. ---+---·-----+.. - --·---+-·- -+------r---·. Bclo,, )IJO 74.29 -T~-~~ 74.29 1, 2 !{fi , 0 !2:1 71 i 6!{ :\7 : 0 20.00 71.43 88.57 2.86 0 I 6~U7 -- I It I . l-(~--- I , )\() 50 l-1 ~() 00 70.00 ! 60.0o -r;()()~) ·-;)- 50-~(~r~iO.()~) ~~-r~~)~( I I () 60.00 90.00 70.00 20.00 0 I ~ ------1------+------l-1 J 1 I 00 I- I 500 33.33 66.67 66.1 7t;· ~~,-+-~~--tl, ~~ ~;-t-~6-~;-~-~-(~;) 00 ~~3 66.67 100 100.00 66.67 0 ------! I --!- ' ----r-----~- I :: -----t-__ ------r--- 1500&A~~~J 5

VI. VI CONCLl!DING OBSERVATION

An enquiry about the knowledge of health programmes of the respondents as well as the sources of knowledge and their relationship with the social variables reveals that the percentage of respondents having knowledge of the programme is quite high. With regard to the sources of knowledge, interpersonal communication has a edge over the media of mass communication. In a majority of cases, people receive information from more than sources. The friends and neighbors are the most important channels of interpersonal communication The analysis of data presented in tables for finding out the relationships between different social variables and the knowledge of programmes of the respondents reveals that with the exception of sex, all other social variables have got

171 significant association with the respondents· knowledge of programmes. Regarding l he sources of knowledge of the programmes, it is found that interpersonal channel of communication are working more e±Tectively than the mass media among the female respondents. The e±Tect of mass media is more distinct among the educated section 1 1f rural population. Howevec the working of interpersonal media of communication is verv much appreciable in almost all the educational groups. Although, it is difficult to find out any correlation between income and the sources of knowledge of the programmes. It has been observed that mass media serve as an important source of information among the respondents in the higher income groups. It has been found during the survey that the health assistants, pat1icularly female assistant is well known to the villagers For the voluntary organization, there are enough scope to work as development communicators among the village people.

172 CHAPTER - VII : SUMMARY AND CONCLUDING OBSERVATION - - VII.I SUMMARY AND FINDINGS VII.II CONCLUDING OBSERVATION The concept of development since the late seventies and early eighties has placed emphasize on self-help, grass-root participation and two-way communication for meaningful and real development in the developing countries. Unless the people at the grass-root level develop aspirations for a higher level of living, all efforts to motivate them will fail. The extension education changes the outlook of the rural people. It helps the people to become self-reliant, responsible, capable and willing to participate effectively, with knowledge and understanding, in the programme of development. Extension work is bound to touch upon all aspects of rural life Extension programmes have to consider the problems, needs and capabilities of the village people. The task of I dissemination of information among the people in remote villages is extremely difficult. because of low level of literacy and different socio-economic conditions. Extension education takes help of mass media for transmission of information, dissemination of facts and the development of positive attitude among the people. The media of communication have a definite role to play by way of creating social consciousness and critical awareness about the real needs and problems among the people and ensuring a continuous and horizontal t1ovv of information about development programmes and strategies Besides, an effective feedback by way of giving answer to queries raised by the members of listening groups is the most essential component in making extension successful and participation real Thus .. the extension education is important in creating awareness among the people and accelerating participation in the process of development. In India, the revolution in extension activities and the new approach to extension work in the context of development has made it the nerve centre of government sponsored development activities. Extension is not the work of a single person or agency. It includes all those \vho are working with the villagers with specific programme of development The Village Level Workers, the Extension Officers, the Block Development Officer and the Extension Specialist together constitute a team for executing and carrying out successfully a programme of extension. In order to work effectively in the field of extension education for community development, it should be made clear that the central challenge is to help village people to put useful knowledge to work for them.

173 VII.I SlJMMARY AND FINDINGS

As noted in chapter II, mass media are used by the government of India in extension programme. A number of media units are operating to disseminate information regarding various developmental activities. Radio is by far the most important medium of mass communication in India if assessed in terms of its scope and coverage. There are powerful uses of radio in educational and extension programmes. Doordarshan is an important medium of communication because of its ability to make visual appeal. However, in view of high price that keeps television sets beyond the purchasing power of the majority of rural community. Newspaper can play a vital role in extension education through publishing articles that can present information in detail about various developmental efforts. However, the basic problem is that very few of the village people can read newspapers Posters are playing an important role to support the extension activities in the rural areas. As in posters, informations are generally delivered in symbols, if symbols are used in a simple way villagers can comprehend the messages easily Although. a poster can not gives detailed information Film as a medium has a clear and distinct role to play in extension education It can play an important role in informing and educating the people, in motivating them to participate in development programmes and bringing about changes in their attitudes However, films have also been proved as less effective media of communication because of the unimaginative way of their production, unspecific audiences for the exhibitions, and utmost infrequency in their exhibitions Moroever. dissemination of mere information dose not constitutes extension education Unread leaflets, unheard broadcasts, unviewed films have no chance to influence audience Thus. the use of these media alone is not sufficient in executing an extension programme because of specific limitations in their use Besides, in most cases they function as a one way communication channel and instant feedback is not possible. Here, it is found that, the traditional media and interpersonal media of communication plays a vital role. It has been found in chapter III and IV, a network of interpersonal communication is working among the villagers with the support of the activities of the extension workers who are deputed by the Department of Agriculture or the Department of Health and Family Welfare The Krishi Prayukti Sahayaks (KPSs) and the Health Assistants are the lowest level functionaries in these Departments who along with other extension officers

174 working at the block and sub-divisional levels bring information relating to the programmes of development initiated by the Departments and the technical know-hows at the door steps of the villagers KPS encourage farmers to adopt agricultural practices and innovations which are most relevant for increasing their productivity. Health workers on the other hand keep regular contact with the rural people to inform them about curative and preventive measures to be taken for solving health related problems of the rural masses and provide knowledge about family welfare programmes. Media are playing the supportive role for disseminating information and eliciting participation in the process of development. In chapter V and VL an attempt has been made to assess the actual working of the process of communication in two related fields of rural development, viz. agriculture and health. The efficacy of the media of mass communication among the rural masses is largely restricted because of widespread illiteracy and low level of mcome of the villagers. Due to lack of education, villagers have little access to printed media. Television has got relatively small audience because it is too expensive for rural poor. Posters can play an important source of information. But the messages communicated through the posters are presented in such a symbolic way that in most cases they do not come up to the level of intellectual ability of the average villagers. Films too are suffering from similar weaknesses Among the different media .. radio seems to he the only medium that has scored the highest popularitv among the rural people Regarding the relative importance of different media of communication m disseminating information about specified programmes, it has been generally observeci that the role of interpersonal media of communication is more extensive and effecti\ L' than the mass media. The sun cy results shcm that friends and nelghhw. <~re the m

175 In chapter V and VI, a further attempt has been made to examine the relationships between a set of independent variables and access to different media of communication. the knowledge about specified programmes of development, and the relative importance of different media in disseminating information about programmes. In chapter V, the analysis of data for understanding relationships between the social variables and attributes and the dependent variables reveals that age as a social variable does not have significant association with all the communication structures. With regard to education, it is found that there is a positive correlation between education and the communication structures. Regarding knowledge about seeds. fertilizers and insecticide, all the social variables have established significant association with the respondents. In chapter VI, the analysis of data collected to study these relationships reveals that age as a social variable has got significant association with the communication structure. With regard to sex, it is found that, in general, male respondents are more exposed to different communication structures except health workers. Percentage of female respondents who get knowledge from health workers is more than their male counterpart. There is positive correlation between education and the communication structure. The higher the level of education, the greater is the access to different media of communication Income is also significantly associated vvith the communication structure

VII.II CONCLl1DING OBSERVATION: The etTectiveness and efficacy of extension depends to a considerable extent on the selection of the media of communication The success of extension education not only depends upon the transfer of technology from the laboratory to fields but it requires at the same time feedback trom fields to research station involving the interplay of both top­ down and bottom-up approaches. All these require some changes in designing the extension system:- First, looking at the duties of extension workers, their area of operation is quite large In remote areas there is an acute shortage of transportation. The area of work of KPS as well as health workers was demarcated long before. With the gradual increase of population, the area of work is not re-distributed. Thus, the area should be re-demarcated on the basis of population. Secondly, responsibilities of health workers are gradually increasing They have to look after a wide variety of health care programmes including family welfare programmes To ensure better performance of the health workers,

176 responsibilities should be minimized and re-distributed. Thirdly, the visits of KPS are extremely infrequent which actually fail to create any lasting interests among the cultivators and they rely on shop keepers of seeds, fertilizers and insecticides. Thus, to ensure regular visit of KPS, the weekly programme chart should be strictly maintained Fourthly, mass media disseminate information and create awareness among the masses about various innovations. On the other hand inter-personal communication transfers the new technologies. A better coordination between the activities of mass media and inter­ personal communication, especially extension workers, will certainly make the extension work more effective. Fifthly, members of the panchayat should play a supportive role in the extension work by way of assisting the extension workers, because they are well known to the village people and easily accessible to the masses Sixthly, input support ~:; a precondition for effective extension work. lt is of general knowledge that no amount of technical information would help to increase yields of crops if inputs are not provided in time But the major lacuna is the fact that input support is the responsibility of various other organizations which have no direct linkage with the extension organization. Thus, the involvement of organization timely supplying of inputs and raw materials should be ensured Seventhly Extension activities in the state of West Bengal are completely state directed and a government phenomenon But in the changed context under the impact of globalization. non-state actors like Voluntarv Organisation and non government organization are equallv significant and indispensable in the process of development ln the major district of North Bengal, activities of Voluntary Organization are absent For the success of extension work, involvement of these organizations should be ensured

177 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY - - PRIMARY SOURCES:

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.:tn ------·------The fhird Fi\e Year Plan {!96!-()6} (~ev. Delhi f>t~blt ... ,J!i•'!'·

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41 ------The Fourth Five Year Plan ( 1969-70) (New Delhi PublicatHH1~ Division, 1979)

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http/1Jnweb I 8 worldbank org.\arlsa nst./~ttachmentsiintrcl:$Fi!eihchintro pdf

q ------·-···-···-- (2001c) "India Rising the Sight - Better lkalth 'S\-;t~·m r,_,J lnd::; Poor ... Available at http ://In Web 18 World Bank. Org/Sar/Sa nsf/ Attachments/rprt/$File/IN hit h. Pdf 58. World Health Organisation ''Primary Health Care: Report of the International Conference on Primary Health Care", Geneva, I 978. 59 ------(2000b): World Health Report 2000: Health System, Impro\ing Performance, Geneva

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182 15. Banerjee, Debabar: "Social Sciences and Health Service Development in India (Sociology of Formation of an alternative Paradigm) Lok Prakash, New Delhi, 1986. 16. Banerjee ,S (Ed.): "Culture and Communication" (New Delhi: Concept Publishing Company, 1985). 17. Banerjee, Utpal K. (ed.): "Computer Applications for Rural Development" (New Delhi: Vikash Publishing House, 1989). 18. Baran, P.A. and Paul Sweezy: "Rural Development and Social Communication Relationships and Strategies, Communication Strategies for Rural Development Proceeding of the Cornell CIA T International Symposium (Ithaca, N. Y. : Cornell University Press ,1974). 19. Baru, R.V.: "Private Health Care in India: Social Characteristics and Trends", .Sage Publication, New Delhi ,1998. 20. Beltran, L.: "Alien Premises, Objects, Methods, Communication and Development: Critical Perspectives" (Beverly Hills: Sage Publications, 1976). 21. Benor, Daniel and James Harrison: "Agricultural Extension: The Training and Visit System", Washington D.C., World Bank, 1984 22. Barlo, David K.: "An Introduction to Theory and Practice -- The Goal of Interpersonal Communication (Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc, New York, 1960). 23. ------: "The Process of Communication" (Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc, New York, 1960). 24. Bhatia, B.S.: "Television for Education and Development (Ahmedabad, Space Application Centre, 1980). 25. Bhattacharya, Diresh: "India's Five Year Plans, 9th Edition (Calcutta: Joydurga Library, 1986). 26. Bhattacharya, M.: "Development Administration: Search for Alternative ", Jawahar Publisher, New Delhi, 1997. 27. Bhaskaram, K.: "An Evaluative Study of Training and Visit System in Andhra Pradesh", paper presented to the conference on Management of Transfer of Farm Technology under the Training and Visit system, Hyderabad, 1983. 28. Bose, Ashish and Desai, P.B.: "Studies in Social Dynamics of Primary Health Care ", Hindustan Publishing Corporation (India), Delhi, 1983. 29. Bradfield, D. J.: "Guide to Extension Training. Rome: Food and Agricultural Organisation ofthe United Nations, 1966.

183 30. Brown, D Dorris: "Agricultural Development in India's Districts", Harvart University Press, Cambridge, Massachusetts, 1971. 31. Bruke, Thomas J. M. and Maxwell Lehman: "Communication Technologies and Information Flow (New York: Pergamon, 1981 ). 32. Bryant Coralie and Louise G. While: "Managing Rural Development" (West Hartfor, Conn): Kumarian Press, 1987. 33. Chakraborty, Sukhamoy :"Development Planning: the Indian Experience (Oxford : Oxford University Press, 1987). 34. Chambers, Robert: "Rural Development Putting the Last First (New York: Longman, 1983). 35. Chatterjee, B. K.: "Mass Communication (New Delhi, National Book Trust,l978). 36. Chatterjee, P.C.: "Broadcasting in India" (New Delhi, Sage Publications, 1987). 37. Chaturvedi, T. N. (ed.): "Rural Development: Some Themes and Dimensions (New Delhi : Indian Institute of Public Administration, 1986). 38. Chaturvedi, T. N. and Shanta Kohli Chandra (eds.): "Social Administration "IIPA, New Delhi , 1980. 39. Clark Robert, C.: "Administration in Extension" (University of Wisconsin, New York, 1959). 40. Contreras, E.: .. Communication, Rural Modernity and Structural Constraints (Ph.D. Dissertation, Stanford University, 1979). 41. Dahama, O.P and Bhatnagar, 0.: "Education and Communication for Development" (New Delhi: Oxford & IBH, 1986). 42. Desai, Vasant: "Fundamentals of Rural Development (A Systems Approach)", Himalaya Publishing House, 1991. 43. Dasgupta, Biplab: "Rural Development: The CADC Experience" (Calcutta, Comprehensive Area Development Corporation, 1982). 44. Datta, Prabhat: "Major Issues in the Development Debate: Lessons in Empowerment from India ",Kanishka Publishers, New Delhi 1998. 45. DeFleur,M. :"Theories of Mass Communication" (New York, David McKay,\ 975). 46. Deogaonkar, S.G.: "Administration for Rural Development in India" (New Delhi, Concept, 1980). 47. Desai, M. V.: "Communication Policies in India" (Paris, UNESCO, 1977).

184 48. Despande, G. P. and Acharya, A. (eds.): "Fifty years of Crossing a Bridge of Dreams: India and China , Taluka, New Delhi ,2000. 49. Diaz-Bordenave, Juan: "Participative Communication as a part of the Building of a Participative Society (Paper prepared for the Seminar on Participation: A key Concept in Communication for Change and Development (Pune, February 1989). 50. : "Participation in Communication System for Development (Unpublished Paper, Rio-de Janerio, 1980). 51. : "Communication and Rural Development" (Paris: UNESCO, 1977). 52. Dube S. C.: Modernization and Development: The Search for Alternative Paradigms (New Delhi: Vistar Publications/ Tokyo: The United Nations University, 1988). 53. Dubhashi, P. R.: "Development Administration in the Seventies" (Public Administrator, 15th August, 1972). 54 .. Durgaprasad., P. : "Health Care delivery system in Rural areas : A study of Multipurpose Health Worker Scheme", National Institute of Rural Development, Hydrabad, 1989. 55 .. Dutt, P R: "Rural Health Services in India: Primary Health centre", (New Delhi, Central Health Education Bureau, 1965). 56. Eapen, Kenneth E. : "The Media and Development" (Leicester: The University of Leicester and World Association for Christian Communication, 1973). 57. Emery, Edwin. Phillip H .. Ault and Warren K. .Agee: "Introduction to Mass Communication (Bombay: Vakils, FetTer and Simons Pvt. Ltd., 1965). 58. Fjes, Fred: Communication and Development, Unpublished Paper, College of Communications, University of Illinois, Urbana Champaign, 1976). 59. Freire, Paulo: "Education for Critical Consciousness" (New York, Seabury Press, 1971). 60. Gant, George F.: "Development Administration: Concept, Goals, Methods (Madison: University of Wisconsisn Press, 1979). 61. Goel, Rajneesh: "Community Health Care" (Deep & Deep Publication Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi,), 2002. 62. Golding, P. and M,Murdok : Theories of Communication and Theorise of Society (paper read at the meeting of the International Association of Mass Communication Research, Leicester, United Kingdom, 1976). 63. Gaudy Kunst, W.B. and Y.Y Kim: "Methods for Intercultural Communication Research" (Newbury Park: Sage Publications, t 984). 185 64. Hamelink, Cees: "Communication Research in Third World Realities" (The Hague: Institute of Social Studies, 1980). 65. Hazra, Jayati (ed.): "Health Care Planning in the Developing World", Department of Geography, University of Calcutta, 1994. 66. Hiramani, A. B.: "Health Education in Primary Health Care", B. R. Publishing Corp, Delhi, 1992. 67. Hope, Kempe Ronald: "The Dynamics of Development Administration (Connecticut/ London: Greenwood Pres, 1986). 68. Hornik, Robert: "Development Communication: Information, Agriculture and Nutrition in the Third World", (New York: Longman, 1988). 69. Hunter, Guy: "The Administration of Agricultural Development: Lessons From India", Oxford University Press, New York 1970. 70. Jacobson, Thomas L.: Old and New Approches to Participatory Communication for Development (Paper Prepared for the Seminar on Participation: A key in Communication for Change and Development, Pune, 1989). 71. Jaiswal, N.K.: "Agricultural Extension System in India" (National Institute of Rural Development, Hyderabad, 1986). 72. John, S. 0.: "Health Care is Paradox in India" BMJ 2005. 73. Karamatullah, M. and Purushothan, P.W: "Development Administration: A Rural Perspective", Kanishka Publication,Delhi, 1993. 74. Katz,Elihu and George Wedell: "Broadcasting in the Third World Promise and Performance (Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1977). 75. Katz, Elihu and Szecko, Thomas: " Mass Media and Social Change", Sage Publication, New Delhi, 1981. 76. Kaul J.M: "Public Relation in India" (Calcutta, Naya Prakash, 1988). 77. Khanna, Sulbha: " Planning for Sustainable Agricultural Development", Discovery Publishing House, New Delhi, 1995. 78. Kishore, J.: "National Health Programs of India" (4th Ed.), Century Publications, New Delhi, 2002. 79. Kivlin, J.E, P.Roy, F.C. Fliegel and L.K Sen: "Communication in India: Experiments in Introducing Change (Hyderabad: National Institute of Community Development, 1968).

186 80. Kothari, Rajni; "Communication for Alternative Development: Towards a Paradigm, Development Dialogue (Delhi: Ajanta Publicatio,1984). 81. Kumar, J.: "Integrated Rural Development: Perspective and Prospects (Delhi : Mittal Publication, 1987). 82. Kuppuswamy, B.: "Communication and Development in India", Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi 1976. 83. Leagans, J.P.: "India's Experience with Training in Extension Education for Community Development (Cornell University, Ithaca, New York,1961), 84. Lerner, Daniel: "Communication, Development and World Order" (Medford, MA : Tufts University, 1978). 85. : "The Passing of Traditional Society" (Glencoe, III, Free Press, 1958). 86. Macklin, Michal, Misra, D.C. (ed. ): "T& V System of Agricultural Extension in India", Directorate ofExtension, Ministry of Agriculture.1990. 87. Madur, G: "India Launches National Rural Health Mission", BMJ, 2005. 88. Maheswari, S.R: "Rural Development in India: A Public Policy Approach", (New Delhi: Sage Publications.1985). 89. Malik, Madhu: "Traditional Forms of Communication and the Mass Media in India", (UNESCO, 1983). 90. Masani, Mehra: "Communication and Rural Progress" (Bombay, Leslie Sawhney Programme for Democracy, 1975). 91. McAnany, Emile G. (ed.): "Communication in the Rural Third World" (Praeger Publisher, New York, 1980). 92. MeQuil, D.: "Mass Communication Theory", (Sage: London, 1983). 93. Melkote, Srinivas R.: "Communication for Development in the Third World: Theory and Practice", (New Delhi : Sage Publications, 1991 ). 94. : "In Search of Alternative Communication Strategies for Rural Development in the Third world : A Critique of the Diffusion of Innovation Research", (Paper presented to the Association for Education in Journalism and Mass Communication, Meeting in Athens,OH, 1982). 95. Melkote,S.R and Sandhya Rao (ed.): "Critical Issues in Communication: Looking Inward for Answers" Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2001 96. Misra, R., R. Chatterjee and S.Rao: "India Health Report", Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2003.

187 97. Montgomery, John D. and William J. Shiffin (eds.): "Approaches to Development: Politics, Administration and Change (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, 1966). 98. Mukhopadhya, Amal: "Agricultural Extension: A Field Study", The Minerva Association, Calcutta, 1971. 99. Narayana, B.K. and Rao, Vasudeva: "Integrated Rural Development: An Approach to Command Area (Bangalore, IBH Prakashan, 1983). 100. Narayana, K.V.: "Health and Development: lntersectoral Linkages in India", Rawat Publication, Jaipur and New Delhi, 1997. 101. Nayyar, Rohini: "Rural Poverty in India: An Analysis of Inter-state Differences" Oxford University Press, Delhi 1991. 102. Ostman, Ronald E. (ed.): "Communication and Indian Agriculture" (New Delhi: Sage Publications, 1989). 103. Pai Panandikar, V.A.: "Development Administration in India" Mac Millan, Delhi, 1974. 104. Pasricha, Ashu: "Public Administration: Discipline and Dimensions" National Publishing House, Jaipur & New Delhi 2003. I 05. Patil, B.R., Paul Hartmann, Anita Dighe: "Mass Media and Village Life: An India Study", Sage Publucation, New Delhi, 1989. I 06. Qadeer,Imrana, Sen,Kasturi and K. R. Nay: "Public Health and The Poverty of Reforms: The South Asian Predicament", Sage Publication, New Delhi, 2001. 107. Quroishi, M.A: "Indian Agriculture and Rural Development Then and Now", B.R. Publishing Corporation, Delhi, 1985. 108. Ramachandran, L and Dharmalingam, T.: "Health Education: A New Approach " Vikas Publishing House Pvt.Ltd., 1976, Reprint 1996. I 09. Rajneesh, Salini: "Rural Development through Democratic De-Centralization (Deep & Deep publication Pvt. Ltd.). II 0. Rao, Mohan (ed.): "Disinvesting in Health: The World Bank's Prescriptions for Health, (Sage Publication, New Delhi.l999). I 11. Riggs,Fred W : "Administration in Developing Countries(The Theory of Prismatic Society)" .(Boston : Houghton Mifflin & Co, 1963). 112. .Rohde.J.Chatterjee M,and Morley, D. (eds.): "Reaching Health For All "(Oxford University press, New Delhi, 1993).

188 113. Rogers, Everett M: "Diffusion of Innovations", Third Edition (New York : The Free Press, 1983). 114. : "Communication and Critical Perspectives'' (Beverly Hills Sage Publications, 1976 ). 115. Schramm, Wilbur (ed.): 'The Process and Mass Communication" (University of lllinois USA, 1955). 116. : "Mass Media and National Development" (Stanford Calif Stanford University Press, 1964) 117. Schramm, Wilbur and Daniel Lerner (eds) "Communication and Change in Developing Countries: Ten Years After (Honolulu University of Hawaii/ East-West Centre Press, 1976). 118. Schrampeter, J. ''The Theory of Economic Development" (Harvard University Press, l 964). I 19. Sing, Hoshiar "Administration of Rural Development m India " Sterling Publishers Private Ltd, 1995 ). l 20 Singha, K. "Rural Development Principles, Policies and Management" (New Delhi Sage Publication.l986) 12! Singha, Surendra " Agricultural Development m India A Regional Analvsi;;; " Kaushal Publications. Shillong. 1994

122 Sinha. Arvind K "Mass 1\;ledia and Rural Development" (Nen Delh1 ( Ulll Publishing Company, 1985) 123 Stevenson. Robert L ''Communication, Development and the Third World ( Ne\\ York & London Longman. 1988) 124. SinghaL A and Rogers. F M India's Communication ReH>Iution - From Bul Carts To Cyber Marts". Sage Publication. New Delhi 2001. 125. Verma, K.K "Health Care and Family Welfare". (Alternatives Stratagies) Mittal Publication, New Delhi, 1992.

189 B, ARTIC-\LES AND JOURNALS:- l. Aggarwala, Narinder K "What 1s Development News')", Journals of Communications, 29(2) 180-181,1979. 2. Banerje, Debabar: "Health Policies & Programmes in India in the Eighties". EQW, March 21, 1992. 3. Belloncle, Guy "Proposals for a New Approach to Extension Services in Africa". Nigel Roberts (ed) Agricultural Extension in Africa (Washington, DC The World Bank, 1989). 4 Beltran, S. L R ''Research Ideologies m Conflict", Journal of Communication (Vol.251975). 5 Bhasin, M.K. and Bhasin, Veena "People in India: Health & Disease" .. Journal of Social Science, 6(4 ). 279-3 19, 2002. 6 Bhattacharya. Mohit "Administrative and Organisational Issues m Rural Development''. Indian Journal of Public Administration (Oct-Dec. 1978). 7 Bhatnagar. OP. Desai. GR and Reddy. M.R. "Management of Agricultural Extension under T & V System in India. An Overview", Journal of Rural Development Vol.5(5 L Sept. !986 8 Bhatnagar 0 P. Desai. G R .. Management of Agncultural Extension" Journal of

Rural Development Vol. 6( 1 ))an. 1987 9 Borthakur. 8 N ''Communication and Diffusion of Innovation about Health In a Village", Man and Life, Vol.l8(3&4),July-Dec,1992.

10. Chambers. Robert ''A Lesson for Rural Development The Small Fanner d" Professional Development'' Digest ( 19(3 ). Julv. 1981) I I Diaz-Bordenave, Juan "Appropriate Stmcture and Organisations for Communication Agencies", in Mehra Masani (ed) Communication and Rural Progress (Bomba) Leslie Sawhny Programme ofTraining in Democracy, 1978). 12. Dissanayake, Wimal "New Wine in Old Bottles Can Folk Media Convey \1odern Messages')". Journal ofCommunication(27(2), 1977)

13. Doshi, JK.. "Agricultural Communication Research- The Ground it Should ((l\er"

Ronald Ostman ( ed ). Communication and Indian Agriculture ( '-.:c\\ Delhi Sage.l989)

190 14. Dube, S.C. "Communication, Innovation and Planned Change in India", in D. Lerner and Wilbur Schramm (eds.): Communication and Change in Developing Countries (East-West Center Press, Honolulu, 1967). 15. Dubhashi, P.R .. "Changing Role of Development Administration'', Kurukshetra (20: 1,2nd Oct, 1971) 16. Dutta, Subhabrata: "Social Aspects ofWomen's Health", Social Welfare, July,2004 17. Dwivedi, O.P. and J.Nef: "Crisis and Continuities Development Theory and Administration: First and Third World Perspectives''- Public Administration and Development (Jan. -March, 1982) I 8. Eisenstadt, S. N. "The Changing Vision of Modernisation and Development" Schramm, Wilbur and Daniel Lerner ( eds.) Communication and Change The La:'.t Ten Years and The Next (Honolulu East-West Centre, The University Press of Hawaii, 1976) 19 Eapen, K E · "Appropriate Structures and Organisation for Communication Agencies", Mehra Masani ( ed ) Communication and Rural Progress (Bombay Leslie Sawhny Programme of Training in Democracy, 1975 ). 20 Golding, P "Media's Role in National Development Critique of a Theoretical Orthodoxv" Journal Of Communication CVo\24(3)_1974)

~ l Gentil, Dominique ".\ Ft~\\ Questions on the Training and Visit Methods· :\!Igel Roberts(ed) Agricultural Fxtension in Africa (Washington DC The World Bank, 1989) 22 Hooja, Bhupendra "Reflection on Agriculture Extension & Rural Development with Reference to India ··_The Administrators, Vo\31 July-Sept, 1986 .

..,~ Hope_ K R "Some Problems of Administermg Development in Developing Nations" Indian Journal of Public Administration(29 l-1 0, I ()83) 24. Hope K.R.: "Development & Development Administration: Perspective & Dimension", Administrative Change, Vol VII, No-1,July-Dec 1979. 25. Jain C.M.: "Rural Development Some Aspects of Institutional and Administrative Change", Administrative Change ( 4:2, Jan-June, 1977). 26 Joshi, P.C.: "Communication and Social Transformation", Communicator (Vol 2, 1984) 27 Korten, David C.: "Organizing for Rural Development A Learning Process"_ Development Digest (20: 3,Apri1, 1982)

191 28. Lal,S.: "Implementation of National Health Policy -2002", Indian Journal of Community Medicine, 27(2),2002. 29. Mane, P.M.: "Role of Television in Transfer of Farm Technology", Journal of Rural Development, Vol.8(6), Nov,1989. 30. Misra, D.C.: "Extension Training Strategy for Sustainable Agriculture'', Agricultural Situation in India, VoL XLVII, Nov.l993. 31. Nair,KS. and Shirley A White: "Participatory Message Development: A Conceptual Framework", Media Development, (Yol.34(3 ), 1987) 32. Pai Panadikac Y.A "Development Administration in India ", Pant, AD. and Shiva K. Gupta (eds.) Bureaucracy, Development and Change Contemporary Perspectives (New Delhi: Segment Book Distributors, 1990). 33 Paper on Health Policy, The Administrator, Vol.31 ,April-June, 1986. 34. Qadeer, I: "Reproductive Health: A Public Health Perspective", Economic and Political Weekly, 33(44), 1998. 3" Roberts .. Nigel· "The World Bank and the Training and Visit System in East Africa". Nigel Roberts (ed )· Agricultural Extension in Africa (Washington DC The World Bank, 1989) 36. Riggs. Fred W · "The Idea of Development Administration'', Edward W. Weidner ( ed ) Development '\dministration in Asia. (Durham.N c_ Duke Universitv Press. 1970) 37. Rogers,Everett M "The Rise and Fall of the Dominant Paradigm". Journal of Communication (28( I), 1978) 38 Roling, Niels G, Joseph Ascroft, Fred Wa Chega: "The Diffusions of Innovations and the Issue of Equity in Rural Development ". Rogers (ed ): Communication and Development Critical Perspectives (Beverly Hills Sage Publications, 1976) 39 Sapru, R.K · "Health Care Policy and Administration in India". Fifty Years of Indian Administration, UP A, 40. Schramm, Wilbur: "Communication and Development A Revolution", Communicator, April, 1977. 41. Seers, Dubby "The New Meaning of Development", International Development Review (XIX (3), 1977) 42 Servaes, Jan "Towards an Alternative Concept of Communication and Development". Media Development, YoU 2AI 198 5

192 43. Shingi, Prakash M. and Bella Mody: "The Communication Effects Gap", Rogers (ed. ): Communication and Development: Critical Perspectives (Baverly Hills. Sage Publications, 1989). 44. Singh, J.P.: "Health for All m Rural India: Problems and Prospects". \1an & Development, Sep.2002. 45. Sood, R. C.: "Re-Organization of Agricultural Extension Machinery in India through T &V System", Administrative Change, Vol.6, No.l-2, July.1978-June.l979. 46. Srinivasan, S ''Organisation & Management of Rural Health Care Services in \Vest Bengal- A Case Study", Journal of Rural Development Vol.l2(2), 1992. 47. Weidner, Edward W ''The Elements of Development Administration". Edward W.Weidner (eds.): Deve.lopment Administration in Asia, (Durham, ""C Duke University Press, 1970)

193 APPENDIX - - INTER VIEW SCHEDULE

NAME OF THE RESPONDENTS DATE.

VILLAGE: TIME:

BLOCK

DISTRICT

194 AGRICULTURE

Generalln(ormation:

Age: Religion Cast:

Qualification. Income Total Land Owned:

Information Relating to Agriculture:­ . 1 Do you read newspaper'/ Daily I Sometimes I Never l 2 Do you listen to newspapers read by other'/ Very often I Sometimes I Never 3 If yes. do you get any information relating to agricultural practices from it'1 Very often I Sometimes I Never ! 4 Mention some information. you get from the newspaper

2 l Do vou listen to radio·; Daily I Sometimes I Never :2 ::: What type of programme you hsten most on radio') Entertainment I News/ Health related programme I Sports/ Others 2 3 Do you listen any programme on agriculture on radio" Yes/ No 2 4 \\'hat is the name of that programme'7

2.5 Do you find the programme is helpful'7 Very Often I Sometimes I Never 3. l Do you watch Television° Daily I Sometimes I Never 3 2 Have you seen any programme on agriculture on Television" Very Often I Sometimes I Never --, 3 What is the name ofthat programme')

195 3.4 Do you find the programme is helpful? Very Often I Sometimes I Never

4.1 Have you ev'er noticed any poster on agriculture in your locality') Yes I No 4.2 What are the themes of the posters0

5.1 Have you ever seen any film shov, on health0 Yes I No 5 2 What are communicated through these films')

Level of Comprehension

6 l Do you know any official of agricultural department visiting your village" Yes I No 6 2 Have you met the KPS in your village') Yes I No t• 3 Ho\v manv times he \ tsits the farmers in a month')

6.4 If you face any problem in matters ~_)f cultivation. \Vhom do you general!\ dpproach for advice'~

Government Officials / Friends i Panchayat I Village Elders / Others 7.1 Have you ever participated to any agricultural demonstration organized by Government OtTicial') Yes I No 7.2 Do you find the demonstration helpful 0 Yes I No 8. I Is there any Contact Farmer in your village'7 Yes I No 8.2 lfyes, are you satisfied with the method of selecting Contact Farmers'1 Yes I No

8 ~ If no, \Vhy')

196 8.4 Do the contact farmer keep regular contact with you and the other farmers'7 Yes I No

9.1 Name two major crops.

92 What are the varieties of seeds under each crop'7

9.3 How do you come to know about its use'7 Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I .Friends & Neighbors I Health Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. 9.4 Are the seeds used by you recommended by Extension Ot1icer'J Yes I No 9. 5 How much seeds are required for showing in one acre of land'7

I 0 I What fertilizers are to be used for each crop'7

I 0 2 Hmv do you know about its used') Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors I Health

Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others.

In.~ When the fertilizers are used'J l 0 4 Ho'"' much fertilizers are to be used for one acre of land'J

I I . I Do you use insecticide') Yes I No 11.:2 What insecticide 1s to be used''

11.3 What insecticide proportion is to be used'7 l l. 4 How do you come to know about it? Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors I Health Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. 12. I Does the extension officer recommend the method of cultivating crop'J Yes I No I 2 2 If )ieS. ha ,.e you tried the method'' 197 Yes I No 12.3 If yes, do you adopt the method regularly or sometimes')

12 4 Do you find the method helpful for increasing the crop yield per acre'7 Yes I No 12.5 Which type oftools used for cultivation'J

12 6 Does the Extension OtTicer help you in making use of tools of cultivation') Yes I No 13 1 Do you get any information about agricultural practices from Panchayat members') Yes I No 13.2 What are the other sources of getting information on agriculture')

13 3 Do you get any financial of other assistance from Panchayat members')

198 HEALTH

(ieneralln(ormation:

Sex: Age: Religion Cast:

Qualification: Income: No ofMembers in the Family

Information Relating to Health: 1. 1 Do you read newspaper? Daily I Sometimes I Never l 2 Lf yes, do you get any information relating to health care from it? Very often I Sometimes I Never l 3 Mention some information, you get from the newspaper.

2 l Do you listen to radio')

Daily ! Sometimes I Never 2 2 What type ofprogramme you listen most on radio"

Entertainment / News I Health related programme I Sports 1 Others 3.1 Do you watch Television·) Daily I Sometimes I Never 3.2 Have you seen any health related programme on Television')

Very Often I Sometimes I Never 3.3 What is the name of that programme''

4.1 Have you ever noticed any poster on health care in your locality" Yes I No 4.2 What are the themes of the posters"

51 Have you ever seen any film show on health'' Yes I No 5.2 What are communicated through these films''

199 6.1 Do you have any Primary Health Centre in your locality') Yes I No 6.2 Do you get doctors in the Primary Health Centre0 Yes I No 6.3 Have you met the Health Workers in your village'' Yes I No 6.4 How many times she visits the family in a month?

6 :; If you face any health problem. whom do you generally approach for advice') Doctors I Kabiraj I Dispensary I Voluntary Organization I Others. 7. 1 Have you ever participated in any health camp organized by government'7 Yes I No 7 2 If yes, have you got any help trom it 0 Yes I No 8 l Did any of your family members fall ill during last six months'> Yes I No 8 2 If yes, to whom you gone for treatment')

Doctors i Kabiraj I Dispensary! Voluntary Organization I Others. 8 3 Did an)' health worker come to see the ailing member') Yes I No

Level o( Comprehension

CJ Have vou heard the name ofthe disease ''l\1ALARLA."'' Yes I No 9.2 If yes, how have you come to know about it') Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors I Health Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. 9 3 Do you know the symptoms of the disease0 Yes I No 9.4 Do you have any idea about what types of precautionary measures are to be taken for preventing the spread of disease0

9. 5 Does the health department spray D. D T in vour localitv'' - ' Yes I No 200 10.1 Do you take tetanus injection during your pregnancy0 Yes I No 10.2 If yes, how have you come to know about it'7 Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors Health Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. l 0.3 Have you take your iron tablet regularly? Yes I No. I 04 How you got the tablets') Doctors I Dispensary I Health Workers I Voluntary Organizations I Others. 1 I 1 Do you know anything about BCG'7 Yes I No I 1.2 If yes, hovv do you come to know about it 0

Radio I Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors Health Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. I 1 3 Do you know about Polio''

Yes I No I I 4 If yes. hov. do you come to know about it''

Radio I Television ~ewspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors / Health

\\'orkers I Panchayat i Voluntary Organization I Others. 11 5 Do you knovv about Triple Antigen') Yes I No I I .6 If yes. how do you come to know about it'7

Radio / Television I Newspaper I Poster I Friends & Neighbors I Health

Workers I Panchayat I Voluntary Organization I Others. II 7 Have you administered these Vaccine to your children'' Yes I No 12. l Do you get any help from elected panchayat member at the time of sickness of any member of your family')

Yes I No 12.2 If yes. what type of help do you gef7

201