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Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014
1938
A study of the insects inhabiting the forest floor in certain forest types on Mount Toby, Sunderland, Massachusetts.
Walter Michael Kulash University of Massachusetts Amherst
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Kulash, Walter Michael, "A study of the insects inhabiting the forest floor in certain forest types on Mount Toby, Sunderland, Massachusetts." (1938). Masters Theses 1911 - February 2014. 3099. Retrieved from https://scholarworks.umass.edu/theses/3099
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ARCHIVES THESIS M 1938 K96 A Study of the Insects Inhabiting the Forest Floor
in Certain Forest Types on Mount Toby,
Sunderland, Massachusetts
Walter M. Kulash
Thesis submitted for the degree of Master of Science
Massachusetts State College
Amherst
1938 CONTENTS
Page
Introduction ..... 1
History ..... 3
Scope of the Work.. 6
Survey of the Environment ... 8
Methods and Technique . 16
Location of Collecting Plots. 16
Typical Sample of Forest Floor .. 16
Method of Collecting Samples.♦ ... 17
Laboratory Treatment - Historical .. 20
Description of Apparatus . 22
Preparation of Sample... 24
Heat Treatment • .... 25
Method of Counting the Collembola ... 29
Analysis of Data .....*....♦♦* 30
Insect-eating Animals on Mount Toby . 65
Insects Available as Food. 71
Forest Types Richest in Insect Food ..«•»•...»• 75
Summary . 79
Bibliography . 32 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Thanks are due to the members of the Entomology Department of the Massachusetts State College for making the completion of this work possible. Dr. C. P. Alexander and Dr. G. C. Crampton have made numerous valuable suggestions and determinations. Dr. Frank Shaw has made all the determinations of Mycetophilidae. Dr. Harvey Sweetman* s considerate help throughout the duration of the work was invaluable, and his suggestions made the final preparation of the manuscript a pleasant task. To Dr. R. E. Trippensee, of the Forestry Department of the Massachusetts State College, the writer is indebted for much valuable information pertaining to the wildlife of the Mount Toby Forest. Mr. Curtis of the Forestry Department spent much time and care in taking the forest type and*soil profile pictures used in this work.
The writer is also indebted to the following specialists, for determinations in their particular groups: Dr. W. h. Anderson and Dr. A* G. Boving of the United States National Museum, Washington, D. C., coleopterous larvae; Mr. C. A. Frost, Arlington, Massachusetts, Coleoptera; Mr. C. T. Greene, United States National Museum, dipterous larvae; Dr. B. J. Kaston, Connecticut Agricultural Experiment Station, New Haven, Connecticut, Aranea; and Dr. H. B- Mills, Montana State College, Collembola.
To Mr. Joseph LoBello, Northampton, Massachusetts, the writer is indebted for help in translating the original Berlese articles from Redia. For help in preparing and correcting the preliminary copy of this work, the writer is indebted to Miss Mary Gobush, Northampton, Massachusetts. INTRODUCTION
The Mount Toby forest is a 750 acre tract of wood¬
land located on the eastern end of the boundary between
Sunderland and Montague*. A few acres in the south¬
eastern end of the forest are in the Leverett Township
and the remaining area is in Sunderland*. This forest
is owned by the Massachusetts State College, and is used
for experimental and classwork purposes in forestry, and,
more recently, for wildlife game management studies*.
Of the various compartments or blocks into which the
forest is divided, one block, Compartment D, has been
set aside for classwork and experimental purposes in
combined wildlife and forestry studies (Curtis and
Trippensee, 1937)*. This Compartment has an area of
approximately 61*1 acres* On the southeast it is
bounded by Oak Ridge and Ox Hill, on the southwest by
the base of Mount Toby, and on the northwest by the so-
called Hubbard property. A well-defined trail from the
Hubbard property to the base of the Compartment forms
the northeastern boundary, while the eastern boundary
is a swath cut through to the base of Ox Hill (Fig* 1)* Figure mpartment A“ lephone Line 1591. '603 '6 0* IT? IS OK /
management procedures to carry out in this Compartment, various studies of the fauna and flora of the area have been undertaken* Of the numerous studies in progress during 1936-1938, brief mention may be made of only a few* One investigator, as part of his Master's work, is engaged in a grouse study with the purpose in view of determining the validity of the grid sample method of grouse census* A study of the flora on a mil-acre basis in this area has been partially completed* During the past year, porcupine food studies have been in pro¬ gress* Two students, for their individual problems in wildlife management, have carried on, for one school year, studies of two species of rabbits in the area* Another has been working on the feeding habits of chickadees with particular reference to their influence on gypsy moth egg abundance* Regular classwork has included studies of food habits of deer and rabbits, grouse populations, and forest type mapping.
The work described in this paper is an attempt to determine the type and amount of insect life in the forest floor, especially those insects available for wildlife 3
purposes* The problem itself can be resolved into two divisions* One division, ecological, is concerned with
the game species, the environment, the method of
collecting and treatment in the laboratory* The second
division, taxonomic and systematic, is concerned with
insect determination, lists of species obtained, and
analyses of data*
HISTORY
Numerous workers have undertaken various studies of
ecological habitats* One of the earlier workers, who
listed insects according to the stratum of the forest in
which they were found, was Ratzeburg* In 1866 he
published the first part of his work dealing with injury
done to forest trees in Germany* Under the various
species of trees he lists the injurious insects found in
the following zones or strata:
(1) In or on the leaves, flowers, or fruit.
C2) In or on buds, shoots, or branches*
(3) In or on stems*
(4) In or on roots. — 4
Later workers used a method of studying the environment
of the forest on the basis of several strata, such as
the soil, leaf (or forest floor)* herb and shrub strata *
Weese (1924) used this method, listing the species found
in an elm-maple forest in Illinois * Blake (1926) used
this same plan, contrasting the species found in the same
Illinois elm-maple forest with those of a Maine coniferous
forest* Other workers have undertaken similar ecological
studies in various plant habitats, among whom may be men¬
tioned Smith (1928), who followed Weese*s and Blake*s
methods in the study of a deciduous forest succession*
For reference purposes, the bibliography lists others who
studied the various environmental strata*
Another method of ecological study of a certain plant
area has been to investigate the fauna of only one environ¬
mental stratum* The data thus obtained can be used in
comparing the fauna of that stratum with other strata of
the same or different plant areas* Tullgren (1917,1918)
was among the earliest workers to study the forest floor
stratum in this manner* He was followed by Pillai (1921)
and von Pfetten (1925), both working in Bavaria*
Bornebusch (1930), a Danish worker, used Tullgrenfs
modification of Berlese's method* Tragardh*s work (1928,. 1932) on the forest floor in Swedish forests was more extensive than that of the earlier workers and is to be noted for the large numbers of animals collected in various types of forest floor. Snell (1933) made a study of humus insects but does not give a description of the humus studied, nor state to what depth her collections were made* Ulrich (1933) used the forest floor stratum as the basis for his comparison of insects in spruce, beech-oak, and beech types in Prussia*
Johnston (1936), working on the macrofauna of certain coniferous and hardwood types in the Harvard Forest at
Petersham, Massachusetts, listed the insects and other life according to the various layers of the forest floor and soil strata in which they were found* His collections were made to a depth of 14 inches and included not only the organic layer (forest floor) but also the dark enriched stratum and the light enriched stratum of the soil proper. SCOPE OF THE WORK
Forest Floor*
In the present study, the forest floor is the only stratum under consideration* • This stratum has been called by various names, and in order to define clearly what is meant by forest floor, the following description is included (Fig* II)•
The term "profile,” as applied to soil investigations* includes everything that is to be observed in a vertical cut through the soil exposing the various horizons
(Glinka, 1927)* In northern New England the regional distribution of coniferous forest is approximately coinci¬
dent with the distribution of the leached or podsol soils*
South of this northern coniferous forest is a hardwoods
region characterized by a different climatic soil formation,
the brown forest soils of which, with few exceptions,
develop a characteristic mull profile* Between these
two forest zones is a transition zone in which both types
of soil occur and it is possible to find types intermediate
between the extreme podsol and mull conditions (Griffith
et al*, 1930)* The most complex arrangement of strata
is to be found in the podsol profile which is typical under
the white pine-hemlock type of forest in this region* 4
A„ LITTER ZONE 0
Aq duff zone
A„ HUMUS ZONE 0
A. SOIL-HUMUS ZONE
A2 LEACHED ZONE
B. DARK BROWN ZONE
B2 LIGHT BROWN ZONE ; V
' v - C UNENRICHED ZONE ^
«nuGL,m.
I INCH 2.5 CM. SCALE
Fig. II. Profile Showing Typical Horizons of Podsol Soil. {After Griffith, Hartwell, and Shaw, 1930.) 7
The mass of leaves, needles, litter, and decomposing matter which covers the ground and which is often referred to as the litter, duff, or humus, is properly designated as the organic horizon*. The various strata or zones of this organic horizon are as follows (Griffith et al*,193Q):r
Aq - Litter zone - where no decomposition is apparent* o Aq -- Duff zone - where decomposition of litter is in progress but traces of litter are evident* 3 Aq — Humus zone - where organic matter has entirely disintegrated.
. . The remaining strata in the profile have the following '
' arrangementi
Ai “ Transition or soil humus zone - where decomposed organic matter is being incorporated into the leached mineral soil (may be a very thin layer)*
Ag - Leached zone - layer from which organic matter and colloids have been extracted by action of water and the organic acids; layer from which the soil formation derives its name*
The soil horizon below this, the enriched horizon
(B), is broken up into zones on the basis of color differentiation* Two zones, B^, the dark brown, and Bg, the light brown, are distinguished in the Figure* In some profiles it is necessary to further subdivide the enriched horizon into zones of upper and lov^er dark brown and upper and lower light brown* The mineral horizon (C) has not been enriched by deposition from the horizons above it*
The organic horizon of the various forest types on Mount Toby is of varying depths and will be further treated in the description of the environment or collecting area*
Survey of the Environment*
For the purposes of this study, six different forest types were chosen* These types are described in the order in which they were collected (Fig* III)*
1* Mixed hardwood type * This type has an area of one-half acre. It is located at the base of Ox Hill between a white pine type on the east and another white pine type on the west* A hardwood-softwood type borders it on the north, while another hardwood-softwood type
(See Type 6) horders it on the south* This mixed hard¬ wood type is composed of young hardwoods nine to twenty years of age, birch and maple predominating* Average diameter at breast height is three to five inches* FIG. 1(1
COrtRAR T/VEr/T-D
5ca /<2 /"~200' FOREST TYPES J — MIXED HARDWOODS TYPE
Alr-est 2 “ LARCH TYPE - 59 7/<7Cres.
Sh/&rno - /• 39 « 3 “ SWAMP TYPE
7o/&/ - QUO « WHITE PINE-HARDWOODS TYPE
J — HEMLOCK-PINE TYPE
0 — HARDWOODS-SOFTWOODS TYPE Average height of trees is about twenty feet, and crown cover is dense (Fig* IV)*
2* Larch type * This is a small plantation of one- quarter acre having trees sixteen to seventeen years of age, with a diameter at breast height of four to five
inches and an average height of approximately twenty-five feet* The lowest branches of the trees are about two
feet above ground with their tips touching the ground in
- ' v . , ■ ' - - * •' •. " - . *\ many instances* The trees are spaced about four feet
apart and have an understory planting of Norway spruce
two to three feet high* This larch plantation is bordered
on the north partially by the swamp type described in No* 3
and partially by a hemlock-softwood type* On the east it
is bounded by another swamp type; southerly by a red pine
plantation which extends to the west (Fig* V).
3* Swamp type * An area slightly more than three-
tenths of an acre of birch and alder trees, diameter
breast high being three to four inches and the height
approximately ten feet* Its age is twenty to twenty-five
years* The lowest branches are about eight feet from the
ground and the trees are bunched in clumps, about three
feet between clumps* This type is bounded on the south Mixed Hardwoods Forest Type. Fig. V. Larch Forest Type Fig. VI. Swamp Forest Type. Fig. VII. White Pine-Hardwood Forest Type. by the larch type No* 2, on the west by a white pine stand, and on the northern and eastern sides by the hemlock-softwood type mention in the description under
Type 2 (Fig* VI)*
4. White pine - hardwood type» This type has an area of about three acres and consists of scattered white pines and various hardwoods of uneven size and age*
It is located north of the swamp type No. 3, and on the northern and western sides, respectively, is bounded by a hardwood-softwood and a mixed hardwood stand* A larch stand also forms part of the western boundary* On the east it is bounded by the hemlock-pine type No. 5 (Fig*
VII).
5* Hemlock-pine type * The largest type in which collections were made has an area of nearly eighteen acres and comprises the northern third of Compartment D*
It is composed of trees fifty to seventy-five years of age with a diameter at breast height of ten to sixteen inches*
The trees in the collecting area had a dense crown cover and the forest floor was the thickest of any of the six forest types studied* The northeastern boundary of this type conforms to the northeastern boundary of theCompartment Fig. VIII. Hemlock-Pine Forest Type. Fig. IX. Hardwoods-3oftwood Forest Type. itself * Its other boundaries can best be determined by looking at the map (Fig* VIII)*
6. Hardwood-softwood type * An area of three and one- quarter acres which is located at the base or eastern side of the compartment, composed of hemlocks with a scattering of birch, ash, and other deciduous trees* The average age is fifty-five to sixty-five years, with a diameter at breast height of eight to twelve inches* The crown cover of that part of the area in which collections were made is of a medium density* This type is bordered on the south by the main trail leading from the base of the Compartment to the summit of Mount Toby* The forest type on the south is of a softwood-hardwood composition, while that on the west and north is of hardwood-softwood* On the east it is bordered by a mixed hardwood, a pine, and a hardwood- softwood type (Fig* IX)
Each of the above six forest types has a characteristic kind of forest floor, which will be briefly described as followsi
1. Mixed hardwood forest floor* The thickness of the organic horizon in the mixed hardwood forest type ranged from one to two inches, the latter thickness being recorded only once* The average thickness of the forest fl
Fig. X. Mixed Hardwoods Forest Floor and Soil Profile.
■ floor was 1*45 inches* The litter and duff were loosely arranged and consisted of leaves and some dead branches* The humus was likewise loosely arranged and growing through it were numerous roots of the vege¬ tation in this type (Fig* X) *
2* Larch forest floor * This type, it should be
remembered, is a plantation of sixteen to seventeen years
of age* As yet there has been no thick accumulation of
litter with corresponding thick layers of duff and humus*
Nowhere in this type did the thickness of the forest
floor exceed 1*5 inches, while thickness of 0*5 inches
were recorded twice* The average thickness was nearly
1 (0*96) inch* The litter being of finer material, such
as larch needles and other small leaves, was more compact
than that of the hardwood type described in No* 1, while
the duff and humus zones were very thin layers (Fig* XI)*
3* Swamp forest floor* The swamp type had next to
the thickest forest floor of all six types* The depths
varied from 1*25 to 2*5 inches, vdiile the average thickness
was 1*8 inches* The litter consisted almost entirely of
birch and alder leaves with numerous twigs which extended
to the duff and humus layers* These latter areas were Fig. XII. Swamp Forest Floor and Soil Profile.
F*ig. XIII. White Pine-Hardwoods Forest Floor and Soil Profile. readily distinguished but no attempt was made to determine the depth or thickness of each individual layer (Fig. XII)*
4* te pine - hardwood forest floor* The range of the forest floor thickness was greatest in this type*
A low of 1 inch was recorded several times, while a high of 3 inches was recorded only once* The average thick¬ ness was 1*5 inches*. It should be noted that collections in this forest type were always taken three to four feet from the base of a white pine tree, where accumulations of litter were more likely to be found*. Litter consisted chiefly of pine needles, with an abundance of hardwood leaves, especially oak. The various layers of the organic horizon were easily distinguished in collections made at a distance of 3 to 4 feet from the base of the tree* At greater distances from the trunk, the forest floor became thinner and its component layers were not so readily distinguishable (Fig. XIII)*
5. Hemlock-pine forest floor* The thickest forest floor of the six forest types was recorded in the hemlock- pine area* It ranged from 1*5 to 3 inches, the average thickness being 2*2 inches* The forest floor in this type was springy and compact, resembling a carpet* The various ! ~3
Fig. XV. Hardy/oods-Softwoods Forest Floor and Soil Profile. 14 ~
layers of the organic horizon were easily recognized, more so than in any of the other types * The litter was a compact mass of hemlock and pine needles with occasional hardwood leaves blown in from a neighboring type.- Numerous fine twigs intertwined the materials of the litter, duff, and humus zones* Low-lying vege¬ tation was scarce in this habitat, and very few roots were noticed in the organic matter of this carpet-like stratum (Fig. XIV).
6. Hardwood-softwood forest floor. The litter of this forest floor was a heterogeneous mass of hardwood leaves, twigs, and hemlock needles. Its thickness ranged from 1 to 2.5 inches, while the average thickness was 1.4 inches. Numerous dead branches which were found underneath the top layer of leaves and needles had to be cut through in order to collect the usual foot-square sample. The duff and humus zones were thin layers often intertwined with trailing roots (Fig. XV).
The individual and average depths of forest floor samples from the six forest types are shown in Table I. TABLE I
THE DEPTHS OF FOREST FLOOR, THE AVERAGE DEPTH (IN INCHES),
AND THE AVERAGE TOTAL VOLUME (IN CUBIC INCHES)
Date Mixed White pine- Hemlock- Hardwoods- _Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods Pine Softwoods
1936
Qct*23 Oct *30 1*5 2* 1.5 2* 1*5 Nov*13 1*5 2. 1.5 2* 1.5 Nov*20 1.5 1* 2. 2. 2.5 1*5 Nov*2? 1.5 1. 1*5 3. 3. 1.5 Dec* 4 1*25 1* 1.5 2. 2*5 1*5 Dec *18 1*5 1*25 1.25 1*75 2*25 1.5 1937
Jan * X 1*5 1» 1*5 1*5 2*5 2*5 Jan*15 1*5 1. 2*5 2*5 2*5 1*5 J an * 29 1*5 1 ♦ 2* 1. 2* 2. Feb*12 2 1. 2*5 1. 1.5 1*5 Feb *26 1*5 1. 2. 1. 2. 1. Ma r *12 1* *5 2* 1. 2. 1. Ma r.25 2* 1* 2. 2. 1*5 1. Apr* 9 1*5 1. 2* 1* 2. 1.5 Apr *16 1 • 1« 2. 1.5 2*5 1. Apr*23 1.5 1. 1*5 1*5 2*5 1. Apr *30 1*5 1 * 1*5 1* 2. 1.5 May 7 1. .5 1*5 1. 2* 1.5 May 14 1 *5_1 * 1*5 1. 1.5 1.5
Average Depth 1*46 0*96 1.84 1*51 2*14 1.44
Total Volume 2X0*2 137*6 265* 2X5*1 308.2 207.5 METHODS AND TECHNIQUE
Location of Collecting Plots»
The plots were generally located near the periphery of Compartment D (Fig. Ill, plot map gives exact locations)- Forest types were chosen on a basis of availability. The coniferous types, the hemlock-pine type No* 5, and the larch type No* 2 were chosen because these types are ordinarily considered to be poor game range. It seemed desirable to compare these two types with types more favorable for game, such as the mixed hardwood type No. 1, the swamp type No. 3, the white pine- hardwood type No. 4, and the hardwood-softwood type No.6.
Within each forest typ9 an area with a radius of usually not more than 25 feet was designated as the collecting site, or plot, inside of which all samples of forest floor were taken.
Typical Sample of Forest Floor*
At the beginning of the study it was felt that there should be two samples from each forest type, one sample to consist of one square foot and the other of two square feet. The square foot sample, designated as the
laboratory sample, was collected and placed in a
properly labeled bag, and brought into the laboratory
for further treatment and study* The two-square-foot*
sample, called the field sample, was examined in the
field for insect forms, and these were identified later*
This arrangement was carried on for only five weeks*
because the field examination of the two-square-foot
sample proved to be vastly inferior to the laboratory
treatment of the square foot sample described later in this paper*
Method of Collecting Samples *
The site for collecting was selected, about 4 feet
from the nearest tree or, if the trees were spaced less
than 4 feet apart, then at an equal distance between two
trees* Such a selection was used in order to obtain an area with an average depth or thickness of forest floor*
If the collecting area was nearer a tree, the ground cover was likely to be thicker than average, because of the accumulation of organic matter around the roots of the tree* In some instances the forest floor close to a tree was of very shallow depth, due to the action of wind - 18
rain, and gravity* Furthermore, tree roots were less
likely to be encountered at a distance of 4 feet from the trunk*
After the site of the sample area was selected, the
foot-square sample was measured with a rule and the
organic matter therein was scooped up with a trowel into
a fine cloth bag* Care was taken during this operation not to disturb the soil beneath the humus zone* During
the winter, when the ground was frozen, an ax was used in place of the trowel* All laboratory samples were then brought into an unheated greenhouse before they underwent further treatment*
Without exception, all samples were collected in the afternoon, usually between 1:30 and 3:00. Weather conditions were noted on each collecting day, and air temperatures were taken at the mixed hardwood collecting site* In addition to this, a record was kept at the time of collection of whether or not the ground cover and soil were frozen (Table II)* — 19
TABLE II
WEATHER, SOIL, AND FOREST FLOOR CONDITIONS AT TIME
OF COLLECTION OF THE SAMPLES
Date Weather Soil and Forest Floor 1936 Gct*23 Cloudy and misty. Both not frozen. No snow* 60° F* Oct*30 Clear. No.snow. 50° F* Both not frozen. Nov *13 Clear* No snow. 36° F* Both not frozen*. No v * 27 Clear* 1 1/2” snow (Fell Forest floor frozen. Nov.23)* 26° F* Dec * 4 Fair* 2 1/2” snow* 26° F* Forest floor frozen. Dec*18 Clear* 1" snow. 2Q° F*. Both frozen. 1937 Jan* 1 Cloudy* Snow gone. 40° F* Both frozen* J an *15 Clgudy. Rain on Jan.14* Soil frozen. Forest floor not frozen. Jan*29 Fair. 2H snow since Both frozen* Jan. 15. 35° F. Feb *12 Clear. 3M snow* 45° F*- Both frozen. Feb *26 Clear. Snow down to 1M* Both frozen except in 32° F. swamp, where forest floor not frozen. Mar.12 Clear. 1" snow. 38° F* Both frozen. Mar*25 Cloudy. 1" mors snow since Both frozen.. Mar.12. 32° F. Apr. 9 Cloudy. 2" rain since Only soil frozen. Mar. 25. 35° F. Apr *16 Cloudy* Rain on Apr.15* Soil frozen in swamp 62° F* only. Apr*23 Clear. Snow and rain on Both not frozen. Apr*22. All gone by Apr*23. 42 F* Apr. *30 Clear. Rain on Apr.27,28,29. Both not frozen* 71° F. May 7 Cloudy* Rain in a*m* 64 F* Both not frozen. May 14 Light rain at time of Both not frozen* collection. 57° F*^ Laboratory Troatment - Historical*
The most efficient way so far discovered of driving insects out of the ground cover is by using the heat method* The Italian entomologist, Anton Berlese (1905), recognized this principle and was the first investigator to devise a funnel arrangement for driving insects out of various materials by the use of heat as the active agent
(Fig* XVI)* The original Berlese funnel was a box-like arrangement supported on a stand* The box was a water jacket surrounding a funnel at the top of which rested a sieve* The material to be treated was spread upon the sieve* A gas burner underneath the water jacket heated the water to a temperature of 70° to 100° F* The heat rising therefrom caused the fauna to fall down through the funnel to a collecting vial below*
Tullgren (1917,1918) substituted an electric light bulb for the water jacket as the source of heat in his apparatus* With this modification, he obtained soil sample temperatures up to 122*2° F* Pillae (1921), a
Bavarian worker, used Tullgren’s method for driving out the fauna of litter samples of pine woods. He used a o e
Fig. XVI. Original Berlese Funnel. A, burner used to heat water (C) in the water jacket (B) surrounding the funnel (D). E, organic matter rest¬ ing on screen (E* ) over funnel (D). F, funnel through which water is introduced into the water jacket(B). G, outlet for emptying the water jacket. H, supporting stand of fun¬ nel. I, collecting vial connected by wide rubber band (J) to apex of funnel (K)•
* 21
sample of one square meter underneath a 200 candle power bulb* His collections were taken from May to December*
Von Pfetten (1925) used Pillai's method with good results. Tragardh (1928) improved upon the method used by Tullgren, Pillai, and von Pfetten* He recognized that these early workers made no attempt to use different temperatures or to check on the efficiency of their methods*
Tragardh (1933) discusses the results obtained by using a 40 watt lamp, a 25 watt lamp, and room temperature*
His apparatus is shown in Figure XVII* His results are referred to in a later section of this paper* Bomebusch
(1930), in Denmark, used Tullgren1s apparatus with a
35 candle power electric bulb* Ulrich (1933) used an apparatus which was equipped with a special socket box inserted between the collection vial and the end of the funnel* This box served to catch soil particles and debris while insects falling into it crawled to the collecting vial which had water in it as an attractant.
He used a 150 watt bulb, which resulted in air temperatures of 140° F* and material temperatures of 113° F*
One of the later workers to use the Tullgren and
Tragardh modification of the Berlese funnel is Johnston*
In his work on the macrofauna of the soils (1936), Fig. XVII. The Tragardh Apparatus. (After Tragardh, 1933.) A, circu¬ lar disc of cardboard covering the tin funnel (B). (Marginal incisions in the disc, for escape of humidity, not shown.) C, electric bulb; D, metal ring holding a sieve upon which rests the material to be treated (!); F, glass funnel surrounded by a copper funnel (G); H, supporting stand; I, collecting cup. Johnston used a battery of five funnels wherein he treated
the ground stratum according to its respective zones or
layers * His apparatus differs from Tragardh's in that
the Tragardh funnel had only one screen (holding the
material) whereas Johns ton1s funnel had three screens
whose arrangement was similar to that of the funnel used
in the Mount Toby study * Johnston found that a 25 watt
bulb would remove all forms of the macrofauna and at
least 95 per cent of all individuals.
Description of Apparatus-
In this study, a battery of four funnels modeled
after the Johnston adaptation of the Tragardh funnel was
used (Fig* XVIII)* Each funnel was manufactured of
galvanized sheet iron and consisted of the funnel proper,
its three screens, a cover, and the electric light bulb
(Figs* XIX, XX)* The funnel itself was 11 1/2 inches high and was supported by a three-legged stand so that the
small end of the funnel was about 5 inches above the level
of the supporting stand* The three screens (Fig* XXI) of
each funnel were as follows: (1) A top pan with a diameter
of 17 inches and a side of sheet iron 3 inches high and with a bottom of 1/4 inch mesh screen* This screen-pan 2 ~x
Fig. XVIII. Modification of tlie Tragardh Funnel Used in the Mt. Toby Study. A, cover; B, thermometer for air temper- tures above the organic material; C, thermometer for temperatures of the or¬ ganic material; D, electric bulb; F,E», two of the three lugs by means of which the cover (A) rests on screen-pan (F); G, organic material in screen-pan (F); H, i inch screen at bottom of screen- pan; K, second screen of one-eighth inch mesh; L, third screen of one- sixteenth inch mesh; M, collecting vial- N, support for collecting vial. A •. -wrV- •
Fig. XIX. The Component Parts of the Tragardh Modified Eeat Funnel Used in the Mt. Toby Study. A, cover ‘showing four holes at margin (1,2,3, and 4) for escape of humidity and for the introduction of thermometers and one hole in the center at (5) for the electric bulb; B, second screen; C, top screen-pan; D, bottom screen; S, funnel. Fig. XX. Interior View of Cover and Funnel of the Modified Tragardh Apparatus. A, cover with four marginal holes at 1,2,3,and 4, the electric bulb at (5) and the supporting lugs (by means of which the cover rests on the screen-pan) at 6,7, and 8. B, inside of funnel with three lugs at 9,10, and 11 upon which rests the screen-pan. - 23
rested on three equidistant pegs, one-half inch from the top of the funnel proper* (2) The middle screen of one-eighth inch mesh and 12 inches in diameter was located 4 inches below the top screen* It had an edge of sheet iron 1 inch wide slanting at the same inclina¬ tion as the funnel* This edge was provided with two narrow openings into which fitted two pegs soldered on the inside of the funnel* (3) The last screen of 1/16 inch mesh and 8 inches in diameter was 21/2 inches below the middle screen* It had the same slanting border and peg arrangement as had the middle screen*
The first screen held the material to be treated, while the smaller meshes of the second and third screens prevented the passage of most of the soil and small parti¬ cles of debris into the collecting vial*
The apex of the funnel was surrounded by a piece of copper tubing 1 inch long and 1 inch in diameter* With such an arrangement, a 6-dram vial with an opening of
14 mm* could be inserted inside the copper tubing next to the funnel* In the Johnston apparatus this copper tubing was replaced by a spring-like bank which gripped the neck of the vial, holding it securely in place* In addition to the 6-dram vials, bottles with openings slightly larger Fig. XXI. The Three Screens of the Modified Tragardh Apparatus. A, bottom or third screen of one-six- teentli inch mesh; B, second or middle screen of one- eighth inch mesh; C, top screen-pan of one-quarter inch mesh. , 'r . 1
. •:
Va. .... ■ -v
. . >•* .
•» * «• * -.*'1
Fig* 2211. Two Modified Tragardh Heat Funnels with Different Types of Collecting Yials. A, apex of fun¬ nel at (1) surrounding the neck (2) of the collecting vial; B, apex of funnel (1) received into the neck (2) of the collecting vial. 24
than 1 inch could be placed under the funnel to receive the copper tubing (Fig* XXII)*
The cover of the funnel measured 19 inches in diameter and 11 inches deep, and was provided with three lugs on the inside wall (Fig. XX). This served to support the cover on the top screen. Four holes, 1 inch in diameter, provided for the escape of excessive humidity through the top of the cover and were used to introduce the thermometers into the interior. An electric light bulb was suspended from a fifth hole in the center of the cover*
Preparation of Sample.
In the fall and spring, samples were allowed to remain in the greenhouse until the excessive moisture had evaporated* When the sample had become sufficiently dry and the fauna had become active, it was brought from the unheated greenhouse into the laboratory for the preliminary examination and treatment. Samples that could not be dried in the unheated greenhouse during the cool winter months were allowed to dry at room temperature, o o 70 - 75 F., until all excessive moisture had evaporated* This was accomplished usually in 12 to 24 hours* The sample was then emptied from the bag onto a white oil¬ cloth, where the compact organic material was broken up into a loose mass so that no clumps of leaves or organic matter remained* This facilitated the thorough desiccation of the organic matter in addition to making it possible for the fauna to move through the material more readily. Any large active forms that were seen at this preliminary examination were placed in the vial reserved for that particular sample*
Heat Treatment*
After the sample had been prepared, it was trans¬ ferred to the top screen of the funnel where it was evenly distributed, usually to a depth of 1 to 1 1/2 inches.
The cover was then put in place over the funnel and a collecting vial containing 80 per cent alcohol was put in place under the small end of the funnel*
The sample was allowed to remain in the funnel apparatus for 24 hours, with a 40 watt bulb as the source of heat* Temperatures inside the material and of the air above it were noted at the end of 12 and 24 hours* If at the end of 24 hours the material was still moist, or if 26
any active forms were visible, the sample was returned for further heat treatment of 12 to 24 hours * However, it was found that the 24 hour treatment with the 40 watt bulb was sufficient to drive out most of the fauna, with the exception of a few ticks and spiders* Samples that had undergone complete treatment were examined thoroughly for forms that may not have been able to pass through the top screen* The other two screens were examined also* and if specimens were noted, they were placed in the proper collecting vial*
Temperatures inside the material undergoing treatment were higher than the air temperatures above it. One temperature reading was taken 12 hours after treatment had begun, and another was taken at the completion of the heat treatment* The average of these readings was 100*4° F* for the temperature inside the material, and 93*6° F* for the air temperature above it* These temperatures, along with desiccation of the material, were attained gradually in order to avoid mortality of fauna due to excessive and rapid changes in physical conditions* Along with the drying of the material from the top downward, there was a corresponding downward migration of the fauna to excape the heat and desiccation. The hardier forms, such as the ticks and spiders, were the last to leave the sample, - 27
whereas the moisture-loving forms, such as dipterous larvae and Collembola, were among the first to leave
the drying material*
The superiority of the heat funnel over repellents
or ordinary room temperature as a method of driving
insects out of the ground cover is well shown in the
following examples* A sample of birch-alder swamp
ground cover collected October 30, 1936, was divided
into three parts and allowed to dry for three days at
room temperature (70° — 75° F*)» At the end of this
time the three parts were examined and the numerous forms
collected from them were counted* The remaining forms
that were still visible in the material were counted also*
Another sample of birch-alder swamp ground cover collected
November 13, 1936, equal to the October 30th sample in
composition and area, was subjected to the heat treatment
in the funnel* The numbers of insects collected in each
of these methods are shown in the following table!
October 30 November 13 (Room Temp*) (Heat Treatment)
Collembola 101 1,000
Adults (other than Collembola) 6 14
Pupae 0 1
Larvae 21 89 The above table indicates the superiority of the heat
treatment. Possibly the population of insects collected
on November 13th was influenced by environmental condl—
tions, which caused the organisms to seek shelter in the
ground cover. However, the soil was not frozen, and
the temperature on and between October 30th and November
13th varied but slightly* Another comparison was made between the heat method
and treatment with repellents such as pine tar oil,
naphthalene flakes, and carbon disulphide* For this
comparison, a hardwoods type sample collected October 30,
1936 and another collected November 13, 1936, were used.
The October 30th sample was divided into three parts and
each part treated with a different repellent. The
November 13th sample was treated in the heat funnel* The
table below gives the results of this comparison*
October 30 November 13 _Repellent Treatment_ Heat Treatment Pine Naphtha- Carbon Tar lene Disul- Oil Flakes phide Total_Total
Collembola 5 a a 21 721
Adults (other than Collembola) 0 0 0 0 0 0 Pupae 0 0 o 0 19 Larvae 7 0 6 13 29
In using repellents some mortality occurred within the material, thereby resulting in a smaller total catch.
The inefficiency of the repellent method was further illustrated by the fact that many active forms were still present after being subjected to this method for 24 hours.
Method of Counting the Collembola.
Collembola in every sample were very numerous, and in order to economize on time and labor in counting, a system of estimating their numbers, rather than counting, was devised. The vial containing the fauna collected from the treated sample was emptied into a petri dish
1/2 inch deep and 4 inches in diameter* This dish was marked by four diametrical lines, making eight equal sections. The adults and larvae of insect orders other than Collembola were removed and counted individually.
The Collembola were then distributed equally over the eight sections of the dish. If the Collembola were few, that is, 200 or less, they were counted individually.
If, however, they were more numerous, the number of species was noted, and the number of each species was counted in four of the eight sections. This number, multiplied by — 30
two, gave an estimate of the entire sample which did not vary greatly from the actual number, as was shown by actual count of several samples.
ANALYSIS OF DATA
Weese (1924) in his study of various strata of an elm-maple forest in Illinois did not list any Collembola in the leaf and soil strata* Blake (1926) in a similar study listed a few Collembola collected from the leaf and soil strata, but did not give the exact numbers. These workers did not use heat to drive the fauna from the soil and leaf strata, but treated their samples with ether after they were brought into the laboratory* Then they collected the fauna by visual examination of the samples* Other workers have made ecological studies of the ground cover, listing the species therein, but have not used the heat method of driving out the fauna*
Consequently their results may not have been a true indication of the total fauna present. Snell (1933) used a Berlese-like method in her work on insects of the humus*
Unfortunately, she did not describe the exact method used, nor did she define the limits of the humus layer in which she collected*- Johnston (1936) used an adaptation of the Tragardh heat funnel for collecting the fauna of the various strata of the ground cover*
During the seven months, October 1936 to May 1937,
116 samples of ground cover were removed from the six forest types in 20 collections* The total number of insects from these samples was 58^-445. Of this number,
51,702 were Collembola, 744 were adults of other orders,
65 were hemipterous nymphs, 25 were dipterous pupae,
5 were immature Corrodentia, and 5,904 were larvae* In addition, 372 specimens of spiders were collected* An annotated list of the insects and spiders collected in the six forest types is as followst
Adults
COLLEMBOLA (Table VIII)
Suborder Arthropleona
Family Foduridae
Subfamily Achorutinae
Achorutes sp* Cl)
Achorutes sp. (2)
Achorutes armatus Nicolet
Achorutes harveyi Folsom
Brachystomella sp*
Brachystomella parvula Schaff&r Subfamily Neanurinae
Neanura sp *
Neanura muscorum Templeton
Pseudachorutes sp. (1)
Pseudachorutes sp. (2)
Pseudachorutes aureofasciatus Harvey
Pseudachorutes complexus MacGillivray
Pseudachorutes lunatus Folsom
Subfamily Onychiurinae
Onychjuris sp.
Onychluris subtenuis Folsom (Table VI)
Family Entomobryidae
Subfamily Entomobryinae
Lepidocyrtus cyaneus Tullberg
Pseudosinella sp.
Pseudosine11a Candida Folsom, var*
Qrchesella hexfasciata Harvey
Subfamily Isotominae
Folsomia elonga ta MacGillivray
Folsomia fimetaria L.
Isotoma sp.
Isotoma violacea Tullberg
Isotoma violacea caeruleatra Guthrie
Subfamily Tomocerinae
Tomocerus lamellif6rus Mills
Tomocerus flavescens Tullberg
Tomocerus flavescens americanus Schott Suborder Symphypleona
Family Sminthuridae
Note* In the following, these abbreviations are used:
Hd - Mixed hardwoods type
L - Larch type
S - Swamp type
W - White pine-hardwoods type
H - Hemlock-pine type
HH - Kardwoods-softwoods type
THYSANURA
Campodeidae
Campodea fragilis Mein* Apr*16 HH, 2 Apr*23 HH, 6 May 7 HH, May 14 Hd, May 14 W, May 14 HH
DIPTBRA
Cecidomyiidae, May 7 H*
Johnsonomyia sp* May 14 HH.
Leptosyna sp. 4 May 14 W*
Cordylomyia. sp. May 7 HH.
Ceratopogonidae
Pseudocullcoides mutabilis Coquillet, May 7 HH* Chironomidae
Qrthocladius (Orthocladius) flavoscutellatus Malloch Mar-25 W-
Orthocladius (Qrthocladius) subparallelus Mlloch, Apr- 23 HH.
Qrthocladius sp. Apr- 16 H, Apr- 23 S, Apr. 30 Hd.
Empidae
Leptopeza comptu Coquillet, May 14 Hd.
Muscidae, Oct. 30 S.
Mycetophilidae
Allodia sp. May 14 S.
Boletina sp. Mar. 12 S.
Exechia sp- Oct. 30 W-
Pnyxia sp- 3 Dec- 4 HH, Jan- 29 H, Feb. 26 W, Fib- 26 H, Mar. 12 S, 2 Apr. 16 H, Apr. 23 Hd, Apr. 30 H, May 7 L, May 14 S, May 14 H, May 14 HH-
Sciara sp. Feb. 26 VT, 5 May 7 H, 2 May 14 H.
Sciara (Sciara) sp. Feb- 12,S, Apr. 30 S, May 7 L-
Phoridae
Megasalia sp. May 14 Hd, May 14 f.
Scatopsidae
Reichertella sp. May 7 H- — 35 —
HEMIPTERA
Nabidae
Nab is anrrulatus Reuter, Oct. 30 S.
Nab is sordidus Reuter, Nov. 20 Hd*
Tingidae
Corythuca juglandis Fitch, Oct. 30 S, Nov. 13 S, 5 Nov. 27 W, 4 Dec. 18 S, Jan. 15 S, Jan. 29 S, Jan. 29 W, May 7 S.
HOMOPTERA
Cherraidae (Psyllidae)
Pachysylla sp. Apr. 9 HE.
HYHENOPTERA
Eraconidae
Heterospilus sp. May 14 W.
Forraicidae
Myrmicinae
Aphaenogaster fulva Roger, Nov. 27 W, 5 Jan. 29 H, 2 Apr. 9 W, 2 Apr. 30 Hd.
Aphaenogaster fulva aquia (Buckley) Emery, May 7 H.
Aphaenogaster tennesseensis Mayr, Nov. 20 W, Jan. 15 W, 3 Feb. 26 3, Mar. 12 S, Apr. 9 S, Apr. 16 H, May 7 W.
Eeptothorax curvispinosus Mayr, 4 Apr. 9 S*
Leptothorax longlspinosus Roger, 7 Jan. 15 S, 5 Feb. 12 Hd, 4 Feb. 26 S, Apr. 16 Hd, 3 Apr. 30 W, 50 May 7 HH.
Leptothorax sp. 2 Apr. 30 H, 6 Apr. 30 HH. 36
Carnpono tinae
Carnponotus herculearns ligniperda noveboracensis Fitch, Mar. 12 Hi
Carnponotus herculeanus pennsylvanicus De Geer, Mar. 25 5*
Formica Sp* Nov. 20 S.
Formica fuse a Var. 4 May 7 3*
Formica fusca subsericea Say, May 7 S.
Lasius sp* May 14 H.
Lasius niger americanus Emery, 18 Jan* 15 W, 164 Feb* 12 S, Apr. 23 3, May 14 S*
Ceraphronidae
Aphanogmus marylandicus Ash* Feb. 26 L*
Aphanogmus varipes Ash* Nov. 27 HH, Dec* 18 HH*
Ceraphron sp* Nov. 27 Hd*
Ceraphron auripes Ash* 3 Dec* 18 W, Dec. 4 Hd*
Ceraphron basalis Ash* Dec. 18 W, 2 Mar. 12 H, Mar. 25 HH, Apr. 16 H, Apr. 30 Hd, Apr. 30 May 7 H, May 14 HH*
Ceraphron melanocephalus Ash* Oct. 30 H, Dec. 4 HH, Jan. 1 H, Jan. 1 Hd, Feb. 26 S, Mar. 12 Hd, 2 Mar. 12 L.
Ceraphron punctatus Ash. Jan. 1,S*
Lagynodes sp. Oct. 30 W, Dec. 4 W, Dec. 18 W, Jan* 1 Vf, Jan* 1 HH, Jan. 1 H, Jan* 15 S, Jan* 15 W, Jan. 29 W, Apr. 9 Hd, Apr. 16 S, Apr. 30 S, May 7 Hd*
Cynipidae, May 14 Vf*
Diapriidae, Apr. 30 S*
Paramesius Sp* Nov. 12 S — 37
Eulophidae
Necremnus sp* May 7 HH, May 14 HH*
Miscogasteridae
Protolepsis Sp* May 7 Hd.
Platygasteridae
Eritrissomerus sp* May 14 HR*
Scelionidae
Aeolus sp. Jan. 15 HH, Jan. 29 W9 Feb. 12 W, Mar* 12 W, Mar. 23 S, Mar. 25 H*
Telenomus sp. Mar. 12 Vlf*
Telenomus persimilis Ash* Feb* 12 W*
Scelionini, May 14 S*
COLEOPTERA
Carabidae
Bembidion frontale Lee* Nov. 13 S, 2 Nov. 20 S* Apr. 16 5*
Bembidion versicolor Lee* Apr. 16 L*
Bothriopterus pennsylvanicus Lqc. Apr. 30 S*
Carabus limbatus Say, May 14 Hd*
Cymindis neglecta Raid* Oct. 30 H*
Platynus atratus Lee. Jan* 15 S*
Tachycellus frosti Fall, Mar. 25 W*
Trechus borealis Schaeffer, Oct. 23 S Chrysomelidae
Diabrotica vittata Fab. Oct. 23 WV
Qedionychis subvittata Horn, Oct. 23 Hd.
Goccinellidae
Anatis quindecimpunctata Oliv. Dec. 4 Hd, Jan. 29 Hd.
Anatis quindecimpunctata mall Say, Mov. 13 S.
Hyperaspis disconotata Muls. Dec. 4 Hd.
Cryptophagidae
Anchlcera ephippiata Zimm. Apr. 16 S.
Curculionidae
Acalles carinatus Lee* Nov. 20 HH.
Anthonomus sp. May 14 Hd.
Apion walshi Sm. Oct. 30 W, Jan. 15 HH*
Brachyrhinus ovatus L. Nov. 13 H, Nov. 20 H, Dec. 4 Hd Jan. 1 H, Feb. 26 S, Mar. 25 L, Apr. 9 W*
Conotrachelus anaglypticus Say, Oct. 23 HH*>
Panscopus erinaceus Say, Apr. 16 L.
Sciaphilus muricatus Fab. Oct. 23 HH, Oct. 23 W, 5 Oct. 30 W, 4 Nov. 20 % 3 Nov. 27 W, Dec. 4 Hd.
Derodontiaae
Laricobius erichsoni Rosenh. Jan. 1 H.
Elateridaa
Agriotes stabilis Lee. Nov. 27 Hd.
Dolopius lateralis Esch. complex, Jan. 1 S*
Ludius hieroglyphicus Say, May 7 L Ludius propola Lee* Jan. 15 H, Apr. 16 H.
Ludius triundulatus Rand. 2 Apr. 23 H.
Melanotus saglttarius Lee. Jan. 29 HH-
Heloidae
Cyphon variabllis 'Thunb. Mar. 25 H*
Histeridae
Hister foedatus Lee. Apr. 30 W*
Hydrophilidae
Helophorus sp. Nov. 20 5.
Lampyridae
Lucidota corrusca L. Mar. 25 H-
Lathridiidae
Cartodere argus Reit. Oct. 30 H.
Melanophthalma distinguenda Com. Oct. 23 S, Nov. 27 H.
Nitidulidae
Cychramus adustus Er. May 7 H.
Orthopteridae (Corylophidae)
Orthopterns sp. Jan. 15 S.
Pselaphidae
Brachyglutini, 4 Mar. 12 W.
Euplectini, Oct. 30 S, Dec* 18 S, Apr. 16 S, 4 May 14 S.
Rybaxia sp- Oct. 30 W.
Tychus minor Lee. Nov. 13 S, Feb. 26 Hd, May 7 S* Ptilidae (Trichopterygidae)
PtIlium sp. Dec* 18 S, Mar. 12 S, Apr. 30 3.
Scaphidlidae
Baeocera sp. Nov. 27 W.
Baeocera apicalis Lee. Mar. 12 S.
Baeocera concolor Fab. Dec. 18 S, Jan. 29 S, Mar. 25 W.
Scarabaeidae
Dialytes striatulus Say, Oct. 30 S.
Series sericea Ill. Apr. 30 L, 3 Apr. 30 W, May 14 W, May14 H.
Scydmaenidae, Nov. 27 W, 2 Jan. 15 S.
Suconius occultus Csy. Jan. 15 S.
Scydmaenus badius Csy. Nov. 27 W, Dec. 4 HH.
Scydmaenus perforatus Schaum. Dec. 4 Hd.
Scydmaeninae, Dec. 4 HH, Jan. 29 IV, Mar. 12 W, Apr. 23 S, Apr. 30 W.
Staphylinidae
Aleocharinae, Nov. 20 L, 2 Dec. 4 Hd, Dec. 4 L, 7 Jan. 1 L, Jan. 15 L, 3 Jan. 15 S, Jan. 15 HH, Jan. 29 L, Jan. 29 W, 3 Feb. 12 L, 8 Feb. 26 L, Mar. 12 L, Mar. 12 S, Mar. 25 L, 2 Mar. 25 S, 2 Apr. 16 W, 2 Apr. 16 L, Apr. 16 S, 4 Apr. 23 L, Apr. 23 HH, Apr. 30 L, 2 Apr. 30 S, 3 May 7 L, 3 May 14 HH.
Astenus prolixus Er. Mar. 12 W.
Lathrobloma inops Csy. Nov. 27 S, Dec. 4 S, Dec. 4 HH, Dec. 18 S, 2 Jan. 15 S, Jan. 29 S, Jan. 29 W* Feb. 26 H, 2 Mar. 12 S, Mar. 25 S, Apr. 16 S, Apr. 16 W, Apr. 30 L, 2 May 7 S, May 7 H, 4 May 14 S Lathrobioma t enu i s Lee. Dec. 18 H, Apr. 23 W, Apr. 23 H
Philonthus nigrltulus Grav. 2 Oct. 30 S, 2 Nov. 20 HH, Feb. 26 S, Apr. 23 S.
Pseudopsis sulcata Newra. Nov. 23 S, Apr. 23 S*
Quedius fulvicollis Steph. Mar. 25 S, Apr. 23 W*
Mycetoporus flavicollis Lee. 3 Dec. 18 S, 2 Mar. 25 W*
Throscidae
Aulonothroscus constrictor Say, 5 Jan. 29 H.
THYSAN0PT2RA
Aeolo thripidae
Aeolothrips sp. 2 Oct. 30 H.
Thripidae
Scirtothrips sp. (Table III)
Thrips sp. 2 Jan. 15 S.
Idolothripidae
Glgantothrips sp. Mar. 12 W.
Glgantothrips flavipes (Hood), Jan. 29 W, Apr. 16 W*
Phioethripidae
Cryptothrips sp* Apr. 16 W.
Leptothrips sp* Nov. 13 HH, 2 Nov. 20 S, Nov. 27 W, Jan. 15 S, 3 Jan. 29 W, Feb* 12 W, 2 Apr. 9 Hd, Apr. 9 W, Apr. 16 H, Apr. 23 Hd, Apr. 23 H*
Ploethrips sp. Jan* 15 S.
Trichothrips sp. 2 Oct. 30 H. CORRODENTIA
Psocidae
Psocus sp •* Oct. 23 HH, Nov* 2 Feb. 12 W*
Nympha
Hemiptera
Lygaeidae - 31issinae
Homoptera
Chermidae
Fulgoridae
Fupae
Diptera
Bombylildae
Gecidomyiidae
Chironomidae
Cyclorrhapha
Leptidae
Mycetophilidae
Psychodidae
Tabanidae Larvae
Coleoptera (Table IX)
Alleculidae
Cantharidae
Cantharis sp.
Maithodes sp*
Carabidae
Cephaloidae
Cephaloon sp.
Cerambycidae
Eupogonius sp*
Chrysomelidae - Crytocephalina
Ciidae
Cleridae
Colydiidae
Curculionidae
Curculionini
Elateridae
Ludius sp*
Lagriidae
Lampyridae
Photuris sp.
Lathridiidae
Cartodere sp (possibly) 44 -•
Lycidae
Galoptgron Sp*
Os toraidae
Rhizophagidae
Scaphidiidae
Staphylinidae
Tachinus Sp*
Tenebrionidae
Diptera (Table X)
An thorny! idae
Fannia sp*
Bibionidae
Bibio albipennis Say
Cecidomyiidae
Ceratopogonidae
Chironomidae
Leptidae
Muscoidea
Phoridae
Megasalia sp*
Psychodidae
Rhagionidae
Chrysopilus sp. Stratiomyiidae
Geosargus sp. (near)
Tabanidae
Tipulidae
Molophilus sp*
MolophiIns hirtipennis O.S*
Tipula sp*
Trichocera sp*
Lepidoptera (Table XI)
Arctiidae
Gelechiidae
Geometridae
Helionidae
Lacosomidae
Lyonstiidae
Hoctuidae
Notodontidae
Orneodidae
Psychidae
Pyralididae
Tineidae
Tortricidae
Yponoraeutidae Class Aransas
Agelenidas, Nov. 20 HH.
Agelena sp. Jan. 29 S.
Cicurina sp. Jan. 1 W, Jan. 1 HH, May 7 HH, May 7 W, May 14 HH*
Cicurina brevis (Emerton), 2 Nov. 13 17.
Wadotes sp* Jan* 1 Hd, Feb* 12 S, Apr. 9 S*
Attidae
Dendryphantes sp* 3 Oct. 30 17.
Clubionidae, 5 Oct. 30 17, Nov. 13 17, Nov. 20 3, Nov. 27 If, Dec. 13 S, Jan* 15 S, Jan. 29 S, Jan. 29 W, Feb. 12 S, Mar. 12 W, Mar. 25 W, Mar. 25 S, Apr. 16 S, May 7 3.
Agroeca ornata Banks, May 7 S*
Clubiona sp* Oct. 30 17.
Clubiona abbotii L. Koch, 6 May 7 S*
Phrurolithus sp. Apr. 16 17*
Phrurotimpus sp* Oct. 30 W, Nov. 27 HH, Jan. 15 S, Feb. 26 S, Mar. 12 W, Apr. 30 Hd, Apr. 30 W*
Phrurotimpus alarius (Hentz*), Apr. 30 HH.
Dietynidas
Amaurobius sp* Mar. 25 W*
Lathys foxii (Marx), Oct. 23 W, Nov. 27 17.
Titanosca borealis (Emerton), 3 Nov. 20 Hd, Dec. 4 17, Dec* 18 S, Apr. 9 Hd, Apr* 9 HH, 2 Apr. 16 Hd, Apr. 30 Hd, May 7 HH, May 14 Hd.
Drassidae, 2 Feb. 12 If Linyphiidae
Cornicularia auranticeps Emerton, Jan. 15 WV
Erigone sp* Nov* 20 S.
Grammonota sp. Mar. 25 H.
Lepthyphantes sp. Jan. 29 HH.
Lepthyphantes zebra (Emerton), 2 Oct. 23 S.
jj^groneta persoluta (Cambridge), 12 Nov* 13 S, 2 Nov* 20 S, 2 Dec. 4 HH, Dec. 18 VST, 2 Dec. 18 S, Jan. 29 S, Feb. 12 W, 2 Feb* 12 S, 2 Feb. 26 5, Mar. 12 S, Mar. 12 W, Apr. 16 S, Apr. 23 S, May 7 Hd, May 14 S*
Tapinocyba minuta CEmerton), 3 Nov. 27 H, Dec. 4 Hd, 2 Jan. 1 H, 2 Jan. 29 HH, 2 Feb. 26 Hd, Apr. 23 H 2 May 7 H*
Lycosidae
Arctosa emertoni Gertsch, Jan. 1 Hd, Apr. 16 S*
Lycosa sp* May 14 Hd.
Pi rata sp. Nov. 20 S.
Pi rata Montanus Emerton, Nov. 30 HH, Apr. 23 Hd.
Microphantidae (subfamily Erigoninae of family Linyphiidae in Comstock. Many immature forms collected. Table IV)
Pholcidae
Spermophora meridionalis Hent2, Hov. 13 H.
Salticidae
Neon nellii Peckham , Apr. 23 S*
Sittlcus sp. Apr. 30 HH. Theridiidae, Nov. 13 HH, Dec. 4 H, Dec. 18 W, Jan. 1 Hd, 2 Apr. 9 Hd. *
Robertas sp. 2 Nov. 13 H, Nov. 20 H, Jan. 1 HH, Jan. 15 H, Jan. 29 S, Mar. 12 H, Apr. 16 HH, Apr. 23 Hd, Apr. 30 HH, May 7 Vt9 May 14 Hd, May 14 HH.
5?.b-9rtus rlparius (Keyserling), Nov. 13 HH, Jan. 15 H May 7 HH, May 14 HH.
Steadota borealis H0ntz, Dec. 18 L+ TABLE III
TOTAL SCIRTOIHRIPS SP. IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Mixed White Pine- Hemlock-Hardwoods- Date Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods Pine Softwoods Total
19 36 Oc t • S3 Oct. 30 Nov. 13 4 Nov. 20 2 Nov* 27 Dec. 4 1 Dec. 18 2
1937 Jan* 1 2 1 1 1 5 Jan. 15 4 3 7 Jan. 29 2 4 6 Feb. 12 Feb. 26 2 Mar. 12 4 1 Mar. 25 1 2 Apr. 9 2 Apr. 16 9 1 5 Apr. 23 2 Apr. 3Q 1 1 May 7 May 14 1
Total 27 1 I 7 23 32 91 50
TABLE IV
TOTAL MICROPHANTIDAE IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Mixed White Pine- Hemlock- Hardwoods- Date Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods_Pine Softwoods Total
1936
0 c t< *23 Oc t *30 3 6 Nov*13 4 5 Nov*2Q 1 2 16 No v * 2? 2 Dec* 4 1 1 4 Dqc*18 13 193?
Jan* 1 1 18 Jan*15 5 26 Jan*29 1 12 Feb*12 3 9 Feb*26 11 Mar*12 2 12 Mar *25 1 11 Apr. 9 2 8 Apr*16 19 Apr*23 1 23 Apr*30 5 11 May 7 1 9 May 14 2 8
Total 52 6 70 28 40 27 223 TABLE V
TOTAL ALL FORMS (INSECTS AND SPIDERS) IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Mixed White Pine* Hemlock* Hardwoods* Date Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods Pine Softwoods Total
1936
Oc t * 23 5 7 20 7 39 Oc t•30 34 130 131 2,849 72 3, 216 Nov.IS 745 1,118 2 404 2, 501 1,034 5,802 Nov. 20 353 154 304 211 413 304 1,739 Nov. 27 87 5Q6 115 254 332 113 1,407 Dec. 4 452 700 620 353 810 215 3,150 Dec .18 328 619 628 172 462 256 2,465
1937
Jan. 1 626 437 438 29 Q 589 296 2,676 Jan.15 953 303 586 289 749 1,607 4,487 J an * 29 404 95 505 207 420 318 1,949 Feb.12 148 274 785 18 114 160 1,499 Feb.26 154 608 654 448 448 170 2,482 Mar.12 259 301 679 224 278 48 1,789 Mar.25 254 332 426 458 221 452 2,143 Apr. 9 506 69 6 796 719 1,663 406 4,786 Apr.16 444 368 654 461 823 734 3,484 Apr.23 357 187 888 282 983 373 3,070 Apr.30 732 184 1,160 346 749 790 3,961 May 7 292 285 1,879 227 1,169 669 4, 521 May 14 360 354 1,051 557 1,001 829 4,152
Total 7,493 6,403 13,423 6,071 16,574 8,853 58,817 52
Of the 51,702 Collembola collected in the six forest
types (Table ¥111), nearly one-half, 25,570, were of one
species, Qnychiuris subtenuis Folsom* This small white
springtail was abundant in every type and in nearly every
sample collection* The hemlock-pine type had the greatest
number, 7,439, while the swamp type was second with 6,473.
The greatest number of Qnychiuris subtenuis Folsom from
any one sample was 1,350 collected in the swamp type of
May 7* No other species was collected in such large
numbers and so consistently throughout the seven months of
collecting. Table VI gives a complete list of all
specimens of this springtail collected.
Some of the other families and species of Collembola
that were numerous are listed in Table VII, according to
the forest type in which they were collected. The hemlock- pine forest floor had most specimens of Poduridae, as well
as m0st Qrchesella hexfasciata Harvey, Pseudosinella
.Candida Folsom, Folsomia elongata MacGillivray, and Folsomia
fimetaria L. It should be noted (Table VII) that Pseudo- sinella Candida Folsom did not appear in the mixed hard¬ woods and larch forest types, but that a large number, 400, was collected October 23 in the hemlock-pine type* 53
TABLE VI
TOTAL NUMBER ONYCHIURIS SUBTENUIS FOLSOM (COLLEMBOLA)
IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Mixed White Pine- Hemlock-Hardwoods- Date Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods_Pine Softwoods Total
1936
Oct*23 1 4 2 7 Oct*30 48 52 950 22 1,172 Nov*13 500 450 210 1,300 575 3,035 Nov*20 200 50 50 100 150 200 750 Nov*2? 50 48 25 100 95 23 341 Dec* 4 225 150 315 64 290 26 1,070 Dec*18 116 350 150 40 154 150 960
1937
Jan* 1 190 48 256 192 168 90 944 Jan *15 560 120 180 160 250 670 1,940 Jan*29 224 65 210 90 180 150 919 Feb.12 16 122 310 64 44 556 Feb*26 45 360 310 50 216 80 1,061 Mar*12 80 56 310 112 120 30 708 Mar*25 120 72 181 166 122 300 961 Apr* 9 270 450 288 371 248 232 1,859 Apr*16 80 104 476 72 204 120 1,056 Apr.23 80 88 36Q 184 285 320 1,317 Apr*30 293 90 750 175 394 163 1,865 May 7 90 176 1,350 50 400 245 2,311 May 14 80 75 464 30 235 330 1,214
Total 3,220 2,424 6,483 2,222 5,825 3,772 23,946 54
TABLE VII
TOTAL NUMBERS OF MORE ABUNDANT SPECIES AND FAMILIES
OF C0LLEM30LA. IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Species or Mixed White Pine- Hemlock-Hardwoods-
Folsomia fimetaria 1 ,171 904 973 770 2,978 1,380 MacG*
Folsomia elongata L* 988 1,934 755 194 2,471 1,722 Isotoma violacea caeruleatra Guthrie 112 46 641 77 310 51 Lepidocyrtus cyaneus Tullberg 160 51 626 403 425 51 Orchesella hexfasciata Harvey 90 49 304 82 533 142 Pseudosinella Candida Folsom 100 8 404 35 Tomocerus flavescens americanus Schott 2 118 9 1 Tomocerus lamelliferus Mills. 1 162 123
Poduridae 544 534 272 820 2,115 601
Sminthuridae 64 12 134 86 46 24 TABLE VIII
TOTAL COLLEMBOLA IN THE SIX FOREST TYPES
Mixed White Pine- Hemlock-Hardwoods- Date_Hardwoods Larch Swamp Hardwoods_Pine Softwoods Total
1936
Oct-23* 1 6 7 3 17 Oc t *-30 21 101 103 2,760 40 3,025 Nov*l3 7 21 1,000 332 2,446 975 5,474 Nov*. 20 286 150 256 19 5 404 260 1,551 Nov*27 77 505 86 173 298 100 1,239 Dec. 4 315 674 497 240 648 68 2,442 Dec *18 289 590 550 132 420 233 2,214 1937
Jan* 1 505 421 353 270 550 256 2,355 Jan*15 842 266 500 226 688 1,544 4,066 Jan *29 359 77 354 179 372 302 1,643 Feb *12 112 262 538 7 103 155 1,177 Feb *26 131 591 570 343 3 88 158 2,181 Mar *12 220 274 527 184 258 43 1,506 Har*25 201 316 334 352 174 415 1,79 2 Apr*. 9 401 676 622 653 1,607 342 4,301 Apr *16 287 350 569 39 6 697 67 6 2,975 Apr*23 286 157 685 108 827 342 2,505 Apr*30 650 165 1,079 281 643 668 3,486 May 7 262 274 1,664 211 1,129 521 4,081 May 14 325 336 835 457 936 783 3,672
Total 6, 291 6,084 11,146 4,849 15,448 7,884 51,702
Samples collected on this date were not subjected to the heat treatment This species did not appear after November 13th in any of
the types, nor was it found again in the spring* The
Sminthuridae were most abundant in the swamp forest floor,
as were also Lepdocyrtus cyaneus Tullberg, Isotoma violacea
caeruleatra Guthrie, Tomocerus lamelliferus Mills, and
Tomocerus flavescens americanus Schott*. Tomocerus
lamelliferus Mills did not appear in the larch, hemlock-
pine, and hardwoods-softwoods types* All these species,
with the exception of Pseudosinella Candida Folsom,
appeared regularly throughout the entire year* The
Sminthuridae, however, were more abundant in the fall (up
to about December 4th) and in the spring (from April 30th
on) than they were during the winter months and the early
spring months.
Dipterous adults were collected in every month of the
seven, except November* One Muscidae was collected in
October. In December, January, and February several
specimens of Mycetophilidae were collected, particularly
Sciara and Fnyxia species*
Hemipterous adults were collected in October, November,.
January, and May* Nab is annulatus Reuter and Nab is sordidus Reuter were collected in October and November, while several specimens of Corythuca juglandis Fitch were
taken in October, November, January, and May* — 57
Only one homopterous adult was taken* A Pachypsylla species was collected in the hardwoods-softwoods type on
April 9th.
Hemipterous nymphs of the family Lygaeidae were taken from November to May, inclusive* Of the total of 50 nymphs,
33 were taken in the swamp forest floor, 12 in the hard¬ woods, 4 in the white pine-hardwoods, and 1 in the hemlock- pine. None were collected in the larch forest floor.
Homopterous nymphs of the families Fulgoridae and
Chermidae were taken only in November in the swamp and white pine-hardwoods types*
Hyraenoptera were the most numerous in number of specimens of adults of all the orders except Collembola*
Ants, collected in all months but November, were the most numerous of all Hymenoptera* The greatest number of ants taken in any one sample was 164 from the swamp forest floor on February 12th. Numerous species of Chalcidoidea were collected during the seven months*
Coleoptera, though not the most numerous in number of specimens, were the most numerous in number of species*
Carabidae were taken in October, November, January, March,
April, and May* Two specimens of Chrysomelidae were taken on October 23rd in the white pine-hardwoods and the mixed hardwoods forest types * These were the only Chrysomelida
taken during the seven months* Elateridae were collected
in November, January, April, and May* Staphylinidae were
the most numerous of any coleopterous family in actual
numbers collected* Many families were represented by
only a few specimens (or even one) and these are noted in
the general list of all species taken*
Four families of Thysanoptera represented by nine species were taken throughout the seven months* Scirto-
species were the most abundant forms, and these are fully recorded in Table III*
Only five specimens of Corrodentia were taken*
These were immature forms of Psocus species collected in
October, November, January, and February*
Thysanura were taken only in the spring during April and May* Eleven specimens of Campodea fragills Mein* were recorded during these two months in the hardwoods- softwoods type and one specimen was collected in the mixed hardwoods type on May 14th*
Larvae of the Coleoptera, Diptera, and Lepidoptera are fully recorded in Tables IX, X, and XI* The dipterous larvae were the most numerous of all, as 4,788 specimens were collected in the six forest types. 59
Cecidomyiidae and Chironomidae, usually immature forms, were taken most frequently*. Special mention should be made (Table X) of two collections of Bibionidae from the hemlock-pine and the hardwoods-softwoods forest types on
December 4th* A total of 106 and 112 specimens of
Bibio albipennis Say, which because of size are available food for insect-eating animals, were taken in these two types* No other specimens of Bibionidae were taken*
Coleopterous larvae were next in abundance, with
809 specimens* Elateridae were the most numerous in
every type but the larch type, where Chrysomelidae were
the most abundant* Carabidae were next in order of prevalence* Staphylinidae, though collected from every
type, were most numerous in the swamp type* A total of
55 immature Lathridiidae were collected in a swamp type
on May 14 th*
A total of 306 lepidopterous larvae were collected*
The Tortricidae were the most abundant in every forest
type and were collected throughout the seven months* Other
families were collected at various times*
Only one specimen of hymenopterous larva was taken*
On February 12th, 164 specimens of ants (Lasius niger
americanus Emery) were collected in the swamp type* One TABLE IX total coleopterous larvae (by families) in the six forest types
Mixed Hardwoods Family ^3(& '937s*y t *■ Oc-t 0(-f. Wev. /W. Ncv. iMc. ynof ?#<'<■ Frs Mnk' *>/»?. ^PR. *i>R. Apr. /\pr 'Ifay /*?/*./ >0 * A3 3o 13 so .}•? y n v >r 99 'i a o o sr ? /«• 30 7 'V
Alleoulidae 1 4 Carabidae 1 2 4 2 9 Gant liar idae 1 1 Cephaloidae 1 Gerambyeidae 2 Chrysomelidae 10 ....11 3 14
Ciidae I i- 1 Elateridae 1 1 14 11 1 1 51 1 6 1 3 28
Lagriidae 1 1 —j- 2 Lampyridae 3 7 Ostomidae 1 5 6 Staphylinidae 10 2 1 3 22 "f Tenebrionidae Total 441 18 4 16 346 1 11 81 5 13 53 98 Larch. t Alleculidae 1 i r Carabidae 11 12 22 11 1 1 15 Cephaloidae 2 ■ Chrysomelidae 2 8 3 2 17 Cleridae 1 L Curculionidae 1 Elateridae 1 1 4 Lampyridae 2 2 Staphylinidae — Total 3 1 2 10 1442255 5 1 2 2 45 Swamp Carabidae 11 11 1 2 3 5 10 15 3 44 Cephaloidae
Chrysomelidae 1 3 ■ ■U-- - Ciidae 1 -1_L Cleridae 1 Elateridae 4135 35 55 3 1 11 4 15 1479 Lagriidae 1 1 Lampyridae 12 2 -4 5 Lathridiidae 55 55 4 -• -4 Ostomidae I 3 “1—r TABLE IX (Continued) f (Swamp) t—i— i——i—i——r ~t Cct foo. M0*. bet. Dec. JW- £(?B. fcri. 47/1/e, Qpff. /tr«. Ap*- Af*v % Family 1 1 __ »i 3C /3 *6 ?? r '? ? '* J? '* r* ? '** *3 36 7 ' T i Seapbidiidae 3 Staphylinidae 8 16 2 19 2 13 3 1 12 50 _ Total 2 5 4 13 4 13 9 4 15 7 11 9 14 1619 8 2869 250 W.P.-Hdwds. - Carat* idae 1 2 5 15 7 1 26 1
Cbrysomelidae 2 2 4 7 24 Ciidae 1 Cleridae 2 1 3 Elateridae 1 5 13 6 5 4 41 Lagriidae 1 1 Lampyridae 1 7 8 Lycidae 1 R Ostomidae 8 3
Stapbylinidae 1 1 1 7 Total 12 14 24 216 10 4 1014 18 8 7 6 8 6 1 124 Hem.-Pine “ Alleculidae 1 1 1 3 Cantharidae 1 1 Carabidae 9 1 1 1 2 1361 1 6 33 Cepbaloidae 1 I J L Chrysomelidae 3 13 2 Ciidae 1 —t- Cleridae 3 3 2 8 Elateridae 3 14 2 1 5 11 8 9 14 3 1 2 5 4 15 7 1213 6 135 p— n 1 ' 1 1 4f Lampyridae 1 5 Rbizopbagidae 10 2 44-H Scapbidiidae 1 i Staphylinidae 4 5 9 Total 9~i—30 4 4 6 16 1412 18 3 2 4 6 7 25 1018 19 6 222 Hdwds.-Sfds. Carabidae | 2 12 2 1 4 4 2 19 Cbrysomelidae 2 5 Cleridae 1 Colydiidae 1 11,1-; 2 1 12 6 36 Elateridae^ 3 1 1 3 2 3 Mycetopbagidae 1 1 Ostomidae [1 1 Stapbylinidae_ 2 Total '6 12~g"2 55 4 3 1 5 1 6 6 14 6 70
Total Coleopterous Larvae in the Six Forest Types, 809. 1 ! [ —U- 1 r ~j—i--r— TABLE X l-f-* -L_f 1_L TOTAL LiriiLnuuv 3 LARVAL> ( BY FAMILIES) IN TnJi dIa EOKEoT TYPE s L-UTT - T ’ I M - l. I. 1i Mixed Hardwood S ! i ! i i ———r~v~ OcJ. Od- /Vo if, Ncy. /V«V. &«, Jiff, J/J/y MAS. iW^/. 3b /AS. fVB, Apk, Apr A ps, App, AOay Family r% 37 V tf / " /sr '2 St '2 9 /h So 7 'V 7^i Cecidomyiidae 6 19 3 5111 50 74 19 5 7 21 33 47 9 0 21 33 4 9 503 | i j j Ceratopogonida e . . 5 1 2 r--[*—--rj-2 3 12 i Chironomidae _8 4 44 5 11 4 6 13 9 31 7 11 10 8 156 Leptidae 2 ..-14 1 ---j-- —j-at6 - Muscidae 2 .! 1 1 2
Mycetophilid Lae — 12 5 3 1 2 -. -x3 — -—**-—1 1 i|ils 1 . Phoridae — _1_1_L 13 5 6 16 8 5 3 56 Psychodidae . ] - — 54 II l|! -— —.-j-w*-j—34 T --1-- Tabanidae 2 1 1 2 22 1 3 2 1 4 4 8 7 13 7 X1 79i £/- 1_ ■ ■ Tipulidae 2 5 5 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 19 Total 8 6 10 55 4 1C5 27 91 96 31 8 8 3148 8 3^.37 4855 1423 886 Larch r ——1——r Cecidomyiidae 1 13 12 2 2210 3 3 1412 18 4 23 13 8 158 Chironomidae 4 11 3 3 3 15 Mycetophilidae 1 1 PL Phoridae —r~ 3 1 Tabanidae 21 1 2 3 jl! 11 Tipulidae 2 2 1 1 eT Total 1 19 15 5 51 11 7 4 20 15 B 5 25 15 2 11 198 L Swamp 4- | Anthomyiidae Cecidomyiidae 15 44 9 12 45 1518 20 5619 11 2158 45 25 6127 92 68 607 ~f Chironomidae 1 27 5 4 52 56 28 1772 2128 2125 67 6 4914 5949 585 i4 Ceratopogonidae J L 4 Leptidae 4- 7 Mycetophilidae 7 5 4 2 5 2 25 - Phoridae j [—I—Jl_i—Ll|_.I_^_L_jlftjJL.I14l 2 il2i 32l0i I7li2| ft I li-tala . -L KhagtL onldtaa I 1_I l 1 I • i 111 la 1 - | Strajtldmyklaae_2 11 1 . l j i n I I 1 j~R } Tabanidaajl_I__L2.J..-_ 5 5 41 9 I 2 4, 7 1 3 a t tsI ' [ a 1 1 tto j-TlpuiiAaer I 1 11 lllll l lll ] 11 121 all 1 z\V\ tII al ri-i Total 19 79 15 18ICE54 60 49k33 4560 7 8 OT153k4lL48b4Ui.2lll445 ti 1 1 1 IT 1 iTTT TT I M I 4- I T I "T ffAPTI? X•A. 1 rirtrvh i mi
)s:onidae 1 1 Ceratopc 1 nhironor aidae 1 22 3 10 1 24 7 4 16 1 62 35 3526 25 6 70 348 ptida* 2 3 1 1 7 Le] • [■ - My< 3etopl ailidae 1 2 2 4 1 4 1 L5 PlicDridae 3 1 1 4 9 Rh agionida e . 1 1 Ta banidae 1 1 1 5 1 3 3 5 4 7 1 5 52 pulidae 1 1 1 1 1 5 •sa To-fcal 6 6 47 7 52)L06 36 8 19 6 88 8 7551 52 L64146 6 88 871
Hera.- Pine ■ ' k y Bibionidae : L06 106 I- • Cecidomyiidae 6 5 3 10 11 5 20 12 3 36 2 9 20 63 7 15 5 30 262 Chironomidae 45 8 1 21 30 6 7 17 8 1033 14 27 23 1 7 248 Leptidae 1 3 4
Mycetophilidae _ ■ 4 2 5 1 .1 - Phoridac 2 6 12 • 7 4 8 n>9 Tabanidae 2 4 2 2 2 2 1 1 2 1 1 1 21 . Tirulidae 1 i 1 2 1 4 1 5 1 .6 |> Total 55 a 1 26152 20 1442 15 5 50 2 33 47 77 36 5510 46 707
Hdwds • *• Sfds • _L _ 1 Bibionidae 112 112 Cecidomviidai a 1 1 8 15 8 15 4 1816 5 1 6 24 48 22 4 55 26 2 279 Ceratopogonidae 4 4
■ Chironomidae 2 32 9 2 2 4 17 3 6 20 16 34 12 12 17 1 Cy Le] ptidai3 2 1 - ... : 3 [ My Phiori dae 3 J 10 23 10 4 6 St. ratiior nviidae 1 1 Talbar lidiae 2 3 4 6 8 8 1 1 1 3 2 2 4 1 TiiDUl .idae 4 2 1 5 2 4 Total JL 7 46 31 11132 13 3142 6 2 10 29 56 47 231C5 66 25 681 — . — Tol tal Dipterous Larvae in the Six Forest Type s, 4, 786 nn 1 1 1 J J.L_J ■ — -4— ; 1 • -— — • rpAPTICP YT TOTAL LEPIDOPTSROUS LARVAE (BY FAMILIES) I] N THE SIX FORES T TYPES rn Mixed Hardwoods /i-u, /9?y oq t. oc r. /Vo* /V«v. Pit. Pee. 3/%N. 04*. 1 Ar/wp Apft. f\pp. 4n/tV irnrai lv 33 30 O ae 07 V /? / ty 3? sc, 35- ? /«t 3o 7 'V \ Gelechiidae 1 ■ 1 1 Geometridae 1 [ X Lyonetiidae 1 1 Z 1- Noctuidae 1 1 2 2 4 13 Notodontidae 1 1 3 j Pyralididae 2 k ■ ■ i i. Tineidae 1 1 ... - 3 2 2 Tortricidae ■ i J.. . 5 4 1 3 2 5 1 3 3 34 Total 1 6 3 4 2 3 2 4 7 3 1 2 3 2 7 3 3 56 Larch Noctuidae 2 k ■ : Notodontidae 1 1 2 Tortricidae 1 2 1 2 l 2 2 2 5 18 Total 1- 2 4 1 3 1 2 2 2 5 22 Swamp Arctiiaae 1 i ! " ~~~1.{ Gelechiidae 3 3 Lacosomidae 2 • 2 Lyonetiidae 1 i _ r 1_J Noctuidae 2 2 1 1 • .i l - Notodontidae 3 1 11 3 2 2 5 2 10 39 ■ — ► 3 4 7 Grneoaidae —•-1 1 1 1 2 Pyralididae _ 3 1 T~| • | I 1 1 1 Tineidae • f Tortricidae 2 4 I 2 4 2 4 3 3 5 4 4 3 1 43 Yponomeutida e 1 i Total 1 6 6 10 4 8 5 5 11 7 3 5 10 7 16 6 4 2 115 W.P.- Edwds. Gelechiidae 1 i Heliodinidae 1 l Noctuidae JL 1 i 2 1 6 j • ' I' * - Notodontidae i 3 1 1 1 1 8 Psychidae 3 3 Pyralididae 1 1 ‘ 2 a. meiu&e 1 l (j ToBtricidae 1 1 2 1 2 1 8 Total 2 1 2 2 4 3 4 \ 3 3 i 2 3 1 31 . TABLE XI (Continued) TTem.- Pine ~y 'IZt ***• *<»■ D*c-0ec- AVer ft- ***• rtw- *ps Azz- mV \ Family]——i- ?D &/& vcvo »7 Y f at '5 9€r >2- Jr 7 '<* 55 J-0 7 /y i Pyonetiidae 4 Notodontidae 3 13 9 pyralidiaae 3 2 5 Tineidae 5 ju_L 11 Tortricidae 7 4 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 24 1 2 52 Total i 12 2 1 3 4 6 2 3 2 5 1 3 2 2 Hdwds.- Sfds. Arctiidae 2 Lyonetiidae JL Noctuidae 2 Notodontiaae 1 1 3 Orneodidae 2 Pyralididae 2 Tineidae 4 Tortricidae 113 3 1 2 14 Total 4 11 2 4 1 2 1 11 3 3 3 2 30 Total Lepidopterous Larvae in the Six Forest Types, 306 of the workers of this group was holding a larva between its mandibles, which was identified as an ant larva* Spiders were collected in every forest type and throughout the seven months* Many of these were immature forms* Both mature and immature specimens are grouped together, and have not been listed according to the stage in which they were collected* The Microphantidae, which were found most frequently on the forest floor, were the most prevalent* Table IV gives a full record of Micro- phantidae collected* A numerical summary of the families and species of insects and spiders noted in the preceding list is as f ollows• Class Insecta (Adults) Order Number of Number of Number of Families Species Specimens Coleoptera 21 58 306 Collembola 3 27 51,702 Diptera 7 15 47 Hemiptera 2 3 17 Homoptera 1 1 1 Hymenoptera 9 30 352 Thysanoptera 4 9 117 Thysanura 1 1 12 (Nymphs) Corrodentia 1 1 5 Hemiptera 1 50 Homoptera 2 15 (Pupae) Diptera a 65 (Larvae) Coleoptera 2Q 809 Diptera 13 4,788 Lepidoptera 14 306 Hymenoptera 1 1 1 Class Arachnida Araneae 11 32 372 These figures do not represent the total number of specie.,? o spiders and insects that were collected* Many immature specimens were not determined beyond the family or sub¬ family. Hence, if it was possible to determine all specimens to species, the number of species in several of the above cited families would be increased considerably* The average number of insects collected for the 116 samples was 505 per square foot, while the average number of Collembola was 450 per square foot* This compares favorably with Bornebuschfs (1930) figure of 523 Collembola per square foot* The smallest number of Collembola collected in any square foot sample was 7, recorded in the white pine-hardwood type on February 12th* The largwst number of Collembola collected was 2,760 from the hemlock-pine type on October 30th* Tragardh (1933) has recorded an exceptionally large number of Collembola from 17 samples of spruce litter in a Swedish forest* He collected 30,000 Collembola per square foot as a maximum figure, and 13,000 as an average figure* None of the Mount Toby samples was nearly as rich as Tragardhrs in collembolous fauna* Table XII gives, by orders, the total numbers of insects and spiders, according to the forest types in which they were collected* Figure XXIII shows the faunal region in which the Mount Toby forest is located* 63 lOO3t>b-rHCOtO03 to cr» co to rH in q in o OO^H ^ H H O co o o «n rH b- 03 p- tO rH 00 b- to o> «% «% #» H 03 in io in i O 03 d d in ^ oo r-t to to o b- OHO rH 03 03 o o rH 00 to to rH rH b- co to 00 o o 00 o to b* £ £ «% #» d +* £> CO P 03 d d o ^ rH ^ rH in o rH to oo to to o rH 03 © o rH cr> rH tO in © P © © © © © © © P P © P p •r-t p rH © © © P © P © © P © © © O P p p o P rH © P p rH P p P p £> © © © P p p © P © P p © © © © P B p P p o © P P Pr P o o P d p p p o © © P P p in © O o © d p o o p P P H P © © rH p •rH O © >> 03 Eh © © Eh o Total d rH rH Or E E rH P P E P E E p I o O •H © o j? O «H © o © O o o o O Q w W ffi tH O Q tU W TABLE XII (Contirrued) •H TJ a d TJ O rH *H •rH d Be ■P T5 TJ T> •rH Tf E E W t3 -P E O X £ CD O o d Insect-gating Animals on Mount Toby* Numerous insect-eating game and other animal species inhabit Compartment D, or use it as part of their range* Some of these are noted in the following account* A later section of this paper will deal with the quantity of insects and spiders available for animal consumption* Numerous grey and red squirrels live in the area* Klough (1927) states that the red squirrel (Sciurus hudsonicusr) at times takes animal food, most frequently insect larvae, bird eggs, and young birds* He quotes Cram as saying that red squirrels are occasionally seen on dead pines or hemlocks listening to sounds made by insects in the wood* The squirrels will reach the insects by tearing off the bark and wood with their teeth* The grey squirrel (Sciurus carolinensis) is herbivorous and rarely takes animal food* Woodchucks (Marmota monax) are present in Compartment D* Although they are primarily herbivorous, records of feeding on insects are known* Gianinni (1925) found a woodchuck that had fed on June bugs, and Hamilton (1934) has noted two that fed sparingly on grasshoppers. The skunk (Mephitis nigra), although it may not use Compartment D as a home area, passes through it often and doubtless feeds here. Hamilton (1936), after an exami¬ nation of the stomach contents of over 1000 skunks collected from October to March in the years 1927 to 1934,. found insects in 2?6 stomachs* According to his observa¬ tions, insects are eaten before severe drops in temperature* Grasshoppers are an important food item during October* Lepidopterous, coleopterous, and hymenopterous larvae are taken during thaws* The beetles (carabids, wireworms, and borers) comprised 19*1 per cent of the bulk of all insects eaten* In an examination of 575 fecal and stomach samples from skunks taken during April to Septem¬ ber of these same years, Hamilton recorded 347 instances of insects, or a frequency percentage of 43*06* Orthoptera and white grubs were recorded in large numbers* Hamilton thinks that a valid claim of protecting the skunk can be based on the number of white grubs that it eats* The grey and red fox (Urocyon cineroargentatus cineroargentatus and Vulpes fulva) frequently use Com¬ partment D as a hunting area* In addition to the larger species of animals upon which they prey, they often take 67 insect food* Hamilton (1935) studied the contents of 206 stomachs of red foxes, taken during the fall and winter* He recorded insects in 5*3 per cent of the stomachs, and this insect food comprised 3*4 per cent of the bulk of the food taken* The insects most numerous were grasshoppers, crickets, and beetles; also some millipedes and sowbugs* Mice (Cricetidae) are represented by at least two species in Compartment D. The northern white-footed mouse or deer mouse (Peromyscus leucopsis noveboracensis) and the eastern meadow mouse (Microtus pennsylvanicus pennsylvanicus) are found in this area* The deer mouse feeds extensively on white grubs and other insects* The eastern meadow mouse, according to Goodwin (1935), eats large quantities of injurious insects, including the hibernating pupae of the larch sawfly. The weasel (Mustela novaboracensis novaboracensis) is in Compartment D* It is known to eat insects* Errington (1936), in a study of 32 fecal samples, found insects in 13* Coleoptera of the genus Harpalus, ants, grasshoppers, and blowflies were noted in these samples* Several members of the shrew family (Sorlcidae) are known to occur in this region* Of these, the large short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda brevicauda), the little short-tailed shrew (Cryptotis parva), and the cinereous or masked shrew (Sorex cinereus cinereus) may be considered as typical of this region* Shrews are known insect feeders. Hamilton (1930), in an examination of the stomach contents of 244 specimens of the short-tailed shrew (Blarina brevicauda talpoides) found that snails, mice, earthworms, and insects comprised 47.8 per cent of the bulk of the food eaten. He found this shrew in captivity would feed on May beetles and their larvae, cutworms, and larvae of the wool bear (Isia Isabella) •- Slugs and centipedes were taken, and millipedes were the last to be eaten. Ants were never eaten. Of the numerous birds in Compartment D, the ruffed grouse (Bonasa umbellus umbellus) may be considered as the most important from the game management viewpoint. Turbeville (unpublished manuscript) found that the autumn food of ruffed grouse, as determined by crop analysis* consisted chiefly of vegetable matter with a small percentage of animal matter, usually not over a trace. Insect species found in his analyses were as follows: a walking stick (Phasmidae, Orthoptera), crickets (Gryllidae Orthoptera), tree hoppers (Membracidae, Homoptera), 69 carrion beetles (Silphidae, Coleoptera), a fly (Diptera)* grasshopper (Orthoptera), and leaf beetles (Chrysomelidae, Coleoptera}^ In addition to these forms, a spider, a few snails, and some unidentified forms were found* Kelso (1935) in a study of the winter food of the ruffed grouse in New York, found but a trace of insect food in the stomacn and crop contents of 80 birds* Fragments of a firefly (Lucidota corrusca), a grasshopper (Acrididae), a roober fly (Asilidae), a dung beetle (Aphodius sp*),. wasps (Hymenoptera), a bug (Drymus crassus), an assassin bug (Ze1us sp*), and an ichneumon fly (Melanichneumon)* as well as bits of spiders were found by this worker* According to Judd (1905), insects begin to form an impor¬ tant food item of grouse from the time that the birds begin to feed on or near the ground until the time when freezing and snow make it impossible for them to get food in this manner * Judd estimated that 30 per cent of adult grouse food is composed of insects*- Newly hatched grouse chicks are nearly or wholly insectivorous, feeding on cutworms, grasshoppers, beetles, ants, wasps, spiders, and caterpillars* It is evident that insects are an important item in the diet of the young and of the adults during the summer months* Another game bird of common occurrence in Compartment D is the woodcock (Rubicola minor)» Although this bird feeds mostly on earthworms (Forbush, 1929) it is known to eat many insects also. During the fall, when the earth¬ worms begin to go down into the soil, the woodcock begins to lose weight rapidly, for it cannot get to the worms. At this time it is more likely to search for other kinds of food, including insects. Many grubs and beetles are taken from among the fallen leaves and on the ground. Many non-game birds in Compartment D are insect feeders^ A review of some of the data on the stomach contents of the chickadee (Penthestes atricapillus) will give an indication of the part insects may take as food for birds with food habits similar to that of the chickadee.- Miller (unpublished Biological Survey records) found that the percentage of animal matter eaten by the chickadees in this vicinity (Mount Toby, Pelham, Amherst) ranged from 17 to 100 per cent of the stomach contents. Insects and spiders composed 65 per cent of the stomach contents of 14 chickadees taken in this vicinity from September 4, 1931 to November 24, 1931. This account is not meant to be a complete resume of all the insect-eating animals in Compartment D. It is merely a summary of a few of the more important species that are likely to be found in this region. The following pages present an analysis of the insects and spiders that are available as food for these animal species. Insects Available as Food. The animal species in Compartment D can be classified into two divisions. In the first division may be placed all the smaller birds, such as the sparrows, warblers, finches, and others which have no value as game but which have a real esthetic value in any wildlife management program. In the second division may be placed all the animals that are good game species, such as the grouse, woodcock, and numerous fur-bearers. The animals within these divisions have available as food all the insects and spiders listed in Table XII. The smaller birds, especially those that scratch among the leaves and on the ground, doubtless take in many small insects. A few of the birds feeding in this manner are the white-throated sparrow (Zonotrichia albicollis). the Nashville warbler (Vermivora ruficapilla ruficapilla), the oven-bird (Seirus aurocapillus), the slate-colored junco (Junco hyemalis hyemalis), the red-eyed towhee (Pipilo erythrophthalmus erythrophthalmus), and the eastern winter wren (Nannus hiemalis hiemalis)* In the crop and stomach analyses of the small birds, none of the smaller insects, such as the Thysanoptera, Corrodentia, and Collembola, have been noted. This may be because of the rapid digestion of these small soft-bodied insects* There is a large amount of food in all six forest types for birds feeding on such insects. The Collembola can be cited as an example of this small type of insect food which is very abundant. The average number of Collembola in the six forest types ranges from 242*45 per square foot in. the white pine-hardwoods type, to 813.05 per square foot in the hemlock-pine type (Table XIII)* On an acre basis, this would equal about 10,500,000 for the white pine- hardwoods type and over 35,000,000 for the hemlock-pine type. It should be remembered that the forest floor of these two forest types is different* In the white pine- hardwoods type, a loosely arranged carpet of pine needles covers the ground, particularly about the bases of pine trees* In the hemlock-pine type there is a thick carpet — 73 - needles forming a compact mass. This latter stand is considerably older than the white pine-hardwoods stand* Consequently there has been more accumulation of litter here and more protection to ground-loving insects, such as the Collembola* The larger birds (grouse and woodcock) and the furbearers in Compartment D are more likely to feed on the larger species of insects and spiders found in the six forest types. According to the references previously cited (Hamilton, D^lke, Kelso, et al.), the Collembola, ' Thysanoptera, and Corrodentia have not been noted in the . crop and stomach analyses of these larger birds and of the furbearers. This does not mean, however, that these birds or furbearers did not feed on the insects* The same reason which may account for the non-appearance in the smaller birds also would account for their non-appearance in the larger game species; namely, the ease with which the soft-bodied insects are digested. Identification of these insects under such conditions would be difficult, if not impossible. Consequently, it is the larger and less easily digestible insect and spider species that are noticed in crop and stomach analyses* In all six forest types there was available as insect food 58,817 specimens of insects and spiders which were collected from October to May, inclusive, in 116 square feet of samples* This total figure averages 507 specimens per square foot. On an acre basis (Tables XIII, XIV) it is estimated that there are 20,084,920 specimens of insects and spiders in the forest floor of Compartment D, or a total of nearly one and one-half billion specimens for the entire 65 acres in the Compart¬ ment. All these specimens, however, were not available at all times for consumption by insect-eating animals. Snow covered the ground by November 27th, and the forest floor was frozen thereafter. Under such conditions birds had to search for their food elsewhere. The snow did not disappear until April 9th, and at this time the forest floor began to thaw. By April 16th, the forest floor and the ground underneath had thawed, making it possible for birds and other insect-eating species to resume ground feeding. - 75 -- Forest Types Richest in Insect Food* From the standpoint of actual numbers collected* the hemlock-pine type is first among the six types* A total of 16,574 specimens, insects and spiders, were collected in this type. Of this total, 15,534 were insect adults. The swamp type was next with a total of 13,422 specimens, 11,443 of which were insect adults. The number of larvae in these two forest types varied considerably, 981 for the hemlock-pine type, and 1*810 ■ for the swamp type* On the basis of total insects . collected, the hemlock-pine type could be considered as having the most food for the smaller birds, especially those that are likely to feed on smaller insects. On the basis of insect food available for larger birds and fur- bearers, the swamp type is richer than the hemlock-pine type, in that more of the larger types of insects are found here. Crop and stomach analyses suggest that the larger game species are more likely to feed on the larger insect species* Consequently, the smaller insects (Collembola* Thysanoptera, and Corrodentia) can probably be disregarded in estimating the insect food of the larger game species* If this is done, the swamp type has the greatest amount of insect and spider food of any of the six forest types* which amounts to a total of 2,269 for the 20 samples collected in this type* Estimated on the acre basis, the swamp t}rpe had 4,939,704 insects and spiders, not including Collerabola, Thysanoptera, and Corrodentia* Other forest types estimated on this same basis (omitting the Collembola, Thysanoptera, and Corrodentia) would have the following amounts of insects and spiders: Total Insects per Forest Type (Exclusive of Collembola, Thysan¬ optera, and Forest Type Corrodentia)Acre Estimate White Pine- Kardwoods 1,213 2,639,7 36 Mixed Hardwoods 1,171 2,548,260 Hemlock-Pine 1,098 2,517,768 Hardwoods-Softwoods 934 2,034,252 Larch 318 812,572 In such an estimate the hemlock-pine type ranks fourth instead of first, as it would if all insects were included (Tables XIII, XIV)* -- 77 - 1 C"- 03 C0 (O 01 © 03 02 to 02 to o- to J> 'd*d r-t 02 02 to O rH to t> tO C0 o o • •% ^ CK ^ •» * m. • n o o o to 3 ^ rH o C- o O 02 1 £ £ CT> O- •H1 71 TJ -p tO rH 143 £ 4-4 •4 © o t> W IS CO rH K o O o O P IS W is Thysanura 0-05 0.05 0.5 \ -- 78 I to © © O o O 00 02 to *d tJ to oo to in 02 o o o in ^ o o in in 02 O- ^ c- SUMMARY One of the most efficient methods of collecting insects, especially Collembola and other small forms, out of the soil, is the heat method* Berlese was the first worker to devise a heat method for collecting the fauna in great numbersHe used a funnel surrounded by a hot water jacket as the source of heat* Later workers (Tullgren, Bornebusch, Tragardh, and Johnston) used a modification of Berlese's heat method. For the hot water jacket these investigators substituted an electric light bulb suspended over the material to be treated. In this study of the insects of the forest floor of various forest types on Mount Toby, the Berlese heat method, as modified by the later workers, was used* Foot square samples of the forest floor, down to the soil, were collected and brought into the laboratory to undergo the heat treatment. After a preliminary treatment of drying the excessive moisture and of loosening the organic matter, the sample was subjected to treatment in the heat funnel, usually for 24, and somtimes for 48, hours* The length of the heat treatment was dependent on the moisture content of the sample and on the rapidity with which the fauna moved out of the sample. Temperatures inside the organic matter of the sample averaged 100^4° F* while temperatures of the air above the organic matter averaged 93*6° F- All species collected were counted individually, except in the case of some Collembola. Where Collembola were very abundant, a system of estimating their numbers was used. A total of 58,817 insects and spiders were collected in the 116 samples, taken from October 23, 1936 to May 14, 1937, inclusive. Of this number, 51,702 were Collembola, 5,999 were immature forms of eight other orders, and 372 were spiders. The average number of insects and spiders for the 116 samples was 507 specimens. The hemlock-pine type had the greatest number of insects and spiders, 16,574, including mature and immature forms. The hemlock- pine type had the greatest number because of the large number of Collembola in the thick forest floor of this type. If, however, the Collembola are not included in the total adult insects in each forest type, then the swamp type had the greatest number of adults. The stamp type 81 had the greatest number of larvae, 1,690, of which 1,145 were Diptera. The swamp type also had the greatest number of spiders. The smaller non-game birds in Compartment D have available as insect and spider food all the types of insects listed in Table XII* provided these insects and spiders are not frozen in the forest floor or covered by snow* For such birds, the hemlock-pine type is the richest in potential food, with an estimated insect and spider population of 35,609,784 specimens per acre. The larger game birds and other game species, which are likely to overlook the smaller insects such as the Collembola, Corrodentia, and the Thysanoptera, would find larger and more suitable insects and spiders in the swamp type. If these smaller insects are omitted in estimating the acre population, then the swamp type has the greatest population, with 4,939,704 insects and spiders per acre. The larch type is the poorest of all six types, with an estimated population of 812,572 specimens (omitting Collembola, Corrodentia, and Thysanoptera). - 82 ~ BIBLIOGRAPHY Adams, C. C* ( 1915 An ecological study of prairie and forest invertebrates. Bull. Ill. State Lab. of Nat. Hist. 11 (2): 33-280; 63 pis. Albertson, F. W* 1937 Ecology of mixed prairie in west central Kansas. Ecol. Mon. 7:481-547. Alexander, C. P. 1919 The crane-flies of New York. Pt I. Distribution and taxonomy of the adult flies* Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp. Stat. Mem. 25:767-993; pis. 30-55, figs. 121-132. •, '•* X ■ 1920 The crane-flies of New York. Pt. II. Biology and phylogeny. Cornell Univ. Agr. Exp Stat. 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L. and others 1916 The Hymenoptera, or wasp-like insects, of Connecticut. Ct. Geol. & Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 22:1-824; pis. 10, 15 text figs. Watson, J. R. 1923 Synopsis and catalogue of the Thysanoptera of North America. Univ. Fla. Agr. Exp. Stat. Tech. Bull. 168:1-100. Weese, A. 0. 1924 Animal ecology of an Illinois elm-maple forest. Ill. Biol. Mono. 9, 4^7-93; this. A-H, pis. 7 (charts). Wolcott, G. N. 1927 An animal census of two pastures and a meadow in northern New York. Ecol. Mono. 7, 1:1-90. Approved by / a ay,— June 3, 1938. • X5&pS*£>.'? ;%-*&•'’?* s-^S£ ;~ )C^.'vOT,jiSi35K^r'4.^' * * ’£sjr^?zztzSzsz. ' *„ •■ • ^ *irxi£ if**•- -»»..<^w^rZ-T. .":;crt^^w :'?,* '.vrv r •♦^<*«*v*.#w>.wn|w-Jttifr • >..-. VI ^tl'Gs; *v* ■ * l CC ptX/Cfll^r. ->1fC ✓" rfr ly^yf <4 ^- * ^ ■**• W*tf* ^'V t' ^*^-''/*>Ki>/ .. »_.i«^jL^.4.t^ lt *1 *. vy^r1 j * ' ^*<~V". 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