Notes

Introduction 1. Frank Jordan cites Arthur Murphy’s 1772 tragedy The Grecian Daughter as an analogue or source for Scott (FN 576). A more likely source would be Joseph Addison’s Spectator, No. 439, July 24, 1712, but Scott also owned a copy of Brydone’s Tour Through Sicily and Malta (Alexander, ed., Count Robert of Paris 531). 2. In order partly to ensure silence “a small tin tube might reach from each cell to the inspector’s lodge. . . . By means of this implement, the slight- est whisper of the one might be heard by the other” (Bentham 41). 3. The postmodern transvaluation of the swarm shares little with anti- novel discourse. Michael Hardt and Antonio Negri establish a his- torical sequence of the common people in resistance: from a modern army in which the people are imagined as a single body, to a guerrilla army structured “like a pack of wolves,” to the postmodern network that “might be imagined like a swarm of ants or bees—a seem- ingly amorphous multiplicity that can strike at a single point from all sides” (57). Characterized by a seeming formlessness and spon- taneity, the postmodern multitude possesses “swarm intelligence,” a collective and social intelligence, quite opposed to the lowest com- mon denominator (91). 4. Drawing upon Walter Reed’s Exemplary History of the Novel (1981), Cathy N. Davidson uses the phrase “mass privacy” (260). 5. Nicholas Visser argues that Le Bon synthesizes an “amalgam of ortho- dox views of the crowd into an overarching ‘scientific’ explanation” (294). These orthodox views find their origins at the time of the French Revolution in the work of such authors as Burke, Scott, and John Galt: “English novelists and social thinkers in the aftermath of the French Revolution developed a sustained and surprisingly cohesive ‘theory’ or discourse of the crowd” (293).

Chapter 1: Gothic and Romantic Crowds 1. Deidre Lynch claims that Radcliffe engaged in a project of populist and feminist historical recovery: “In works such as A Sicilian Romance and The Mysteries of Udolpho, servants’ gossip, not written docu- ments, keeps alive the memory of the wrongs done to the narratives’ 202 Notes

dispossessed, spectral mothers. Radcliffe thereby makes the truth of the past the charge of the group conventionally associated with illit- eracy, superstition, and delusion” (145–46). 2. For a delineation of “the shaky line between the effects of crowds and those of the novel itself,” see Plotz 72. Carol Houlihan Flynn discusses, in addition to Harrington, other fictional representations of the Gordon Riots prior to Dickens—those in George Walker’s The Vagabond (1799) and Thomas Gaspey’s The Mystery; or Forty Years Ago (1820). 3. Raymond Williams argues that Wordsworth posits alternative responses to the powerful impact of urban anonymity: “we can retreat, for secu- rity, into a deep subjectivity, or we can look around us for social pic- tures, social signs, social messages, to which . . . we can try to relate as individuals but so as to discover, in some form, community” (295). Frances Ferguson suggests that in Book 7 of The Prelude it is less crowds of bodies than the presence of competing consciousnesses—owing, for example, to the rise of new roles for women—that led to the forma- tion of a Romantic consciousness that found its fullest expression in solitude (114). 4. In claiming that the imagination for Wordsworth and Coleridge is consistent with an individualist ideology, I am emphasizing a differ- ent kind of politics from Nigel Leask, who has examined Coleridge’s shift from an egalitarian, republican, civic model of imagination in his early works to an elitist, other-worldly one by the time of the Biographia Literaria. Following Gayatri Spivak, Forest Pyle finds a challenge to the unified subject in Shelley’s “strong” version of imag- ination “as the proposition of an insistent alterity that works against the ‘principle of Self’ in which it is ‘housed’ ” (ix). For Shelley, “the agency exercised by the imagination is not regarded as a subjective agency: the imagination Shelley refers to in the Defence and else- where exceeds the ‘circumference’ of the self or the mind” (Pyle 96). Despite the ideological opposition between Shelley and Coleridge, Pyle finds a similar relation between imagination and subjectivity in both writers: “Coleridge’s theory of the imagination . . . does not presume the unity of either subject or nation; it takes the divisions of both as the starting point of its ideological work. Coherence is not, in other words, a condition of the process but an imaginary outcome” (57). 5. In contrasting Godwin to Wordsworth, Coleridge, and Southey, who “had become pillars of the established order,” John Middleton Murry comments on Godwin’s attitude toward alehouses: “Such a degree of imaginative sympathy and tolerance towards the labourer was almost unparalleled among his most enlightened contemporaries” (254, 266). 6. In her reading of this Coleridge footnote on mass culture, Karen Swann uses Benjamin’s term “mechanical reproduction”; for Coleridge, Notes 203

popular literature “is aligned with the mechanical reproduction of conventions and the proliferation of commodities, and with the falsely or unnaturally inspirational ‘dose’ which circulates a taint of diseased sexuality through a body of increasingly dependent and emasculated consumers, most of whom were of course female to begin with” (413). For Swann, Coleridge and high Romantic culture remain haunted by the addiction, commodification, and feminiza- tion against which they define themselves. 7. Nicholas Rennie compares Emile Zola to Wordsworth in their resis- tance to the mass phenomena that threaten both individuality and narrative unity. Zola seeks to manage the crowd and preserve the integrity of the individual by foregrounding from within a multitude a group of named representative individuals. Zola avoids slipping into fragment and anecdote, the narrative genres that express the disper- sal of experience in urban modernity, while he “necessarily compro- mises the effect of the crowd as an anonymous force” (Rennie 407). 8. The now famous instance of Wordsworth’s individualizing, dehis- toricizing, and “romanticizing” of scenes described by Gilpin involves the elimination of the numerous beggars from the scene of Tintern Abbey. Gilpin is struck by how “the whole hamlet” of wretched inhabitants appeared “at the gate” of the ruined abbey to seek alms (50). 9. Indeed, the “growth of marine insurance” contributed support to eighteenth-century legislation against the practice of wrecking, which traditionally met some of the needs of impoverished “coastal dwellers” (Rule 168, 170). 10. For Andrew Franta, Wordsworth’s claim in the “Essay, Supplementary to the Preface” that an original author “has the task of creating the taste by which he is to be enjoyed” involves a simultaneous assertion of control over and acknowledgment of dependence on the reader, as the “Essay, Supplementary” marks a “move away from the expressiv- ism of the Preface to Lyrical Ballads . . . toward a new recognition of the centrality of the effects that poems have on their readers” (59). 11. Franta connects Wordsworth’s concern for the making of taste to ensure “poetry’s endurance” with “Wordsworth’s increasingly strong tendency to think about his poetry in architectural terms” (70). 12. Austen creates in Lady Maria Bertram a female figure of luxury simi- lar to the Regency dandy. Like Beau Brummell, Lady Bertram rejects interiority and choice, because she lacks access to her own needs and preferences. Thus, when Mrs. Grant invites Fanny Price to dinner at Mansfield parsonage, Lady Bertram wonders if she will be able to do without her niece’s company. Edmund advises his mother to seek Sir Thomas Bertram’s opinion: “So I will, Edmund. I will ask Sir Thomas . . . whether I can do without her” (Mansfield Park 253). A few pages later, when confronted by the choice between two card tables, Lady Bertram again consults her husband: “What shall 204 Notes

I do Sir Thomas?—Whist and Speculation; which will amuse me most?” (278). 13. Describing Hazlitt as a skeptic who “seeks no unity, offers no ‘res- olution of tensions’ ” and as one who “had the faculty of holding two opposed ideas in his mind at the same time,” David Bromwich discusses at length the chapter on Coriolanus from the Characters of Shakespear’s Plays (5, 22, 314–26). Noting that “the visual spectacle and personal vanity of monarchy seemed to [Hazlitt] to play into an inherent weakness in the human imagination,” Kevin Gilmartin insists that, beyond an individualizing imagination, there is “the potential for collective trajectories in Hazlitt’s prose” (45, 52). 14. While concerned with the tension between British Unionism and Irish nationalism, rather than with efforts to represent the crowd, Jim Hansen offers similar reflections on formal problems in Maturin’s novels: “When his texts attempt to work out insoluble social prob- lems at the level of content, they end up falling apart at the level of formal unity” (358).

Chapter 2: Popular versus Legitimate Authority in Scott’s THE HEART OF MID-LOTHIAN 1. These opposing symbolic values have been explored in the debate between Catherine Gallagher and Neil Hertz over why it is that the figure of a hideous woman should have embodied revolutionary vio- lence in nineteenth-century literary and historical accounts. 2. Mike Hill has criticized E. P. Thompson’s “unsustainable opposi- tion” between the “moral economy” of the crowd and Adam Smith’s political economy. In Hill’s view, Thompson should have taken into account Smith’s Theory of Moral Sentiments in order to recog- nize that, “Far from standing outside and thereby in opposition to capitalism, sympathetic experience and (unequal) moral reciprocity is . . . congenial to the early modern market” (760, 756). 3. Burke’s friends Thomas English (c. 1725–98) and Walker King (c. 1755–1827) were the main writers of the historical article in the Annual Register in this period, with King concentrating on parlia- mentary debates and English on European affairs (McLouglin). 4. Harriet Devine Jump suggests that the Annual Register was Wollstonecraft’s source—specifically for the instigation of the crowd by the Duke of Orleans (112). 5. In 1810, Polwhele sent Scott a copy of The Unsex’d Females, along with his other publications (Grierson, ed., Letters of Scott 2: 422, n. 1). 6. In Ormond, Edgeworth recurs to the same passage in Burke, when she blames an abbé from a noble family for using the term Notes 205

la canaille: “ ‘La canaille,’ synonymous with the swinish multitude, an expression of contempt for which the Parisian nobility have since paid terribly dear” (8: 191). 7. Responding to Darsie Latimer’s cross-dressing in Redgauntlet (1824), Maria Edgeworth, despite her own use of female cross- dressing in Belinda, expressed disapproval of this aspect of Scott’s “paltry” hero: “Swathed in a long riding skirt: and with a lady’s mask!—Did ever any body but Scott venture to conceive a hero in such a plight” (qtd. in Butler 449–50). In her discussion of transves- tism in the Waverley Novels, Judith Wilt maintains that “each gen- der must journey through the experience of the other, the outlawed, gender, before either one can choose and re-fix the male or female identity appropriate to the new age” (117). While there is substan- tial evidence in Scott for cross-gendered journeys, the subsequent achievement of fixed identities seems less certain. Wilt regards Scott, on account of his celebrated anonymous authorship, as implicated in the impostures and maskings of his cross-dressed characters (119). Similarly, I argue that Scott’s morally compromised authority, like all patriarchal authority, is less absolute, more subject to negotiation, than has sometimes been claimed. 8. While the smuggler George Robertson, in women’s clothes or oth- erwise, did not participate in the killing of Porteous, some of the rioters may have been so disguised. One of the witnesses at the trial of William Maclauchlane for participating in the riot claimed that he was knocked down by “one of the mob, in a woman’s dress” (Roughead 84). 9. For Ian Duncan, the shift from the public legal matter of the Porteous riots to the private matter of the infanticide trial entails a turning away from documentary history toward allegorical romance, a turn confirmed in the final volume’s focus on the private estate of Knocktarlitie rather than on the British or Scottish nations. Scott thus contains the threat of popular insurrection “in intelligible and manageable forms” (156). 10. David Hewitt similarly argues that Scott’s “Porteous mob in its orderliness is in some respects closer to rebellion than to mobbing”; for Hewitt, Scott “is engaged simultaneously in elevating the status of the riot from riot to rebellion, and presenting it in a favourable light” by showing how it was “crucial in the formation of [a Scottish nationalist] political consciousness” (304, 305, 308). 11. The popular memory of the justice executed on Porteous extended far beyond Edinburgh. British sailors carried such memory across the Atlantic when in a 1747 anti-impressment riot in Boston the crowd threatened the Massachusetts governor with the fate of Captain John Porteous (Linebaugh and Rediker 215–16). 12. While female disguise was common in European popular pro- test, A. W. Smith observes that, “in the United States, the natural 206 Notes

disguise for rioters was that of the Indian” (244). While Scott does not refer to American Indians in his description of the female crowd of October 5, he does use this Burkean analogy in describing two deaths that occurred following the fall of the Bastille: “Foulon and Berthier . . . were put to death, with circumstances of cruelty and insult fitting only at the death-stake of a Cherokee encampment; and, in emulation of literal cannibals, there were men, or rather monsters, found, not only to tear asunder the limbs of their victims, but to eat their hearts, and drink their blood” (LN 1: 157). 13. Discussing the conflict between aristocratic and bourgeois values— here, between honor and law—Daniel Cottom offers an excellent account of the phonocentrism of Scott’s novels: “Rather than taming violence, the written word of law is shown to deaden the living voice of honor even as the Phaedrus warned that writing would damage the truth of the dialectic” (145). 14. “Scribbled away lustily. . . . I am become a sort of writing Automaton” (Journal 492); “for if I build I must have money, and I know none will give me any but the booksellers; so I must get into my wheel, like a turnspit” (Letters 3: 30); “I am only the dog who drives the wheel it is they [i.e., his creditors] who must eat & ought to eat the roast meat” (Letters 11: 77). 15. Beth Newman finds in the frame narrative of The Heart of Mid-Lothian evidence for a nineteenth-century scenario in which a man is seduced from his profession into such effeminating activities as novel-reading (526). I would suggest that Scott’s views are shaped less by the doctrines of the separate sexual spheres than by an older civic humanist ideology in which the professions themselves are evi- dence of effeminacy. For an excellent account of the differences in the role of woman in the aristocratic discourse of civic humanism and the bourgeois doctrine of the separate sexual spheres, see Clery 102–3. Daniel Cottom claims that “the civilizing process demands the . . . feminization of men” (158). Alexander Welsh argues that the historical shifts that Scott traces from honor to credit, status to con- tract, and family to individual entail “something like a feminization of culture” (219). 16. In her discussion of Scott’s use of his source materials, Mary Lascelles notes that there may be advantages in working on inferior materials: “Mrs. Goldie, though her introductory description suggests literary aspirations, was evidently not a practised narrator, nor (despite her husband’s profession) very clear about legal procedure. So much the better: a great imagination often works more freely on material which has still to be shaped” (95). 17. On the last of these occasions, Reuben Butler’s remark that “his wife was a poor pen-woman” (HM 452) echoes Scott’s assessment of his wife, Charlotte: “she is the worst pen woman I ever saw” (Letters 2: 528). Notes 207

18. I am concerned here with how women’s writing figures within the novel, and not with the distinct question of Scott’s mostly supportive and friendly personal relations with such women authors as Anna Seward, Joanna Baillie, Maria Edgeworth, Susan Ferrier, and Felicia Hemans, or his generous praise of Jane Austen, Fanny Burney, Ann Radcliffe, and Charlotte Smith. While in The Heart of Mid-Lothian Scott praises Elizabeth Hamilton and quotes four lines from Joanna Baillie (HM 85, 463–64), I would argue that the mock-heroic dis- missal of the fictional Miss Martha Buskbody, who could so ably provide a catalogue of women’s apparel—“things unattempted yet in prose or rhyme” (HM 401)—better represents the attitude toward women’s writing in the novel. In a letter in which he discusses several women writers, Scott says that “Miss Baillie is the only writing lady with whose manners in society I have been very much delighted. But she is simplicity itself & most of them whom I have seen were the very cream of affectation” (Letters 3: 2–3). In her assessment of the inter- textual practices of male Romantics, Jacqueline Pearson argues that “Lewis, Scott and others attempt to reestablish masculine authority over the novel by acknowledging their female precursors but also mocking them, marginalizing them, or regendering their structures or images” (637). 19. Ina Ferris’s study of the canonization of the novel shows how Scott’s Waverley Novels came to occupy a space of literary authority and generic prestige opened up when the early nineteenth-century reviews put into their place two kinds of novels written mainly by women: the degenerate “ordinary novel” associated with “female reading,” and the narrow “proper novel” associated with “feminine writing” (Achievement 35, 72). In her discussion of Waverley, Ferris describes how Scott puts “Female rivals . . . out of the way” (121).

Chapter 3: Gothic Properties: Matthew Lewis’s THE MONK and JOURNAL OF A WEST INDIA PROPRIETOR 1. Jeffrey N. Cox argues that Lewis’s monodrama The Captive (1803), about a woman imprisoned in a madhouse by her husband, is indebted to Wollstonecraft’s posthumously published novel (44). D. L Macdonald speculates that Lewis shared Wollstonecraft’s view of “a parallel between marriage and slavery” (Monk Lewis 13). 2. Cora Kaplan argues that in A Vindication of the Rights of Woman Wollstonecraft accepts a radical Enlightenment theory of crowd action, in which “mass social violence is seen as the direct result of severe repression” (43–44). 3. Arguing that Matilda “symbolizes the possibility of female autonomy,” William D. Brewer similarly claims that “Matilda’s transgendering” 208 Notes

serves to “expose the arbitrary and contingent nature of gender iden- tity” (“Transgendering” 193, 204). 4. For two discussions of the ambiguous moral position of the author or artist in The Monk, see Kiely 98–117, and Lydenberg. 5. Laurie Langbauer has sought to explain Lewis’s disapproval of his mother’s authorial endeavors (208). Sonia Hofkosh argues that in response to the precarious position of the author in the literary marketplace male Romantic authors secure their literary property and their status through a fantasy of the self-generated subject. In Hofkosh’s analysis of these letters, the literary ambitions of Lewis’s mother pose the challenge of female generativity to the idea of the self-generated male subject. 6. In an essay on narrative technique in Samuel Richardson, related to this book on the contradictory ideological formation consti- tuted by the Romantic novel, I challenged the dominant view that early male novelists adopt the female voice in first-person or epis- tolary narratives in a strategy of degrading women to the status of objects of exchange between men, in order to facilitate homosocial relations or to sustain male narcissism (Carson 95–113). Rejecting the traffic-in-women model for narration, enunciated most influ- entially by Nancy K. Miller, I argued that the male author even as a ventriloquist of female characters necessarily engages in dia- logue with actual women, particularly those who are readers and writers. 7. For the identification of Lewis’s fellow passenger, whom Baron- Wilson names only as Miss F——, see Macdonald, Monk Lewis 56, 194, and 216, n. 33. 8. George Haggerty has argued that the homoerotic desires of early Gothic novelists including Lewis are displaced into other forms of “aberrant” sexuality. 9. In discussing the agricultural products of the West Indies, Bryan Edwards draws on the passage from Caesar in establishing a simi- lar parallel between the Carib natives and the ancient Britons. Of the minor cash-crop of arnatto, Edwards says, “as paint it was used by some tribes of the Indians, in the same manner as woad by the ancient Britons” (2: 366). In A Poem on the African Slave Trade (1792), Mary Birkett uses the British/Roman analogy to explain why the British should civilize black Africans: “For ’tis a duty which we surely owe, / We to the Romans were what to us Afric now” (qtd. in Moira Ferguson 181). 10. Among the characteristics of the early modern crowd, E. P. Thompson believes that three are especially important— anonymity, direct action, and countertheater: “Just as the rul- ers asserted their hegemony by a studied theatrical style, so the plebs asserted their presence by a theatre of threat and sedition” (Customs 67). Notes 209

11. George Rudé observes that the propertied classes in Europe were alarmed by colorful, popular ceremonies: “These fears were not entirely without substance, as ceremonial demonstrations might, either by an act of provocation or an unexpected turn of events, be transformed into more violent forms of action” (239). Ronald Paulson argues that the mob violence in The Monk, for English readers of the 1790s, would have evoked the Gordon riots as well as French revo- lutionary popular disturbances (218). In James Boaden’s theatrical adaptation of The Monk, the riot, which occurs off-stage, is quelled by the authority of the now-virtuous Ambrosio-figure (renamed Aurelio by Boaden). Aurelio enunciates this moral about the crowd assault on the convent walls, which has been prompted by the Prioress’s cruelty to Agnes: “Though there is virtue in their sympathy, / Yet violence is not the march of justice. / Where there are laws, the laws alone should punish” (Boaden 64). With an anxious glance at the London crowd, inside and outside Drury Lane Theatre, Boaden insists that autonomous popular justice (even when directed against appropriate targets) ought to yield to aristocratic, clerical, and legal authority. 12. Alan Richardson summarizes the tale, included in Benjamin Moseley’s Treatise on Sugar (1799), of an obeahman named “Three fingered JACK, the terror of Jamaica in 1780,” who was finally overcome by another slave, “who believed his conversion to Christianity or ‘white OBI’ rendered him immune to Jack’s sorcery” (9). The more humane Lewis attempts to use Christianity on the obeahman himself, but the repetition of the description of Christianity as “white Obeah” indicates similar attitudes toward the uses of religion in slave soci- ety. In his explanation of the difference between the slave regimes of the American South and the British Caribbean, Michael Mullin argues that some of the judicial, medical, and even spiritual functions that the obeahmen served were taken over in the American South by planters who liked to see themselves as fathers to their slaves. Eugene Genovese argues that absentee ownership prevented the effective implementation on the sugar plantations of the paternalism that developed in the Old South following the end of the international slave trade (5–6). 13. Michael Craton finds an opposition between these two attitudes toward religion throughout the entire history of slavery in the British West Indies: “The degree to which black slaves becom- ing Christian were any less slaves remained a plantocratic debating point as long as slavery lasted, running in delicate counterpoint to the argument . . . that Christianizing one’s slaves might have a useful socializing function” (“Reluctant Creoles” 338). 14. Despite Lewis’s use of a Burkean argument late in life, I would not agree with Daniel P. Watkins’s claim that The Monk is a reactionary work, marked by religious orthodoxy, and “an extremely conserva- tive ideology” (121). 210 Notes

Chapter 4: Unisonance and the Echo: Popular Disturbances and Theatricality in the Works of Charles Maturin 1. Maturin echoes the sermon on the death of Nelson when, two years later, in the Preface to his first novel, he uses the metaphor of the customs agent to describe a desirable embargo against the importa- tion of German ideas: “Whatever literary articles have been imported in the plague ship of German letters, I heartily wish were pronounced contraband by competent inspectors” (FR vii). In The Milesian Chief Maturin makes unacknowledged use of a passage on the horrors of war from the same sermon (S 66; MC 4: 79). More famously, in the Preface to Melmoth the Wanderer, he indicates that “The hint of this Romance (or Tale) was taken from a passage in one of my Sermons” (MW 5). 2. Linda Colley describes how government-subsidized London newspa- pers presented the national sentiments upon the death in childbirth of Princess Charlotte: It seems likely . . . that when the Courier predicted nationwide mourning for Princess Charlotte in 1817—“There is no doubt that on Wednesday next, the day of the funeral, all business will be suspended; and that the empire will afford the awful and appropriate spectacle of a whole people spontaneously engaged in religious exercise and devotion”—it was acting on the instruc- tions of its Treasury paymasters. (221) The echo in Maturin’s sermon of the idea of the whole people engaged in spontaneous mourning suggests again the status of the Church of Ireland as an ideological state apparatus. Adela Pinch connects the mourning for Charlotte’s death with a conception of the nation based on emotion: “Charlotte’s death allowed the English public . . . to take pleasure in being represented to the rest of the world as a nation based on the bonds of feeling rather than on borders” (180). 3. Ina Ferris claims that Smith’s notion of sympathy depends on projec- tion and is more visual, whereas Hume’s notion is based on receptivity and is more auditory. She argues that Hume’s version of sympathy is more influential on the national tale (Romantic National Tale 13, 62). 4. Reprinting Scott’s review of Women, Ioan Williams identifies The Rosciad as the source of the lines Scott quotes (483, n. 15). 5. Maturin admired Edgeworth’s Belinda, since in The Wild Irish Boy two characters allude to Mrs. Freke, and then, in the digression on literary criticism in volume 3, Belinda is singled out as “a work that has never been equalled, and, perhaps, never will be equalled” (2: 232; 3: 167). The criticism of women authors by Everard Asgill in Women needs to be qualified in the light of Maturin’s praise of Edgeworth for having overcome the deficiencies of contemporary English novels. In his most important critical statement on the history of the novel, a long book review of Edgeworth’s Harrington and Ormond, what is Notes 211

most striking is Maturin’s particular praise for women novelists. To prove that novels have by 1818 become important to scientists, poets, and moralists, Maturin suggests, “we may advert to the produc- tions of Mrs. Inchbald, Mrs. West, Mrs. Opie, Miss Hamilton, Miss Porter, and Miss Edgeworth” (51). Jacqueline Pearson, however, who considers The Wild Irish Boy and Women as Maturin’s “revisions of Belinda,” argues that Maturin masculinizes the novel through “a subversion of a female-dominated form and an attempt to control and suppress the power of the woman writer” (650, 641). 6. In an essay entitled “Female Warriors,” formerly attributed to Oliver Goldsmith, the author describes how “The Amazons of old appeared with the left breast bare, . . . the right breast was destroyed, that it might not impede them in bending the bow or darting the javelin” (318). 7. Maturin no doubt gave the name Zenobia to the ambitious woman in his 1807 novel on account of the publication in late 1805 of Thomas Love Peacock’s Palmyra, and Other Poems. 8. In his novel Women, Maturin quotes the relevant passage from Isaiah 49: 23: “ ‘That kings shall be their nursing fathers, and queens their nursing mothers,’ &c. &c.” (1: 116). In a commentary on Leigh Hunt’s 1812 reaction to Lady Macbeth, Paul Keen describes a similar structure in which the appearance of the unsexed woman leads to the unsexing of men: Confronted by women who go beyond the due limits of their sex—who, in effect, become unsexed—the viewer will feel threat- ened and will react with immediate prejudice; in going beyond themselves, men are only acting like men, but if women go beyond themselves, then they cease to be women, and if women are no longer women, then men, who ought to be the opposite of women, begin to become unsexed themselves. (173) 9. Margot Gayle Backus believes that the details of Alonzo di Monçada’s description of how he has been persecuted by four monks suggest “that he has been sexually violated and probably gang-raped” (122). 10. Noting that “both polite and popular genres usually present the woman warrior as the daughter of a gentleman or of a rich merchant, and ascribe heroic and romantic motives to her,” Fraser Easton argues that in this case literary evidence provides a poor guide to historical reality. According to Easton, British women warriors are generally plebeian women who “entered military service for employment . . . , to escape patriarchal social relations, and to pursue relationships of various degrees of intimacy with other women” (143). 11. John Bender regards the realist novel, admittedly in the period up to 1779, as embodying and shaping the penitentiary idea rather than as criticizing solitary confinement. For Bender, “a profound affinity exists between the penal law and the traditional canons of consis- tent representation, which the novel brings to their most detailed realization”; the novelistic conventions of realistic transparency and 212 Notes

attention to minute particulars participate “in the containment, con- trol, and reformation of social life” (Imagining 73; 257, n. 19).

Chapter 5: Godwin’s “Metaphysical Dissecting Knife” 1. John Bender has explored the violence of realistic narrative in Caleb Williams, whether the instrument it uses “is the anatomical knife in the impartial hands of Reason . . . or the penetrating gaze of clinical inquiry, or the novelistic depiction of consciousness,” at the same time as he has argued that such violence may be inherent in sympathetic identification (“Impersonal Violence” 257). 2. For discussion of this essay, see McCracken, “Godwin’s Literary Theory” 113–33; Kelly 198–99; Peter Marshall, 38; and Klancher, “Godwin and Republican Romance” 145–65. 3. In St. Leon, Godwin uses the word adept in the course of criticiz- ing those who violate the proper bounds of knowledge, since they regard as trivial the study of such human matters as political liberty: “What adept or probationer of the present day would be content to resign the study of God and the profounder secrets of nature, and to bound his ardour to the investigation of his own miserable existence?” (SL 2). Pamela Clemit notes that the original working title of St. Leon was “The Adept” (88, n. 54). In Mandeville, the villainous attorney Holloway “was no mean adept in the art of turning to his purposes the weak sides of human nature” (259). 4. In 1793, Robert Augustus Johnson wrote about the situation in London, where all questioning of the government was regarded as republicanism, where reform had become synonymous with revolution, and where “ser- vants were bribed to report conversations” (Uglow 456). 5. Michael H. Scrivener contrasts the thought of Godwin and Bentham. For an exemplary account of whether or not Godwin should be termed a utilitarian, see Philp. 6. Andrew McCann has examined “Godwin’s simultaneous valorization of public interaction as the basis of rational social and political life, and his fear of it as a domain of mass manipulation” (29). Carl Fisher argues that Godwin is an advocate of the public sphere and the cof- feehouse and an opponent of popular culture and the alehouse. 7. I borrow this term from Benedict Anderson, who uses it in his account of the populist character of modern nationalism (145). See chapter 4 above. 8. If there is reason to doubt that the attack on St. Leon’s property in Pisa is a specific allegorical representation of the Birmingham riots that had occurred eight years prior to the publication of St. Leon, Godwin’s description of food riots in Budapest in the final volume of his novel is surely a response to and an analysis of a phenomenon that had been so widespread in 1795–96. While Godwin criticizes Notes 213

St. Leon’s activities as a grain merchant, his main target is “the incon- sequence incident to the lower orders of mankind,” who, contrary to their own interests, “threatened to destroy the mills, the markets, the places of sale, the means and materials by which their wants were to be supplied” (SL 380). The “inconsequence” of the actions of Godwin’s Budapest crowd resembles the Pisan crowd’s superstitious fears of witchcraft. Godwin’s perspective here is close to that of Adam Smith, who criticizes food rioters for acting out of prejudice and mis- taken judgment in attacking middlemen in the grain trade in times of dearth. Smith phrases his argument against the “moral economy” as an Enlightenment critique of popular superstition: “The popular fear of engrossing and forestalling may be compared to the popular terrors and suspicions of witchcraft” (Wealth of Nations 1: 534). 9. Alex Gold, Jr., discusses at length the identification of Williams with Bluebeard’s wife (145). In an essay arguing that Godwin’s analysis of character anticipates the psychoanalytic case history, Dorothea von Mücke examines Caleb’s masochistic position in relation to Falkland. Peter Logan argues that Williams’s narrative derives from hysteria or hypochondria—a nervous condition that entailed the “wholesale transformation of male bodies into female” (210). 10. In this letter to Mary Jane Clairmont Godwin, dated at Norwich, on September 9, 1805, and at Stowmarket, on Tuesday, September 10, 1805, I have added in square brackets the word and word ending that are missing in the manuscript because of the seal. 11. Eric Daffron discusses sympathy in relation to mesmerism in Caleb Williams, arguing that sympathy for Godwin creates sociable human beings (and sociability is the essence of humanity) even while it effaces human individuality by prompting imitation. 12. See Sneja Gunew and, also, chapter 2, page 70, above, where I dis- cuss the couvade in considering the problem of the limitations of male sympathy for nursing and pregnant women in Adam Smith and Walter Scott. 13. In Book 8 of the Aeneid, Virgil describes how the tyrant Mezentius “would even couple carcases / With living bodies as a form of tor- ture” (8. 652–53). In another of the many occurrences of this image in fiction of the Romantic period, Zaira Dalmatiani in Charles Maturin’s Women; or, Pour et Contre reflects on the engagement of the lively Charles De Courcy to the prim Methodist Eva Wentworth: “Mezentius, who united a dead body to a living one, was guilty of a less crime, and less cruelty, than he who unites De Courcy to this girl” (W 2: 140). Graham Allen notes that this “classical trope of bondage . . . resonates throughout the literature of the Godwin- Wollstonecraft-Shelley circle” (174). 14. In an essay arguing that Godwin came to believe that impartiality is beyond normal human capacity and that Caleb Williams’s desire for truth is motivated by a will to power, Gary Handwerk concludes 214 Notes

that Godwin’s “rationalist ethics both require and are threatened by the identificatory processes that Caleb enacts” (956). Mary Shelley is thinking of the early Stoical Godwin when she has Katherine Gordon speak of her charities: “We are not deities to bestow in impassive benevolence. We give, because we love—and the meshes of that sweet web, which mutual good offices and sympathy weaves, entangle and enthrall me” (Perkin Warbeck 400). 15. See David Marshall’s discussion of authorship, theater, and the self in Shaftesbury (9–70).

Chapter 6: “A Sigh of Many Hearts”: History, Humanity, and Popular Culture in Mary Shelley’s VALPERGA and LODORE 1. See Markley and Simpkins. In The Last Man, Evadne Zaimi disguises herself as a male soldier to fight for the independence of Greece. In The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, Monina de Faro disguises herself as a boy, Sir William Stanley’s “stripling son,” in order to gain access to him in an attempt to facilitate his escape from the Tower (178). 2. In this respect, Mary Shelley’s republican diction in the mid-1830s is the same as her mother’s in 1790. G. J. Barker-Benfield notes how Mary Wollstonecraft’s use of the word manly throughout A Vindication of the Rights of Men “is the same as the Commonwealthman’s usage, manifest, say, in [James] Burgh’s Political Disquisitions” (106). 3. Shelley uses the same Italian phrase, which means “slaves always trem- bling with restlessness,” in an 1826 book review (“The English in Italy” 345, n. 10). Arguing against the view that Mary Shelley grew more conservative and conventional after the death of Percy Shelley, Emily Sunstein provides substantial evidence that Mary Shelley “was an ardent partisan of Italian national liberation” (6). 4. See the editions by Crook, Curran, Rajan, and Rossington. 5. In another essay, Bennett argues that in Valperga Mary Shelley, rejecting Machiavelli’s view that a unified, free Italian republic can only be attained by a warrior prince, proposes that political change can be achieved through the universal love that Percy Shelley for- mulated in Prometheus Unbound (“Machiavelli’s and Mary Shelley’s Castruccio”). Michael Rossington has argued that Valperga, like sev- eral poems by Percy Shelley, displays the fragility of the republican ideal (“Future Uncertain”). In contrast to Bennett and others who trace continuities between Valperga and the works and thought of Godwin and Percy Shelley, Jane Blumberg believes that Mary Shelley had greater intellectual if not emotional independence, composing her novels out of “a fundamental intellectual conflict with the men in her life” (6). 6. Anne Mellor argues that Shelley posits an ideal of the bourgeois fam- ily, an ideal whose limitations lead her to endorse “a conservative Notes 215

vision of gradual evolutionary reform, a position articulated most forcefully during her times by Edmund Burke” (86). In my view, Shelley’s reformism is the product not of Burkean conservativism but of Godwinian radicalism. 7. I am indebted here and throughout my account of classical repub- lican ideology to the work of J. G. A. Pocock. For the opposition between speculative finance and productive trade, see, especially, Pocock 436–37, 445–49, 456. 8. While Euthanasia dei Adimari is Shelley’s fictional creation, the his- torical figure Castruccio Castracani was born in 1281 and ruled Lucca from 1316 until his death in 1328. The Guinigi were a prominent Lucchese merchant family, who were not exiled from Lucca in 1301, when the White Guelph faction (Shelley’s bianci) was. The White Guelphs, who included Castruccio’s Interminelli (Antelminelli) family, were subsequently aligned with the Ghibellines (Green 20, 41, 86). 9. That is to say, Godwin adumbrates Gramsci’s notion of the “organic” intellectual. Unlike the “professional” intellectual whose indepen- dence from manual labor permits a delusory autonomy from class background, the organic intellectual integrates science and work, theory and practice, and serves a directive function for his or her class from within (Gramsci 3–23). 10. I am drawing here upon Foucault’s notion of disciplinary power, which has an exemplary locus in the military sphere (Discipline and Punish 168, 171). The “disciplines” operate through the accumu- lation and recording of data about individuals obtained through policing, surveillance, and other forms of detailed observation. The disciplines answer to a new demand linked to industrialization: “to construct a machine whose effect will be maximized by the con- certed articulation of the elementary parts of which it is composed” (Foucault, Discipline and Punish 164). 11. In her valuable analysis of Percy Shelley’s revisions to the manuscript of Frankenstein, Mellor disagrees with critics who have argued for Mary Shelley’s anxiety of authorship, by noting that Percy “introduced all the references to Victor Frankenstein as the ‘author’ of the creature” (65). If the word author in the 1818 text of Frankenstein is in Percy Shelley’s hand, the word mechanist from the phrase “the author and mechanist of these crimes” in Valperga likewise has a relevant source in Percy Shelley’s works. In A Defence of Poetry (written in 1821), Percy Shelley establishes an opposition between poets, who employ the faculty of imagination, and “reasoners and mechanists,” who exemplify “the calculating faculty” (Shelley’s Prose 291, 292). Percy Shelley’s targets are utilitarian educators, who assume that reform will arise automatically from an accumulation of information rather than from the creative power to use the wisdom we already possess, and classical political economists, who believe that increasing the wealth of nations is more important than its equitable distribution: “While 216 Notes

the mechanist abridges and the political economist combines labor, let them beware that their speculations, for want of correspondence with those first principles which belong to the imagination, do not tend as they have in modern England to exasperate at once the extremes of luxury and want” (292). I am arguing that Mary Shelley in Valperga shares her husband’s critique of utilitarianism and classical political economy. 12. Pamela Clemit observes that Mary Shelley’s contemporaries situated her within the Godwinian “school.” According to Clemit, Mary Shelley follows Godwin in focusing on the imaginative realization of “theoretical concerns,” while departing from Godwin’s preferred mode of first-person narration in order to experiment “with multiple points of view”—in the case of Valperga, especially the alternative viewpoints of women (7, 179). 13. Foucault situates a “reversal of the political axis of individuation” at the moment when the “disciplines” arise. In the old regime, “indi- vidualization is greatest where sovereignty is exercised . . . . In a disci- plinary regime, on the other hand, individualization is ‘descending’ ” (Discipline 192–93). 14. Simon Schama has supplied this list of exemplary sites of liberty for the philosophes, except that he does not include the medieval com- munes of Tuscany (56). Referring to Sismondi as “a son of Geneva,” H. O. Pappé considers the background of Sismondi’s views on lib- erty: “The modern history of Geneva had indeed been one of succes- sive popular rebellions, with the aim of widening the political rights of the lower orders” (251, 253). Pappé notes, however, that Sismondi “rejected Rousseau’s egalitarian principles” (259). 15. At the end of the first volume, when Euthanasia holds a May festival at Valperga, in order to celebrate peace in Tuscany, Shelley defines the inclusiveness of the term Uomini di Corte: “Then arrived a multi- tude of Uomini di Corte; story-tellers, improvisatori, musicians, sing- ers, actors, rope-dancers, jugglers and buffoons” (V 1: 256). 16. Further evidence for her interest in the crowd appears in Shelley’s third novel. In The Last Man, Shelley examines the crowd not in relation to popular culture but rather in several different contexts: the panic caused by epidemical disease, the artificial unity of mili- tary discipline, and the fanaticism of a religious cult—itself formed through “the contagion of rebellion” (293). Under the conditions of plague, individuals initially prove less important than the species. However, self-interest may destroy even the unity of an army: “Each individual, before a part of a great whole moving only in unison with others, now became resolved into the unit nature had made him, and thought of himself only” (Mary Shelley, Last Man 142). Shelley cre- ates the crowd through protocinematic means when Lionel Verney views through a telescope “a promiscuous concourse” before the gates of Constantinople (143). Once again, she focuses on the sound Notes 217

of the crowd: “a hollow murmur, akin to the roaring of the near waves”; “the hollow murmur of the multitude, inspired by one feel- ing” (125, 216). 17. Shelley returns to the skimmington in The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck: “a poor fellow, a Cornishman, was tied to an ass, his face to the tail, and the beast now proceeding lazily, now driven by sticks . . . made an ill-fashioned mirth for the multitude” (343). See chapter 2, where I discuss Scott’s note on this communal shaming ritual (48–49). 18. Similarly in The Last Man Shelley insists on the need for a leader: “A multitude of men are feeble and inert, without a voice, a leader; give them that, and they regain the strength belonging to their num- bers” (140). In The Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, the crowd attack on the London warehouses of wealthy Germans involves the knee-jerk response of unemployed “apprentices and journeymen” to the urban juxtaposition of wealth and poverty: “The sight of their prosperity was to the starving Londoners, as the pressed rowel of a spur in a horse’s side; with the usual barbarism of the untaught and rude, they visited on these men the fault of their governors—the discontent augmented till it became loud, furious, and armed” (Shelley, Perkin Warbeck 162–63). In the case of this riot, while they confound the innocent and the guilty, the servants and apprentices need no leader, and they attack property rather than attempting violence against per- sons. Moreover, Shelley explicitly rejects the idea of conspiratorial elite orchestration, as Henry VII is quite mistaken in attributing the tumult to Yorkist influence. Elsewhere in the novel, Shelley indicates that the vertical relations of traditional paternalism keep the peasants tranquil, while the horizontal class relations of “artificers, such as the miners of Cornwall, who met in numbers” prompted rebellion. When she considers the political grievances of employed artificers rather than the social complaints of idle boys and apprentices, Shelley has in mind the revolts of “modern days” more than those of the late fifteenth century (Perkin Warbeck 306). 19. Shelley and Gramsci express similar attitudes toward popular cul- ture. On the one hand, Gramsci approved of a fundamentally conservative educational system because it “combated folklore” (Gramsci, Selections from the Prison Notebooks 34). On the other, Gramsci believed that “a molecular diffusion of a new humanism, an intellectual and moral reformation” of the proletariat and peasantry was essential for revolutionary change in fascist Italy (Forgacs 186). Such a cultural reformation must start by drawing upon “popular culture as it is.” The new literature that Gramsci would create must “sink its roots in the humus of popular culture as it is, with its tastes and tendencies and with its moral and intellectual world, even if it is backward and conventional” (Gramsci, Selections from Cultural Writings 102). While it would be naive to deny the element of elit- ism in Shelley’s liberalism, there are significant similarities between 218 Notes

her project and that of Gramsci, who likewise compared the history of nineteenth-century Italy to the medieval communes of Tuscany. The English Romantic novelist, like the Italian Communist, sought to alter the political order through humanistic reform and an engagement with popular culture. Bibliography

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abjection, 46–7, 69 aristocracy, 61, 71, 101–2, 170, 188 Act of Union (1707), 58, 70, 112 meritocracy, 62, 80, 161–2 Act of Union (1800), 70, 107, Aristotle, 7 110, 112 Austen, Jane, 34 adept, 5, 142–3, 147, 151–2, 160, Mansfield Park, 203–4n12 166, 212n3 Northanger Abbey, 13, 97, 143 Aeolian harp, 32–3, 115, 199 Pride and Prejudice, 13 aesthetic form, 16, 31, 35–6, 37, authorship, critique of, 22–3, 82, 43, 119, 178 135–6, 138–9, 142, 160–1 Agnew, Jean-Christophe, 156–7 autobiography, 7–8, 141, 147, agrarianism, 177 163–4 alchemy, 142, 151–2, 157, 160 automata, 10, 16, 66, 132, 173 Allen, Graham, 169, 173, 213n13 see also machines Amazons, 4, 14, 21, 23, 51, 53, 54–5, 61, 124, 152–3, 154–5, Backus, Margot Gayle, 211n9 169, 211n6 Bacon, Francis, 139–40 anatomy, 22–3, 126, 135–6, Bacon, Roger, 199 137–43, 154, 157, 159–60, Balzac, Honoré de, 105 170–1 Barker-Benfield, G. J., 214n2 Anderson, Benedict, 101–2, 112, Baron-Wilson, Margaret, 84, 95 212n7 Barrell, John, 30 Annual Register, 50–1 Baudrillard, Jean, 38, 42 anonymity, 4, 16, 29, 48, 65 Beccaria, Cesare, 100 antinovel discourse, 13, 29–30, 31, Bender, John, 211–12n11, 212n1 82, 125, 136, 155–6 Benedict, Barbara M., 9 anxiety Benjamin, Walter, 31, 32, 36, 40, 41 about female fertility and Bennett, Betty T., 174, 214n5 women’s roles, 12, 22, 47, 50, Bentham, Jeremy, 2, 6, 109, 143, 53, 70, 121 165, 201n2 about fiction and disguise, 13, Bergk, Johann Adam, 82 66–7 Bhabha, Homi, 85 about the power of the masses, Blumberg, Jane, 214n5 152, 169 Boaden, James, 209n11 about proliferation of books, 15, Bohls, Elizabeth A., 93 155–6 Bohstedt, John, 49 about social change, 12 Bréton, Andre, 105 238 Index

Brewer, William D., 140, 207–8n3 Clemit, Pamela, 212n3, 216n12 Bromwich, David, 204n13 Clery, E. J., 206n15 Brummell, George Bryan “Beau,” 38 Coleridge, Samuel Taylor, 166 Brydone, Patrick, 2, 7 Biographia Literaria, 31–2, 41–2, bureaucracy, 23, 133, 182–3, 186, 105, 108 193, 195 “Chamouny; the Hour before accumulation of biographical Sunrise,” 117 information, 19, 80, 96, The Friend, 117 182–3, 186, 189 Letter to Sara Hutchinson, Burke, Edmund, 47 32–3 Philosophical Enquiry into the Marginalia, 57 Sublime and Beautiful, 117, 196 Rev. of The Monk, 41, 140 Reflections on the Revolution, 46, Colley, Linda, 50, 81, 210n2 50, 51, 54, 59, 62, 76–7, 101, colonialism, 63, 85, 89–90, 92–3, 110, 115, 149, 153 99, 107, 126 Burney, Fanny, 140 Conger, Syndy M., 41 Butler, Marilyn, 205n7 conscience, 10, 17, 25, 63–4, 68, 72, 82, 104, 113, 130, 188 Caesar, Julius, 91 as instrument of individuation or Calvin, John, 165 subject-formation, 6, 9, 10, 58, Calvinism, 8, 132, 147, 163 64, 95–6, 99 Canetti, Elias, 6, 173 “Conversations of Maturin,” 140 cannibalism, oral violence, 16, 18, Cottom, Daniel, 206n13, n15 46, 49, 51, 53, 56, 126, 130, couvade, 70, 158 131, 151, 153, 197 Cox, Jeffrey N., 207n1 carceral network, 132, 146 Craton, Michael, 92, 209n13 carnivalesque, 20, 21, 47–8 crowd festivity, 60, 92–4, 100 characteristics of, 19–20 holidays, 93–4, 100 confounds innocent and guilty, world-upside-down, 4, 47, 56, 92 82, 150–1 see also saturnalia conservatism, 20, 54 Carson, James P., 208n6 discipline, 58–9, 118 Castle, Terry, 115 dissolution of, 10, 11 castration, 46, 47, 53, 84–5, 87–8, elite manipulation of, 51, 52, 151, 153–4, 158 217n18 Chandler, James, 140 lack of intelligence, 15, 148 charity schools, 111, 132 lack of moral accountability, 16, Charlotte, Princess of Wales, 112, 63–4, 148 210n2 leader of, 17, 18, 20, 108, 150–1, chivalry, dueling, 54, 124, 170 191, 217n18 Churchill, Charles, 121–2 loss of individuality in, 13, 16, 17, circulating libraries, 13, 15, 16, 193, 197 31–2, 125 military, 33, 35, 99 Clairmont, Claire, 23 moral economy of, 10, 49 Clare, John, 30, 78 represented as female, 16–17 Clarke, Michael, 3 ritual, 58 Index 239

violence against property or Edgeworth, Maria, 70, 129, 205n7 against persons, 20, 41, 82–3, Belinda, 21, 53–4, 124 129–30, 150–2, 191, 217n18 Harrington, 26 crowd psychology, 11, 15–16, 17, Helen, 139 63–4, 75, 81, 148, 166–7, 198 Ormond, 204–5n6 crowd symbols, 41 Edinburgh, 45, 59–60 epidemic, 14 Edmundson, Mark, 26 sea, 14, 172–3 education, 111 wind, tempest, 33, 192 for women, 21, 120, 169 Edwards, Bryan, 90, 208n9 Daffron, Eric, 213n11 Ellis, Markman, 80 Darwin, Erasmus English, Thomas, 50–1 Temple of Nature, 199–200 Enlightenment, 7, 62, 100, 125, Zoonomia, 69–70 133, 139, 141, 144 Davidson, Cathy N., 201n4 dangers of, 19, 43 Davis, Natalie Zemon, 21, 47, 85 freedom from prejudice, 176 Deane, Seamus, 129 liberty fosters arts and sciences, despotism, 2–3, 79, 87, 141–2, 186–7 162, 183 opposed to popular culture and Dickens, Charles, 4, 26 superstition, 19, 78, 152 disguise print and publicity, 97, 163 aristocrat or monarch in progress, 97, 159 disguise, 81 remaking of human beings, 9, 145 blackening of the face, 62–3, secularism, 163 64, 74 sociability, 141 cross-gender, transvestite, 3, 4, universalism, 135 13, 21, 47–9, 51–8, 62, 64, epistolary form, 66–7, 127 71–3, 79, 80, 84, 92, 119, 123, Evans, Robin, 99, 134 124–5, 205n7, 214n1 one-eyed beggar or boy, face-to-face relationships, 10, 65, 119, 154 77, 102 in relation to fiction, 13, 73, 104, family, 68–9, 72, 120–1, 138–9, 143, 160 161–2, 172 as technology of truth, 80, 160 companionate marriage, 75 disgust, 79–80, 82–3, 102, 192 servants, 97, 101–2, 143 dissection, see anatomy “Female Warriors,” 211n6 Dugaw, Dianne, 127 feminism, 54 Duncan, Ian, 43, 47, 205n9 woman/slave analogy, 22, 75, 79, 89, 102 Eagleton, Terry, 88, 106 Ferguson, Frances, 202n3 ear, 112, 195, 196 Ferguson, Moira, 208n9 Ear of Dionysius, 2–4, 5–6, 25, Ferris, Ina, 112, 207n19, 210n3 197, 199 fiction in relation to disguise, 13, Easton, Fraser, 211n10 73, 104, 138–9, 143, 160 eavesdropping, 2–3, 5, 6, 25, 117 Fielding, Henry, 43 echo, 112–19, 197 Fielding, Penny, 15, 65 240 Index

Fisher, Carl, 212n6 144–6; perfectibility, 166; Flynn, Carol Houlihan, 202n2 reformism rather than Forgacs, David, 217n19 revolution, 147–8, 184–5; Foucault, Michel, 2, 117, 133, 146, relationship with Mary Jane 215n10, 216n13 Clairmont, 157–8; relationship Franklin, Benjamin, 7–8, 197 with Mary Wollstonecraft, Franta, Andrew, 203n10, n11 23, 156–7, 158–9; theory French Revolution, 16–17, 26, 35, of fiction, 139; theory of 59, 61–2, 148, 193 property, 147, 162, 166, 176–7; fall of Bastille, 41, 59 views on penal system, 86, October days, women’s march to 144–6, 165 Versailles, 50–6, 61 works: Caleb Williams, 63, Freud, Sigmund, 17–18, 68, 80, 137–62, 166, 171, 185; 126–7, 128 Cursory Strictures on Lord Chief Justice Eyre, 141–2; The Gallagher, Catherine, 155, 204n1 Enquirer, 159, 163; Enquiry Gamer, Michael, 30 Concerning Political Justice, Gay, John, 64 141–67, 171, 176–7, 188, gender 198; Fleetwood, 146, 155–6; essentialism, 28, 86, 126, 154–5 Mandeville, 103, 141, 145, fluidity, 28, 80, 124, 126, 130, 160, 172, 212n3; Memoirs of 154, 169 Wollstonecraft, 154–5, 157; hierarchy, 123 “Of History and Romance,” roles, 22, 55, 69, 121 139, 178; “Of Religion,” 143, transcendence of, 13, 156, 197–8 164; Preface to Cloudesley, unmanning, feminizing, 4, 13, 139, 141; Preface to Fleetwood, 119, 121–2, 123, 211n8 137–8, 141, 146–7, 154, 157, unsexing, 3, 13, 54, 86, 119–29, 163; St. Leon, 23, 147–53, 169, 211n8 164–5, 177, 212n3, 212–13n8; violating norms of, 80, 122, Thoughts on Man, 32 123–4 Godwinian novel, 170–1, 173, 185 see also sensibility, women Godwyn, Morgan, 91 Genovese, Eugene D., 209n12 Gold, Alex, Jr., 213n9 German influence, 108–9 Gothic, 20–1, 105–6 Gilbert, Allan, 178 attempts to accommodate crowds, Gilmartin, Kevin, 204n13 30, 40–2 Gilmour, Ian, 49, 150 critical of old regime and of social Gilpin, William, 34, 203n8 reform, 9, 24, 77, 86, 103, Godwin, William, 174, 198 131–3, 142, 183, 195 life and opinions: ambivalent hero-villain, 25, 26, 27, 46 criticism of psychology, 22–3, invalidates distinction between 126, 138, 142–3; the duty of fantasy and realism, 27, 41, 86 sincerity, 139, 163; general justifications of supernatural inspection, 144, 161, 165; fiction, 79, 104, 135 influence of Calvinism, 147, machinery, 5, 25, 103 163–5; necessitarianism, as mass culture, 29 Index 241

promotes reception in a state of Howard, John, 86, 142, 165 distraction, 40, 82, 199 Hume, David, 120, 125, 175, refusal of transcendence, 27 210n3 servants, 26 Hume, Robert D., 27 Graham, Kenneth W., 138 Gramsci, Antonio, 215n9, identification, 17, 18 217–18n19 divided, 21, 40, 42–3 Green, Louis, 187, 215n8 see also sympathy Grimmett, Jennifer, 47–8, 61 Idman, Niilo, 108 Gunew, Sneja, 213n12 Ignatieff, Michael, 96, 99, 102, 132 gypsies, 78, 88 Illuminati, 5, 52 imagination Haggerty, George E., 208n8 an aristocratic faculty, 40 Hammond, J. L, and Barbara connected to popular Hammond, 49 superstition, 167, 191–2 Handwerk, Gary, 213–14n14 an individualizing faculty, 20–1, Hansen, Jim, 126, 204n14 33, 35–6, 39, 191, 198 Hanway, Jonas, 99 limitations of, 34–5, 40, 43, Hardt, Michael, 28–9, 201n3 158, 198 Harkin, Maureen, 85, 97 its power in randomness, 35, Haywood, Ian, 78 38, 39 Hazlitt, William incest, 91 “Coriolanus,” in Characters of individualism, 138, 139 Shakespear’s Plays, 39–40, 191 critique of, 24, 42–3, 144, 146, “On a Sun-Dial,” 195–6 160–1 “On the Pleasure of Hating,” formation of, 106, 130, 155, 162 140–1 personality, 8 Spirit of the Age, 22, 159 psychological depth, 28 “Why Distant Objects Please,” subject, 198 196–7 industrialism, 8–9, 99, 144–6, Heiland, Donna, 89 182–4, 192, 195 Henderson, Andrea K., 27–8, 55 information overload, 38, 42 Henriques, U. R. Q., 131 see also antinovel discourse; Hertz, Neil, 204n1 anxiety, about proliferation of Hewitt, David, 205n10 books Hill, Christopher, 39 Inquisition, 118, 131, 133–5, Hill, Mike, 204n2 162–3, 189, 191–2 history from below, 19 insanity, 68, 118, 130–1 Hofkosh, Sonia, 208n5 Hogarth, William, 34 Jacobin, 5, 52, 105, 108, 148 Hogg, James, 66 Johnson, Edgar, 60, 61, 66 Hogg, Margaret, 66 Johnson, Samuel, 13–14, 55 homoeroticism, 18, 22, 126–8 Jones, Frederick L., 174 homosocial relations, 83 Jonkonnu, 92–3 “How to Treat the Female Jordan, Nicolle, 150 Chartists,” 198 Jump, Harriet Devine, 204n4 242 Index

Kames, Henry Home, Lord, 155 Lukács, Georg, 61 Kaplan, Cora, 207n2 Lydenberg, Robin, 208n4 Kauhl, Gudrun, 86 Lynch, Deidre, 201–2n1 Keats, John, 33, 140 Keen, Paul, 62, 211n8 Macdonald, D. L., 89, 207n1, Kelly, Gary, 152, 212n2 208n7 Kerr, James, 65 Machiavelli, Niccolo, 178–9, 189 Kiely, Robert, 41, 208n4 machines, 10, 23, 133, 134, 139, Klancher, Jon, 31, 212n2 144–6, 148, 151–2, 166, 171, Knight, Richard Payne, 3 183, 193, 195, 199–200 Kristeva, Julia, 46–7, 64, 69 see also automata Marie Antoinette, 57 Langbauer, Laurie, 208n5 Markley, A. A., 214n1 Lascelles, Mary, 206n16 Marshall, David, 214n15 Le Bon, Gustave, 15–16, 17, 81, Marshall, Peter, 157, 212n2 148, 167 maternity, 47, 69–70, 85, 120, 121, Leask, Nigel, 202n4 123–4 Lee, Sophia, The Recess, 89 Mathias, Thomas James, 12 Lew, Joseph W., 174–5 Maturin, Charles Robert, 140, 142, Lewis, Matthew, 148, 150 150, 152, 167, 195, 197, 198 life: childhood cross-dressing, life and opinions: absence of 84; narcissism, 83–4; owner of happy marriages in his works, slaves in Jamaica, 63, 76, 77, 18, 107, 126–7; Church of 79; relationship with mother, Ireland minister, 108, 112, 83; views on women writers, 116, 122; nationalism of novels 83, 121, 197 vs. Unionism of sermons, works: The Castle Spectre, 90–1, 108–11, 129; political ideology 96; Journal of a West India compared to Scott’s, 108; Proprietor, 76, 79, 81, 84–5, reliance on Scott’s advice 91–104, 143; The Monk, 21–2, and patronage, 105; views on 41, 63, 75–92, 94, 95, 103, women writers, 14, 121, 197, 125, 127–8, 129; Timour the 210–11n5 Tartar, 40 works: The Albigenses, 42, Life and Death of Captain John 119–20, 133; Bertram, 105, Porteous, 60 133; Fatal Revenge, 123–4, Linebaugh, Peter, 205n11 126, 127, 130, 131, 135; Rev. Locke, John, 34, 130 of Harrington, 210–11n5; Lockhart, John Gibson, 52, 63, Melmoth the Wanderer, 42, 189–90 118, 121, 124–7, 130–1, Lodge, David, 173 133–5, 139, 141, 173; The Logan, Peter Melville, 213n9 Milesian Chief, 106–17, 127–9, Logue, Kenneth J., 60 130, 135–6; Sermons, 108–14, London, 29, 164, 171–2 116, 120–1; The Wild Irish compare Edinburgh Boy, 106, 110, 210n5; Women, Long, Edward, 76, 77, 96–7 113–14, 115, 121–3, 132, Luddism, 60–1 133, 139 Index 243

McCann, Andrew, 32, 212n6 Negri, Antonio, 28–9, 201n3 McCracken, David, 138, 178, Newman, Beth, 206n15 212n2 noble savage, 151, 152 McGowen, Randall, 10, 11 novel, 19, 24, 77, 81–2, 106, McKendrick, Neil, 145 109–10, 114, 116, 130, 178 McKeon, Michael, 178 historical fiction, 57–8, 73, 106, McLoughlin, T. O., 204n3 170, 175–6, 179, 184, 189–91, Mellor, Anne K., 175, 214–15n6, 193 215n11 nursing, 158, 181–2 Méricourt, Théroigne de, 52 lactation, 68–9, 85–6, 124, 158 Merriman, John M., 48, 58 male nurse, 124, 158 Methodism, 6–9, 95, 132 Mignet, Francois-Auguste-Marie- obeah, 84, 88, 95 Alexis, 186 oral phase, 18–19, 126 Miller, Nancy K., 208n6 orality, 15, 46, 65–6, 197 Millgate, Jane, 59 Orleans, Philippe Égalité, Duke of, Milton, John, 36, 37, 38–9, 50, 51, 52, 56 108, 164 Ovid, 119 mob, 20, 152 Owen, Robert, 144 stinking breath of, 122 Owenson, Sydney (Lady Morgan), see also crowd, riots 106 monasticism, 5, 82, 87, 125–6, 130–1, 133–4, 195 painting Moore, Lucy, 52 history painting, 34, 41 moral philosophy, 156, 161–3, 165 portraits, 84–5 means vs. ends, 184–5 Panopticon, 2, 5, 6, 117, 143 Moretti, Franco, 89, 198–9 Pappé, H. O., 216n14 Morgan, Philip D., 91 paternalism, 71, 73, 77, 95, Mücke, Dorothea von, 213n9 97, 100–2, 209n12, Mullin, Michael, 209n12 217n18 Murry, John Middleton, 202n5 Paul, C. Kegan, 162 Paulson, Ronald, 209n11 Napier, Elizabeth R., 31 Pearson, Jacqueline, 124, 207n18, narcissism, 83–4 211n5 narration Peck, Louis F., 83 cross-gender, 4, 13, 66–7, 74, Penny, Nicholas, 3 83–4, 85, 87, 127, 166, 169, Peterloo massacre, 59, 61 199, 208n6 Philp, Mark, 162, 212n5 first-person, 22, 66, 137–8, 149, phonocentrism, 2, 4, 47, 68, 72, 157, 163 112, 115, 155, 197 national tale, 106, 107, 112, 116 see also sensibility nationalism, 58, 70–1, 106–12, the picturesque, 34 114, 115–18 Pinch, Adela, 210n2 Native Americans, 50, 62–3, Plotz, John, 12, 202n2 206n12 Pocock, J. G. A., 215n7 Needham, Lawrence, 92 Poe, Edgar Allan, 26–7 244 Index politics Reeve, Clara, 15 partisan, 182, 187 Reflection, see conscience Tory, 108, 148 Reid, Thomas, 140 Unionist, Irish, 110, 118 Reinert, Thomas, 12 Whig, 148 Rennie, Nicholas, 203n7 Polwhele, Richard, 23, 46, 53, 54, republic, 188 155, 169 classical, 23, 170, 174, 175–7, popular culture, 19, 23, 62, 81, 181–2 92–4, 189–91, 217–18n19 medieval Italian, 186–7 alehouse culture, 32, 195, 212n6 United States of America, bourgeois appropriation of, 5, 26, 23, 170 65, 66, 78, 93, 197 Rhys, Jean, 88 folktales, 113 Richardson, Alan, 209n12 a hybrid construction, 59, 190–1 Richardson, Samuel, 66, 123 oral culture, 65–6 riots, 20 the preserve of women, 65 connected with festivity, 60, a site of struggle, 93 94, 148 populism, 108, 129, 148, 150, food riots, 49–50, 60, 212–13n8 152, 192 prompted by religion or pornography, 81–2 superstition, 94 Pratt, Mary Louise, 99–100 Riots, Gordon, 26, 61 Priestley, Joseph, 152 Riots, King’s Birthday, 59–60 prison reform, 99–100, 131–4 Riots, Porteous, 57–60, 62 prisons, 133–4 Riots, Priestley, 152 Bastille, 33–4, 142 Robbins, Bruce, 199 solitary confinement, 98–9, Robinson, Mary, Walsingham, 130–2, 134, 142 127–8, 129 prostitution, 52, 55, 127 Robison, John, 52, 53, 56 psychology, 22–3, 142–3 romance, 4, 25, 30, 72–3, 116, 119, Pyle, Forest, 202n4 126, 128 Romantic hero, 108, 151 quantification, 23, 35, 133, Romanticism, 24 182–3, 186 defined against mass culture, see also bureaucracy 29–30 female, 175 race, 28, 63, 77–8, 88, 90–1, 148 interiority, 28 racism, 96, 151, 152 Rossington, Michael, 214n5 Radcliffe, Ann, 9, 26, 115 Rudé, George, 50, 209n11 Ramsay, James, 96, 97, 99, 100 Rule, John G., 203n9 rape, 87, 183 reading, 31, 155 Said, Edward W., 15 rebellion, 22, 64, 76, 89, 94–5, St. Clair, William, 158 97–8, 100, 107 saturnalia, 13, 17, 47, 56, 92 Rebellion, Irish (1798), 107, see also carnivalesque 111, 170 Schama, Simon, 216n14 Rediker, Marcus, 205n11 Schmitt, Cannon, 9 Index 245

Scott, Walter, 140, 148, 150, Shelley, Mary, 157, 159, 167, 198 167, 197 Falkner, 169 life and opinions: fear of electoral Fortunes of Perkin Warbeck, 195, reform, 61; on the low status of 214n14, 217n18 the novelist, 66–7; patronage Frankenstein, 5, 23, 159, 174, of Maturin, 105; personal 177, 180–1, 192, 198 relations with John Robison, The Last Man, 188, 189, 52; populist sentiments, 61, 216–17n16, 217n18 108, 152; suppression of Lodore, 23, 170–3 popular disturbances, 60–1; Rev. of Cloudesley, 160 views on women writers, 14, Rev. of The Life and Death of 67, 121, 207n18 Edward Fitzgerald, 170 works: The Abbot, 56–7; The Valperga, 23, 173–93 Antiquary, 5, 55, 60; Count Shelley, Percy Bysshe, 120, 140, Robert of Paris, 3–4, 54–5; 172, 174–5, 179, 215–16n11 Essay on Romance, 66; Fortunes Shoemaker, Robert B., 59 of Nigel, 3, 48–9, 67–8; Guy Simpkins, Scott, 214n1 Mannering, 45; Heart of Mid- Simpson, David, 109 Lothian, 21, 43, 46, 47, 55, Sismondi, J. C. L. de, 174, 177, 57–74, 85, 118, 151; Journal, 186–7 45, 66; Life of Napoleon skimmington, 48–9, 190, 217n17 Buonaparte, 55–6, 59, 61–2, slavery, 63, 75–6, 78, 79, 84–5, 88, 63–4, 206n12; Rob Roy, 143; 89, 94–104 Tales of a Grandfather, 57; Caribbean plantations, 63, 90, 99 Waverley, 70; Rev. of Women, Smith, A. W., 81, 205–6n12 121–2 Smith, Adam Scrivener, Michael H., 212n5 Theory of Moral Sentiments, 69, Sedgwick, Eve Kosofsky, 127 114, 116, 161, 210n3 self-interest, 11, 184 Wealth of Nations, 213n8 sensibility, sentimentalism Smollett, Tobias, 43 delicate, 11, 25 social cohesion, 10–11, 114, 118 feminine, 11, 155, 179–80 grief as source of, 116 feminization of the male, 178, social control, 95–8 206n15 labor discipline, 95–8, 99–100, privileging of the voice, 2, 47 134, 145–6 promotes self-sacrifice, 23 military discipline, 99–100, 133 sentimental hierarchy of solitude, 25, 172 communicative modes, 81, sounds, 111–12, 117, 151, 172, 177–8, 192, 198 192, 195–7 see also phonocentrism see also voice sermons, 108–10, 112, 114 speech/writing binary opposition, Shaftesbury, Anthony 64–5, 102, 104, 119, 197 Ashley Cooper, 3rd Earl of, Spenser, Edmund, 68 162–3 Spivak, Gayatri Chakravorty, 119 Shakespeare, William, 35, 36, 39, Sterne, Laurence, 33–4, 35, 40, 42 57, 139, 153, 183–4, 185 Stevenson, John, 49 246 Index

Stoicism, 157, 161, 177, 214n14 viewing life as theater, 5, 125, sublime, 3, 117, 172, 196 159, 167, 173 Sunstein, Emily W., 214n3 Thomas, Malcolm I., 47–8, 61 surveillance, 2, 5, 77, 81, 117, Thompson, E. P., 6, 8–9, 10, 19, 134–5, 138, 143, 189 48, 59, 101, 150, 208n10 of all by all, 97–8, 165, 188 Thompson, James, 142 auditory, 9, 82 time-discipline, 7, 132–3 self-surveillance, 9, 98, 188–9 Trumpener, Katie, 106, 115 by servants, 97, 143 truth, 64 Swann, Karen, 202–3n6 carnivalesque privilege of swarms, 15, 201n3 truth-telling, 47 sympathy, 69–70, 118 coherence account vs. ambivalence of, 18–9, 125 intersubjective validation, connected with sounds or the 149, 164 voice, 64, 195 disguise as violation of, 65 dependent on imagination, fiction as a means to, 80, 11, 198 86, 160 dependent on theater, 11, 125, 167 obligation to full and frank not distinct from surveillance, 5, disclosure, 139, 163 77, 138 in opposition to fiction, 65, an essential female quality, 66, 67 154–5, 175 imitations or parodies of, 5, Uglow, Jenny, 199, 212n4 77, 81 unison, unisonance, 22, 112, 114, limitations of, 69–70, 86, 114, 116, 149, 192–3 158–9, 161 utilitarianism, 9, 143, 183 metaphors for sympathy or suggestibility: alchemy, 157; ventriloquism, 10, 73, 87, 88, 99, contagion, 11, 17, 18, 166, 155, 200 197; electricity, 149, 157, violence 166, 172; magnetism, 172, against persons or against 197; mesmerism, 17, 157–8, property, 20, 41, 82, 129–30, 167; musical, 17–18, 114; 150–2, 191, 217n18 physiological, 11; telegraph, 4 Virgil, 213n13 prerequisite for impartiality, 167 Visser, Nicholas, 30, 50, 201n5 transcendence of self, 24, 139, visual media technologies as mass 157, 182, 197–8 phenomenon, 82, 125 camera obscura, 32 Taylor, John Tinnon, 15 film, 41, 42 theater, 64 montage, 119 acting, 64 phantasmagoria, 173 antitheatricality, 129, 155–6 photography, 99 countertheater, 20, 56, 94, protocinematic imagery, 27, 32, 208n10 173, 199, 216n16 theatricality of Roman Catholic voice, 2, 5, 10, 22, 115, 119, ceremony, 78 149–50, 192, 197–200 Index 247

comes from the heart, 64 works: Historical and Moral vox populi vox dei, 149, 198 View of the French Revolution, Von Sneidern, Maja-Lisa, 100 51, 52, 56; Letters Written during a Short Residence, 172; Wahrman, Dror, 28 Vindication of the Rights of Walpole, Horace, Castle of Otranto, Men, 51; Vindication of the 72, 103, 105 Rights of Woman, 75, 79, Warner, William B., 31 156, 179–80; Wrongs of Watkins, Daniel P., 209n14 Woman, 75 Watt, Ian, 7 women Watts, Alaric, 140 authors, 12, 13–14, 22, 53, 54–5, Weber, Max, 8, 147 121–3, 197 Wedgwood, Josiah, 145 clothing, 47–9, 73 Weishaupt, Adam, 52 education of, 21, 120, 169 Welsh, Alexander, 206n15 passionate more than rational, 64 Wesley, John, 6, 8 private sphere and, 22, 122 Whitefield, George, 7, 8 unsexed, 3, 12, 13, 23, 54, 55–6, Wilberforce, William, 89 86, 119–29, 153, 169, 197, Wilde, Oscar, 105 211n8 Wilkes, John, 150 Woodmansee, Martha, 82 Williams, Anne, 47 Wordsworth, William, 31–4, 108, Williams, Ioan, 210n4 166, 191 Williams, Raymond, 202n3 “Are Souls Then Nothing,” Wilson, John, 15 35, 37 Wilt, Judith, 205n7 “Essay upon Epitaphs,” 140 Wollstonecraft, Mary, 144, 154–5, Preface to Lyrical Ballads, 29–30, 174, 177 105 life and opinions: relationship Preface to Poems (1815), 36, 38–9 with William Godwin, 23, The Prelude, 29 156–7, 158–9; woman/slave “With Ships the Sea Was analogy, 22, 75, 79 Sprinkled,” 36–8