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1993 A Cross-Age Study of Students' Knowledge of Insect Metamorphosis: Insights Into Their Understanding of Evolution. Mary Susan Nichols Louisiana State University and Agricultural & Mechanical College
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A cross-age study of students’ knowledge of insect metamorphosis: Insights into their understanding of evolution
Nichols, Mary Susan, Ph.D.
The Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical Col., 1993
UMI 300 N. Zeeb Rd. Ann Arbor, Ml 48106
A CROSS-AGE STUDY OF STUDENTS' KNOWLEDGE OF INSECT METAMORPHOSIS: INSIGHTS INTO THEIR UNDERSTANDING OF EVOLUTION
A Dissertation
Submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy
in
The Department of Curriculum and Instruction
by Mary Susan Nichols B.S.Ed., California State College, 1971 M.S., University of Georgia, 1974 December 1993 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Many people have made this study possible. My Major
Professor, Dr. James H. Wandersee, deserves a special
accolade. He gave unselfishly of his time, gave of his
professional expertise and experience, provided extensive
technical assistance during the writing of the dissertation
and encouraged me professionally. My committee members,
Dr. Richard A. Goyer, Dr. Hollis U. Cox, Dr. Ronald G.
Good, Dr. S. Kim MacGregor, Dr. F. Neil Mathews, and Dr.
Barbara M. Strawitz gave invaluable advice which has
improved this dissertation. My colleagues, Dr. Catherine
L. Cummins and Sherry S. Demastes gave needed support,
advise, and assistance at important junctures in the
research.
To the following parish school administrators,
principals, guidance counselors, and teachers I extend my
sincere appreciation: William J. Glasper, Mary E. Jordan,
Richard Capps, Richard Day, Lois Anne R. Sumrall, Shelton
Watts, Connie Dickinson, Linda Joseph, Anne Silva, Bobbie
Scott, Elaine Smith, Carol Brown, Audrey Burns, Diane
Bynum, Frances Frost, Mary Hamilton, Violet Jeanpierre,
Mary Maples, Helen Peterson, Robyn Vaughan, and Faye
Wicker. Each of these individuals gave of their time to
further this study. The students who participated in this study cannot be cited for reasons of confidentiality, but their participation is gratefully acknowledged.
ii Last, but certainly not least, I owe a great deal to my husband Gary and daughter Michelle. Gary helped with computer software and statistical data treatments, contributed editorial advice, and did proofreading.
Michelle continually provided perspective on the study from a student's viewpoint and helped with proofreading. They put up with night classes, less than auspicious meals, a house with not everything in place, and most importantly time away from them for study and research. Without their support, encouragement, and love I would not have been able to complete my graduate work.
i l l TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS...... ii
TABLE OF CONTENTS...... iv
ABSTRACT...... vi
INTRODUCTION...... 1
Research Questions...... 4 Definition of Terms...... 4
REVIEW OF LITERATURE...... 6
Learning Theory...... 6 Entomology Education...... 12 Insect Metamorphosis ...... 21 Evolution...... 26 Summary...... 30
MATERIALS AND METHODS...... 34
Subjects...... 34 Materials...... 34 Procedure...... 35 Anal ysis...... 39
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION...... 44
Major Alternative Conceptions Students Hold Concerning Insect Metamorphosis...... 44 Student Understanding of Insect Metamorphosis Across Grade Levels...... 60 Student Explanations for Insect Metamorphosis...... 69 Summary...... 82 Suggestions for Instruction...... 84 Suggestions for Future Research...... 87 Limitations of the Study...... 88
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS...... 8 9
Study Summary...... 89 Significance of the Study...... 92
REFERENCES...... 96
APPENDIX A SCIENCE TEXTBOOK SURVEY...... 109
APPENDIX B COPYRIGHT PERMISSION...... 110
APPENDIX C PRIOR KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS...... 112 APPENDIX D STAGE PICTURE SCORING...... 113
APPENDIX E CONCEPT CIRCLE DIAGRAMS...... 114
APPENDIX F CONCEPT CIRCLE DIAGRAM SCORING...... 116
APPENDIX G CLINICAL INTERVIEW PROTOCOL...... 117
VITA...... 120
v ABSTRACT
Insect metamorphosis is relatively easy to explain at
a superficial level, but a deep understanding of the
concept reveals a complex array of interrelationships, most
importantly those that address evolution. This is
significant because, in biology, evolution is considered to
be a central theme.
Participants for this study were selected from grades
5, 7, 9, and 11 according to low, middle, or high
achievement levels in their science classes, and to scores
on a national achievement test. The research incorporated
a three-level response strategy in order to ascertain more
completely students' knowledge of insect metamorphosis, and
to better suggest how that knowledge could give insight
into their understanding of evolution. First, a series of
scientifically accurate line drawings depicting grasshopper
and butterfly metamorphic stages probed understanding of
basic concepts. Second, concept circle diagrams identified
and explored students' concept clusters involving insect
metamorphosis. Third, clinical interviews involving
direct observation of insect metamorphosis in. vivo assessed
the degree of integration of two clusters of insect
metamorphosis concepts; metamorphic and evolutionary.
In formulating this study's research questions, the
theoretical bases of prescientific conceptions and meaningful learning, as well as histories of science and
entomological literature were accessed. Specific questions addressed by this research were: (1) What major
alternative conceptions do students hold concerning insect
metamorphosis?; (2) How does students' understanding of
insect metamorphosis change across grade levels?; (3) Are
students able to give evolutionary explanations for insect
metamorphosis?
The major alternative conceptions of public school
students taking part in this study about insect metamorphosis fell into five major categories: visual
stage recognition, stage terminology, characteristics of
stages, factors influencing insect metamorphosis, and types
of metamorphosis. No increase in student understanding of
insect metamorphosis across grade levels was evidenced from
the stage picture data. The concept circle diagram data, however, showed an increase in understanding from grade
five to grade eleven. The vast majority of the students were unable to give an evolutionary explanation for insect metamorphosis. Findings suggest that direct entomological experiences may increase pupils' understanding of both insect metamorphosis and evolution.
vii INTRODUCTION
Insects maintain a ubiquitous presence in our daily lives. From the vile and repugnant cockroach to the most iridescent butterfly, and from the enraged buzzing of a disturbed bee to the noiseless predatory stance of a praying manti 3 f Cu6 is impacted either by choice, or as an unwilling victim, by our insect neighbors. What developmental thread ties that voracious caterpillar to the enthralling spectacle of the brilliantly colored butterfly or the seemingly miniature facsimile of the cricket to the robust adult songster? That thread is insect metamorphosis, an important scientific concept that students are exposed to (vicariously) not only in school and in popular culture (Larson, 1988), but also (by direct encounters) at home.
The present period is considered by some authors
(Naisbett & Aburdene, 1990) to be "the age of biology" (p.
241). In biology the most fundamental theme is evolution, a theme which gives both foundation and meaning to the whole. Evolutionary theory offers not only an explanation for both the unity and diversity of life, but also furnishes a framework that can guide attempts to discover and close theoretical gaps (Dobzhansky, 1983). Strategies to enhance the efficacy of teaching evolution therefore should be explored. Insect metamorphosis can serve as a foundation for one such strategy. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (1989) encourages student
1 2
involvement with familiar entities in the natural world.
Insects are an integral part of the student's milieu and have the potential to help students become biologically literate.
One recognizes the concept of insect metamorphosis is more comprehensible than that of evolution, yet knowledge of the elementary (insect metamorphosis) could enhance teaching the complex (evolution). Such a knowledge conveyance is needed. Students at the college level continue to demonstrate misunderstanding of evolutionary processes, even with prior instruction in biology (Bishop &
Anderson, 1990). Perhaps instruction in simpler concepts
(insect metamorphosis) along with more complex concepts
(evolution) is needed in elementary school.
It has been suggested by Novak and Musonda (1991) that young children's learning capacity is greatly underutilized. It is critically important for young children to have adequate science instruction (Novak &
Musonda, 1991). Yet, evolution is often deemed an inappropriate subject to be taught at the elementary level
(Roseman, 1992). Unfortunately, the state-approved science textbooks (Louisiana) for grade five do not even mention insect metamorphosis, not withstanding, the more complex subject of evolution (see Appendix A). Additionally, no relationship between insect metamorphosis and evolution was evident in advanced state-approved science textbooks surveyed by this author. 3
A cross-age study of students' knowledge of insect metamorphosis can provide insight into students' conceptual understanding of both insect metamorphosis and of the evolutionary process. A metaphorical example, as stated by
Nichols and Wandersee (1993, pp. 4-5; see Appendix B) provides clarification. A simple light microscope has a low-power objective to enlarge and define the field of observation and locate features of interest, after which a high-power objective is used to observe the selected portion of the field in greater detail. If even greater resolution is required, an electron microscope can be employed. As with the low-power objective, student understanding of insect metamorphosis can be defined by asking students to sequence and explain a series of pictures that show the various stages in common insect life cycles. Concept circle diagrams, like the high-power objective, can be used to examine selected details of student understanding (including misunderstandings) of insect metamorphosis and bring closely related concepts into view. Finally, just as an electron microscope can resolve organelles and molecular structure to a degree not possible with an ordinary light microscope, the clinical interview can provide a microstructural analysis of student understanding of insect metamorphosis, and it suggests how that knowledge can yield deeper insights into students' understanding of evolution. 4
Research Questions
The purpose of this study was to ascertain what
happens to students' understanding of insect metamorphosis
as they progress from elementary school through high
school. The following research questions were addressed:
1. What major alternative conceptions do students
hold concerning insect metamorphosis?
2. How does students' understanding of insect
metamorphosis change across grade levels?
3. Are students able to give evolutionary
explanations for insect metamorphosis?
Definition of Terms
For the purposes of this study the following terms were defined:
alternative conception - propositional knowledge which is different from the accepted scientific knowledge for that topic and that may interfere with further science learning; concept - an identifiable regularity in objects or events which has been given a word label (Novak & Gowin, 1984); concept circle diagram - a student-constructed graphic tool which utilizes up to five circles, a descriptive title, and an explanatory sentence to depict inclusive-exclusive relationships among small clusters of related concepts
(Wandersee, 1987); holometabolous development - complete metamorphosis
(Davies, 1988); hemimetabolous development - incomplete metamorphos
(Davies, 1988) REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Many science educators today regard knowledge acquisition as a constructive process (Nussbaum, 1989;
Yager, 1991). This construction is the responsibility of the learner. Construction of scientific knowledge is influenced not only by the concepts to be learned, but also by prior knowledge (Novak, 1991). Since the acquisition of new knowledge is impacted by prior knowledge, inaccurate prior knowledge may lead to alternative conceptions (Novak,
1991). Biological knowledge is thought to be restructured as early as elementary school, and alternative conceptions are induced from subsequent interaction of the student with his or her home/school setting (Mintzes, 1989). These misunderstandings can be difficult to align with current scientific thinking even if the latter is presented clearly in the science classroom (Stepans, Beiswenger, & Dyche,
1986). For example, students' understanding of the cell concept was found wanting, even after detailed instruction
(Dreyfus S. Jungwirth, 1988).
Learning Theory
For students to optimally understand their school subjects, it is necessary for teaching to have a strong theoretical basis. Meaningful learning theory can provide that basis, and meaningful learning may be defined as occurring when the learner is presented with concepts to be learned along with associated word labels, clearly evident regularities, and obvious links to prior knowledge (Novak, 7
1979). Meaningful learning may also be viewed as a
creative process involving, for example, even the
formulation of new concepts (Novak, 1987a). Novak (1979)
contrasts such reception learning with discovery learning,
which occurs when the learner finds the regularities in
nature by himself or herself. Many teachers choose
reception learning over discovery learning because
instructional time is limited. Furthermore, mandated
curriculum guides require that many science concepts be
addressed over a single school year and, thus, do not allow
needed time for discovery learning to occur. Discovery
learning is also not as efficient as sound reception
learning. While discovery learning is important as the
child builds a basic set of concepts, it is less important
after that.
Rote Learning
Rote learning is the norm in many science classrooms
today. Such learning may be discerned by the lack of
explicit relationships between new knowledge and prior
knowledge (Novak & Gowin, 1984). For example, students are
often asked to memorize lists of science terms and
definitions. If the elapsed time between memorization and
examination is short, students generally do well, but
delayed examination results usually prove disappointing.
Material learned by rote often is not applied to novel
situations (Okebukola, 1990). Our educational system, 8
unfortunately, rewards such short-term benefit by
mortgaging a child's future learning (Novak, 1993).
Meaningful Learning
Meaningful learning, by contrast, connects current
learning to previous learning, thus improving retention of
concepts (Novak, 1987b). To promote meaningful learning
in the science classroom it is, therefore, imperative to
be cognizant of the student's current level of
understanding (Ausubel, Novak, & Hanesian, 1978).
Additionally, teachers must be aware that rote learning and
meaningful learning occur on a continuum (Novak & Gowin,
1984). Learning can be entirely rote or meaningful, but
usually occurs between the two extremes. It behooves
science educators to move learning toward the meaningful
end of the scale.
Metacognitive Tools
Several metacognitive tools have been developed to
foster meaningful learning. These tools include concept mapping, Vee diagramming and, more recently, concept
circle diagramming.
Concept Mapping
Concept mapping is a hierarchical construction process which shows perceived relationships among various
concepts (Novak, 1987b). To draw a concept map, the
student must grapple with the new knowledge, seeking to
connect it to prior knowledge, and thus to make it more personally meaningful. For the teacher, a concept map can 9
additionally serve not only as an evaluation instrument to detect misconceptions in students, but also as a tool the teacher can use to plan lessons, guide instruction, and succinctly summarize both printed and aural information
(Novak & Gowin, 1984).
Vee Diagram
In contrast to identifying what students know, a Vee diagram enables students to understand how new knowledge is constructed (Novak, 1987b). For example, a Vee diagram can be used by a student to identify the key question of a laboratory experiment, or by a teacher to understand the focus of a research article or the basis of its knowledge and value claims.
Concept Circle Diagram
A more recently developed science learning tool is the concept circle diagram. Developed by Wandersee (1987) to depict relationships between small clusters of concepts, it utilizes up to five circles, a descriptive title, and an explanatory sentence for the graphic information presented--al1 to convey a student's knowledge of that particular subject matter. A concept circle diagram is an excellent way to organize knowledge (Hettich, 1992).
Concept circle diagrams also have metalearning, instructional, and curricular applications which are particularly useful in depicting inclusive-exclusive relationships among a small number of closely related concepts (Wandersee, 1987). Additionally, they are easier 10
for young students to construct than concept maps or Vee diagrams (Wandersee, 1987). Wandersee (1987) proposes that they be used prior to concept maps and Vee diagrams because of their capability to help students begin to think conceptually. In research, they can offer a unique perspective on how students mentally connect small clusters of concepts.
Alternative Conceptions
To enhance meaningful learning, alternative conceptions need to be addressed. The level of alternative conceptions, whether it be resistant to teaching efforts, or easily taught away should be identified (Wandersee,
Mintzes, & Novak, in press). One cannot deal with a problem unless that problem is known. Different sources may contribute to students' alternative conceptions. For example, textbooks have been shown to contribute to inaccurate knowledge in genetics (Cho, Kahle, & Nordlund,
1985) and cell physiology (Storey, 1992). Trowbridge and
Mintzes (1988) showed that some alternative conceptions for taxonomic classification were "stable" across various age groups, while others were modified as the students progressed in school. Fortunately, work by Wandersee,
Mintzes, and Arnaudin (1989) has delineated many studies showing student misunderstanding in the biological sciences. One may also look to histories of science to discover alternative conceptions that may reappear in today's students (Wandersee, 1986). For example, Aristotle 11
thought honey bee queens were male and Democritus believed large numbers of honey bees could be produced from animal carcasses (Gould & Gould, 1988).
The need to address such alternative conceptions directly is questioned, though, by Muthukrishna, Carnine,
Grossen, and Miller (1993) when instruction is effective.
However, traditional instruction has been shown to have little effect on many alternative conceptions. Yet, understanding of a science concept increases when pupils' alternative conceptions are directly addressed (Eaton,
Anderson, & Smith, 1983). Thus, alternative conception research is an important component of constructivist curriculum development (Eckstein & Shemesh, 1993). Whether confronted directly, or incorporated in effective instruction, alternative conceptions must be addressed or they limit students' scientific understanding of any scientific topic, including insect metamorphosis.
Summary
Rote learning and meaningful learning occur on a continuum (Novak & Gowin, 1984). Learning may be any graduation between those points. Unfortunately, according to Novak and Gowin (1984), the predominate type of learning occurring in the schools falls towards the rote learning end of the scale.
Various means, such as graphics, have been promulgated to enhance student learning. Textbooks show increased use of graphics (Blystone & Barnard, 1988). Several 12
metacognitive tools employing graphics have been developed
to foster meaningful learning. These tools include concept mapping, Vee diagramming, and more recently, concept circle
diagramming.
Using metacognitive tools, such as the concept circle
diagram alternative conceptions can be exposed.
Alternative conceptions usually need to be directly
addressed to promote meaningful learning. Some researchers
(Muthukrishna, Carnine, Grossen, & Miller, 1993), however, question whether or not this is true for all science
topics.
Entomoloqy Education
From antiquity humans have been engaged in the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge about entomology, both for the enhancement of life and to prevent
loss of that life. Here are some examples. Honey is as tasty to the modern palate as it was to those of the pharaohs. In contrast, the human agony wrought by mosquito-borne malaria or the environmental devastation following a locust plague is the same today as in the past.
Means to secure honey from wild bees was depicted in
Stone Age painting (Gould & Gould, 1988). Beekeeping, however, was initiated by the Egyptians and accumulated knowledge through the centuries has allowed the process to become more sophisticated (Gould & Gould, 1988). Today beekeepers in the United States crisscross the country providing pollination services to farmers and honey to 13
consumers (Mairson, 1993). The health and productivity of their hives has been enhanced by education wrought from both experience and science (Mairson, 1993).
Despite insecticidal and pharmaceutical advances coupled with genetic change in man, mosquito-borne malaria continues to kill millions of people world-wide each year
(Nagel, 1991). Relatively greater progress has been made in the area of locust control. Ways to keep locusts in check were delineated in written form by the Chinese during the early 1300's (Konishi & Ito, 1973). In the United
States during the late 1800's, unique ways were devised to combat the locust plagues, from setting bounties on these insects and their progeny to designing machines to crush them (Evans, 1984b). Today on-going research is investigating hormonal control of the grasshopper (Simons,
1991). Thus, both to benefit from and prevent damage by insects, education about entomology is vital to humankind.
Instructional Strategies
Increasing interest in entomology education is evidenced by the addition recently of a new section entitled "Education Connection" in the American
Entomologist (Wangberg, 1991). Goals of this section, among others, include recognizing new advances in entomological education and stimulating interest in the field (Wangberg, 1991)--especially in view of declining enrollments in entomology (Holden, 1989). 14
From the cornucopia of insect species, teachers can choose one or many insects to enhance their teaching of biology, entomology, or even English! Nead (1993) has developed workshops for girls that include interesting entomological tidbits, insect delicacies, and experiments, all to promote attraction rather than aversion to insects.
Girls were targeted because they generally show disgust for insects and are underrepresented in the field of entomology
(Nead, 1993). Although girls were selected for the previous workshops, boys could also benefit from these experiences.
Humor and Games
Both genders can benefit from humor and games in the science classroom. Humor can enhance a child's motivation to learn biology (Wandersee, 1982). Cartoons can simultaneously interject humor into the classroom and illuminate scientific misconceptions (Imhoff, 1988).
Cartoons by cartoonist Gary Larson are particularly useful in addressing entomological alternative conceptions.
Subject-matter games can also have a positive effect on students achievement in biology (Cohen, Yaakobi, Ben-Porat,
& Chayoth, 1989). To review entomological topics, including the types of insect metamorphosis, one educator developed a game patterned after Monopoly ™ (McMahan,
1988). Finally, the life history and the external features of individual insects can be researched before sketching, 15
to enhance knowledge of, and appreciation for that
particular insect (Stokrocki, 1993).
Experiential Avenues
Numerous other experiential avenues, from keeping bee
colonies to viewing movies can further entomological (and
thereby, biological) literacy. El-Mai 1akh, Wilson, and
Silverman (1991) advocate the observation of bee colonies
in hives especially constructed for educational purposes,
but they prefer to have students involved in the
maintenance and care of a school-based or commercial hive.
Student participation in beekeeping allows for student
observation of honey bee metamorphosis as well as other
aspects of their biology, and it can serve as an
introduction to the field of entomology (El-Mallakh,
Wilson, & Silverman, 1991). A less expensive alternative
to bee colonies with the potential to derive more
educational benefit is having students incorporate both the
care and observation of an insect culture into the
students' life routine. J. H. Wandersee (personal
communication, September 23, 1993) gave individual students
the responsibility of caring for and observing their own
fruit fly cultures in order to deduce the fly's life cycle
as part of a biology course requirement. This learning
event spurred student interest and enabled pupils to gain a more in-depth knowledge of insect metamorphosis (J. H.
Wandersee, personal communication, September 23, 1993).
Such a learning activity answers the call by the National 16
Research Council (1990) for more student interaction with animals. This interaction provides the direct experiences which can result in increased understanding of innumerable biological aspects of the selected animals' life (National
Research Council, 1990).
Stamp Col 1ecting
Even stamp collecting hobbies of students can be employed to create interest in and show trends in entomology. With nearly 5000 insects appearing on stamps internationally during the last 100 years, the variety is enough to pique the interest of any child (Hamel, 1990).
Postage stamps collected on an international basis during the last quarter century, for example, show a distinctly more safety and environmentally conscious approach to pest control (Grieshop, 1990). Both insects in the field and on postage stamps can be collected to create student interest in insects.
Food
Since students love to eat and have parties, an insect buffet could stimulate increased interest in, and knowledge about insects. It could even include such elaborate fare as "chocolate cricket torte" (p. 20) featured at a recent entomology society extravaganza (Rennie, 1992). Such an event could lead to discussing the nutritional benefits
(protein, fat) of insects generally, eating insect larva for the fat conscious and learning that many people throughout the world enjoy eating insects (Rennie, 1992). 17
Such knowledge may be a necessity in addressing the food
requirements of a burgeoning world population (Rennie,
1992).
Nature
Nature walks have been a staple of science teachers
from time immemorial but entomology educators have given it
a new twist -- night insect excursions (Potter & Yeargan,
1993). Insect walks held at night that involve students,
their families, and the community at large can not only
foster and maintain interest in entomology but also
increase understanding of insects as well (Potter &
Yeargan, 1993). Other options include planting vegetation
that attracts a variety of insects, particularly
butterflies, for increased student fascination (Walburn,
1992).
Literature
Literature can serve as a bridge to increased
understanding in elementary school science (Shymansky,
1993). Such use need not be limited to young children
particularly in entomology education. Insects and/or their
life changes have provided the springboard for many works
of literature like Franz Kafka's (1972) The Metamorphosis.
Ants and bees are also mentioned in the Bible (Crane,
1990). Conversely, insects can impact the language arts, particularly stimulating improvement in writing ability
(Mallow, 1991). 18
Technoloqy
Technology has an important place in the biology
classroom. From doing boring tasks to executing genetic
simulations, computers are an essential part of a
classrooms technological equipment (Hannafin & Peck, 1988).
The common video camera can provide a way for students to
vicariously see places and events that would otherwise not
be available to them (Steinman, 1993). Hounshell and Hill
(1989) have shown that using computers in biology
classrooms not only can enhance achievement, but can also
improve student attitude towards biology. Both teachers
and students at all school levels benefit from computers
(Brownell, 1987) and other technological innovations.
When insects invade people's living space, people want
to know what the pests are and how to get rid of these
annoying pests in a most expeditious manner. A project in
Virginia is addressing this problem involving entomological
literacy by using computers (Miller & Day, 1990).
Utilizing touch activated screens and peripherals which can
be set up in public places, individuals can identify and
learn appropriate control measures for the insect in
question (Miller & Day, 1990). New computer simulations
(e.g. SimAnt™) effectively allow students to manage an ant
colony, for example, by changing key variables (J. H.
Wandersee, personal communication, October 10, 1993). In
the classroom computer software that includes a variety of
learning strategies such as highlighting and review has 19
been shown to enhance students' insect classifying skills
(Barba & Merchant, 1990). Other technology, such as
television cameras with appropriately fitted ultraviolet
lenses can visualize for students an approximation of what
an insect sees (Eisner, Aneshansley, & Eisner, 1988). For
example, patterns on butterfly wings that the species
utilizes for sexual recognition are made visible with the
technique (Eisner, Aneshansley, & Eisner, 1988).
Additional 1y , time-lapse photography of metamorphic change
can enhance understanding of the process (Urquhart, 1987)
As technology enhances learning about insects, insects
can be the basis for design of that technology, which in
turn increases not only knowledge of those insects, but
also evolution. For example, robotic insects provide
researchers with an understanding of behavior and
elementary neural processes (Wolkomir, 1991).
Additionally, work is on-going to develop computer programs
that mimic evolutionary processes (Wolkomir, 1991). Even
insect orientation behavior can be the basis for geometric
principles (Boyadzhiev & Boyadzhiev, 1992). When available
technology is utilized in the classroom, understanding of
insects, insect metamorphosis, and evolution can be
enhanced.
Fi lms
Hollywood films, like "Mothra," exhibit insect
alternative conceptions (Weiss, 1989). To counteract this misinformation one entomologist has spearheaded a yearly 20
film festival to create interest in insects and correct misinformation displayed in the films. For example, one festival presentation focused on explaining why a moth the size of a large aircraft could not possibly complete metamorphosis (Weiss, 1989).
Summary
From time immemorial humankind has been engaged in the acquisition and dissemination of knowledge about insects.
Much educational 1iterature has been developed from antiquity to enhance understanding of the honey bee for its multitudinous benefits to man. Honey bees not only pollinate our crops but produce products for such diverse uses as food, food enhancements, candles, medicinal uses, cosmetics, and veterinary applications (Crane, 1990).
Educational resources have also come to bear on harmful insects, such as the mosquito, which can not only be annoying, but deadly when transmitting diseases like malaria.
To gain appreciation of beneficial and innocuous insects, ameliorate the effects of harmful insects, and simultaneously both enhance and maintain a liveable environment requires emphasis on entomology education.
Various instructional strategies can be implemented to achieve these goals, including computer simulations and life cycle studies. Strategies can also be as entertaining as the movies (Weiss, 1989), as gastronomical1y enticing as a banquet (Rennie, 1992), and even involve the community 21
at large (Potter & Yeargan, 1993). Other equally diverse
innovations have been suggested.
Insect Metamorphosis
Insect metamorphosis may be defined as the sequential
morphological changes that occur during an insect's
developmental cycle (Douglas, 1986). These distinct
morphological characteristics place most insects into
either of two types of metamorphosis: incomplete
(hemimetabolous) or complete (hoiometabolous) (Davies,
1988). Young and adult forms of insects having incomplete
metamorphosis exhibit few differences, except that adults
are larger and have fully developed wings and genitalia,
all of which form gradually (Evans, 1984a). By contrast,
young and adult forms of insects having complete
metamorphosis are remarkably different. This startling
transformation is brought about, in part, by an externally
inactive but internally (physiologically) active pupal
stage (Davies, 1988).
Importance of Molting
Molting is an integral component of insect metamorphosis. An insect's exoskeleton serves many
functions, from resisting desiccation to serving as a base
for muscular attachment, however, it is not expandable.
For an insect to increase in size, a new exoskeleton must be formed and the old exoskeleton shed in a process known
as molting (Davies, 1988). Differential larval sizes also affect food choices and food acquisition (Reavey & Gaston, 22
1991). According to Davies (1988), molting, in concert with evolutionary processes, has resulted in the diversity of insect forms we see today.
Variables Influencing Mol ting
Molting is a complex developmental process that may be impacted, for example, by food supply, moisture, temperature, and parental age. This is shown by the fact that the time to complete development may be lengthened by inadequate nutrition (Bernays & Simpson, 1990). A low level of moisture in tree tissue negatively affects development of bark beetle larvae (Barbosa & Wagner, 1989).
The nymphal development of grasshoppers is positively influenced by temperature up to a threshold level (Joern &
Gains, 1990). Temperature also influences which polymorphs
(multiple forms) of ladybird beetles in England predominate
(Brookfield, 1986; Douglas, 1986). Even the age of the parent organism can influence the development time of resulting offspring (Partridge & Fowler, 1992). Offspring of older parents required a longer time to reach the adult stage in Drosophi1 a melanogasster (Partridge & Fowler,
1992) .
Stage Protection
The pupal stage is the most vulnerable stage of insect development (Ajilvsgi, 1990). According to Ajilvsgi
(1990), this vulnerability has led to the development of defensive mechanisms through evolutionary processes. These mechanisms include camouflage, with some pupae resembling 23
twigs, leaves, or astonishingly, animal eyes (Douglas,
1986). Adults have also developed various defensive
mechanisms. One such mechanism is termed Batesian mimicry,
in which an organism through natural selection, developed a
physical appearance similar to another organism that is
repugnant to its predators, although it does not have that
characteristic (Davies, 1988). Monarch and Viceroy
butterflies show this type of mimicry (Douglas, 1986). A
Monarch is distasteful to predators, whereas the Viceroy,
which is palatable to predators, experiences reduced
predation (Batesian mimicry) because it resembles the
Monarch in appearance (Davies, 1988). Recent research,
however, indicates that the mimicry exhibited by the
Monarch and Viceroy butterflies may be Mullerian rather
than Batesian (Walker, 1991). Mullerian mimics being those
species that are both unpalatable and mimic each other
(Douglas, 1986). Whether Batesian or Mullerian mimicry is
involved, the evolutionary survival of one or both species
is enhanced (Douglas, 1986).
Insect Control
Insects impact humans in both positive and negative ways. For example, the familiar honey bee is essential for
the pollination of many food plants and produces honey, a sweet substance desired by many. Contrarily, other insects
cause serious damage to agricultural crops and inflict misery, illness, and death on both humans and other animals. For example, mosquito-borne yellow fever which 24
temporarily halted building of the Panama canal also killed many residents of New Orleans at the turn of the century and is still a threat today (Tabachnick, 1991).
A knowledge of insect metamorphosis is essential to the control of such harmful insects (Davies, 1988). This knowledge gave rise to the idea that a rain of malunya moth eggs, with the subsequent larval stage could decimate coca plants and diminish the drug trade in South America
("Fuzzy-wuzzy," 1990).
The process of insect metamorphosis is regulated by the interaction of various hormones (Davies, 1988). Of this hormonal complex, juvenile hormone titer
(concentration) directly impacts the sequential development of the various stages (Douglas, 1986). Future insect control measures will undoubtedly include more chemicals that disrupt an insect's development process, such as the juvenile hormone mimics (Evans, 1984a). For example, methoprene has been used effectively in tropical areas to reduce mosquito populations (Cymborowski, 1992). Research shows that cell differentiation from larva to pupa, and pupa to adult can be negatively affected by methoprene
(Shaaya, 1993).
Other developmental inhibitors such as neem seed extract have been shown (experimentally) to interfere with molting in grasshoppers (Pener, 1987). Instead of the toxicity and deleterious environmental effects of many currently used insecticides, new chemicals that interfere 25
with a specific harmful insect's metamorphosis will not adversely impact the environment as they reduce the target insect population. In addition, knowledge of a particular insect pest's evolution can aid development of appropriate control measures (Tabachnick, 1991).
Summary
To gain a rudimentary introduction to metamorphosis, one need only observe the puncture holes in a favorite vegetable, or the disappearing leaves on a beautiful tree, while simultaneously seeing the insect culprits increase incrementally in size. Then watching the emergence of a butterfly from what may seem an overly small receptacle, observe the gradual expansion of crumpled wings, and finally the flash of brilliance as it takes to the skies.
In less picturesque terms, insect metamorphosis may be defined as the sequential morphological changes that occur during an insect's developmental cycle (Douglas, 1986).
These morphological changes are made possible through the molting process. The molting process is impacted by a variety of variables from food supply to temperature.
In each stage of its life cycle, an insect is vulnerable to harm. According to Ajilvegi (1990), this vulnerability (particularly the pupa) has led to the development of defensive mechanisms through evolutionary processes. These mechanisms vary from camouflage to mimicry (Douglas, 1986). 26
Yet, this astounding process of insect metamorphosis which in concert with their small size and wings have
literally allowed insects to occupy nearly every conceivable niche throughout the biosphere (Evans, 1984a).
Knowledge of insect metamorphosis can exploit vulnerability in pest life cycles for the betterment of both humans and the environment.
Evolution
The main tenet of evolution is natural selection
(Towle, 1989). Natural selection is the process by which organisms, in adapting to their environment, differentially pass on their genes to succeeding generations (Arms & Camp,
1988). This process generally occurs over millions of years, but may occasionally produce observable differences in as little as a year's time (Scott, 1986). For example, the eyespots on the Maniola butterfly differ yearly, depending on the selective pressure of parasitism (Scott,
1986). However, most changes occur on a geologic time scale.
Innumerable instances of coevolution can illuminate evolutionary progression. Coevolution is the process by which selective pressure is provided by the interaction of the species involved (Arms & Camp, 1988). The evolving relationship between certain orchid and bee species is such that male bees attempt to copulate with female like plant structures, and in so doing ensure that these orchids are pollinated (Barrett, 1987). In the tropics certain acacias 27
and ants have evolved together with the ant providing
protection and enhancing growth while the acacia provides
nourishment and cover for the ants (Arms & Camp, 1988).
Amber-encased insects can illuminate an organism's
history (Lundberg, 1993). Morell (1992) shows how
amplifying DNA sequences from insects encased in amber, and
comparing those sequences to modern species, can increase
knowledge of the organism's evolutionary history.
Obstacles to Instruction
Unfortunately, numerous obstacles function
independently and interactively to hinder students'
understanding of evolution. Every member of the school
culture from school board official to student plays a role
in erecting these obstacles. School boards are usually not
cognizant of evolutionary theory (Hickman, 1992) and could
consequently opt against the teaching of evolution if
public opinion so dictates (Zimmerman, 1991). The validity
of evolutionary theory is also questioned by numerous high
school science teachers (Eve & Dunn, 1990). Science
teachers may be hired for their coaching ability and other non-science teaching attributes rather than their knowledge
of science in general or evolution in particular (Hickman,
1992). Due to the controversial nature of the subject, it
is often a more comfortable solution for a teacher to
simply not teach evolution, ostensibly when time constraints are a problem (Ballard, 1992). Students'
reasoning skill, as well as, their religious beliefs may 28
influence understanding of evolution (Lawson & Worsnop,
1992). (For example, evolutionary parasite and host relationships were problematic to early theologians (Gould,
1983) and can even be a source of concern for students today.) Students’ excitement for science that may initially encourage them to investigate the possibility of a career in science can be stifled by the seemingly irreconcilable differences between their religious faith and the findings of science (Esbenshade, 1993).
Instructional Aid
The conceptual framework of evolutionary theory is quite complex and challenging both to teach and to learn well. Despite its complexity, Neuberger (1966) advocated teaching evolutionary concepts in the elementary school more than a quarter century ago. However, dealing with abstract terminology is the norm rather than the exception in teaching evolution (Fisher, 1992). Yet, Williams (1950) pointed out the importance of the study of insect metamorphosis to understanding how cells differentiate.
In contrast, insects are a familiar presence in our world. Kargbo, Hobbs, and Erickson (1980) suggested that familiar entities be utilized to address problems students have with inheritance in an evolutionary context, even with students of elementary age. This familiarity may prove advantageous. An understanding of insect metamorphosis is potentially useful in teaching biological evolution. 29
Insects with simple or incomplete metamorphosis, such as the common grasshopper, live their entire lives in the same habitat. Immature forms as well as adults compete for the same living space and food sources. Competition between different age groups occurs naturally to the detriment of all, but particularly affects the immature
forms. By contrast, insects with complete metamorphosis, such as a butterfly, spend the immature stage of their life in one habitat and the adult stage in a different habitat.
This eliminates competition between different stages of the same species for limited resources, and it allows the different stages to experience an environment favorable to that particular stage of development.
Complete metamorphosis was a major step in the evolutionary development of insects (Evans, 1984a). The evolutionary success of complete metamorphosis is attested to by the fact that approximately 80% of all insect species exhibit that mode of metamorphosis (Evans, 1984a). Having been on earth for at least 400 million years, insects are very old in an evolutionary sense, which has allowed them to speciate more and occupy most habitats (D. Pashley, personal communication, April 16, 1992).
Summary
The central theme of all biology is evolution.
Unfortunately for students and society as a whole, obstacles function independently and interactively to hinder pupils' understanding of evolution. These obstacles 30
include, among others, the members of the school hierarchy
(Hickman, 1992; Zimmerman, 1991), the controversality of the subject (Ballard, 1992), and the seemingly irreconcilable differences with one's religious faith
(Ebenshade, 1993).
Fortunately, metamorphosis can be utilized to increase student understanding of evolutionary theory. Insects are a familiar presence and a powerful example. Their evolutionary success is due in large part to the development of complete metamorphosis (Evans, 1984a).
Summary
Knowledge may be likened to a building, in that both are the result of a constructive process. Rote learning
(Novak, 1991) may be compared to structural entities which act independently of other components and do not bear the load of higher order concepts. Meaningful learning, by contrast, is influenced by prior learning, leaving room for previous misunderstandings to have a considerable influence
(Novak, 1991). Continuing with the building metaphor, an entire building (meaningful learning) can be impacted by a faulty infrastructure.
To ascertain the complexity, weaknesses, and strengths of this knowledge edifice, metacognitive tools may be employed. These tools include concept maps (Novak & Gowin,
1984), Vee diagrams (Novak & Gowin, 1984), concept circle diagrams (Wandersee, 1987) and clinical interviews (Long &
Ben-Hur, 1991). 31
It is important to bring learning theory and
metacognitive tools to bear on the problems faced by
entomology education today. In a recent study on animal
growth (Rosengren, Gelman, Kalish, & McCormick, 1991),
subjects (ages 3, 5 and adult) were shown a butterfly larva
and then asked what the adult form would look like (choice
between adult butterfly and large larva). Except for a few
individual respondents, no age group gave a significantly
correct response (Rosengren, Gelman, Kalish, & McCormick,
1991). Insects continue to spread disease and destroy
crops while the number of entomologists, who could combat
the problem decline (Holden, 1989). Perhaps the most
tragic result of this situation is that only a fraction of
insect species have been identified; with the speed of
habitat destruction, benefits that could have been realized
from these species may be forever lost (Holden, 1989).
Educators are not standing idly by. Novel ways to create
student interest in insects and ways to help students gain
an understanding of this most abundant animal taxon are
being developed.
When students first understand insects in general
(insects' metamorphosis, the variables that influence the molting process, and insects’ protective mechanisms), then
students can more accurately assess control measures designed to eliminate harmful species and allow a more
environmentally sound course of action. Additionally, a knowledge of insects and insect metamorphosis can provide a 32
means to understand that complex but central theme of all biology--evolution.
How are insect metamorphosis and evolution related?
Following other significant steps in the evolution of insects such as wings, and the ability to fold the wings, clearly complete metamorphosis in the process of insect evolution was an important step, with approximately 80% of all insect species exhibiting that mode of metamorphosis.
(Evans, 1984a). With a separate 1arva stage the organism had access to an increased food supply (Scott, 1986). Food supply for the adult stage was by default increased due to lack of competition with the immature stage. An adult stage allowed for reproductive specialization and the capacity to spread into diverse areas (Evans, 1984a).
A recent national conference on problems in evolution education held at Louisiana State University considered the conceptual barriers students face in understanding evolution--the central theme of biology. Numerous problems beset the teaching of evolution but there are solutions
(Fisher, 1992). To provide tangible experiences for population studies Fisher (1992) suggests that insects as well as common plants be incorporated into the curriculum at the elementary level. Tangible experiences with insect metamorphosis can also be included in the elementary school
(National Science Resources Center, 1992) and linked to evolutionary processes. Helenurm (1992) promotes different contextual experiences, which the common insect can 33
provide, to increase understanding of evolution. As Fisher
(1992) proposes, subject matter should be presented in an interesting manner to promote understanding of evolution.
The spectacle of watching a butterfly emerge from a chrysalis could not be more fitting.
Schlagel (1986) emphasizes the importance of context.
To apply his thinking, instead of being placed in the proper context of evolution and that knowledge being used to construct a stable edifice, insect metamorphosis is trivialized in todays' classrooms. Students memorize insect stages but do not understand what initiates these changes in form. No civil engineer would construct a bridge without a foundation; yet in today's classrooms rote learning builds bridges with no foundation and to no discernible destination (Nichols & Wandersee, 1993). MATERIALS AND METHODS
Subjects
Student participants in this study were drawn from grades 5, 7, 9, and 11. These grades were chosen to give information about students' understanding of insect metamorphosis at regular curriculum intervals from elementary to high school level. Six students from each grade level were selected purposively from low (D's and
F's), middle (C's), and high (A's and B's) achievement levels in their particular science classes. Selection was based on pupils' scores on a national achievement test, and on the pupil's current and previous year's science grades.
The sample was stratified by gender and achievement to ensure that these factors would not confound the results, and to make sure that these subgroups were represented in the sample. Racial composition of the sample was 19 white students and 5 black students. Students were selected from four public schools in a large metropolitan area of
Louisiana.
Materials
Materials unique to this research design were the stage pictures and concept circle diagrams. In this study, the stage pictures were a series of scientifically accurate line drawings showing various metamorphic stages in the life cycles of the grasshopper and the butterfly. These grasshopper stage drawings conformed to illustrations of the egg (Brown, 1983, p. 17), nymph (Brown, 1983, p. 5),
34 35
and adult (Brown, 1983, p. 5). Similarly, the butterfly
(Monarch) life cycle stage drawings conformed to
illustrations of these stages in various texts: egg
(Scott, 1986, p. 122), larva (Scott, 1986, p. 134), pupa
(Towle, 1989, p. 500), and adult (Borror & DeLong, 1971, p.
426). The concept circle diagram is a recently developed
science learning tool. Developed by Wandersee (1987), it
depicts inclusive-exclusive relationships between small
clusters of concepts, utilizes up to five circles, contains
a descriptive title, and includes an explanatory sentence
for the graphic information presented. Both visual tools
were used to elicit a student's knowledge of particular
biological subject matter.
Procedure
Prior Knowledge Assessment
Each student was asked a set of four questions which
dealt with reading about insects, watching television programs concerning insects, gauging family members'
involvement with insects, and collecting insects (see
Appendix C ) . A student was given one point for a "yes"
answer and zero points for a "no" answer. These questions provided a non-threatening introduction to the research
topic and gave an indication of the student's prior knowledge of insects, as obtained on an informal basis.
Stage Pictures
Individually, every student in the study was given a disordered set of drawings showing various stages in the 36
life cycles of the grasshopper (incomplete metamorphosis) and the butterfly (complete metamorphosis). This set of seven drawings included the egg, nymph, and adult stage of the grasshopper and the egg, larva, pupa and adult stage of the butterfly. The grasshopper and butterfly were chosen because they are often used as the insect examples in textbooks from elementary age through college and are frequently used as invertebrate examples in educational research (Lazarowitz, 1981; Tamir, Gal-Choppin, &
Nussinovitz, 1981; Trowbridge & Mintzes, 1988). Each student then was asked to place the pictures in chronological order from the beginning to the end of the given insect's life cycle. A composite score (derived from the total number of correct stage answers minus incorrect stage answers) was calculated for each student (See
Appendix D ) . The elapsed time of each decision-making trial also was recorded as an indirect measure of students' certainty about their answers.
Concept Circle Diagrams
Students were first given sufficient individualized instruction on the drawing of concept circle diagrams to insure proficiency. This instruction involved explaining sample concept circle diagrams in different subject area contexts and questioning students to assess their understanding of the procedure. Additionally, use of the concept circle diagram template was delineated. Students then were asked to construct two concept circle diagrams 37
using special concept circle drawing templates. Examples
depict both simple and complex student concept circle
diagrams (redrawn) with titles and explanations omitted for
clarity (See Appendix E). One diagram was to depict the
characteristics of each stage in the life cycle of a
grasshopper. A second diagram depicted the metamorphic
stage characteristics of a butterfly. Students were able
to choose from a list of insect life cycle stage names.
Key terms characterizing life cycle stages also were
provided but were limited in number. The author's pilot
studies had indicated that too many choices discouraged
original student input and encouraged students to use terms
which they did not understand.
Scoring
The concept circle diagrams were scored using a method
adapted from Wallace and Mintzes' (1990) scoring criteria
for concept mapping. Each valid concept depicted in a
proper scientific relationship with another concept
received two points, every valid concept used received one
point, and each alternative conception was assigned one negative point (See Appendix F). A panel of three biology
educators was asked to draw concept circle diagrams of both complete and incomplete insect metamorphosis. Analysis of these educator-drawn concept circle diagrams, in conjunction with current, widely used introductory entomology texts provided a set of referents for determining valid metamorphosis concepts. 38
Clinical Interview
The need to probe students' fine grained understanding of the topic was illuminated by the author's pilot studies.
One student, for example, assumed insects lack a brain because of the dearth of intelligence exhibited by these six-legged creatures. Use of the clinical interview allows the researcher to probe misunderstandings and to view the research topic from the student’s perspective (Long & Ben-
Hur, 1991). The clinical interview technique, therefore, was chosen to probe the students' actual understanding of insect metamorphosis, to ascertain if students can give scientifically acceptable evolutionary explanations for insect metamorphosis, and to discover students' understanding of evolutionary principles as illuminated by insects. Knowledge was analyzed, not in the sterile atmosphere of the multiple-choice item, but as it was constructed in an atmosphere rich in all attributes of the human condition (Novak, 1991). The clinical interview provided the means to capture that type of data.
Questions for the protocol arose from various sources including questions emerging from analysis of the concept circle diagrams, from historical (histories of science) misunderstandings of insect metamorphosis, and from evolutionary principles (questions common to all students; see Appendix G ) . This lengthy protocol required more than one class session to gather the essential information. 39
All students in the sample were interviewed. Students
were asked (individually) for permission to record their
interviews, and this permission was granted by all of the
students. Assurance of anonymity also was given. Each
audio recording thus obtained was transcribed, securing a
rich data source upon which to draw. During the course of
the clinical interview phase, students were able to view
and/or touch live specimens of the various stages in the
metamorphosis of the common cricket and the Tenebrionidae
(commonly called mealworms or darkling beetles). These
specimens were selected because they are readily obtainable
from biological supply companies, easily observable, and
usually are not perceived as threatening by students. A
hand lens also was provided for observation of minute
details and its use was encouraged.
After completion of the clinical interview phase
students were debriefed. Debriefing allowed the researcher
to point out any misunderstandings the students had
concerning aspects of insect metamorphosis and evolution
that were addressed during the interview.
Analysis
In a study conducted by Lawrenz and McCreath (1988), both qualitative and quantitative methodologies were employed to evaluate two teacher inservice programs.
Results would have differed using only one research methodology or the other, but together they provided a fairer assessment of the programs (Lawrenz & McCreath, 40
1988). It seems essential to use various methods to more adequately analyze student understanding of insect metamorphosis, since that understanding is an integration of diverse and related pieces of knowledge (White &
Gunstone, 1992). White and Gunstone (1992) consider "mode validity" to be enhanced with the utilization of various probes (p. 178). Other researchers have also used a variety of methods to increase the validity of their research (Garnett & Tobin, 1989). Therefore, this study also utilized both qualitative and quantitative methods to provide a clearer (triangulated) picture of students' understanding of insect metamorphosis.
Quantitative Analysis
Stage picture scores were tabulated to assess both individual and grade level understanding of complete and incomplete metamorphosis on a basic level. Scores from the prior knowledge question set were then tallied to triangulate with the stage picture data. A frequency count
(by grade level) of those students obtaining perfect stage picture scores was also made.
Likewise, the concept circle diagrams were scored to provide a more in-depth analysis of students' conceptions of insect metamorphosis.
In a primarily qualitative study, such as this study, the role of inferential statistical analysis is minor.
However, inferential statistical analysis can add support to the qualitative data and may be of value to other 41
researchers. Thus, an ANOVA was calculated from the stage
picture scores and also from the the concept circle diagram
scores to determine if students exhibited differences in
understanding between the grade levels in this study (Borg
& Gall, 1983). When significance between grade levels was
indicated (p. < .05) the Tukey technique was applied to
ascertain which grades differed significantly (Hinkle,
Wiersma, & Jurs, 1979).
The Alpha Four ™ Version 2.1 database (Alpha Software
Corporation, 1991) facilitated additional analysis of both
the stage picture and concept circle diagram data. Fields
such as butterfly and grasshopper life cycle stage
sequences for both the stage picture and concept circle
diagram data, time to complete the stage picture sequences,
prior knowledge score, stage picture score, gender, grade,
and achievement level were prespecified to analyze the
data. Thus, determination of the various response
categories of alternative stage picture sequences and the
frequencies of these alternative sequences in the sample
was made more accurate using this software.
Qualitative Analysis
Numeration alone does not provide for the sometimes
subtle nuances that may hold the key to a student’s actual
understanding of particular subject matter. These nuances may not be discovered by paper and pencil tests (Deadman &
Kelly, 1978). Additionally, the breadth of a student's
understanding of a subject can be provided by the clinical 42
interview (Posner & Gertzog, 1982). Qualitative analysis gives a "holistic" (p. 441) view (Hist, 1982). Descriptive analyses, while adding color, also set the stage for additional experimental studies. Frr example, in the sciences, the eminent naturalist and entomologist J. Henri
Fabre was recognized by Charles Darwin for his observational skills, skills that laid the groundwork for future experimentation (Fabre, 1991).
In this study the clinical interview determined if students' knowledge of insect metamorphosis or lack of that knowledge (as revealed by the stage pictures and concept circle diagrams) was an artifact of the probe or representative of students' actual understandings. It also provided insight into each student's understanding of evolution.
A coding system developed by Westbrook and Marek
(1992) was used, with appropriate modifications, to categorize information gained from the clinical interviews.
Complete understanding (CU) responses were characterized by currently acceptable scientific explanations. Explanations that were incomplete, but did not indicate "incorrect" knowledge were classified as limited understanding (LU).
Prescientific understanding (PU) responses were those that contained unacceptable scientific explanations (alternative conceptions). No understanding (NU) responses were those when the student said "I don't know." or gave no response.
[Examples: (CU) A sequence of molts enables a larva to grow 43
larger. Molting is necessary since the larval exoskeleton permits growth only to a point. (LU) Larvae grow larger and larger until they pupate. (PU) Larvae do not move.]
The number of CU, LU, PU, and NU responses to the clinical interview questions was tabulated to provide a descriptive analysis of the data. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Major Alternative Conceptions Students Hold Concerning Insect Metamorphosis
The major alternative conceptions of public school students taking part in this study about insect metamorphosis fell into five major categories: visual recognition of stages, stage terminology, characteristics of stages, factors influencing insect metamorphosis, and types of metamorphosis. These were identified and compiled from stage picture sequences, concept circle diagrams, and the clinical interviews. It is essential for the researcher to use various methods to provide an adequate analysis of students' understanding of insect metamorphosis, since that understanding is an integration of diverse and related pieces of knowledge (White &
Gunstone, 1992).
Quotes from students presented in the text are from the transcripts. Coding of the transcripts was adapted from the conventions used by Cummins (1992). Personal initials (SN) identify the researcher/interviewer. Each student was assigned a grade and subject number with the grade preceding the subject number. For example, student
5#3 is in the fifth grade, with a subject number of three.
Visual Stage Recognition
Inability to visually recognize and properly sequence the stages in the life cycles of the grasshopper and butterfly was common. Fifty percent of the students 45
(N = 24) sequenced the stages in the grasshopper life cycle
incorrectly, and 67% sequenced the stages in the butterfly
life cycle incorrectly. It is important to note that more
students had problems understanding the sequencing of
hoiometabolous development (complete metamorphosis) than
hemimetabolous development (incomplete metamorphosis). The
most common alternative sequence for the grasshopper was:
egg, egg, nymph, adult. The strange second egg in the
sequence was variously identified and rationalized.
5#5: Larva.
9#16: It looked good. [Student’s sequenced
stages for the grasshoppers' life cycle.]
The most common alternative sequence for the butterfly was: larva, pupa, adult. Omission of the egg stage in both the grasshopper and the butterfly life cycles varied.
9#16: I'm sure it does. Uhm, I'm almost
positive it does. I just didn't, uhm, put it
down. I do feel that the egg is definitely part
of the butterfly life cycle stage, now that
I think about it.
11#20: I don't think it (grasshopper) had one.
When they are born, they just come right out
into the pupa stage. 46
Inability to correctly sequence visual representations of stages may be due in part to student's lack of experience in observing the egg stage.
5#1: I haven’t really seen a grasshopper egg.
5#6: I've never seen one [butterfly egg]
before.
The elapsed time during each decision-making trial also was recorded as an indirect measure of students' certainty about their answers. One would assume that certainty of an answer would translate into decreased time in reaching that answer. Students with high ability will complete a learning task more quickly than students with lower ability (Berliner, 1990). Additionally, gender differentiation was not expected. Surprisingly, high achieving students took longer to arrive at their answers than low achieving students and little difference in scores was evident in comparing these groups (see Figure 1). Note also that females took longer to complete their trials, yet had a lower stage picture score, although not appreciably.
Alternative conceptions involving recognizing and sequencing of insect life cycle stages may be simply due to a lack of appropriate direct experiences with insects.
Stage Terminology
Students' difficulty with understanding metamorphic stages also was evident in the selection of stage names Seconds on Task Stage Picture Score
High Middle Low Male Female
Time i\\^ l Score
Figure 1,. Comparison of seconds required for task by high, middle, and low achievement levels and by males and females to stage picture scores (N_ = 24). 48
during construction of their concept circle diagrams (see
Figure 2). Sixty-seven percent of the students (N = 24) did not choose the correct stage name complement for the grasshopper. The major alternative stage name complement
(chosen by over one-third of the students selecting alternative complements) for the grasshopper was: egg, larva, adult. Incorrect stage name selection for the stages in the butterfly life cycle was even worse, with 71% (N =
24) of the sample making incorrect choices. Note that, again, complete metamorphosis posed greater cognitive difficulties. The major alternative stage name complement
(chosen by almost one-third of the students selecting alternative complements) for the stages of the butterfly life cycle was: egg, pupa, adult. While many teachers may regard the meaning of metamorphic stage names as lucid, students seem to find them conceptually opaque.
Multivalent stage names such as larva or caterpillar, and cocoon or pupa appear problematic. Previous researchers have pointed out that polyvalent terminology can be a detriment to learning in biology (Wandersee, 1988).
Notable naturalists and scientists through history held alternative conceptions concerning aspects of insect metamorphosis. Some did not believe that all bees have a larval stage (Morge, 1973). William Harvey had difficulty distinguishing between the egg and pupa stage of an insect
(Beier, 1973). Students today may hold replicas of some of these historical alternative conceptions (Wandersee, 1986). 49
percentage of students
100
Grasshopper Butterfly
Figure 2.. Percentage of students using alternative stage name complements (N = 24). 50
Many students, 67% (N = 24) either had no understanding of the developmental stages in the life cycle of a bee or possessed alternative conceptions. Perhaps due to their familiarity with ubiquitous hoiometabolous development of the butterfly, they could not relate that development to other less visually prominent insects.
11#24: Uhm, the only, the only, insect that I
know of, that becomes a worm, is the butterfly.
Similarly, many students, 54% (N = 24), could not identify the pupa stage in a live mealworm culture. Another signal of poor understanding was this finding: Even though students were provided with a hand lens, they often identified the larva stage as the pupa stage. Student answers suggest a similarity to these historical alternative conceptions.
Alternative conceptions involving stage terminology may also result from a lack of appropriate direct experiences with insects.
Characteristics of Stages
Analysis of concept circle diagram data shows that students hold alternative conceptions regarding stage characteristics of both the grasshopper and butterfly life cycles (see Figure 3). Note that the student thinks the grasshopper egg actively procures its own food.
To avoid ambiguity the nymph, larva, and pupa stages are differentiated. A nymph refers to the immature stage 51
adult
adult
Figure 3_. Student concept circle diagram (redrawn); titles and explanations omitted. 52
of an insect with incomplete metamorphosis and is characterized by non-functional wings and reproductive organs, as well as smaller size (Brown, 1983), A larva refers to the stage immediately following the egg stage in an insect with complete metamorphosis. Larvae move about to obtain food, have legs and prolegs, but do not have wings. The stage immediately before the adult stage in a insect with complete metamorphosis is referred to as the pupa. Pupae are essentially non-moving and do not feed
(Davies, 1988).
The stage of the grasshopper life cycle associated with the most alternative conceptions was the egg stage.
Of these the major alternative conception was that the egg
"feeds". One student even gave a unique explanation of how the egg feeds.
S N : How does the egg feed?
7#8: I don’t know, but I think that the egg it
like takes in food around itself, it, uhm, like,
[student pauses] let's say it's on a leaf it'll
kind of like make it "liquidty" or something like
that.
With the exception of the adult stage, students exhibited numerous alternative conceptions regarding the characteristics of the butterfly's life cycle stages. The stage of the butterfly associated with the most alternative conceptions was the pupa stage. Of these, the most common 53
alternative conceptions were that the pupa feeds and also
moves.
SN: How does the pupa feed?
7#11: Uhm, it eats leaves and grass.
5#3: Ah, it could eat little bugs or something.
S N : You mention here [concept circle diagram]
that the pupa moves. Could you describe how it
moves?
5#3: Ah, it crawls.
It is important to note that, scientifically, pupa do, not
feed and are generally considered to be inactive (Davies,
1988).
The inability of students to accurately attribute
pupal characteristics may be due, in part, to never
actually seeing a pupa or to the inability to recognize
one when seen.
SN: Could you describe what the pupa looks
like?
11#24: I don't know if I've ever seen one. I
don't know if I've seen one myself. I couldn't
tell you.
Alternative conceptions involving characteristics of stages may result from a lack of appropriate direct 54
experiences with insects, particularly those associated with the egg and pupa stage.
Influences on Insect Metamorphosis
Additional insights into student's alternative conceptions of insect metamorphosis, particularly the internal and external factors that impact metamorphosis were garnered with the clinical interview.
For example, since the adult human morphological response to excess food is an increase in girth, students extrapolated this cause and effect relationship to insects.
Adult insects will increase in size with access to an unlimited food supply was the response of 79% (N = 24) of the students. The following quotes also show this cause and effect relationship.
5#5: They'll get bigger, then they'll all get
fatter.
9#16: I'm sure they'd be bigger, I would think,
if they could eat more, I'm sure they could get
bigger.
11#21: Well, at first they'll get bigger, and
then after awhile they'll just get fatter, not
bigger in size, just more bloated, till they
won't be able to move very fast, or very well at
all . 55
11# 2 2 : They would probably be bigger. They
would grow larger if they don't exercise a lot.
I guess their metabolism has something to do
with it.
Given that they thought adult insects increased in
size, it is not surprising that 83% (N = 24) of the
students did not understand the limiting effect of the
exoskeleton on an insect's development. That is, increased
size requires the shedding and laying down of a series of
exoskeletons to attain complete development. Notable
alternative conceptions about exoskeletons are exemplified
in the quotes which follow.
7#11: No ma'am. Because that is the protection
that they have and it grows when they grow.
11#23: No. Because it's like for us. Like ah,
how we have bones, our bones, just cause our
bones are hard don't mean that they don't grow.
Our bones grow and so do theirs.
It may appear dichotomous then that only 29% (N = 24)
of the students held alternative conceptions when
explaining why the nymphal exoskeleton of the periodical
cicada (on display) was empty. The quotes also show that a variety of unintegrated alternative conceptions are used to
explain this phenomenon. 56
5#6: He died.
SN: Do you have any other explanation?
5#6: No ma'am. I'm just not used to this
[questions about insects].
7#12: He don't eat very much.
9#18: It was cut out.
SN: Could you explain your answer?
9#18: I think somebody cut it out. Somebody
took the insides out.
11#22: It's decayed.
Some students understood the periodical cicada exoskeleton as a shed structure and referred to it variously as a shed
"skin" or "shell". Some compared an insects' shedding of its exoskeleton to that of a snake shedding its skin.
7#10: Because it shed, because it shed like a
snake does.
9#16: Well, because that's, uhm, it shed, shed
its skin, or shell or whatever it is, uhm, I
think they do that sometimes, insects do that,
like snakes and stuff. 57
Student use of the snake analogy and use of the "skin" and
"shell" instead of the term exoskeleton indicates little
understanding of the actual biological structures or
processes. Taken in this context, students' overall
understanding of the molting process appears to be quite
1imited.
Molting is a complex developmental process that can be
impacted by many factors from food supply to crowding.
Students appear to understand the differential effect of
diets high and low in protein on subsequent insect
development. When asked to comment on the effect of high
and low protein on cricket development, 79% (N = 19) said
there would be a differential effect. Contrarily, the
majority of the students 57% (N = 23) did not think larval
activity impacts development nor did many of the students
studied understand the implications of culture crowding on
development (38%, N = 24). Out-of-school experiences may
factor into these disparate results. Parents admonish
their children to eat nutritious fare for their health, and
coaches tout the advantages of protein for enhanced muscular development. Television also promotes the health
benefits of various foods. It seems more likely that these
experiences, rather than scientific understanding that metamorphosis can be influenced by various factors,
accounts for these results. 58
Students were asked if larval activity and crowding in insect cultures could impact development. The following student answers support the previous conjecture.
11#23: Uhm, no. Cause if they’re going to
develop, they're going ah, I don't think by, by
moving around a lot, going a make them develop
faster.
11#19: Uhm, I don't think it [crowding] would
have any effect.
Student understanding of the internal factors that direct metamorphosis appears to be nonexistent. Instead some students attribute the cause of metamorphic changes to eating.
7#11: When, uhm, eating, and when they're
eating they're getting bigger, and they go to
different stages.
Others ascribe such changes to instinct.
9#14: Uhm, it's just him. I mean. It's just
the way he grows instinctively, . . .
Sadly, no student (N = 24) mentioned hormones as an internal factor affecting metamorphosis. Apparently teachers are missing the golden opportunity to teach hormonal control using metamorphosis as a vehicle. 59
Alternative conceptions relating to the impact of internal and external factors on metamorphosis, particularly the influence of hormones, could be challenging to alter, since it involves systems theory and biochemistry.
Types of Metamorphosis
Despite a myriad of examples to the contrary, most students, 79% (N = 24), consider hemimetabolous development
(incomplete metamorphosis) to be the predominate type of insect metamorphosis. Scientifically, in contrast, the vast majority of insects undergo complete metamorphosis.
Reasons for this choice varied but the most common explanations were ease of development and commonality of insects having that type of development in the environment.
Perhaps anthropomorphism (Wandersee, 1986, p. 423) is also a factor, as some comments imply. If so, educators need to redouble their efforts to heed the early call of Jungwirth
(1977) for caution concerning anthropomorphic explanations of evolutionary phenomena.
7#8: I think that it is easier, I guess, for
them to live as a nymph than like a larva and a
pupa.
9#13: It is the most basic [incomplete
metamorphosis]. I think most insects would have
that life cycle. 60
11#19: The one with the crickets and the
grasshopper. Well, it seems like there's like
they have more relatives. There's more types
that are similar to the cricket and grasshopper,
like the praying mantis, and things like that.
This was said, it appears, because of a lack of understanding of insect evolution and speciation.
Alternative conceptions involving the types of metamorphosis may be due to lack of appropriate direct experiences with insects.
Student Understanding of Insect Metamorphosis Across Grade Levels
A cross-age study enables a researcher to view changes in a pupils conceptual development over time (Westbrook &
Marek, 1991). To assess students' understanding of insect metamorphosis across grade levels, statistical analysis of scores obtained from the stage picture data, concept circle diagrams, and the clinical interviews were brought to bear on the problem.
Stage Pictures
The scores obtained from the stage pictures incorporated students' ability to visually recognize the stages in the life cycle of both the grasshopper and the butterfly, as well as to use that knowledge to sequence the stages in chronological order. Although raw score averages indicate that understanding increases from fifth to seventh 61
grade and plateaus from seventh to eleventh grade (See
Table 1), ANOVA calculations show no significant difference
[F (3,20) = 1.105] between any of the grade levels. This
is in contrast to the findings of Westbrook and Marek
(1992) in which understanding of homeostasis increased over
time. It is interesting to note, however, that no student
in the fifth grade had a perfect stage picture score of
seven while two or more students in seventh, ninth, and
eleventh grades did have perfect scores (see Figure 4).
This study's small sample size could have led to the
indication of no increased understanding across grade
levels.
Students were asked a set of four questions at the
initial meeting that served as a nonthreatening
introduction to the research. Their responses yielded an
indication of the students' informal prior knowledge that
could be useful later in interpreting the data. A student was given one point for a "yes" answer and zero points for a "no" answer. Interview data suggest that prior knowledge
of insects obtained informally through reading, television viewing, insect collecting, and family member
involvement with insects may be impacting these results
(see Figure 5). Out-of-school experiences can influence
student understanding of a biological concept (Simpson &
Marek, 1988). That fifth-grade students may have a
relatively higher stage picture score because of the 62
Table 1
Stage Picture Scores
5th Grade Score
Student 5#1 5 Mean: 4.333 Student 5#2 1 Student 5#3 5 Student 5#4 5 Standard Deviation: 1.633 Student 5#5 5 Student 5#6 5
7th Grade
Student 7#7 5 Mean: 5.500 Student 7#8 7 Student 7#9 6 Student 7#10 7 Standard Deviation: 2.345 Student 7#11 7 Student 7#12 1
9th Grade
Student 9#13 5 Mean: 6.000 Student 9#14 7 Student 9#15 7 Student 9#16 5 Standard Deviation: 1.095 Student 9#17 7 Student 9#18 5
,11th Grade
Student 11#19 5 Mean: 5.500 Student 11#20 7 Student 11#21 7 Student 11#22 4 Standard Deviation: 1.225 Student 11#23 5 Student 11#24 5 63
Frequency
0® 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Stage Picture Score
Fifth Grade ~ Seventh Grade Ninth Grade - Eleventh Grade
Figure 4.* The frequency of each stage picture score obtained at the fifth, seventh, ninth, and eleventh grade levels. 64
Stage Picture Score Prior Knowledge Score
S H Stage Picture RvSl Prior Knowledge
Fifth Seventh Ninth Eleventh Grade Level
Figure 5_. Possible impact of informal prior knowledge on stage picture score attainment. Note: See relative gains beyond grade five in comparison to dropping prior knowledge scores. 65
influence of such informal prior knowledge compares favorably with the Simpson and Marek (1988) study.
Concept Circle Diagram
The scores obtained from the students' concept circle diagrams incorporated not only pupils ability to select correct stages for both the grasshopper and the butterfly life cycles, but also their ability to characterize those stages (see Figure 6). To assess more accurately the overall changes in students' understanding of insect metamorphosis across grade levels, the scores from the grasshopper and butterfly concept circle diagrams were combined (See Table 2). ANOVA treatment of the combined concept circle diagram data indicated differential understanding between grade levels [F (3,20) = 3.42, p. <
.05]. Tukey analysis of the mean grade level scores between all grade levels indicates that a significant change [Q.(20) = 4.436, p. < .05] in understanding occurs between the fifth and eleventh grade levels (See Figure 7).
Additional textbook treatment and personal experiences seems to offer the best explanation for the added understanding. No significant change occurred between fifth and seventh, fifth and ninth, seventh and ninth, seventh and eleventh, or ninth and eleventh grade levels.
Clinical Interview
Molting is an integral component of insect metamorphosis. For an insect to increase in size, a new exoskeleton must be formed and the old exoskeleton shed in 66
no movine
egg
no feeding
eeg
butterfly nymph
adult feedine
Figure 6.. Student concept circle diagram (redrawn); titles and explanations omitted. Table 2
Grasshopper and Butterf1v Concept Circle Diagram Scores
5th Grade Score
Student 5#1 12 Mean: 18.500 Student 5#2 9 Student 5#3 32 Student 5#4 19 Standard Deviation: 117 Student 5#5 22 Student 5#6 17
7th Grade
Student 7#7 24 Mean: 26.833 Student 7#8 31 Student 7# 9 23 Student 7#10 29 Standard Deviation: 574 Student 7#11 38 Student 7#12 16
9th Grade
Student 9#13 31 Mean: 29.333 Student 9#14 26 Student 9#15 49 Student 9#16 22 Standard Deviation: . 191 Student 9#17 22 Student 9#18 26
11th Grade
Student 11#19 30 Mean: 34.500 Student 11# 20 37 Student 11#21 47 Student 11#22 29 Standard Deviation: 225 Student 11#23 22 Student 11#24 42 CCD Score 40
30
20
10
5 7 9 11 Grade
GCCD BCCD Combined
Figure 1_. Concept circle diagram scores for the fifth, seventh, ninth and eleventh grades. (CCD = concept circle diagram, GCCD = grasshopper concept circle diagram, and BCCD = butterfly concept circle diagram.) 69
a process known as molting (Davies, 1988). To appraise any change in student understanding of this key facet of insect metamorphosis across grade levels, understanding assessments for each students' responses to each of the following three questions (from the interview protocol) were combined to address the visual manifestations of this process.
Questions included the following: (a) If you give these mealworm (adults), all the food they can eat, how will that affect their size as they grow older?; (b) How would you explain why there is nothing inside this creature
(nymph exoskeleton of a periodical cicada)?; (c) Would the fact that mealworms and crickets feel hard to the touch affect how they grow (develop)?.
Complete understanding (CU) of the visual manifestations of molting was uncommon and there was little change across grade levels. In contrast, prescientific understanding was high but it, too, shows little change across grade levels (see Figure 8). This finding compares favorably with another biological study by Arnaudin and
Mintzes (1985) who found that when students were questioned about the circulatory system of humans, some alternative conceptions persisted across grade levels.
Student Explanations for Insect Metamorphosis
To provide a clearer perception of student understanding of the evolutionary underpinnings of insect metamorphosis, it is advantageous to place that 70
Percentage 100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0 H i H 5th Grade 7th Grade 9th Grade 11th Grade Grade Level
CU LU PUNU
Figure 8_. Assessment of student understanding of the visual manifestations of molting. (CU = complete understanding, LU = limited understanding, PU = prescientific understanding, NU = no understanding). 71
understanding in context using an analogy. The foundation of a building is unseen, yet its integrity and structure
can be judged by observation and experiential evidence.
This experiential and observational evidence can be compiled by direct study and by identifying structural components using sophisticated instrumentation. The integrity of this biological foundation (evolution) is well established in biology (cf. AAAS, 1989, p. 64), but the researcher wanted to probe whether or not the student was aware of it. To ascertain this foundation more fully, one must inspect not only the mortar, but also the bricks and other structural materials. Similarly, the importance of insect metamorphosis to the evolutionary success of insects must not be inspected in isolation, but associated with the more visible signs of evolution in the insect world.
Therefore, a series of carefully planned questions on a variety of evolutionary topics was administered (see
Appendix G).
Natural Selection
The central tenet of evolution is natural selection
(Towle, 1989). Natural selection is the process by which organisms, in adapting to their environment, differentially pass on their genes to succeeding generations (Arms & Camp,
1988). This process generally occurs over millions of years, but may occasionally produce observable differences in as little as a year's time (Scott, 1986). For example, industrial pollution coupled with predation greatly 72
increased differential selection pressure on the peppered
moth, in this classic case of natural selection (Arms &
Camp, 1988) .
Peppered Moth
The importance of the peppered moth case to
understanding evolution rests in the fact that evolutionary
processes are evidenced in a relatively short period of
time (Arms & Camp, 1988). For example, insect collections
in England from the mid 1800's to the mid 1900's show
darker forms of the peppered moth increasing (Arms & Camp,
1988). Using that classic case as a format, students were
asked to predict and explain the results of industrial
pollution on the proportions of a black moth population and
a white moth population after industrial pollution blackened the tree trunks upon which the moths rested.
Most students, 83% (N = 24) predicted that the black moths would compose a greater proportion of the population, but
attributed this result to camouflage.
7#11: There would be, uhm, more black moths
then white moths, cause the birds would . . . if
the, uhm, tree were polluted and, uhm, they were
black then they could see, uhm, the white moths
and they would and pick them off and eat them,
and the black moths would be safe because they
have camouflage. 73
9#16: Uhm, I think that the black moths would,
uhm, have, be more, be more populated than the
white, because they're more camouflaged in the
bark of the tree.
11#19: The black would definitely be bigger
proportionally than the white.
SN : Why do you think so?
11#19: Because ah, they would have the
camouflage then and the white would stand out to
the predators and they wouldn't have as much
camouflage from predators.
No mention was made of the fact that the bird predators and
the industrial pollution acted as selective pressures on
the moth populations. It should be noted that student
understanding of these selective pressures could be
inferred if student statements were examined in isolation.
However, in the context of the clinical interview such
attributes as voice inflection and student demeanor
suggested otherwise.
Moth Proboscis and Orchid Nectaries
In 1862, Charles Darwin predicted that a moth with a
very large proboscis would be found in Madagascar following
his examination of orchid nectaries from that country, even
though moths of that description had not then been found
(Kritsky, 1991). Kritsky relates the controversy that 74
erupted over Darwins' hypothesis, which was not verified
until nearly a half century later.
Drawing on this historical backdrop, students were
shown moths obtaining nectar from flower nectaries with
their proboscises. Students were then shown a flower with
a very long nectary and asked to predict if a moth
could be found with a proboscis long enough to obtain that nectar.
Most of the students, 71% (N = 24), forecasted that a moth with a proboscis long enough to obtain the nectar
could be found but their reasons were shallow, speculative,
or incomplete.
5# 5: Yea.
SN: Why do you think so?
5#5: Because they have a longer reach with it
[proboscis], and the smaller ones probably
couldn't reach it (nectar) because they have a
smaller one [proboscis].
7#11: Yes ma'am.
SN : Why do you think so?
7#11: Because if it had a long proboscis it
would be able to stick its [proboscis], uhm, be
able to stick it all the way down there and get
all the nectar out, but if it didn't have a long
proboscis it couldn't get all the nectar out. 75
Only one student indicated that coevolution played a role
in the nectary/proboscis match which is illustrated by the
following quote.
9#13: Yes, if it had been there for awhile.
Sure. Adaptation through evolution.
Student inability to give a full explanatory response for coevolution indicates isolation of biological knowledge, a characteristic of rote learning.
Malaria Problem
Malaria, a deadly disease transmitted by mosquitoes, kills several million people each year. Humans have attempted to contain the threat with insecticides and pharmaceuticals, but both the mosquito and the malaria parasite have developed resistance to these killing agents
(Nagel, 1991). Since natural selection is clearly evident to the scientifically knowledgeable person in this scenario, students were asked to speculate why malaria is still a world health problem despite advances in medicine and pest control.
No evolutionary explanation was given by any student for the worldwide malaria problem. Understanding
(extremely limited) was primarily restricted to acknowledging the tremendous abundance of insects and the futility of completely exterminating pest species.
5#2: Because there is just so many bugs, I
mean, you can't kill them all, because they're 76
always laying eggs and then, you know, you can't
just know exactly where the eggs are,
so, so, many bugs. [Note the confusion of "bugs" (an
order of insects) with all insects.]
7#10: There are millions of bugs and mosquitoes
and I don't think you could ever stop the
population. They would develop faster than
people.
11#22: Because all areas aren't able to, uhm,
spray insecticides all everywhere like they do
in the United States.
Insecticide Resistance
In Louisiana’s humid subtropical climate it would be unusual for a student to be unaware of humans' frustration in combating the seemingly omnipresent mosquito, fire ant, and cockroach. To take advantage of this all too familiar situation, students were asked why insecticides don't work as well after repeated use. Most students attributed insects' resistance to insecticides to immunity, rather than considering the insecticide as a selective force on the pest population which results over time in a change in the genetic composition of that particular population. In an earlier study by Brumby (1984) some medical students also posited immunity as an explanation for insect 77
resistance to insecticides. The following quotes indicate
student confusion about immunity and insecticide
resistance.
11#23: Because a when the cockroach carries
that back to their eggs and to their nest and
they're still living and they could like feed on
that, and they'll build up an immunity towards
it.
11#24: Uhm, because the roaches become immune
to it. Uhm, after they become immune to it, it
does them no harm. After you change, uhm, and
maybe they're not immune to some certain
ingredients in the thing [insecticide], so they
begin to die off, but after awhile they become
more immune to it, so you have to change every
few months.
The term "immune" as used by 1993 promotions for CombatR insecticide could influence these alternative conceptions regarding insecticide resistance. While there is some evidence of immune responses to microbes in insects
(Chadwick & Aston, 1991) and cockroaches do exhibit immunity to some proteins (Duwel-Eby, Faulhaber, & Karp,
1991), research does not suggest this as an explanation for resistance to insecticides. This work is also so new to 78
the scientific literature that students could not have
learned about it anyway.
Metamorphosis Advantage
According to Davies (1988), molting, in concert with
evolutionary processes, has resulted in the diversity of
insect forms we see today. As habitats for the larval and
adult forms diverged, it became morphologically expedient to have an intermediate stage (Douglas, 1986).
Although 46% (N = 24) of the students thought metamorphosis was advantageous to insects, this understanding was superficial.
7#8: Uhm, metamorphosis is important to insects
. . . complete [metamorphosis] it goes from an
egg, it doesn't have much to do in the egg, and
the larva is preparing itself for the time it is
changing to the, uhm, butterfly during the pupa
stage. I think it is an advantage because they,
uhm, the way they can prepare themselves for
it, than if they'd been born an adult.
11#21: Well, after the metamorphosis they
become ah, bigger and stronger, they're able to
withstand the elements a little better and a
protect themselves from predators. 79
Impact of Egg Size on Developrnent
It has been hypothesized that small eggs which hatch are more likely to survive due to an additional stage before they attain the adult form (Matsuda, 1987). None of the students gave an evolutionary explanation for the impact of egg size on subsequent development, however, 50%
(N = 24) thought that egg size could correlate directly with development of an individual insect.
5#1: Yea, I guess it would because it probably
means that would be smaller, and grow a lot
smaller than regular ones if it was born
smaller. It [small egg size], I don't think
it would really hurt it, but it would just be
smal1er [adult].
9#16: Probably, I would think so. I think if
it was a smaller egg, it would probably be a
smaller grasshopper. With a larger egg,
probably be a larger grasshopper. Uhm, that's
what common sense would tell you that, that's
what I think.
Insect Metamorphosis and Evolution Linkage
Insect metamorphosis and evolution are closely related. Using the previous building analogy bricks, for example, are an important building construction material.
Rudimentary knowledge; such as, that egg size can affect 80
the size of the adult insect, that a moth with a large proboscis should be found that obtains nectar from long nectaries, and so on, is necessary in constructing an adequate entomological knowledge structure. This structure can be utilized to convey information about its foundation
(evolution). Yet, just as bricks are important in constructing a building, without mortar the structure is unstable. Mortar (in the form of an understanding of insect metamorphosis) can help to provide that stabilizing component and further an understanding of the foundation upon which the entire structure rests.
The following situation was posed for students in this study: If the young and adult forms of insects gradually began to live and feed in different areas would that affect the insect's life cycle? Student answers indicated they had virtually no conception of evolutionary processes (as the following quote exemplifies).
7#8: Uhm, I think it might because the nymphs
need to learn from the adults how that, you
know, to react and how to protect themselves and
everything, so it might not be as helpful,
because they might die easier than the adult
will, and, uhm, so if they had stayed together
they might have lived longer.
Even those students who indicated life cycle changes were possible attributed it to proximate causes (i.e., food can 81
affect an immediate physiological change in the organism) and limited it to a particular insect's lifespan, not to the insect population changes over generations.
5#6: Yes, because, uhm, it might be different
foods or somethin.
As a corollary, students were asked if one type of development could change to another type of development.
Most students, 79% (N = 24), either exhibited no conceptual understanding of the substance of the question or showed alternative conceptions. In this situation, lack of an evolutionary explanation, in some cases, was attributable to the student's religious background.
5#1: I don't think so, you know, ah, I guess
not, because they've got to develop in their own
way, and if they started developing in another
way it might not be good for them cause then, I
guess they're not supposed to.
11#20: Evolved?
SN: Do you think they could evolve?
11#20: No, I don't. Because once a cricket
you're always a cricket. They're not going to
evolve. God created different animals and He
didn't intend for them to evolve into something
else. 82
Summary
Public school pupils participating in this study held
various alternative conceptions about insect metamorphosis.
Students had difficulty visually recognizing and properly
sequencing the stages in the grasshopper (incomplete
metamorphosis) and the butterfly (complete metamorphosis).
Application of correct stage names to stages in the life
cycles of the grasshopper and butterfly was daunting for
many. In some cases the term nymph was appropriated for a
butterfly stage and larva for a grasshopper stage.
Additionally, alternative conceptions were much in evidence
when students gave characteristics for each stage in the
life cycle. For example, some pupils thought that eggs
feed and nymphs don’t move. Even differentiating which
type of metamorphosis is most prevalent was not fathomed by
the majority of the students. In the latter,
anthropomorphism (Wandersee, 1986, p. 423) possibly could be a contributing factor.
In this study students' understanding of insect metamorphosis did not appreciably increase across grade
levels. Influencing that understanding were learning experiences gained on an informal basis. Prescientific understanding (alternative conceptions) also remained relatively constant.
Explanations for the evolutionary underpinnings of insect metamorphosis by students in this study was limited.
Less than half of the students thought metamorphosis was 83
advantageous to insects and even this understanding was
superficial. It was not surprising, then, that most
students indicated that one type of development could not
change to another type of development. Even those students
who indicated life cycle changes were possible attributed
it to proximate causes in a particular insects' lifespan
rather than ultimate evolutionary causality.
Two famous cases, the peppered moths (Arms & Camp,
1988), and the Madagascar moths (Kritsky, 1991), were the
basis for questions designed to elucidate pupils
understanding of evolution. Evolutionary explanations were
found to be lacking in both situations. This result was
surprising but yet not unexpected. Lack of textbook
treatment in the elementary school, complexity of the
theory (Fisher, 1992), and religious objections to
evolution, could have accounted for a deficit in students'
understanding of evolution.
Student responses to questions dealing with
insecticide resistance also yielded no evolutionary
explanations. Most students attributed insect resistance
to insecticides to immunity rather than considering the
insecticide a selective force on the pest population.
Also, the futility of completely exterminating a pest
species was attributed to the lack of success in
humankind's war against malaria. 84
Suggestions for Instruction
Selection of appropriate live insects for inclusion in the classroom environment (elementary through high school) is both an interesting and inexpensive way to address the problem of alternative conceptions in insect metamorphosis.
Both crickets and mealworms, such as were used in this study's clinical interviews, can be easily purchased at local pet stores. Time and expense involved to maintain the cultures, particularly the mealworm cultures, are minimal. Cast exoskeletons of the immature stages can readily be seen in an active culture, and the whitish appearance of the newly molted insects is strikingly evident. With large or multiple cultures, it is probable that some students may be able to see molting actually taking place. Butterfly culture kits can also be purchased from biological supply houses to give students a diversity of metamorphic experiences. In a curriculum developed by the National Science Resources Center (1992), students observing the metamorphosis of a butterfly can make predictions about the process prior to the particular occurrence, and then have any alternative conceptions addressed, both through teacher guidance and "hands on" experience. Intense study of one insect can transfer to increased appreciation and knowledge of the myriad of other insect species (National Science Resources Center, 1992),
Since students do not appreciate how external factors such as crowding can impact metamorphosis, various simple 85
experiments can be conducted to demonstrate the results of external influences. For example, three cultures with varying numbers of mealworms could be maintained, and data on size, length of time to reach the adult stage, and so on, could be recorded by the students. Analysis of the data could show the impact of population density on insect development. Similarly, cultures with differential food supplies or cultures raised under differential temperatures also could be maintained to study the effect of temperature on metamorphosis.
Students can easily become fascinated by insects.
During one of the clinical interviews a ninth grade student remarked, "Oh, how cool!" when viewing the mealworm culture. This natural fascination can be channeled into meaningful learning about the major concepts in biology.
Such fascination also needs to be nurtured. This study suggests that informal learning experiences could impact student understanding of insect metamorphosis.
Informal learning experiences are defined as that learning acquired outside of the formal school environment.
Bringing more of these generally informal learning experiences to the classroom and/or bringing the students to such an experiential event could be advantageous. For example, insect metamorphosis can be an unforgettable experience for a child who cares for and observes the hungry caterpillar, the intriguing pupa and finally releases the adult to the wild (National Science Resources 86
Center, 1992). Visits to schools by bee keepers and
mosquito control personnel can enrich student knowledge of
insects and their impact on society. Additionally, where
possible, field trips to university entomological research
sites, insect zoos, and butterfly gardens can build on
these experiences.
As a subject matter area insects have much inherent
flexibilityjin the way it can be taught. This flexibility
allows insects to be taught well to both the intellectually
disadvantaged, as well as, the gifted. They can be taught
simply to recognize insects among the myriad of other life
forms. By contrast, gifted students could be encouraged to
creatively (Davis & Rimm, 1985) develop ways to control the
cockroach in urban environments.
Insects are an underutilized resource in furthering
student understanding of evolution, especially with the movement to use fewer vertebrates in the precollege
classroom. Students were asked if they had heard of the
famous peppered moth study in any of their science classes.
Only one student 4% (N = 24) had heard the story of this
classic case of natural selection in her science classroom.
To illustrate evolutionary concepts, Keown (1988) has integrated familiar entities such as cats and flowering plants into the curriculum. Integrating insects in general, and insect metamorphosis in particular, within the broad theme of evolution can lead to a holistic rather than fragmented approach to the teaching of evolution. This 87
integration can thus be synergistic, resulting in both a
greater understanding of evolution, and of those small
inhabitants of our world.
Suggestions for Future Research
This study indicated the possibility that gender
differentiated understanding of insect metamorphosis
exists. Few studies have been focused to determine if
alternative conceptions are gender differentiated
(Wandersee, Mintzes, & Novak, in press). Since females
often show disgust for insects (Nead, 1993), and females
are often directed away from science (Davis & Rimm, 1985),
this could be a fertile area for research.
Additionally much work remains to be done in the area
of insect alternative conceptions. A search of 3002
research studies of science misconceptions in the Pfundt
and Duit (July, 1993) electronic database revealed no
matches for the key words, insect, entomology, life cycle,
larva, pupa, arthropod, metamorphosis, butterfly and
grasshopper (J. H. Wandersee, personal communication,
September 29, 1993).
Replication of this study could be enhanced by having
a larger sample size for both the stage picture and concept
circle diagram phases of the research. Larger sample sizes
would permit generalization to other school populations.
Adding a concept mapping phase could also give further
insight into student's understanding of insect 88
metamorphosis and insight into their understanding of evolution.
Limitations of the Study
There are limitations to this study due to the nature of the study's design. For example, generalization to other school populations may not be possible because of the limited sample size, and the purposive sampling procedure used. Using a relatively new visual probe (stage picture sequencing) and a new metacognitive tool, the concept circle diagram, to obtain data may limit direct comparison with other studies. Although the clinical interview is an established and rich data source, it too can be subject to inadvertent bias in its design, execution, and interpretation. However, the triangulation of pictorial, graphic, and verbal data should minimize the limitations associated with a given data source.
Finally, a cross-age study mimics but is not equivalent to a longitudinal study. Any study conducted at a single point in time by taking a slice of a population provides only indirect evidence of conceptual development.
Conclusions must be tempered because effects may be due to initial cohort differences and not to cognitive developmental changes. The advantage of a cross-age study, of course, is its economy and smaller time frame. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Study Summary
This cross-age study examined students' understanding
of insect metamorphosis as they progressed from upper
elementary to high school. It also provided insight into
those students' understanding of evolution. Students took
part in a three-step investigation designed to delve ever
more deeply into their actual understanding of insect
metamorphosis. The first step (sequencing stage pictures)
provided a one-dimensional examination of their
understanding of insect metamorphosis. In the second step
(drawing concept circle diagrams), a more detailed
inspection revealed both the stability and scientific
accuracy of their understanding of insect metamorphosis
concepts. The final step (answering clinical interview
questions) explored more fully not only students'
understandings and misunderstandings about insect
metamorphosis, but it also illuminated their intellectual
grasp of evolution as well.
Insect metamorphosis was chosen as the subject matter
for this investigation, since adults and children alike
have contact with insects either by design or as unwilling
victims. In formulating this study's research questions,
the theoretical base of prescientific conceptions and meaningful learning, as well as histories of science and
entomological literature were accessed. Stratified
sampling (by gender and achievement) of public elementary,
pc 90
middle and high school students was employed and yielded a sample in which these variables would not confound the results. Both quantitative and qualitative research methods were utilized, with relatively more emphasis placed on the qualitative methods, in order to more fully explain the quantitative results.
Major Alternative Conceptions (Insect Metamorphosis)
To ascertain what happens to students' understanding of insect metamorphosis as they move from elementary school through high school, three research questions were formulated. In assessing understanding it is important to also be cognizant of misunderstandings. Thus, the first question was: What major alternative conceptions do students hold concerning insect metamorphosis?, dealt with this reality. Five major categories of alternative conceptions were revealed by the research. These categories included (1) visual stage recognition (2) stage terminology (3) characteristics of stages (4) factors influencing insect metamorphosis (5) types of metamorphosis.
Gender differentiation was not expected with the stage pictures. Yet, females had a slightly lower stage picture score and took longer to complete their trials.
Students incorrectly sequenced stages in the butterflies' life cycle most often, with many student's omitting the egg stage. Inability to choose the correct stage names for the grasshoppers' and also butterflies' 91
life cycle was evident in the majority of the students.
Omission of the nymph stage for the grasshopper and the
larva stage for the butterfly were common. Alternative
conceptions were evident for all metamorphic stages,
however, most involved the grasshopper egg and the
butterfly pupa. Most students held the opinion that the
egg and pupa consume food. Since human adults increase in
size with excess food, the majority of students surmised
this connection also applied to insects. That hormones
influence metamorphosis was not comprehended by any
student. Although the vast majority of insects have
hoiometabolous metamorphosis, the students in this study
thought hemimetabolous metamorphosis predominates among
insects. Alternative conceptions involving recognizing and
sequencing of insect life cycle stages, and delineating
characteristics of all metamorphic stages may be due to a
lack of appropriate direct experiences with insects.
Contrarily, alternative conceptions relating to the
influence of hormones on metamorphosis could be more challenging to alter, since it involves systems theory and biochemistry.
Student Understanding of Insect Metamorphosis Across Grade Levels
To answer the second research question: How does students' understanding of insect metamorphosis change across grade levels?, a cross-age study with students in grades 5, 7. 9, and 11 participating was employed. No 92
appreciable increase in student understanding of insect
metamorphosis across grade levels was evidenced from the
stage picture data. The concept circle diagram data,
however, show an increase in understanding from grade five
to grade eleven. Lexical (vocabulary) analysis of a subset
of the research data adds additional support to these
analyses (Wandersee, 1993).
Insect Metamorphosis and Evolution
The third research question: Are students able to
give evolutionary explanations for insect metamorphosis?
was asked to give insight into students' understanding of
evolution. The vast majority of the students was unable to
give an evolutionary explanation for insect metamorphosis.
For example, some students thought that metamorphosis was
advantageous to insects, but this thinking was based upon
proximate causes. Also, when students were asked to
predict the results of industrial pollution on a moth
population (based on the classic peppered moth example of
natural selection), most students based their answers on
proximate causation, ignoring ultimate evolutionary
causality (Cummins & Remsen, 1992).
Significance of the Study
Research on students' understanding of insect metamorphosis, and its insights into their understanding of
evolution is relevant not only to science teaching, but to
educating an informed populace capable of making difficult
environmental decisions. In international assessments of 93
science achievement, students in the United States
consistently rank in the lower percentiles (Beardsley,
1992; Moore, 1990). The showing in biology is particularly
abysmal with the United States ranked last (Moore, 1990).
Any biology education research that can aid in ameliorating
these dismal statistics has merit.
User-friendly Insects
One hears the term "user-friendly" when referring to
computers. A consumer will be drawn to a computer that promises ease of operation or is user-friendly. That
computer will most likely be purchased and utilized rather
than serving as a dust collector. The term also has been
applied to textbooks (albeit few) that, in addition to being wel1-organized have other salient teaching attributes
(Barba, Pang, & Cruz, 1993). Taking the term a step further, insects can be user-friendly classroom animals, both for the teacher and his/her students. In this time of seemingly endless budget cuts, teachers can, for example, purchase live crickets and mealworms at local pet stores without breaking their budgets. These insects (and other invertebrates) can be valuable in animal behavior studies
(Texley, 1993 ) .
Although not all students may place insects in a user-friendly category, insects nevertheless are familiar and engaging biological entities. Students may express, for instance, horrified fascination with the cannibalistic activities of crickets. Furthermore, while viewing an 94
insect culture, one of this studys' participants expressed the sentiment, "Oh, how cool!" Teachers, as well as students can be intrigued by insect metamorphosis (Wild,
1993). Wild (1993) relates how raising a few butterflies was fascinating and provided a pleasant respite from her editorial duties. This event shows how students can be captivated by all facets of insect life.
Bridge Building
As an advance organizer, as asserted by Ausubel,
Novak, & Hanesian (1978), insects can "bridge the gap" between what students know about the living world and what they don't know (pp. 171-172). Teachers can use students' inherent fascination and familiarity with insects to construct advance organizers that link the known (insect metamorphosis) with the unknown (evolution) (Nichols &
Wandersee, 1993). Use of insects as a vehicle to explain scientific principles is also encouraged by the
Entomological Society of America (Akre & Hansen, 1992).
Obstacle Removal
Misunderstandings in science have been called by different names in science education literature, from alternative conceptions to prescientific understandings.
Regardless of the terminology used, these misunderstandings constitute rocks or large boulders in a students' path to meaningful learning. To achieve excellence, action must be taken against these "naive theories" (Bowman, 1991, p. 62).
However, to address an alternative conception one must be 95
cognizant of its existence. This research study builds on that larger body of alternative conception literature in biology (Wandersee, Mintzes, & Arnaudin, 1989; Wandersee,
Mintzes, & Novak, in press).
Final Analyses
Rachel Carson (1962), in her landmark book Si 1ent
Spring vividly described the appalling results of excessive insecticide usage. Yet, to feed a burgeoning world population, keep disease carrying insects at bay, and simultaneously protect the environment, a balanced approach is essential. An integrated pest management approach utilizes, among others, knowledge of the biology of the pest insect and both biological and chemical control measures. Gould (1991) indicates that the evolution of the insect pest species could have a bearing on methods used to control pests. The choices we make impact not only our own environment but the entire biosphere. Demastes and
Wandersee (1991, p. 64) write: "If it is true that it is better to understand a few biological principles well than it is to rote-memorize a plethora of discrete biological facts and terms, then biological literacy is indeed the foundation for all biology learning." Thus, this study not only contributes to future students' understanding of insect metamorphosis and thereby to biological literacy, but it also simultaneously provides a means to further understanding of that most fundamental theme of all biology--evolution. REFERENCES
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SCIENCE TEXTBOOK SURVEY
Textbook E M E & M E & I
Science (5) Merrill, 1989 No No No No
Discover Science (5) No No No No Scott, Foresman, 1989
Life Science (7) Yes Yes No Yes Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989
Modern Biology (9/10) Yes Yes No Yes Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1989
Biology (9/10) Yes Yes No Yes Harcourt Brace Jovanovich, 1989
E ■ evolution; I * insects; M ■ metamorphosis APPENDIX B
COPYRIGHT PERMISSION
Dept, of Curriculum & Instruction 223-F Peabody Hall Louisiana State University Baton Rouge, LA 70803 (c/o Dr. James H. Wandersee) September 9, 1993
Dr. Joseph D. Novak Department of Education College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Kennedy Hall Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14853
Dear Dr. Novak,
I was a presenter at The Third International Seminar on Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics, August 1-4, 1993, at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York. The paper was A Cross-Age Study About In s e c t Metamorphosis: Escaping Rote Biology by M. Susan Nichols and James H. Wandersee. I am currently a Ph.D. candidate in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction at Louisiana State University. The presented paper drew on research completed for my dissertation in progress. The Graduate School at Louisiana State University requires written permission from the copyright holder before acceptance of a dissertation in which such published material is utilized. A permission form is attached. T h a n k you for your timely consideration of this matter.
Sincerely,
M. Susan Nichols
Approved nes H. Wandersee, Major Professor
110 Ill
Or. Joseph 0. Novak Department of Education College of Agriculture and Life Sciences Kennedy Hall Cornell University Ithaca, New York 14853
Dear Dr. Novak:
REF: Reproduction rights to use material in "A Cross-Aae Study of Students * Knowledae of Insect Metamorphosis: Insights into Their Understanding of Evolution” A dissertation to be submitted to the Graduate Faculty of the Louisiana State University and Agricultural and Mechanical College in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Department of Curriculum and Instruction.
Description of original publication:
"A Cross-Age Study About Insect Metamorphosis: Escaping Rote Biology” by M. Susan Nichols and James H. Wandersee
Presented at The Third International Seminar on Misconceptions and Educational Strategies in Science and Mathematics, August 1-4, 1993, at Cornell University, Ithaca, New York.
Thank you for you early attention to this request.
Sincerely,
M. Susan Nichols
Permission granted:
Date APPENDIX C
PRIOR KNOWLEDGE QUESTIONS
1. Do either your mother, father, or other relatives deal
with insects in their work?
2. Have you ever collected insects?
3. Do you ever watch insect specials (cartoons included)
on television?
4. Do you read about insects in magazines or books?
112 APPENDIX D
STAGE PICTURE SCORING
Butterfly egg pupa adult -1 Grasshopper
egg larva nymph adult -1
Composite Score: 5
[Total possible correct stage answers (7) minus (2) incorrect stage answers = 5]
Timed to assess certainty
U 3 APPENDIX E
CONCEPT CIRCLE DIAGRAMS
non feedin?
ess
ess
larva
adult
adult
\
wines
HU 115
thin shall
/
\
antenme APPENDIX F
CONCEPT CIRCLE DIAGRAM SCORING
feedine
nymph
nymph
adult
adult
Total Score
116 APPENDIX G
CLINICAL INTERVIEW PROTOCOL
Metamorphosis Emphasis
If you [pointed to adults in culture] give these
mealworms all the food they can eat, how will that
affect their size as they grow older?
Pliny (a scientist who lived about 2000 years ago)
said that an adult King bee developed directly from an
egg and did not become a worm first (Morge, 1973). Do
you agree or disagree with Pliny?
How would you describe why there is nothing inside
this creature [students shown nymph exoskeleton of the
periodical cicada]?
William Harvey (a physician who lived during the late
sixteenth and early seventeenth centuries) had
difficulty knowing the difference between the egg and
pupa stage of an insect (Beier, 1973). Can you
identify the pupa stage of this mealworm culture?
What causes a mealworm (indicated various forms in
culture) to change from a larva, to a pupa and finally
an adult?
Why is the pupa stage important? low-up Questions (if time permitted):
Would the fact that mealworms and crickets feel hard
to the touch affect how they grow (develop)?
What result would conditions of crowding in a mealworm
culture have on pupation (Tschinkel & Willson, 1971)? 118
9. If Monarch butterfly larvae are active (moving rapidly
in their environment) would that influence their rate
of development (Urquhart, 1987)?
10. If crickets in Group A are fed a low protein diet and
crickets in Group B are fed a high protein diet, how
would that influence their development (Walker &
Masaki, 1989)?
Evolution Emphasis
11. What good (advantage) is metamorphosis to insects?
12. Do you think more insects have life cycles like that
of a (e.g. grasshopper, cricket) or that of a
(e.g. butterfly, mealworm)?
13. Could one type of development (e.g. grasshopper,
cricket) change to another type of development (e.g.
butterfly, mealworm)?
14. If the young and adult forms (like this cricket)
gradually began to live and feed in different areas,
do you think that could affect their life cycle?
15. Could egg size influence later development (Matsuda,
1987)? [Example: If a grasshopper egg became smaller
could that influence its development?]
16. When you spray insecticide to get rid of pest insects
(such as cockroaches, mosquitoes) why do you think the
spray doesn't work as well after awhile?
Follow up questions with illustrations (if time permitted).
17. Malaria, a deadly disease transmitted by mosquitoes,
kills several million people each year. With major 119
advances in medicine and pest control, why do you
think malaria is still a major problem?
18. Suppose you have a population of a species of moths
that have both black individuals and white
individuals. Birds are a major predator. These moths
frequently rest on light colored bark. Black moths
compose a small fraction of the population because
they have no protective camouflage to deter predators.
If industrial pollution darkens the bark of the trees,
what do you predict will happen to the proportion of
black individuals and white individuals in the
population after many generations (Arms & Camp, 1988)?
Have you heard about this example in any of your
science classes?
19. Many moths obtain nectar from flowers with their
proboscis. If you saw a flower with a very long
nectary, would you expect to find a moth with a long
proboscis able to obtain that nectar (Kritsky, 1991)?
20. A population of mealworms is divided into two groups
according to weight. Group A is heavy and Group B is
light. The population reproduces normally except light
pupae in Group A and heavy pupae in Group B are
removed during each successive generation. After 12
generations, what differences and/or similarities
might there be between the two groups? Leclercq's
study (cited in Elementary Science Study, 1966). VITA
Mary Susan Nichols is a Pennsylvania native and third
generation educator. As a child she regaled in stories of
teaching experiences her great aunt told--like wading
through drifts of snow to teach school, and starting a fire
in a pot-bellied stove before the pupils arrived. Mary
Susan received a B.S.Ed. in secondary education with a
major in biology from California State College in 1971, and
a M.S. in entomology from the University of Georgia in
1974. Her thesis was on the critical factors affecting egg maturation and production in Aedes aegypti. While in
graduate school she had both research and graduate
assistantships. In Louisiana she has taught in both
private and public schools. Additionally, she has been both an associate principal and principal.
She and her husband Gary, an analytical chemist, are
the parents of one daughter, Michelle, a senior at Baton
Rouge High School.
12D DOCTORAL EXAMINATION AND DISSERTATION REPORT
candidates Mary Susan Nichols
Major Field: Education
Title of Dissertation: A Cross-Age Study of Students' Knowledge of Insect Metamorphosis: Insights into Their Understanding of Evolution
Approved:
jor Professor and Chairman
u J ! ______DfrSrTof- EhenGra^yite- ScEoor
EXAMINING COMMITTEE:
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v.
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Date of Examination: November 1, 1993