Computers and the Human Spirit, 20Th Anniversary

The Second Self: Computers and the Human Spirit

Twentieth Anniversary Edition

Sherry Turkle

The MIT Press Cambridge, Massachusetts London, England First edition published by Simon & Schuster, Inc., New York, 1984, © 1984 Sherry Turkle First MIT Press edition © 2005 Sherry Turkle All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form by any electronic or mechanical means (including photocopying, recording, or information storage and retrieval) without permission in writing from the publisher.

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Turkle, Sherry. The second self : computers and the human spirit / Sherry Turkle.—20th anniversary ed. p. c.m Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 0-262-70111-1 (pbk. : alk. paper) 1. Computers. 2. Electronic data processing—Psychological aspects. I. Title.

QA76.T85 2005 004—dc22 2004064980

10987654321 Index

Abelson, Harold, 338n3, 349n23 Allen, Woody, 76–77, 203–204 Abelson, Robert, 347n11 Altair, 156–159 Abrams, M. H., 355n8 Anderson, Alan Ross, 345n3 Addiction, 4, 156, 343n9 Animism, 33–64, 291–293, 313–321, hackers and, 186–198, 343n10, 328–330, 329n12 344n13 biological criteria and, 55, 317 online experience and, 331n2 causal thinking and, 318–319, 329n13 video games and, 65–69, 78–85 “cheating” by the computer in Adolescence discussion of, 33–34, 50–57, identity (personal) and, 21, 24–25, 89, 319–320, 330n14, 358n12 131–152 children’s fears and, 36–45 microworld construction and, 6–7, 67, novel objects and, 320–321 75, 77, 134–145, 191, 203–204, 298, origins of computers and, 45–64 324n4, 341n14 physical criteria and, 45–47, 316–317 using computer as model of mind Piaget and, 34, 45– 46, 313, 315–320, during, 145–152 326n1, 328n10, 329n13, 357n2 Adventure (computer game), 79, psychological criteria and, 13, 47, 53, 205–208, 344n14 370, 358n10 Affect feelings, 47, 49, 56, 57 in children’s theories, 49–50, 57–58 intelligence, 48–50, 56 in cognitive development, 35–36, intentionality, 53–55, 58–59, 318–319 44–45, 293, 296–297, 320, 326n2, morality, 48–51, 53–55, 59, 62 327n6, 328n10, 329n12, 330n20, talking, 47–48 337n24, 355n2 research methods on, 313–321 in romantic reaction, 62–64, 283–285 traditional vs. computational, objects Aho, Alfred V., 333n9 and, 47, 51, 59–62, 329n13 A.I.: Artiﬁcial Intelligence (ﬁlm), Animorphs (book series), 330n17 294–295, 297 Anthropomorphism, 22, 117–120, Aibo (robot), 290 247–250. See also Animism Alienation, computers and, 160–166, gender and, 107–109 172, 340n5 irreducibility and, 248–250 360 Index

Antisensuality, engineering culture robotics and, 221–222, 237–238, and, 183–187, 201–205 294–296 Appropriable theories of mind, 28–29, Turing test and, 240–242, 327n5 271–277, 303–311. See also Asheron’s Call (online game), 7, 331n1 Computational ideas of mind, Asimo (robot), 290 diffusion of Asimov, Isaac, 238 Apter, Michael, 348n11 Asteroids (video game), 65–66, 81, 83, Aristotle, 62 124–125 Armer, Paul, 351n2 Athanasiou, Tom, 350n32 Arnheim, Rudolph, 234–235 Austen School, computer culture at, Arnold, David, 339n1 60–61, 93–102, 107–111, 123–127 ARPANET, 204 Autism, 217–218, 345n20 Artificial intelligence, 8, 25, 155–156, Aveyron, Wild Child of, 17–18, 29 180–181, 219–244, 281–283, 348n13, 351n2 Babbage, Charles, 250 A.I.: Artificial Intelligence (film) and, Badre, A., 340n9 294–295, 297 Barr, Avron, 347n9, 348n13 beginnings of, 220–221 BASIC (programming language), 93, 102, categories of work in, 221–222 148, 163, 166–168, 176 centralized vs. decentralized mind Bate, Walter Jackson, 355n8 and, 241–244 Batteries, children’s fantasies about, checkers and, 219, 254–256 56–57, 141 chess and, 219–220, 222–223, Baumgartner, Peter, 350n37 228–229, 236, 249, 251, 346n5, Becker, Howard, 339n1 346n6, 350n1 Begeer, Sandy, 345n1 Chinese Room Thought Experiment Bell, Daniel, 325n11 and, 241–243 Ben-David, J., 346n3 as colonizing discipline, 229–230 Berger, Peter L., 326n14, 356n2 constructivism and, 231–233 Berlow, John, 95 cryptarithmetic and, 223–225 Bernstein, Jeremy, 348n19, 349n26, emergence and, 253–256, 351n2 265–271 Bettelheim, Bruno, 217–218 free construction and, 229–233 Betwixt-and-between nature of vs. human intelligence, 219–220, computers, 15, 18, 29, 35, 103, 239–240, 282 323n7, 326n15, 328n8. See also informal use of, 260–271 Evocative objects; Marginal objects Lovelace model and, 250–252, Big Trak (computer toy), 49 255–258, 351n3 Biology, as defining quality of philosophy and, 234–244 human uniqueness, 57, 271, 283, program as model of mind in, 297–298 223–234, 236–237 Black, J., 348n11 psychoanalysis and, 222–223, Blake, D. V., 351n4 225–229, 234–235 Boden, B. B., 346n6 Index 361

Boden, Margaret, 345n3, 347n11 theories of computers vs. people, Bonar, J., 340n9 57–59, 62–64, 145, 319–320, 338n4, Boneva, B., 332n2 358n13 Bower, G., 348n11 video games and (see Video games) Breazeal, Cynthia, 297, 349n28, Child’s Conception of the World, The 356n12 (Piaget), 48 Bricolage, 101–102, 291, 326n13. Chodorow, Nancy, 336n17 See also Programming, styles of Chomsky, Noam, 347n11 mastery in Chrisley, Ronald, 345n1 Brooks, Frederick P. Jr., 339n1 Clubs, computer, 1, 11, 27, 157, 161 Brooks, Rodney, 346n7, 346n8, COBOL (programming language), 148, 347n10, 349n28 168, 210 Brown, John Seeley, 339n7 Cog (robot), 293 Bruckman, Amy, 335n9 Cognition, affect and, 35–41, 43–45, Bruner, Jerome, 326n14 292–293, 296–297, 320, 327n2 Burton, Richard R., 339n7 Cohen, Paul R., 347n9, 348n13 Bushnell, Nolan, 75 Colby, Kenneth, 348n11 Collins, R., 346n3 Carey, Susan, 331n18 Computational ideas of mind, Carrol, J. S., 348n11 diffusion of, 22–23, 303–313, Causal Thinking in the Child (Laurendau 351n2, 352n17 & Pinard), 313 thinking of yourself as a machine, Central processing unit (CPU), 169–172, 247–277 268 “thinking through” problems by Children seeing self as program, 137, animistic thinking about computers 146–152 (see also Appropriable and the construction of the theories of mind) psychological, 46–53, 56–57, Computational speciﬁcity, 69–70 313–321, 329n11, 329n13 (see also Computer culture Animism) perspectives on, 298–299, 303–304, discussion of computer’s 305–311, 339n1 consciousness, 27, 34, 49, 54, 59 and psychoanalytic culture, 28–29, “getting stuck” with computer, 24, 151–152, 222, 225–229, 261, 123–129 265–266, 268, 281–282, 296, philosophical discourse in presence of 298 computer, 33–64 Computer games. See individual listings; programming computers, 91–130, Video games 131–152 Computer literacy, 11–12, 14–15, stages of development in relation to 324n3, 324n6 computer, 23–24, 131–132 Computer Power and Human Reason identity stage, 131–152 (Weizenbaum), 189–190, 282, mastery stage, 98–129 327n4, 330n15, 343n8, 351n5, metaphysical stage, 33–64 354n6 362 Index

Computers Crunch, Captain, 207–208, 214 anxieties about, 19–20, 36–40, 63, Cryptarithmetic, 223–225 66–67, 87, 91–93, 218, 247, 282, Csikszentmihalyi, Mihaly, 333n11 334n3 Cultural divides, computers bridging, cultural divides and, 120–123 114–117, 120–123, 126–129 holding power of, 19–20, 34–37, Cummings, G., 332n2 65–90, 113–114, 168–172, 195–196 Cuyler, Jaffray, 328n9 instrumental vs. subjective, 19, 87, Cyborgs, 5 157, 167, 173, 309, 311 irreducibility of, 248–250 Daley, Hugh M., 341n11 learning mathematics and, 95, Dalton School, 214–215 114–117, 136, 157–159 Dark Crystal, The (film), 77 novelty of, to children, 66, 76, Dartmouth, 220–221 320–321 Darwin, Charles, 9–10, 281 as Rorschach, 6, 12, 20–21, 95, 125, David (robot in film A.I.), 294 288, 308–310, 324n3 Davis, Philip J., 337n25 transparency vs. opacity in, 7–14, 162, Dean, Howard, 10 168, 174, 179–180, 307, 332n4, Debugging, 22, 108–109, 169–170, 206 341n15 as psychological metaphor, 151–152, writing and, 91–92, 117–120 338n7 Computer subcultures, 339n1 Decentered self, 265–271, 356n4 artificial intelligence, 223–224 (see also Dechert, Charles, 326n14 Artificial intelligence) De Mey, Marc, 347n11 hacker, 183–218 (see also Hackers) Dennett, Daniel, 58, 345n3, 350n33, personal (hobbyist), 156–164 350n37, 351n2 in school settings, 4, 10–12, 40, Dennis, W., 357n2 93–96, 315, 323n6, 335n9 (see also Dépaysement, 3–4 Education, computers and) Dertouzos, Michael, 353n17 Control Descartes, René, 1–2, 220, 243 children/adolescents and, 6, 11–12, DiSessa, Andrea, 334n5, 338n3 21, 24–25, 35, 37–40, 44, 98–105, Dissociation of sensibility, 64, 298 132, 134–145 DOS (operating system), 8–9 locus of, 335n11 Douglas, Mary, 326n13 personal computer owners and, Drescher, Gary, 238–239, 349n27 160–172 Dreyfus, Hubert, 219–220, 240, 345n3, programming and, 35, 65, 68–77, 350n32 83, 86–92, 121–129, 175, 185–187 Dreyfus, Stewart E., 350n32 (see also Programming, styles of Dungeons and Dragons, 78–81, 214, mastery in) 260, 333n10 sex and romance and, 199–200 Copernicus, 281 Edge, David, 346n3 Crawford, A., 332n2 Education, computers and, 4, 5–7, Crispin, Mark, 208–211 10–15. See also Computer literacy; Index 363

Computers, learning mathematics “cheating machines,” 33–34, 50–57, and; Computers, writing and; 319 Computer subcultures, in school ELIZA program and “effect,” 41–43, settings 180, 212, 241, 248, 287, 293 “AI Constructivism” and, 231–233 recursive program, 36–44 programming and, 93–96 (see “Say it” bug (Speak and Spell), 38–41, also Programming, styles of 44 mastery in) Existential Pleasures of Engineering, The styles of mastery and, 101–111 (Florman), 187 Ehrlich, K., 340n9 Eissler, Ruth, 353n18 Feigenbaum, Edward, 345n3, 347n9, Eliot, T. S., 64 348n13, 350n34, 351n2, 351n3 ELIZA, 41–43, 180, 212, 241, 248, 287, Feldman, Julian, 345n3, 350n34, 293 351n2, 351n3 Elvee, Richard Q., 350n33 Flavell, John H., 327n2, 327n8, Emergence, 8, 253, 254–259. See also 338n2 Artificial intelligence, emergence Florman, Samuel, 187 and Fodor, Jerry A., 348n21, 350n33 Lovelace model vs., 250–252, Foner, Leonard, 327n5 255–258, 351n3 FORTRAN (programming language), 148, society theory of, 251–254, 256–259, 166, 209, 274 351n3 Fredkin, Edward, 221, 239–240, 350n29 Empire Strikes Back, The (film), 81 Free will, 2, 27–28, 58, 181, 262, 264, Empty Fortress, The (Bettelheim), 267–269 217–218 Freud, Anna, 265 Engineer, social construction of, Freud, Sigmund, 9–10, 151, 261, 279. 184–185 See also Psychoanalysis Erikson, Erik, 128, 324n7, 324n8, 338n appropriable mind models and, 1, 338n2 271–277 Escher, M. C., 202, 209, 277 artificial intelligence and, 234–235, Evans, Thomas, 234 255–229 EverQuest (online game), 7, 331n1, ego and, 265–271, 282, 354n18 343n9, 344n14, 352n16 French infatuation with, 304–305 Evocative objects, 17–29. See also Freudian slips, 28–29, 225–229 Betwixt-and-between nature of id and superego, 267 computers; Marginal objects the uncanny, 1–2, 290 computer as, 2–3, 10, 19, 27, 35, 279, Furby (robot), 290, 293 288, 326n15, 328n8 “Future of Artificial Intelligence, The” marginality and, 29, 34–35, 41, 44–45, (Minsky), 233 103, 114, 326n15 Wild Child as, 17–18, 29 Geertz, Clifford, 303 Evocative situations with computers, Gelman, Rochel, 328n8, 329n11, examples of 331n18 364 Index

Gender, 288, 333n8, 335n7, 336n15, sex and romance among, 199–201, 342n3 212 hackers and, 194 “sport death” and, 193–194, 200, programming and,105–106, 335n7 344n13 science and, 111–114 “Ugliest Man on Campus” contest, Gerson, Elihu, 339n1 183, 341n1, 342n4 Gerth, H. H., 325n10 Hagstrom, Warren, 346n3 Gilligan, Carol, 336n17 Hakmem, 211, 344n15 God and Golem, Inc. (Wiener), 255–256 Hard mastery. See Programming, styles Gödel, Kurt, 275–276 of mastery in Gödel, Escher, Bach: An Eternal Golden Harel, Idit, 336n15 Braid (Hosftadter), 202, 209, 211, Hartmann, Heinz, 265 237, 274–275, 277, 305 Haugeland, John, 345n3 Goldberg, Adele, 335n6 Hawkins, Joan, 334n5 Goldorak, 330n17 Hayes-Roth, Frederick, 347n9 Goldstein, Jeffrey, 332n2 Helgeson, V., 332n2 Graphical user interfaces (GUIs), 8 Hersch, Reuben, 337n25 Greenblatt, Richard, 219, 228–229, 236 Hilbert, David, 230 Greenspan, J., 340n9 Hillis, Danny, 230, 232, 349n22 Hilts, Philip J., 351n2 Hackers, 23–24, 165, 168, 179, 260, Hobbyists. See Personal computers 270–271, 307, 183–218, 344n14, Hoffmann, Martin L., 327n2, 331n18 348n20 Hofstadter, Douglas, 202, 209, 211, addiction/passion of, 186–198, 237, 274–275, 277, 305, 345n3, 343n10, 344n13 350n33, 351n2 aesthetics of, 186, 197, 207–208, 210, Holding power, of computer, 1, 19–20 216–218, 219–23, 280 altered states and, 82–85 antisensuality and, 201–205 body syntonic relationships and, controversy about, 189–191 170–171 game of Adventure and, 205–208 fantasies of “perfection” and 86–90, “the hack,” concept of, 207–211, 191–196 334n17 fear and, 37 vs. hobbyist aesthetic, 186, 197, marginality of object and, 35, 106, 207–208, 210, 216–218, 280 290 (see also Betwixt-and-between image of, 186–187, 342n4, 343n10, nature of computers; Evocative 344n19 objects) individualism as core value of, recursive objects and, 36 198–199, 205 simulated worlds and, 78–85 perfect mastery and, 191–196 transitional objects and, 5, 117–120, rites of passage of, 211–212 194–196 science ﬁction and, 203–205, transparency and, 178–179 208–211, 344n19 video games as window onto, 65–69, security breaking by, 213–216 78–85 Index 365

Holland, Virginia, 313–314, 328n10, Kramarae, Cheris, 336n15 358n14 Kraut, R., 332n2 Home computers. See Personal Kuhn, Thomas, 354n3 computers Kurland, D. M., 334n5 Honkavaara, S., 328n10 Kurzweil, Raymond, 296–297, 347n8, Huang, I., 313 349n28 Hume, David, 267 Hunt, Morton, 347n11 Lacan, Jacques, 338n5, 354n18 Hysteria, and question of dominant Land, Edwin, 271 cultural neurosis, 104–105, 128, Lasch, Christopher, 337n26, 354n1 279–280, 337n26 Laurendau, Monique, 313 Lavington, S. H., 339n1 IBM, 9, 156, 172, 209, 346n5 Lee, H. W., 313 Ideal types (Weber), 310 Leibniz, Willhelm Gottfried, 220 Identity, adolescence and, 21, 24–25, Lemaine, G., 346n3 89, 131–152 Lenat, Douglas B., 347n9 Illich, Ivan, 162 Lévi–Strauss, Claude, 101–102, 326n13 Inhelder, Barbel, 338n2 Levy, Pearl, 328n9 Internet (and online environments), Levy, Steven, 341n1 3–4, 10, 287–288, 331n2, 335n10, Life on the Screen (Turkle), 9, 14, 340n7, 341n14 291–292 Irreducibility of computers, 248–250 LISP (programming language), 148, Itard, Jean-Marc-Gaspard, 17–18 209, 211, 274 Little Professor (computer toy), 19 Jacoby, Russell, 265, 353n18 Locus of Control test, 95 Jefferson Middle School, computer Loehlin, John, 348n11 culture at, 133 Loew, Rabbi, 237 Joust (video game), 76, 77 Logo (programming language), 6, 11, 13, 166, 170–171, 204, 334n6 Kakuchi, Suvendi, 355n6 children programming in, 93–152 Kasparov, Gary, 346n5 educational philosophy of, 93–98 Kay, Alan, 335n6, 335n9 Loneliness Keller, Evelyn Fox, 111–113 fear of intimacy and (schizoid style), Keniston, Kenneth, 338n2, 342n2 128, 280, 337n26 Kernberg, Otto, 337n26 hackers and, 196–198 Kidder, Tracy, 339n1, 188–189 Lovelace, Ada, 250 Kiesler, Sara, 332n2, 339n1 Lovelace model, 250–252, 255–258, Kirmani, Sani, 328n9 351n3 Kismet (robot), 297 Luckmann, Thomas, 326n14, 356n2 Klein, Melanie, 337n26 Kling, Rob, 339n1 MacHack, 219–220, 228–229 Kohut, Heinz, 296 Macintosh computer, 8–9, 287, 340n10 Kraft, Philip, 340n5 MacLeon, R., 346n3 366 Index

Malone, Thomas W., 334n11 Metaphors of mind, computational, Marble, Justin, 341n2 examples of, 2–3, 20, 22, 352n6 Marginal objects. See Betwixt-and- debugging, 2, 150–152 between nature of computers; levels of programming language, Evocative objects 148–149 children and, 34–36, 320, 326n15, mind as multiprocessor, 260–265 327n6, 328n8 Metaphysical discourse, computer as Martin, Fred, 335n9 evocative of, 21–29 Marx, Karl, 9–10, 159, 226 in artificial intelligence community, Marx, Leo, 325n11, 334n2 237–241 Massachusetts Computing Using among children, 33–36 Educators (MassCUE), 11 among computer science students, Massachusetts Institute of 265–271 Technology (MIT), 22–23, 133, among personal computer owners, 212, 221, 303 179–181 Artificial Intelligence Laboratory, among video game players, 85–86 187–188, 225, 238, 260, 297 Microsoft Corporation, 9, 340n10 culture of, 183–189 Microworlds, computers as, 6, 67, Media Laboratory, 297 75–77, 134–139, 298, 324n4, operating system development at, 341n14 187–188 Miller, George A., 347n11 “Ugliest Man on Campus” contest Mills, C. W., 325n10 and, 183, 341n1 Mind. See also Appropriable theories of video games and, 75 mind; Artificial intelligence, Mateas, Michael, 333n6 program as model of mind in; Mathematics Computational ideas of mind, learning, 95, 114–117, 136 diffusion of; Psychoanalysis personal computers and, 157–159 centralized vs. decentralized, 241–244, soft mastery and, 114–117 265–271 Mauldin, Michael, 327n5 society theory of, 251–254, 256–259, Mayer, Richard E., 340n9 351n3, 352n12 Mazlish, Bruce, 354n3 sociology of sciences of, 303–311 McCarthy, John, 221 Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and McClelland, James L., 352n11 Powerful Ideas (Papert), 11, 94, McClintock, Barbara, 113 326n13 McCorduck, Pamela, 345n3, 346n4, Minsky, Marvin 350n30, 350n31, 351n2 and artificial intelligence, 221, McDonald’s Corporation, 10, 13 225, 233–235, 237, 271, 296, McLuhan, Marshall, 91, 325n11 327n3 Merlin (computer toy) on diffusion of computational ideas, animism and, 33–34, 45, 49–58, 63, 254, 352n17 319 on Freudian slips, 228–230 cheating and, 33–34, 53–57 on hackers, 190–191, 218 Index 367

on Lovelace model vs. society, Operating systems, 8–10, 187–188, 252–254, 258, 351n3 342n6 on self as machine, 258, 269, 271, Ornstein, P., 356n8 351n6 Mister Rogers’ Neighborhood, 37 Pac-Man (game), 68, 74, 77 Mitroff, Ian, 336n19, 337n24 Pac-Man, Mrs. (game), 333n8 MITS, 156–157 Pandemonium (machine), 253 Monet, Claude, 202 Papert, Artemis, 328n9 Moravec, Hans, 346n8 Papert, Seymour, 11, 221, 334n5, 6, Moses, Joel, 237, 353n17 335n9, 336n15, 338n3 MUDs (Multi-User Domains; online Austen School project and, 94–95 virtual community), 327n5, objects-to-think-with and, 326n13 333n10, 344n14, 352n16 society theory of mind and, 221, Mulkay, Michael, 346n3 258–259 Mullins, Nicholas, 346n3 syntonic relationships in learning Mumford, Lewis, 323n2 and, 171 My Real Baby (robot), 290 Paradox of self-reference, 276–277 Myst, 344n14 Paro (robot), 290 Parker, Don B., 345n18 Naisbett, John, 325n11 PASCAL (programming language), 148, Narcissism, culture of, 146, 279 166–167, 176, 209 Nass, Clifford, 356n10 Payne, J. W., 348n11 National Science Foundation, Payr, Sabine, 350n37 355n3 Pea, R. D., 334n5 Neisser, Ulrich, 326n14 Perceptrons, 256, 352n11 Neurotic styles, 103–104, 336n13 Personal computers, 155–181, 354n2 Newell, Allen, 221, 223–224, 257–258, as compensatory activity for work 345n3, 346n6, 347n11, 348n12, frustration, 160–164, 171–175, 351n5 325n9 Newsweek, 4, 280–281 informal philosophy provoked by, Newton, Isaac, 64 179–181 New Yorker, 298 personal politics and, 13–15, 160–164, Noble, David, 340n5 340n6 Norman, Donald, 226–228, 234, 238, programming of, 159–160, 164–172, 273–274 175–176 Personal digital assistants (PDAs), 3, 5 Object relations theory, 106, 287, Phone freaking, 207–208, 214 296–297 Piaget, Jean, 323n7, 338n2, 355n4 Objects-to-think-with, 27, 202–203, affect and cognition, 327n2 325n13 child as philosopher, 34–35 Online communities, 3, 10, 338n8, children’s animistic discourse and, 338n10 45–49, 62, 291–293, 324n4, 326n1, Opacity. See Transparency (vs. opacity) 327n6, 328n10, 329n13 368 Index

Piaget, Jean (cont.) as projective screen for personality, education and, 95 102–105 research methods inspired by, risk vs. reassurance in, 164–172, 313–321 340n9 stages of development, 328n7 video games and, 73–74, 77 Picard, Rosalind, 348n14, 355n2 Programming, styles of mastery in, Picasso, Pablo, 248 20–21, 24, 98–111, 310 PILOT (programming language), 93 gender and, 111–117, 336n15 Pinard, Adrien, 313 hacker vs. hobbyist, 164–179 Pinball (versus video games), 69–71, hard mastery, 98–105, 126–127, 180 74–75, 77, 82 hybrid styles of, 120–129 Pirsig, Robert, 187, 339n1, 343n5 soft mastery, 98–117, 126–127 Plato, 284 Programming languages Poe, Edgar Allen, 350n1 BASIC, 93, 102, 148, 163, 166–167, 176 Pokémon, 330n17, 333n8 COBOL, 148, 168, 210 Polanyi, Michael, 281 FORTRAN, 148, 166, 209, 274 Polaroid Corporation, 271 higher-level, 148–149, 166–168, Politics 171–172, 176 personal computers and utopian LISP, 148, 209, 211, 274 visions, 10, 12–14, 160–164, Logo, 6, 11, 13, 93–96, 103, 108, 133, 298–299, 340n6 143–144, 166, 204, 335n6 programming and empowerment, 10, Machine/assembly, 148–149,166–168 136–139, 142–145, 151–152, PASCAL, 148, 166–167, 176, 209 160–172 PILOT, 93 Pong (video game), 75–77 Smalltalk, 334n6 PowerPoint, 11 Projective medium, computer as, Power Rangers, 291 20–21, 105, 132, 324n3. See also Programming. See also Artiﬁcial Computers as Rorschach; Intelligence; Hackers; Personal Programming, styles of mastery in computers; Programming, styles of Pseudocrash program, 40–42 mastery in Psychoanalysis, See also Appropriable by children, 91–129, 131–152 theories of mind; Erikson, Erik; gender and, 93–94, 105–106, 111–114, Freud, Anna; Freud, Sigmund; 335n7 Kohut, Heinz; Lacan, Jacques; Lovelace vs. emergent models of, Winnicott, D. W. 250–252, 255–258, 351n3 artiﬁcial intelligence and, 222–223, as material for working through 225–229, 234–235 problems, 131–133 autonomy of ego and its personal computer and, 159–160, controversies, 148, 282, 265–271, 164–172, 175–178 353n18 political empowerment and, 10, computer culture and, 158, 160, 136–139, 142–145, 151–152, 279–285, 287–288, 290–292, 160–172 294–300 Index 369

cultural impact of, 29, 281–282, My Real Baby, 290 304–307 nursing homes and, 295 French infatuation with, 304–305 Paro, 290 object relations theory and, 106, 287, R2-D2 (robot in film Star Wars), 49 296–297 relational artifacts as type of, programming as a way of thinking 288–297, 329n12 about, 226–233 Tama, 355n7 and slips of the tongue, 225–229, turtles as, 6, 170–171 272–274 Wandukun, 293 transitional objects, 15, 114, 195–196 Robotron (video game), 72–73 Psychoanalytic Politics (Turkle), 304–305 Rogers, Everett H., 341n11 Psychology Today (magazine), 190, 274 Rohrman, Nicholas, 313–314, 328n10, Putnam, Hilary, 350n33 358n14 Pylyshyn, Zenon W., 349n21 Role playing, 6–7, 79–81, 340n6, 341n14, 344n14, 353n16 R2-D2 (robot in film Star Wars), 49 Romantic reaction, 63–64, 280, Raessens, Joost, 332n2 283–284 Recursive thought, as element in Rorschach effect. See Computers, as computer culture, 202, 305 Rorschach Reeves, Byron, 356n10 Rorty, Richard, 350n33 Relational artifacts, 288–297, 331n1, Rosenfield, Herbert A., 337n26 355n3. See also Aibo, Cog, Furby, Ross, Lee, 327n2 Kismet, My Real Baby, Paro, Tama, Rothschild, Joan, 336n20 Tamagotchi, Wandukun Rotter, J. B., 335n11 Research methods, 157, 186, 223, Rousseau, Jean-Jacques, 64, 92 303–311, 313–321, 357n5, 357n6, Rumelhart, David E., 352n11 357n9, 358n10, 358n11 Russell, Bertrand, 276–277 Resnick, Mitchel, 335n9 Russell, R. W., 357n2 Right Stuff, The (Wolfe) 193 Ringle, Martin, 345n3 Sahlins, Marshall, 325n11 Robots, 49, 56, 72–73, 125, 141, 204, Samuel, Arthur, 219, 254–258 221, 288, 338n4 Scacchi, Walt, 339n1 Aibo, 290 Schank, Roger, 234–238, 347–348n11, Asimo, 290 349n25 Asimov’s “Laws of Robotics” and, Schizoid compromise, computers and, 238–239 128, 280, 337n26 Cog, 293 Science and gender, 111–114 David (robot in film A.I.) 294 Science fiction in computer culture, 80, ethical implications of, 238–239, 203–205, 238–239 297–299 Searle, John, 58, 241–244, 283 Furby, 290, 293 Security issues, 213–216 Golem and, 237 Self-reference, paradox of, 276–277 Kismet, 297 Self-reflection, 234–235 370 Index

Selfridge, Oliver, 253 Solloway, E., 340n9 Sensibility, dissociation of, 64, 298–299 Soul of a New Machine, The (Kidder), Sesame Street, 37 188–189 Shaiken, Harley, 340n5 Space Invaders (video game), 66, 76, 86, Shannon, Claude, 220, 346n6 99 Shapiro, David, 103–105 Space War (video game), 75–76 Shattuck, Roger, 323n1 Speak and Spell (computer toy) Shaw, J. C., 346n6 animism and, 38–44, 48–49 Sheehan, N. W., 328n10 origins and, 55 Sheridan, Thomas B., 339n5, 340n5, Specificity, computational, 69–70 354n18 Spelke, Elizabeth, 328n8, 329n11, Shiel, Beau, 340n9 331n18 Shneiderman, B., 340n9 Spielberg, Steven, 294–295, 297 SimLife (computer game), 291–292 Spiritual machines, 296–297 Simon (computer toy), 38, 50, 56, 58 Sport death, 193–194, 200, 344n13 Simon, Herbert, 219–224, 257–258, Sprites, 96–97, 103, 110–111, 115, 345n3, 346n6, 347n11, 348n11, 122 348n12, 351n5, 354n3 Sproull, Lee S., 339n1, 340n9 Sims, The (computer game), 12–14, Star Trek (television series), 55, 291–292, 333n7 204–205, 236 Sims Online, The (online game), 4, 10, Star Wars (film), 49, 72, 81, 187, 12, 292, 331n1, 333n7 208–209 Simulation. See also Artificial Steele, Guy, 344n16 intelligence; Microworlds, computers Stern, Andrew, 333n6 as; Programming; Video games Subjective computer, 19, 234, 308–311 altered states and, 65–67, 82–85 Subversive science, 1–2, 265–266, 280, culture of, 6–7, 9–10, 12–15, 331n1 354n3, 356n4 holding power and, 78–88 Superman (film), 72 Sloman, Aaron, 346n3 Sussman, Gerald, 230–231, 232, 237, Smalltalk (computer language), 334n6 244, 349n23 Smith, Merritt Roe, 325n11 Syntonicity, body, 171 Snyder, Benson, 342n2 Social construction of engineer, Tama (robot), 355n7 184–185 Tamagotchis (virtual creatures), Society theory of mind. See Mind, 289–290, 293, 330n16 society theory of Technological determinism, 26–28, Sociology of sciences of mind, 22–23, 325n11 25–26, 271–277, 298–305, 303–311, Thompson, Hunter, 339n1 326n14. See also Appropriable Tic-tac-toe (game), 27–28, 33, 38, theories of mind 49–50, 53–54, 56, 62, 291, 319 Soft mastery. See Bricolage; Time magazine, 66 Programming, styles of mastery in Time-sharing system, 188, 343n6 “Software Wars” (Crispin), 208–211 Toffler, Alvin, 325n11 Index 371

Toys, computer. See Big Trak, Little Pac-Man, 68, 74, 77 Professor, Merlin, Simon, Speak and “perfection” fantasies and, 88–92 Spell personal computers and, 173–174 Transformers, 291 pinball vs., 68–71, 74–75, 77, 82 Transitional objects, 114, 195–196. See Pong, 75–77 also Evocative objects programming and, 72–74, 78 Transparency (vs. opacity), 7–12, Robotron, 72–73 14–15, 168, 174, 179–180, 287, 307, role–playing and, 82–83 325n12, 332n4, 341n15 rule–driven aspect of, 80–82 Traweek, Sharon, 326n13 The Sims, 12–14, 291–292, 331n1, Tron (ﬁlm), 251–254, 261 333n7 Turing, Alan, 220, 240–241, 346n6 Space Invaders, 66, 76, 86, 99 Turing test, 240–241, 243, 327n5 Space War, 75–76 Turkle, Sherry, 14, 304, 323n5, 324n6, Von Neumann, John, 220, 237 326n14, 331n1, 332n2, 335n7, 336n15, 339n1, 341n14, 342n3, Walt Disney Company, 15, 288 352n6, 352n16, 354n18, 355n1, Wandukun (robot), 293 355n3, 356n9 Waterman, Donald A., 347n9 Turner, T., 348n11 Watt, Daniel, 334n5 Turner, Victor, 15, 323n7, 326n15 Weber, Max, 310, 325n10 Weinberg, Gerald M., 340n9 “Ugliest Man on Campus” contest Weingart, P., 346n3 (MIT), 183, 341n1 Weir, Sylvia, 334n5 Ullman, Jeffrey, 333n9 Weizenbaum, Joseph, 41–42, 58, Ultima II (online game), 7, 344n14, 189–190, 212, 216, 282–283, 351n5 352n16 What Computers Can’t Do (Dreyfus), Uncanny (Freudian), 1–2, 290 240 User groups, 157, 178–179 Wheelis, Alan, 337n26 Uttley, A. M., 351n4 White, Leslie, 325n11 White, Lynn, 325n11 Veith, Ilza, 337n26 Whitehead, Alfred North, 276–277, Video games, 65–90 355n8 addiction to, 65–69 Wiener, Norbert, 220, 237, 253, 255, altered states and, 82–85 256 Asteroids, 65–66, 81, 83, 124–125 Wild Child of Aveyron, 17–18, 29 computer in, 70–74 Willis, Paul, 339n1 computer culture and, 78–82 Winner, Langdon, 325n11 controversies about, 66 Winnicott, D. W., 336n16, 337n22, fantasy games and, 78–80 337n23. See also Transitional history of, 75–76 objects holding power of, 65–79, 78–85, Winston, Patrick, 345n3 333n11 Witkin, Herman, 335n11 Joust, 76–77 Wolfe, Tom, 193 372 Index

Word processing, children and, 117–120 Wu, Thomas D., 341n11

Xerox PARC, 8, 223

Yoda and the Force, 64

Zeitgeist, 304 Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance (Pirsig), 187 Zuboff, Shoshanna, 339n1 Zubrow, David, 339n1